INTRODUCTION: This document is fully student owned, feel free to add any relevant information that

you may find to be lacking in any of the listed areas

TOPIC OUTLINE
1.​ What do geographers do?
2.​ How many are we? How many should we be?
3.​ Where are the city limits?
4.​ How can we manage the interaction between water and land?
5.​ How sustainable is economic growth?
6.​ How can biomes be managed for all to benefit?
7.​ In what ways does globalisation affect us?
8.​ Do we have the right to see the world?
9.​ What are the consequences of our inaction in response to climate change?
10.​ Can tectonically active areas all be managed in the same way?
11.​ Can humans fix the damage they caused?

What do geographers do?

-​ Relationship categories in Geography

The types of relationships in geography can be categorised as Physical to Physical relationships (eg
altitude in relation to temperature), Physical to Human (eg climatic conditions in relation to agricultural
activities) and Human to Human relationships (eg population growth in relation to resource availability)

-​ Analysing trends in graphs

When analysing trends in graphs, use the TEA method, where T stands for the overall trend, E stands for
examples, and A stands for anomalies in the trend.

Words used in describing trends

Downward trend- Decline, decrease, fall, drop, collapse
Upward trend- Rise, increase, surge, jump, climb
Sideways or Horizontal trend- the same, constant, stagnant, static

-​ Sources of information
There are two forms of sources of information; primary and secondary sources

Secondary sources include; Encyclopedias, history books, reviews, textbooks, magazines, Biographies,
Internet searches
Primary sources include: Speeches, diary entries, Certificates, Journal entries, Newspaper articles from
the given time period, interviews, observations, eye witnesses

-​ OPVL source analysis

Origin WHERE DOES THE SOURCE COME FROM?

Who is the author?
 What date was it written or finished?
Where was it produced?
In which format is it? (book, newspaper, letter)
Is it a primary or secondary source?

Purpose WHY WAS THE SOURCE CREATED?

What was the author trying to communicate?
Does he have a specific target audience?
Why was the source created? Why does it exist?

Value WHAT'S GOOD ABOUT THE SOURCE? WHAT

MAKES IT USEFUL?
What can we tell about the time period?
Is there anything controversial about the piece?
Is the author biassed to a single side of the controversy?
What can we tell about the author's perspectives?

Limitation WHAT'S NOT GOOD ABOUT THE SOURCE?

How can you verify the content of the source?
Does it reflect anything inaccurately?
What isn't addressed in the source?

How many are we? How many should we be?

-​ Optimum population, overpopulation and underpopulation

-​ Optimum population occurs when the number of people and the resources available are
balanced
-​ Optimum population results in the highest standard of living
-​ This means that there are enough people and enough resources
-​ It also means that there are enough people to develop resources the country needs
-​ Overpopulation occurs when there are more people than the resources available
-​ Overpopulation can result in an increase in:
-​ pollution levels
-​ crime rates
-​ food and water shortages
-​ unemployment or underemployment
-​ pressure on services such as hospitals
-​ Underpopulation occurs when there are more resources than people available
-​ Underpopulation can lead to:
-​ higher taxes since fewer people pay taxes
-​ wastage of resources
-​ Lower levels of production and exports
-​ Fewer customers for goods and services

-​ Population distribution
This can be defined as the way in which people are scattered throughout a given area
 -​ Factors affecting population distribution
-​ Infrastructure
-​ Development rate
-​ Social service availability
-​ Climatic conditions
-​ Employment opportunities
-​ Resource availability
-​ Political stability
-​ Transportation systems
-​ Crime rate (security)
-​ Natural calamity rate
-​ Land ownership
-​ Cost of living

-​ Population density
-​ Population density is the average number of people per square km in a specific area
-​ To calculate the population density;
​ ​ ​ ​ = total population/total area
-​ Population density is affected by:
-​ Climate: people cannot live in places with harsh climates
-​ Water supply: if water is difficult to obtain, then the population density could be low
-​ Relief: population density is high where there is flat or slightly slope land
-​ Jobs: people live where there are more job opportunities
-​ Government: government can invest in an area to improve infrastructure to attract
people
-​ Facilities: the better the housing, education and services, the more people are attracted
to an area

-​ Methods of measuring population growth

Crude birth rate: The number of live births per 1000 people
Crude death rate: the number of deaths per 1000 people
Natural increase: The difference between the number of births and deaths over a given period (birth rate
minus death rate)
Natural decrease: Negative natural increase
Fertility rate: The average number of children born alive to women of a specific age as a portion of the
number of women in an area
Child mortality: The number of child deaths among children aged 1-5 years per 1000 children
Infant mortality: The number of deaths of children under 1 year per every 1000 live births
Life expectancy: The expected average lifespan of people in a particular population.
Immigration: to enter a country to live by choice
Emigration: to leave a country to live in another by force

-​ Why is it difficult to manage the population? And how can we manage

population growth?
 Why is it difficult to manage the population? How can we manage population growth?

Abnormal birth patterns Enforcing family planning methods

Lack of family planning Enforcing strict policies
Ignorance Educating people
Free education and skilling
Peer pressure to have children
Cultural and religious beliefs
Migration
High fertility rate

-​ Migration, its types and causes

WHAT IS MIGRATION?
Migration is the movement of people from one place to another with an intention to settle. Migration
can cause the population to either increase or decrease.
Emigration and immigration results in population change
​ ​ ​ Net migration = no. of immigrants - no. of emigrants
TYPES OF MIGRATION
●​ Voluntary migration
○​ when people choose to move and settle
●​ Seasonal/cyclical migration
○​ when people migrate in a back and forth pattern
●​ Chain migration
○​ when migrants follow other migrants to a particular location
●​ Return migration
○​ when people go back to stay in their country of citizenship or origin
●​ Reluctant migration
○​ when people are not forced to move, but do so due to circumstances such as fear of
death and war
●​ Internal migration
○​ when people move from rural to urban areas

KEY TERMS:
-​ Migration field: the area where a group of people move to
-​ Refugees: people who no longer feel safe in their home due to conflict or discrimination and
have to move
-​ Diaspora: a group of people that originated from the same place but spread to different locations

PUSH FACTORS
●​ Push factors force people to move
●​ If a person lives in a place where it is difficult to make a living, they are more likely to move
somewhere else to find new opportunities
●​ Push factors include:
○​ natural disasters
○​ conflicts
○​ diseases
○​ wars
○​ high crime rates
PULL FACTORS
●​ Pull factors attract people to move
●​ They include:
○​ employment opportunities
○​ hospitality
○​ social attachment
○​ education
○​ security
○​ accommodation facilities

Impacts of migration
●​ Impacts of migration on host country
○​ may lead to overpopulation
○​ lack of resources
○​ more diversity
○​ devel
○​ Deforestation
●​ Impacts of migration on original country
○​ may lead to under population
○​ Less income
○​ Job opportunities/unemployment

Internally Displaced Persons(IDP)

●​ People who migrate are referred to as Internally displaced persons (IDP)
●​ They are people who have been subjected to migrate but only do so in the country
●​ Challenges:
○​ Spread of diseases
○​ Unemployment
○​ Conflicts
○​ Lack of accommodation
○​ Increased crime rate
○​ Scarcity of goods
○​ Climate conditions
○​ Poor social services
●​ Solutions:
○​ Setting up IDP camps to prevent lack of shelter and basic needs
○​ Prior communication to avoid conflict
○​ Medical tests and vaccination
○​ Investing in programs to train IDPs and create employment opportunities
○​ Security checks at camps

Where are the city limits?

●​ Urbanisation is the process of cities developing over time as more people come to live in the city.
●​ Urbanisation is the fastest in poorer countries
○​ Most of the population in richer countries already live in urban cities
●​ The movement from the countryside to the towns/cities is called rural-urban migration.
●​ Causes of urbanisation:
○​ Rural-urban migration in poor countries:
■​ (push factor) shortage of services in rural areas such as education, access to
water, power, etc
■​ (pull factor) job opportunities in urban areas - larger workforce + better
infrastructure than rural areas
○​ Rural-urban migration in rich countries:
■​ (pull factor) use of machines/technology
■​ (pull factor) redevelopment of areas to attract people to move
○​ Natural increase:
■​ High birth rate - most people that move to the city are young and have children
in the cities
■​ Low death rate - good healthcare in urban areas means that people live longer
●​ Factors that define an area’s urbanity:
○​ tall clustered buildings
○​ tall network towers
○​ development (eg. construction of new buildings)
○​ good roads
●​ Challenges faced by the people living in the urban areas:
○​ overpopulation
○​ poor air quality
○​ spread of diseases
○​ high crime rates
○​ high cost of living
○​ lack of resources
●​ Solutions to challenges faced by people living in the urban areas:
○​ Overpopulation - can be reduced by expanding land and spreading people around,
rather than having many clustered in one place; improve social services
○​ Damage to the environment - can promote awareness and plant more trees and probably
establish parks
○​ Contamination of diseases - maintain social distance; spread around evenly to keep
some distance
○​ Lack of resources - people should stop over-consuming resources; allocate an equal share
to everyone
○​ Unemployment - build industries in rural areas
●​ In poor countries, the combination of rapid urbanisation and industrialization result in
environmental problems:
○​ Waste disposal - these countries struggle to get rid of the large amount of waste
produced by rapid urbanisation because they often can’t afford to dispose waste safely
(toxic waste has to be treated, which is expensive); poor roads means that waste disposal
trucks can’t access some areas
■​ Solutions: people scavenge for such waste and reuse/resell. Waste can be used as
a fertiliser in surrounding areas
○​ Air pollution - acid rain damages vegetation and buildings; causes respiratory problems;
deplete ozone layer so the sun’s harmful rays reach the Earth’s surface
■​ Solutions: encourage use of technology that emits less emissions of SO2 and
NOx. Switch to cleaner alternatives such as solar, hydroelectric power and
 wind. Introduce carbon taxes. Reduce traffic and encourage on using public
transport.
○​ Water pollution - harmful substances from sewage and industrial waste reach the
oceans, seas, rivers and lakes that kill aquatic life, poison humans that eat the
fish/seafood from contaminated waters and spread diseases such as typhoid and cholera
■​ Solution: introduce water treatment plants

How can we manage the interaction of water and land?

●​ A river basin is the area in which the river goes through.
●​ The main elements of river basins are:
○​ Mouth - end of the river, where it meets the sea, lake or ocean
○​ Tributary - the small river that flows into the main river channel
○​ Source - the beginning of the river
○​ Drainage divide/watershed - the boundary of the drainage basin
○​ Confluence - a point where two rivers meet
○​ drainage basin - an area where precipitation collects and then drains it into a river or
sea
●​ Rivers never flow upstream.
●​ The motion of the river is determined by the altitude and gravity
●​ Rivers flow from a high to a low altitude
●​ There are three stages of a river:
○​ upper stream/upper stage
○​ middle stage (the water flows here the fastest - the river’s velocity is high)
○​ lower stage
●​ If you travel down a river, you will realise that it varies or changes from one stage to another
downstream
○​ This change may be in the form of shape, speed of water flowing, width or depth
○​ This is a result of a number of processes that occur within a river, known as river
processes (erosion, transportation and deposition)

Erosion
●​ Erosion is the wearing away and removal of material from an area
●​ Rivers tend to erode in one of the two directions:
○​ Vertical erosion: this acts downwards, so it deepens the river valley, making it V-shaped;
usually happens at the upper stage
○​ Lateral erosion: this acts sideways, so it widens the river valley; usually happens at the
middle and lower stages
●​ There are four types:
○​ abrasion/corrasion: occurs when the river’s load repeatedly hits river bed and banks,
causing some of the material to break off.
○​ Hydraulic action: waves crash along the coastline causing material to be broken and
carried by the water
○​ solution/corrosion: certain types of cliff (chalk + limestone) erode as a result of weak
carbonic acid in the waters
○​ Attrition: waves cause rocks and pebbles to bump into each other, break up and become
more rounded due to friction (rubbing against each other)
●​ Landforms caused by erosion include:
 ○​ Caves
○​ Archs
○​ Stacks
○​ stumps

Transportation
●​ Transportation is the process by which rivers carry material as they flow downstream
●​ Load is the material (any size) carried by the river
●​ There are four types:
○​ Traction: large particles like boulders are rolled along the river bed by the force of the
water
○​ Saltation: small particles like pebbles are bounced along the river bed by the force of the
water
○​ Suspension: very small particles like silt and clay are carried within the water so that it
floats in the river and is carried along
○​ Solution: soluble minerals (those that dissolve in freshwater) in the rock bed like salt
and limestone dissolve in water and are carried along

Deposition
●​ Deposition occurs when the water drops or deposits material because it has lost its energy
○​ It can be sand and sediment
●​ Rates of erosion and transportation increase rates of deposition
●​ Deposition happens when waves with low energy carry material onto the coast but they are not
strong enough to wear away material
○​ There is a lot of deposition but very little erosion
●​ The river loses its energy when:
○​ The river’s load increases
○​ The river reaches its mouth
○​ The river’s discharge falls
○​ The gradient changes at the foot of a hill/cliff/mountain
○​ The water is shallower
●​ The river deposits the largest material first as it the heaviest to carry
●​ The smaller the load, the further it can be transported
●​ Landforms caused by deposition include:
○​ Beaches
○​ Spits
○​ Bars
○​ Sand dunes
How sustainable is global economic growth?
●​ Natural resources are referred to as naturally occurring material that are used by humans for
their needs
●​ Natural resources can be categorised into two:
○​ renewable resources - solar energy, wind energy, water and tides, soil and plants
○​ Non-renewable resources - fossil fuels, oil, coal, natural gas, metallic materials such as
iron, copper, aluminium and non-metallic materials such as minerals, salt and
phosphates
●​ Renewable resources can only remain renewable if the rate at which they are depleted is not
above the rate at which they regenerate
●​ Rare-earth elements (REEs) are non-renewable resources
○​ They are relatively abundant and finite but are not easily extractable
○​ The mining of REEs is on the increase as they are essential components for the
manufacture of clean energy motors such as wind turbines, high-performance batteries,
magnetic refrigeration and fuel cells that contribute to reducing greenhouse gases
emissions and our dependence on fossil fuel
●​ There are three types of productions:
○​ Primary production - carried out by extractive industries: oil extraction, mining,
farming, fishing and forestry
○​ Secondary production - carried out by manufacturing industries; raw material is turned
into semi-finished/finished products to be sold to consumers
○​ Tertiary production - all services that enable the finished products to be put into the
hands of the consumers such as trade, banking, insurance, transport and
communications
●​ TRANSNATIONAL CORPORATIONS (TNCs)
○​ Transnational corporations (TNCs) are companies that operate in different countries
○​ Their headquarters are often associated with research and development (R&D) centres
and their operations in host countries are much more directly controlled from the
headquarters in the home country
How can biomes be managed for all to benefit?

-​ What are biomes and where are they located?

A biome is a large area, characterised by its climatic conditions, animal and plant life. Many organisms
share characteristics with their immediate environment and this is why these environments are classified
into biomes.

Biome Characteristics

Aquatic Can be divided into marine and freshwater

Freshwater biomes are water bodies surrounded by land like ponds, rivers
and lakes, they have a salt content of less than 1%
Marine biomes cover almost 75% of the earth’s surface, they include the
ocean, coral reefs and estuaries

Grassland Dominated by grass and shrubs, have a warm, dry climate

Can be divided into tropical grasslands (savannas) and temperate grasslands
Savanna grasslands are mainly located near the equator and cover almost half
of africa
Temperate grasslands are found further away from the equator, they do not
have trees or shrubs and have less precipitation than savannas

Desert Deserts have a very dry climate with rainfall of less than 50 cm per year
They cover about 20% of the earth’s surface and can be hot or cold, even if
most of them are hot
Many of the plants and animals are adapted to these conditions by having
small leaves in plants and having fatty humps to store water in animals
They can either be hot and dry, semi arid, coastal or cold

Forest Dominated by trees and cover about ⅓ of the earth

They are home to most of the world’s terrestrial ecosystems and they include
temperate forests, tropical forests and boreal forests, all occurring at different
latitudes
Tropical forests occur around the equator and are fairly warm, temperate
forests are found at higher latitudes and experience all four seasons while
boreal forests are found at even higher latitudes and have the coldest and
driest climate (snow)

Tundra Very inhospitable conditions with -34 to 12 degree ranges in temperature.

They have very infertile soils and very short summers
Types of tundras include arctic and alpine, but generally there is not much
biodiversity and the vegetation includes shrubs, grasses, mosses and lichens,
this is caused by the permafrost under the soil

❖​Factors affecting biome location

❖​ Altitude
❖​ Human activities
❖​ Latitude
❖​ Relief
❖​ Distance from the sea
❖​ Prevailing winds
 How are plants and animals adapted to their Biomes?

Biome Plant adaptations

Tundra Small and low to the ground

Wide and shallow roots
Grow closely together
Waxy cuticle to prevent transpiration

Tropical Taller trees to access sunlight

Smooth bark to allow water to flow to the roots
Buttress roots for support

Marine Deep hooked roots

Gas bladders for floatation
Wide leaves to increase transpiration

Desert Small leaves

Waxy cuticle
Wide & Shallow roots

Biome Animal adaptations

Aquatic Streamlined bodies

Gills for respiration
Fins for locomotion
Scales for protection
Blubber for insulation
Gas filled sack for buoyancy
Sensory abilities like sharks

Tundra Thick warm fur

White fur
Fatty layer for insulation
Large bodies and short limbs
Hibernation
Large feet for better snow grip

Rainforest Camouflage through colour of fur

Mimicry of other animals
Poisonous skin
Small body size to navigate trees
Nocturnal vision

Desert Long eyelashes and closed nostrils to protect from

dust
Thick eyebrows for protection from the sun
Wide feet to prevent sinking
Internal water storage
Nocturnality
In what ways does globalisation affect us?
●​ Globalisation is the process of countries interacting with each other through trade, culture,
economics, politics and tourism
●​ Connections between countries either help them to gain access to some resources or be affected
by negative issues
●​ Global interaction is how different countries come together
○​ Trading with each other
○​ Connecting with each other
○​ Communicating with each other
●​ Factors leading to globalisation are:
○​ Technological development
■​ Connections through social media platforms; simplified work in the medical,
agricultural, education, communication and economical sectores
○​ Simplification of travel through advanced travel
■​ This means that there is promoted interconnectedness since people can travel
for different reasons such as business, tourism, education and family
○​ Advancements in education
■​ Students are able to learn similar concept globally and are therefore shaped into
global citizens
○​ Increase in migration and immigration
■​ Introduction of new ideas and trade concepts through migration has caused
world wide developments and promoted connection and globalisation
○​ Trade
■​ The ability to exchange good and services between different countries has
greatly contributed to development by providing goods in areas where they
used to not be available
●​ The impacts of globalisation include:
○​ global issues
○​ Diseases spread - contact between people
○​ Technological transfer - technology is shared
○​ Ease of communication
○​ Job opportunities
○​ Industrialization - people worldwide connect for/through business
○​ Diversity - cultures and religions share different perspectives
○​ Development - people come together to reach a conclusion
○​ Meeting new people
●​ Culture is…
○​ Beliefs and morals
○​ Language
○​ Clothes
○​ Identity
○​ Ethics
○​ Food
○​ Customs
○​ Music
○​ Arts (dance, visual arts, plays, etc)
 ○​ Festivals
●​ Culture can be exchanged through two forms:
○​ Cultural diffusion
○​ Cultural imperialism
●​ Cultural diffusion is the spreading of ideas, languages and cultural traits from one place to
another
●​ It occurs through the spread of cultural items during
○​ Times of conflict
○​ Migration
○​ Trade
●​ These cultural items include
○​ Philosophical ideas
○​ Fashion
○​ Language
○​ Inventions
○​ Beliefs
○​ Technologies
●​ Trans-cultural diffusion refers to the spread of cultural items across countries
●​ There are six types of cultural diffusion:
○​ Relocation diffusion
○​ Expansion diffusion
○​ Contagious diffusion
○​ Hierarchical diffusion
○​ Stimulus diffusion
○​ Maladaptive diffusion
●​ Relocation diffusion:
○​ When people migrate around the world
○​ When people migrate from one place to another, they tend to assimilate - their culture
does not spread rather they adopt to the new culture
○​ Sometimes when the number of people is large in the same culture they might establish
their culture
○​ They integrate - they adopt to the new culture while keeping the essence of their culture
alive in the place they stay
●​ Expansion diffusion:
○​ The culture spreads around different places but stays strong in its roots (where is came
from)
○​ For example: Indian spices have spread across the world but have maintained their vitals
in India
○​ Sometimes the word ‘expansion’ is also used to talk about something that has been
enlarging over the course of years due to its popularity
○​ For example: the rise of bell bottom jeans spread from the 70s to the early 2000s because
of its popularity
●​ Contagious diffusion:
○​ Happens when there is a communication between two individuals
○​ This communication spreads ideas and more things in a culture
○​ When people interact with each other, they start to talk about different people’s
cultures or their own
○​ For example: the spread of tea/coffee culture, viral internet memes and oral spread of
religions
●​ Hierarchical diffusion:
 ○​ When celebrities spread culture
○​ When a celebrity shares a cultural item such as an idea, fashion or language, it is shared
through all classes in the society
○​ Hierarchical diffusion comes from the top of the society to the bottom
○​ For example: brands use famous people to advertise their products to make them
well-known in society
●​ Stimulus diffusion:
○​ Occurs when there is a change in culture while it spreads from its origin
○​ The further the culture spreads, the more it changes
○​ For example: the spread of rock music.
●​ Maladaptive diffusion:
○​ The adoption of spreading ideas that are not practical of a region’s culture
○​ For example: the popularity of wearing blue jeans in any weather despite the unrealistic
fact of wearing them during winter
●​ AID:
●​ Aid is one way to help break the poverty cycle
●​ Aid allows communities to recover from disasters and conflicts
●​ Aid can consist of goods such as:
○​ Food
○​ Medical supplies
○​ Machinery
●​ These goods are sent to places in need
●​ There are five main types of aid:
○​ Bilateral aid
○​ Multilateral aid
○​ Voluntary aid
○​ Emergency aid
○​ Development aid
●​ Bilateral aid:
○​ Mostly money
○​ Also known as “tied aid”
○​ The country receiving aid must pay for the goods and services
○​ Direct aid from one country to another
○​ Occurs when money is given from a developed country to a developing country
○​ It is directed by strategic, political and humanitarian interests
○​ Advantages of bilateral aid include:
■​ Possibility for donor countries to develop ‘long standing’ relationships with
recipient countries
■​ Recipient country can get enough money to invest in their country
○​ Disadvantages of bilateral aid include:
■​ Specific conditions that might reduce the efficiency of the aid
■​ Donor countries tend to given aid to their previous colonies or with countries
which they are tied to strategically, economically or politically
●​ Multilateral aid:
○​ Mostly money
○​ Provided by many countries to multilateral organisations without any restrictions
○​ Occurs through intergovernmental organisations (IGOs)
○​ Aim is to reduce poverty
○​ Aid is in the form of usually funds and large-scale projects (eg. building roads and
disease control)
 ○​ Several countries share funds with these multilateral organisations such as the United
Nations, the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF)
○​ Advantages of multilateral aid include:
■​ High chances of aid being allocated to countries based on humanitarian or
development needs
■​ Due to political neutrality, aid is better delivered, demanding only specific
condition in return
○​ Disadvantages of multilateral aid include:
■​ Involves a governmental/political barrier which results in aid being delivered
later than its supposed to
■​ Government tampers with indicators of development to receive extra aid (in
some developing countries)
●​ Voluntary aid:
○​ Trying to fulfil needs of the poor (mostly money)
○​ Also known as ‘aid from NGOs’ and ‘charity aid’
○​ Provided by charities such as Oxfam and Christian Aid
○​ No political ties or influence
○​ Earn funds through public or government’s donation
○​ Advantages of voluntary aid include:
■​ Direct funds to the people in need, without going to the government
■​ Nothing needed in return
○​ Disadvantages of voluntary aid include:
■​ Cash is not always guaranteed as it is dependent on the public and
government’s donations
■​ Most charities take the money and give it as salary to their employees
●​ Emergency aid:
○​ Food water, medical attention and shelter
○​ Also known as ‘short term aid’
○​ Needed immediately as a result of either a natural disaster, war, disease outbreak, etc
○​ Monitored to ensure those who need it have access to it
○​ It is short term
○​ Advantages of emergency aid include:
■​ Provided immediately
■​ Ensures that the needs of those who are affected are met
○​ Disadvantages of emergency aid include:
■​ Resources of donor countries are given and ‘lost’ to the recipient country for
some time
■​ It does not have a long-lasting effect on the development of the country which
needs it
●​ Development aid:
○​ Strategies to help people find ways to earn
○​ Also known as ‘long term aid’
○​ planned over a long time to eradicate poverty
○​ Includes the reconstruction of buildings after a crisis and providing education
○​ Aims to improve standards of living
○​ Can be provided by governments or charities
○​ Advantages of development aid:
■​ Can boost employment in donor countries
■​ Trade with donor countries may continue in the future
○​ Disadvantages of development aid:
 ■​ Tax payers of the donor countrie
■​ +y more
■​ Local people can lose their land due to large projects such as the construction of
dams

What happens when humans live in hazardous places?

●​ Hazards occur when one system interrupts another
●​ For example, if the water cycle is interrupted by human activities, there could be a either a high
or low production of H2O
●​ You cannot prevent natural hazards from happening, but you can reduce the impact of them
●​ A natural hazard can be defined as:

​ ​ “A natural event that causes social and economic impacts”

●​ It affects people (injuries and deaths) and their jobs and money (damage by the disaster and
losing jobs)
●​ There are two types of natural hazards:
○​ Weather - floods, droughts
○​ Geological - earthquakes, volcanic eruptions
●​ Natural hazards are not the same as man-made hazards
○​ Natural hazards include earthquakes, tsunamis and floods
○​ Man-made hazards are oil spills and radiation leaks
●​ For an event to be considered a natural hazard, it should affect socially and economically
●​ If a volcano erupts in an area where there are no inhabitants, it would be considered simply a
natural event, not a natural hazard
●​ The Degg model shows when a hazard becomes a disaster
●​ A natural disaster only occurs when a hazardous event (geophysical or human) occurs and affects
a vulnerable population (human/economic loss)
●​ It is also dependent on how far people are from the natural hazard
●​ The bigger the scale of an event and the more vulnerable the people, the bigger the scale of the
natural disaster
●​ The hazard-risk equation shows the relation between hazards and disasters:
​ ​ ​ Risk = hazard x vulnerability/capacity to cope
●​ We cannot PREVENT natural hazards from happening
●​ Human should respond to natural hazards BEFORE and AFTER
●​ It would be dangerous for the country to prepare before the disaster happens
●​ Humans can respond to natural disasters by:
○​ relocation/migration
○​ Sensitization
○​ Building resources’ warehouses
○​ Infrastructural plans
○​ Emergency acid - in the form of money, food, rescue teams
○​ Medical support - especially psychologists to help people who are traumatised
○​ Constructing refugee camps
●​ All of the strategies above fall under four main categories:
○​ Mitigation
○​ Preparedness
○​ Response
○​ Recovery
Do we have the right to see the world?
●​ Tourism is an exponentially growing industry globally
○​ More income - higher salaries means that people can go on a holiday more
○​ More free time - companies give more paid holidays so that people can go on a holiday
more
○​ Cheaper travel - more people can afford to go on a holiday, especially air travel
○​ Internet - makes booking holidays easier and cheaper so more people can afford to go on
a holiday more (eg. Trip Advisor)
○​ Changing lifestyles - early retirement means that people can go on a holiday more
○​ Advertisements - promotes new destinations and activities
●​ CITIES:
○​ People are attracted to:
■​ Culture - museums, heritage sites, galleries
■​ Entertainment - restaurants, theatres
■​ Shopping (fashion)
●​ MOUNTAINS:
○​ People are attracted to mountain areas for:
■​ The beautiful scenery
■​ Activities such as walking, trekking, skiing and snowboarding
●​ COASTAL AREAS:
○​ People are attracted to:
■​ Beaches
■​ Activities such as swimming, fishing, snorkelling, water skiing, surfing
●​ ECONOMIC IMPACTS OF TOURISM:
○​ Creates jobs and therefore boosting the economy
○​ Supports other businesses that supply tourism (eg farms supplying food)
○​ Low economically developed countries (LEDCs) are more dependent on tourism income
than other countries
●​ STRATEGIES TO ATTRACT TOURISTS:
○​ build/improve infrastructure and facilities
○​ Reduce tourist impacts - traffic and litter
○​ Advertise to attract new tourists
○​ Improve transport infrastructure to make the destination more accessible
○​ Introduce new activities to attract new tourists
○​ Set cheaper-lower entrance fees
●​ EXTREME TOURISM:
○​ Extreme tourism is where people visit dangerous places often with a difficult climate
○​ Attractions of extreme tourism:
■​ Acts as a good setting for adventure holidays - jeep tours, trekking
○​ There is an increased demand for adventure holidays:
 ■​ Improvements in transport make it easier and quicker
to reach destinations
■​ Advertising makes it more popular
■​ Exclusive wildlife
■​ Exclusive scenery
●​ ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF TOURISM:
○​ Some tourists trample on plants and disturb wildlife which causes a disrupt in the
ecosystem
○​ Some tourists produce waste that cannot be disposed of easily (eg. in Antarctica)
○​ Fear that tourists might introduce ‘non-native’ species or spread diseases that would
wipe out existing species
○​ Fuel spillage kills fish, penguins and other aquatic life
●​ 0 ECO-TOURISM:
○​ Environmentally friendly tourism
○​ Small-scale but attracts environmentally aware tourists
○​ However, it is quite expensive
○​ Its aim is to make tourists experience the natural environment directly but with as less
impact as possible
○​ This is achieved by:
■​ sustainable energy use and no waste generated that can’t be dealt with
efficiently
■​ Small-scale accommodation run by locals
■​ Tourists are given local food

Can tectonically active areas all be managed in the same way?

VOLCANOES
●​ A volcano is a rupture in the Earth’s crust
●​ The Earth’s crust and the upper mantle from the lithosphere
●​ The lithosphere is broken up into portions/slabs known as tectonic plates
●​ Most volcanoes are found along these tectonic plate margins
●​ All volcanoes have features in common:
○​ Volcanic bombs - fragments of molten rock which are ejected from the volcano;
between 60 mm and 5m in diameter
○​ Ash - find particles of solid lava which measures less than 2 mm in diameter; ejected
into the atmosphere and can travel thousands of kilometres
○​ Lava - magma erupted to the surface; can be thin and runny or thick and slow-moving -
depends on the composition of the magma
○​ Crater - a bowl-shaped depression (an area of low pressure) from which volcanic
material is ejected
○​ Magma - molten rock that is underground from which igneous rock is formed
○​ Main vent - the channel through which magma travels to reach the Earth’s surface
○​ Secondary vent - the channel at the side of the volcano through which magma escapes,
particularly if the main vent is blocked
○​ Magma chamber - the place where magma (molten rock) is stored beneath the ground
○​ Secondary cone - an outlet from which laval and gases are ejected into the Earth’s
surface; may cause additional craters to form on the sides of the volcano
●​ Volcanoes may be active, dormant or extinct
○​ ACTIVE
■​ The volcano has recently erupted and is likely to erupt again
○​ DORMANT
■​ The volcano has erupted in the last 2000 years and may erupt again
○​ EXTINCT
■​ The volcano shows no evidence of eruption in historic times and there is no
evidence of a magma reservoir (or a magma chamber)
●​ Due to the type of lava erupted, the formation of the volcano varies
●​ There are two broad types of volcanoes:
○​ stratovolcano/composite volcano
○​ Shield volcano
●​ STRATOVOLCANO/COMPOSITE VOLCANO
○​ Steep-sided
○​ viscous/sticky lava
○​ More explosive eruptions
○​ Formed from alternating layers of ash and lava
○​ Tends to form on convergent/destructive plate boundaries
●​ SHIELD VOLCANO
○​ Gently slopes on the sides
○​ runny/thin lava
○​ Less explosive-gentle eruptions
○​ Tends to form on divergent/constructive plate boundaries
○​ Frequent eruptions

EARTHQUAKES
●​ Earthquakes are a result of sudden movements along faults/fractures in oceanic and continental
crusts
●​ There are two types of crust:
○​ Oceanic crust - thin but heavy and dense
○​ Continental crust - thick but old and dense
●​ Oceanic crust is continually being created and destroyed as a result of plate movement
○​ It is denser so it subducts/descends under the continental crust
●​ Since the crust is broken into a number of tectonic plates:
○​ They move on top of the semi-molten mantle
○​ They move due to convection currents within the mantle
●​ A plate boundary is where two plates meet
●​ Earthquakes most commonly occur at or near plate boundaries
●​ Types of plate boundaries:
○​ divergent/constructive - plates move apart
○​ convergent/destructive - plates move towards each other
○​ transform/conservative - plates move towards and pass each other in opposite directions
or in the same direction at different speeds
●​ Earthquakes are caused by the energy released that generate waves which move in ALL
directions
○​ This causes the Earth’s surface to shake
●​ Earthquakes occur in the lithosphere region of the Earth
●​ The point at which the earthquakes occurs under the Earth is called the hypocenter/focus
●​ The exact point above it at the surface of the Earth is called the epicentre
 ●​ The WORST case of earthquakes till date is with a magnitude of 9.5 out of 10 in Valdivia, Chile
in 1960
●​ Another earthquake happened in Japan with a magnitude of 9.0 in 2011
●​ There are two main types of waves:
○​ Body waves - can travel through earth’s inner layers
○​ Surface waves - ONLY move along the surface
●​ When an earthquake occurs, the strong pressure waves (shockwaves) that shake the Earth are
called seismic waves
●​ Seismic waves are usually generated by the movement of tectonic plates, but can also be caused
by explosions, volcanoes and landslides
●​ These waves travel in different directions at different speeds
○​ p-waves/primary waves are the fastest and are detected first
■​ They are longitudinal waves: the vibrations move in the same direction as the
direction of travel
■​ They can travel through solids and liquids
○​ s-waves/secondary waves are slower so they are detected later
■​ They are transverse waves: vibrations are perpendicular/at 90o to the direction
of travel
■​ They can ONLY travel through solids
●​ Geologists use a device that sense the waves called a ‘seismograph’
●​ The Richter scale is used to rate the magnitude of an earthquake - the amount of energy it
released
●​ The magnitude is expressed in a number between 0 and 10, where:
○​ 0 is the lowest - people feel nothing
○​ 10 is the highest - creates several destruction and multiple deaths

COMMAND TERMS & CRITERIA

●​ Questions with list, mention, state and identify do NOT require explanation - don’t waste time.
●​ Those questions that require detail/explanation are:
○​ outline (2 marks)
○​ explain
○​ justify
○​ describe
○​ support
○​ compare and contrast
●​ Criterion A - looks at your knowledge
●​ Criterion B - looks at your investigation skills
●​ Criterion C - looks at flow of language (communication) and at format
●​ Criterion D - looks at perspective

THE ESSAY (LAST QUESTION)

●​ The number of ideas does not matter
○​ a lot of ideas show the examiner that you are not sure of your answer
○​ backup your points with appropriate examples and proper explanation
○​ Use “because” to show the reason
●​ Build on a few points and follow the command term
●​ Use PEEL
●​ Follow the CORRECT structure of an essay:
 ■​ introduction
■​ body
■​ conclusion
●​ Always use effective transitions such as the following to show relationships between ideas:
○​ however
○​ furthermore
○​ moreover
○​ yet
○​ on the other hand
○​ in addition to
●​ To score full marks in criterion D, make sure you consider different perspectives
○​ the perspectives MUST equally be balanced
○​ Generally, you should start with the positive side of the question
●​ Conclude the essay with which side you are on and do not introduce new ideas

CREATING AN ACTION PLAN

●​ An action plan is a guide to help you plan out steps you have to take to achieve your goal - it
shows WHAT you are going to do and WHEN
●​ If the duration of the project is one year, plan in months
●​ If the duration of the project is four months, plan in weeks
●​ If the duration of the project is in weeks, plan in days
●​ The action plan usually consists of the date and the action/task​

EVALUATING AN ACTION PLAN

●​ Do NOT use doubt statements!
●​ To evaluate an action plan;
○​ talk about the strengths
○​ talk about the weaknesses
○​ end with a general statement/appraisal and suggest any improvements - don’t talk about
the weaknesses here

INVESTIGATION (CRITERION B)
●​ Produce a specific research question that is detailed
●​ Understand the context before formulating a research question
●​ Your research question MUST be connected to the statement of inquiry
●​ The research question should be clear enough for the reader to understand the intention of the
investigation
●​ Your research question should focus on a location
●​ DO NOT rephrase the statement of inquiry, since no marks will be awarded
●​ DO NOT include re-wording of the statement of inquiry anywhere in your research question
●​ When you don’t specify the location and what they are asking you to investigate, the question
becomes general and vague.
●​ Justifying a research question means at least one factor should be considered in detail and WHY
the research question is relevant to the statement of inquiry
○​ Why are you focusing on the specific country/location? Why did you choose that
particular factor/solution? Give appropriate reasons.
○​ Why did you choose that specific method (to investigate)?
CRITERION C: COMMUNICATING
●​ Strand 1: format
○​ To achieve all the marks, make sure you include ALL element of the given text (eg. essay,
blog, etc) and follow the ‘bullet points’ in the question
●​ Strand 2: communication, information & ideas
○​ Keep in mind that whatever you write should engage the examiner effectively
○​ Base the length of your answer on the number of marks
■​ In some cases, you will get a 1 or 2 if your answer is extremely short so that’s not
enough evidence for a higher mark
○​ To score the highest mark, your language must be clear and completely appropriate to
what the question is asking
○​ You should be able to use literary devices (eg. rhetorical questions, emotive language)
OFTEN to engage the examiner
●​ Strand 3: organisational structure
○​ Your ideas should CONSISTENTLY build on each other in a CLEAR and LOGICAL
manner
○​ ALWAYS use effective transitions such as however, furthermore, moreover, yet, on the
other hand, in addition, etc to show clear connections between ideas