6.
Hypothesis Contrary to Fact
1. Hasty Generalization ○ Meaning: Making a claim
○ Meaning: Jumping to based on what could have
conclusions based on too happened, but didn’t.
little evidence. ○ Example: "If Alexander
○ Example: "Two students Graham Bell hadn’t invented
from this school are rude, so the telephone, no one would
all students here must be have figured it out."
rude." 7. Poisoning the Well (Ad Hominem)
2. Dicto Simpliciter (Unqualified ○ Meaning: Attacking
Generalization) someone's character before
○ Meaning: Assuming they make their argument.
something true for one case ○ Example: "Before he speaks,
is true for all cases. remember this guy has been
○ Example: "Drinking water is in jail. Don’t trust his ideas."
healthy, so everyone should 8. Appeal to Force (Ad Baculum)
drink lots of water, even ○ Meaning: Using threats to
people with kidney get someone to agree with
problems." you.
3. Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc ○ Example: "Agree with my
○ Meaning: Assuming one plan, or I'll fire you."
event caused another just 9. Bandwagon (Ad Populum)
because it happened first. ○ Meaning: Assuming
○ Example: "I wore my lucky something is true because
socks, and we won the many people believe it.
game. Therefore, my socks ○ Example: "Everyone is
caused the win." buying this phone, so it must
4. Ad Misericordiam (Appeal to Pity) be the best one."
○ Meaning: Using pity to win
support, rather than focusing
on the argument itself.
○ Example: "I deserve an A on
the exam because I was
really sick while studying."
5. False Analogy
○ Meaning: Comparing two
things that aren’t actually
similar.
○ Example: "Just like cars
need gas to run, humans
need coffee to work."
10. Blaming the Victim ● Example: "This skincare product
● Meaning: Placing the blame on the must work because a famous
victim instead of the perpetrator. actress uses it."
● Example: "She shouldn’t have worn 18. Appeal to Authority (Ad
expensive clothes if she didn’t want Verecundiam)
to be robbed." ● Meaning: Trusting a claim because
11. Circular Reasoning an expert says it, without
● Meaning: Restating the argument considering other evidence.
instead of proving it. ● Example: "A famous doctor said this
● Example: "I’m trustworthy because I diet works, so it must be true."
always tell the truth." 19. Red Herring
12. Complex Question ● Meaning: Introducing a distraction to
● Meaning: Asking a question that avoid addressing the main issue.
assumes something unproven. ● Example: "Why worry about climate
● Example: "When did you stop lying change when there are people dying
to your boss?" from hunger?"
13. Equivocation 20. Straw Man
● Meaning: Using a word in two ● Meaning: Misrepresenting
different ways to mislead. someone’s argument to make it
● Example: "The sign said 'fine for easier to attack.
parking here,' so I assumed it was ● Example: "You say we should have
fine to park here." more recycling programs, but why
14. False Dilemma do you want to put businesses out of
● Meaning: Presenting only two work?"
choices when more options exist.
● Example: "You’re either with us or
against us."
15. Moral Licensing
● Meaning: Justifying a bad action by
referencing previous good deeds.
● Example: "I donated to charity last
week, so it’s okay if I skip work
today."
16. Slippery Slope
● Meaning: Arguing that one action
will lead to extreme, unlikely
consequences.
● Example: "If we allow students to
redo one exam, soon they’ll expect
to redo every exam."
17. Appeal to Celebrity
● Meaning: Believing something
because a famous person says it.
