Asian Culture and History; Vol. 14, No.

1; 2022
ISSN 1916-9655 E-ISSN 1916-9663
Published by Canadian Center of Science and Education

A Brief Overview Comparing the Core Theories, Cultivation Practices

and the Interrelationships of Buddhism, Daoism,
Brahmanism and Yoga
Shaun C. R. Ramsden1
1
Independent Researcher, Perth, Western Australia
Correspondence: Shaun C. R. Ramsden, Independent Researcher, Perth, Western Australia.

Received: January 25, 2022 Accepted: February 25, 2022 Online Published: March 15, 2022
doi:10.5539/ach.v14n1p16 URL: https://doi.org/10.5539/ach.v14n1p16

Abstract
Philosophical systems of the East have long been researched in the West. With the flux of recent scholarship,
especially in the last fifteen years, many new discoveries have been made. These discoveries have shed much
light on comparative studies and reveal many new and previously unknown connections. This paper has used the
scholarship of various contemporary authors to compare and contrast the main philosophical systems of the East
which includes Buddhism (both Theravāda and Mahāyāna), philosophical Daoism, Brahmanism, yoga and
sometimes Jainism. This paper has used as many early classical textual references as possible from a variety of
sources to establish precisely and clearly what the various ancient philosophies were and how they were used.
The paper not only compares their theories but also their techniques of cultivation. Comparisons are made
between, the idea of a self/soul or no-self, the notion of liberation, the use of breathing techniques, the theories of
sending energy in a certain direction and the different key textbooks used by the varying philosophical systems.
The key findings are that even though each system is different to the other, they have also taken ideas and
concepts from each other and mixed them into their own systems of cultivation. They do though seem to all
share one common denominator which is at their base and this is that they all follow some form of theory related
to the concept of non-action.
Keywords: Buddhism, Daoism, Brahmanism, yoga, comparative studies
1. Introduction
1.1 Aims and Objectives
This paper has two goals. The first is to describe the general theories of Buddhism, philosophical Daoism, later
Brahmanism, yoga and sometimes Jainism. The word ―general‖ is used here because each system has a large
number of schools with an array of differing philosophies and ideas. The aim is to convey some of the core and
essential components of each philosophy as opposed to the minute details. The second goal of this paper is to
selectively compare and contrast these systems, so as to specifically portray that they can be linked and that they
may all have their origin with the idea of non-action at their core.
Ancient India-China relations are central to this paper. There is little detailed discussion on how these ideas
mixed with each other. Instead there are specific examples given of how the philosophies and systems of
cultivation clearly have some similarities.
1.2 Significance
There are numerous scholars who are experts in their respective fields such as Johannes Bronkhorst for
Buddhism, James Mallinson for Brahmanism and yoga and Victor Mair for sinology. There are also various
authors such as Victor Mair, Jean Filliozat, David White, Surendranath Dasgupta, Joseph Needham, Catherine
Despeux and Michel Strickman who have detailed some very specific India-China connections and the
connections of different schools within India itself. This paper attempts to discuss the relationship between four
different schools of thought, which is something that has rarely been attempted.
1.3 Methodology
The paper begins by discussing the possible origins of meditation and a common denominator that may link all
schools of thought together. This paper has been set up by describing some of the core philosophies of each

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system of cultivation, followed by a summary of some of the meditation techniques used by each. The summary
of the cultivation techniques is constructed to provide a kind of catalogue of the most popular techniques, from
some of the most renown teachers, so that readers may use these works or references for more narrow research
and study in the future. As each of these four philosophies have a very long history, with an enormous number of
written documents related directly or indirectly to them, this paper has purposely found texts and quotes that
have similarities to each other and uses them to compare and demonstrate various connections. The comparisons
include but are not limited to the concept of non-action, the idea of a self/soul or no-self, the notion of liberation,
the use of breathing techniques, the theories of sending energy in a certain direction and the different key
textbooks used by the varying philosophical systems. As this paper covers many topics and therefore conveys
more broad-based and selective correlations, the comparisons are purposely kept more generalised in their
analysis. The author recognizes the need for further investigation into each individual similarity or difference
between the systems, to fully confirm, how or if they have influenced each other. As the paper discusses various
forms of cultivation techniques, it also deliberately uses the works of non-academic authors who are regarded as
experts in their respective arts. Authors such as Tirumalai Krishnamacharya, B.K.S Iyengar, T. K. V. Desikachar,
Ajahn Brahmavaṃso and Shodo Harada are some examples. The paper is separated into five main sections:
1) Theravāda Buddhism
2) Mahāyāna Buddhism
3) Philosophical Daoism
4) Brahmanism (especially later Brahmanism) (Note 1)
5) Yoga
This paper endeavours to use specific early classical textual references from a variety of sources to establish a
generic outline in regard to what the various ancient philosophies were and how they were used. The paper also
strives to use the works of various contemporary scholars in their respective fields so as to keep up to date in a
field that is quickly progressing. The works of Johannes Bronkhorst for Buddhism and James Mallinson for yoga
have been particularly important for this paper.
In regard to the use of Pāli, Sanskrit and Chinese words within the paper, they are used once in closed brackets
behind a new concept, word or theory, after which, only the English words are used. Where there is no
equivalent English word or appropriate translation, the Pāli, Sanskrit and/or Chinese word/s are used in italics.
For Buddhist terms, the paper uses Pāli, for Brahmanism or yogic terms, the paper uses Sanskrit. Where the Pāli
and Sanskrit words sound similar enough to English terms (all three languages are Indo-European languages),
they have been kept in their original language. The Buddhist Sutta names are used with the English translation in
brackets behind them, as their Pāli names are more commonly used than their English ones.
2. The Possible Origins of Meditation through the Concept of Non-action
Bronkhorst (2017, p. 362) explains that the Vedic religion had its centre in the north-western parts of the Indian
subcontinent, including much of what is now Pakistan. Vedic religion was concerned with elaborate sacrifices,
which were carried out by sacrificial priests for the advantage of rulers. Vedic religion was inseparable from a
particular political set-up. On the other side of the continent, there was another area in the eastern parts of the
Ganges valley, in a region called the Greater Magadha. It appears that it was this area where the birth of
meditation, yoga and spirituality would emerge.
Bronkhorst (2017, p. 363) goes on to explain that the Vedic religion did not know the idea of rebirth and karma
as Vedic literature did not mention it. Vedic religion was not concerned with rebirth and karmic retribution but
rather with the correct performance of sometimes highly complex rituals in the service of the various royal courts.
This situation did not continue forever as unfavourable events, such as the invasion by Alexander the Great,
destroyed the political structures on which the performance of Vedic ritual depended and signalled the end of
Vedic religion as it had existed so far.
Bronkhorst (2017, p. 364) explains that Brahmanism emerged out of this breakdown period of the Vedic period
as a socio-political ideology in which the Brahmins claimed for themselves alone, the highest position within
society. They were able to do this due to their exclusive knowledge of sacred texts and their extreme ritual purity.
From here they started to produce texts in relation to correct preservation of memorised Vedic texts and domestic
ritual (which now focused on individuals). Added to this was the idea that the Brahmin was now depicted as an
ascetically-inclined individual who concentrated primarily on personal rites and avoided much contact with the
outside world. Bronkhorst (2017, p. 364) further explains that outwardly this idea was sold via the production of
literature that was not exclusively aimed at Brahmins. The two best examples of this literature were the

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Mahābhārata and Rāmāyaņa. Within this literature is the key idea that these holy men within the forest had
extraordinary powers. Brahmins also developed certain ideas about language. They claimed that Sanskrit, the
language of Veda was the only language and all other languages were corruptions of this eternal one (Bronkhorst
2017, p. 365).
On the other side of what would become India in the area of the Greater Magadha were peoples whose sole
concern in life was dealing these ideas of saṃsāra, karma and rebirth. In relation to how the Jains and Buddhists
dealt with these ―problems,‖ it may be said that the essence of their cultivation could be summed up as:
Suppression of mental and physical activity.
Suppression of activity was a reaction to the conviction that all activity leads to karmic retribution, a
belief accepted by Jainism and other religious movements at the time. Buddhism, it turns out, though
accepting the doctrine of rebirth and karmic retribution, accepted it in a form different from Jainism:
Buddhism did not accept that all physical and mental activity necessarily has a consequence, most
probably in a future life. The authentically Buddhist practices were not therefore variations of the attempt
to stop all physical and mental activity, as was the case in Jainism and elsewhere. (Bronkhorst, 2012, p. 5)
The Jains took this idea of non-activity to the extreme Āyāram̨ga (Āyār) 1.8 (7).7.2-8/228-53:
Here we find a description of a voluntary starvation to death, accompanied by an as complete as possible
restraint with regard to all activity and movement. It is the culmination of a life of training and
preparation. (Bronkhorst, 1993, p. 35)
Buddhism took another approach:
It is perhaps more surprising that the early Buddhists are against all these practices. In some cases, they
contrast the non-Buddhist practices aiming at non-activity with what are, in their opinion, the practices to
be performed in their stead. Rather than fasting, restraining the mind and stopping the breath, one should
perform the four dhyānas. And rather than aiming at the non-functioning of the senses, one should remain
equanimous in the face of the experiences they offer. (Bronkhorst, 1993, p. 30)
Later Brahmanism also took its own approach and seemed to have criticized certain aspects of this non-activity,
while taking on other parts of it. We find such criticism in the Bhagavadgītā (3.4-7).
A man does not reach the state free from activity by not performing actions; and he does not attain
perfection by merely abandoning [activity]. For no one ever remains without activity even for a moment,
because everyone, being powerless, is made to perform activity by the guṇas which are born from
Original Nature Prakŗti. He who sits, restraining his organs of action [but] thinking with his mind of the
objects of the senses, he is said to be deluded and of improper demeanour. But he, Arjuna, who performs
discipline of action (karma yoga) with his organs of action, restraining his senses with his mind,
unattached, he excels. (Bronkhorst, 2007, p. 29)
In the above paragraph it appears that the non-action of Arjuna was meant to be one who has discipline in action
(which most likely means doing the required actions of your caste) but with restraint of the senses. As Arjuna
was a warrior it is possible that his form of non-action was not the highest level that could be obtained by a yogi.
It appears that in later Brahmanism, the highest form of non-action was when the mind is completely still of any
mental fluctuations what so ever.
The goal of yogic practice in some of the early Upaniṣads and the Mokṣadharma is to attain a state of
consciousness not unlike deep sleep, a state of consciousness so attenuated that its attainer is said to be
―like a log of wood.‖ (Wynne, 2007, p. 43)
It is difficult not to notice the correlation to Laozi‘s non-action (or emptiness in action) wúwéi (無為) and the
idea of non-activity that has been the cornerstone of ancient Indian thinking. One may argue that the essence of
Laozi‘s Dao is based on the idea of non-activity, with much of his book giving examples of this. Laozi‘s idea of
non-activity though was different to that of Buddhism, later Brahmanism and Jainism.
It seems that while Buddhism wished to obtain stillness of the mind (in relation to the senses) so there could be
clear insight into the nature of reality, later Brahmanism wanted the mind to be completely still of any activity
whatsoever. It appears that the origin of meditation was based on the idea of non-action, so that there could be no
karmic retribution and one could achieve liberation from the cycle of rebirth or reincarnation. Here we see the
early meaning of ―enlightenment‖ being very different to the modern usage of the word. In ancient India,
enlightenment referred to someone who no longer returns to the human realm (or other realms). For the
Brahmans it meant ―liberation‖ by reconnecting with the universal principle, and for the Buddhists, it meant

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―blowing out‖ (the end) but for both it meant not returning to saṃsāra.
3. The Idea of a Self/soul or No-Self within Ancient India and Beyond
The idea of a self/soul or no-self has permeated ancient Indian thinking since early times, it could be summarised
as follows:
Later Brahmanism: There is a life principle that is one in the same with the universal principle (see
Kaṭhopaniṣad, Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad and Chāndogyopaniṣad for more details on the idea of ātman). In the
Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad (4.4.5) it says:
That self is indeed Brahman, as well as identified with the intellect, the manas and the vital force, with
the eyes and ears, with earth, water, air and the ether, with fire and what is other than fire, with desire and
the absence of desire, with anger and the absence of anger, with righteousness and unrighteousness, with
everything identified, as is well known, with this (what is perceived) and with that (what is inferred). As it
does and acts, so it becomes; by doing good it becomes good and by doing evil it becomes evil, it
becomes virtuous through good acts and virtuous through evil acts. Others, however, say, ‗the self is
identified with desire alone. What it desires, it resolves; what it resolves, it works out; and, what it works
out, it attains.‘ (Swami Madhavananda, 1950, p. 712).
Jainism: There is a life principle (jīva) that is individual and not part of the universal principle.
Theravāda Buddhism: There is the idea of no-self (anattā). See the Anattalakkhaṇa Sutta (The Discourse on the
No-Self Characteristic) for further details.
Mahāyāna Buddhism: Buddha-nature or tathāgatagarbha or buddhadhātu is emptiness (śūnyatā), which is the
absence of an independent and substantial self. The Dalai Lama (2010) says:
Although Buddhist schools accept rebirth, they hold that there is no solid self. For Buddhists, the main
topic of training is emptiness or selflessness, which means the absence of a permanent, unitary and
independent self or, more subtly, the absence of inherent existence, either in living beings or in another
phenomenon.
Yoga: Some yoga schools had the idea of a spiritual principle. The separation of the spiritual principle in
Pātañjalayogaśāstra is the isolation of the puruṣa (spiritual principle) of Sāṅkhya (that which sees) from prakṛti
(material principle) (Mallinson & Singleton, 2016, p. 397). In some texts such as the Vimānārcanākalpa,
Pañcārthabhāṣya and Yogabīja, yoga seems to follow Brahman ideas, with the goal of yoga described as the
union of the individual and supreme self (Mallinson & Singleton, 2017, pp. 4-18). In the Pātañjalayogaśāstra
(IV.34) it says:
Kaivalya, liberation, comes when the yogi has fulfilled the puruṣārthas (object of human pursuit), the
fourfold aims of life and had transcended the guṇas. Aims and guṇas return to their source and
consciousness is established in its own natural purity (Iyengar, 2002, p. 283).
In philosophical Daoism the idea of a self was not emphasised, nevertheless it was still mentioned. Dàodéjīng
(chapter nineteen) says, one should lessen the self and have few desires. This is probably the earliest mention of
an ―ego‖ in ancient Chinese literature.
《道德經.十九章》此三者，以為文不足，故，令有所屬，見素抱樸，少私寡欲。
These three [are] not enough to be [a] doctrine, therefore, have [an] affiliation [with] seeing [the]
plainness, embracing simplicity, [and] lessening [the] self [with] few desires.
4. Words Used to Describe the Idea of Meditation in Ancient Literature
Anāpānasmṛti (Sanskrit) or ānāpānasati (Pāli): ―Sati‖ means mindfulness and ―ānāpāna‖ refers to inhalation
and exhalation. This word is used in the Ānāpānasati Sutta (Breath Mindfulness Discourse).
Dhyāna (Sanskrit) or jhāna (Pāli): This refers to certain meditative states in Theravāda Buddhism and is a core
aspect of the Thai Forest tradition. In Sanskrit, dhyāna means, ―meditation, thought, reflection (Williams, 1872,
p. 461).‖ Chán (Mandarin), dhyāna (Sanskrit), jhāna (Pāli) and Zen (Japanese) are all the same word but in four
different languages.
Bhāvanā: This is a word used within Buddhism in conjunction with other words. For example; mind (cittā)
bhāvanā; wisdom (paññā) bhāvanā; kindness (mettā) bhāvanā; concentration (samādhi) bhāvanā; tranquillity
(śamatha) bhāvanā; and insight (vipassanā) bhāvanā. Based on these examples a proposed translation of
bhāvanā is ―cultivation.‖

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Samādhi: This word tends to be translated as ―concentration‖ or ―meditative absorption.‖ In Chinese it is

translated as sānmèi ( 三 昧 ), this translation is based on having similar sounds to samādhi. In the
Pātañjalayogaśāstra practitioners move from dhāraṇā to dhyana and then to samādhi. The term ―samādhi‖
derives from the root sam-ā-dha, which means ―to collect‖ or ―bring together (Gunaratana, 1988, p. 158).‖ In the
early Buddhist texts, samādhi is also associated with the term śamatha. In Buddhism samādhi tends to have the
same usage and meaning as jhāna.
Śamatha: This is the probably the widest spread, most well-known and standard form of Buddhist meditation. It
is commonly known as the meditation which calms the mind and is normally based on the awareness of the
breath. Directly it can be translated as ―tranquillity‖ or ―calm abiding.‖
Vipaśyanā (Sanskrit) or vipassanā (Pāli): This is known as insight meditation and especially insight into the
Three Marks of Existence (tilakkhaṇa) (Note 2). Vipassanā meditation in conjunction with śamatha meditation
seems to be a necessary part of nearly all Buddhist traditions. Within Buddhism the words vipassanā, śamatha
and jhāna can be confusingly mixed together. This is explained clearly by Thanissaro Bhikkhu, as he sums up
many details in regard to Buddhist meditation.
If you look directly at the Pāli discourses — the earliest extant sources for our knowledge of the
Buddha‘s teachings — you‘ll find that although they do use the word śamatha to mean tranquillity and
vipassanā to mean clear-seeing, they otherwise confirm none of the received wisdom about these terms.
Only rarely do they make use of the word vipassanā — a sharp contrast to their frequent use of the word
jhāna. When they depict the Buddha telling his disciples to go meditate, they never quote him as saying
―go do vipassanā,‖ but always ―go do jhāna.‖ And they never equate the word vipassanā with any
mindfulness techniques. In the few instances where they do mention vipassanā, they almost always pair it
with śamatha — not as two alternative methods, but as two qualities of mind that a person may ―gain‖ or
―be endowed with,‖ and that should be developed together. One simile, for instance (SN 35.204),
compares śamatha and vipassanā to a swift pair of messengers who enter the citadel of the body via the
Noble Eightfold Path and present their accurate report — Unbinding, or nibbāna — to the consciousness
acting as the citadel‘s commander. Another passage (AN 10.71) recommends that anyone who wishes to
put an end to mental defilement should — in addition to perfecting the principles of moral behaviour and
cultivating seclusion — be committed to śamatha and endowed with vipassanā. This last statement is
unremarkable in itself, but the same discourse also gives the same advice to anyone who wants to master
the jhānas: Be committed to śamatha and endowed with vipassanā. This suggests that, in the eyes of
those who assembled the Pāli discourses, śamatha, jhāna and vipassanā were all part of a single path.
Śamatha and vipassanā were used together to master jhāna and then — based on jhāna — were
developed even further to give rise to the end of mental defilement and to bring release from suffering.
This is a reading that finds support in other discourses as well. (Bhikkhu Thanissaro, 1997).
Dhāraṇā: This is a yoga term which refers to the early stages of concentrating the mind on one point, as
concentration gets better, one moves to dhyāna and then as one gets even more absorbed in concentration,
samādhi. Together they are known as a three-stage process called saṃ-yama (integration). The process is
described clearly in Pātañjalayogaśāstra. For further details see Iyengar (2002, pp. 178-182).
5. Theravāda Buddhism

Figure 1. The Theravāda path to enlightenment

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Figure one above describes the basic Theravāda path to enlightenment (or one such model as there are many
potential variations). It begins with moral virtue or ethics (sīla) which is the basis for a calm mind by which one
can thereby engage in successful mindfulness (sati) practises. Mindfulness can be based on either the body,
feelings, mind or dhammas. Mindfulness is the basis for the jhānas (deep meditation), which allows one to enter
into one of the Four Stages of Enlightenment (sotāpanna, sakadāgāmi, anāgāmi, arahant). Each stage is based
on overcoming fetters (samyojana), with the highest stage being that of an arahant which means that one will
not be reborn. To help one enter jhāna, the Three Unwholesome Roots (akusala-mūla) should be overcome by
using the Three Wholesome Roots (akusala-mūla). The Five Hinderances (pañca nīvaraṇāni) should be
conquered by investigating and understanding them, which once again helps one to enter into jhāna. Entering
into jhāna is the primary goal of most Theravādan schools.
5.1 Early Buddhism
Proto-Buddhism which could be summed up as Buddha‘s life story before the formation of the saṅgha was most
likely the basis from which Theravādan Buddhism developed. It could be summarised as a four-step process:
1) Awakening: Material goods do not make for happiness. Buddha thought life at its essence was
unsatisfactory (suffering).
2) Renunciation: The giving up of an ordinary life, material goods; everything.
3) Middle Way: Later on, we find Buddha called this, the Noble Eightfold Path (āryāṣṭāṅgamārga).
4) Meditation: The primary method to achieve enlightenment was meditation built on the foundation of the
Noble Eightfold Path.
5.2 Overview of Theravāda Buddhism
Theravāda Buddhism gives us some insight into early Buddhism before it underwent various cultural changes.
The key points of the Theravāda path are as follows:
Texts studied by practitioners are based on the Pali Canon (Tipiṭaka) which is the closest thing available to
Buddha‘s own words. The most important Sutta in the Pali Canon is sometimes said to be the Mahāsatipaṭṭhāna
Sutta (The Great Discourse of the Foundations of Mindfulness) (Note 3). This Sutta describes the Four Noble
Truths (cattāri ariyasaccāni) and how suffering is caused by the Five Aggregates (pañcupādānakkhandhā) (also
known as the Five Khandas in English). It goes on further to describe how craving (taṇhā) (the cause of
suffering) is established through agreeable and pleasurable circumstances which come about by satisfying the six
senses which are the input source for the formation of the Five Aggregates. The Sutta describes how one should
cease this craving by detaching from the Six Senses by using the Noble Eightfold Path which includes the Four
Aspects of Mindfulness (kāyā, vedanā, cittā, dhammas) and the Four Jhānas which leads one to become an
arahant (direction translation: deserving).
Traditionally the first three sermons given by Buddha were:
1) Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta (The Setting in Motion of the Wheel of the Dhamma): The two extremes, the
Middle Way, the Four Noble Truths (their twelve insights) and the Noble Eightfold Path are discussed.
2) Anattalakkhaṇa Sutta (The Discourse on the No-Self Characteristic): The no-self, Five Aggregates and
impermanence of the Five Aggregates are mentioned.
3) Ādittapariyāya Sutta (Fire Sermon): In this sermon the Six Internal Sense Bases (ajjhattikāni āyatanāni) (eye,
ear, nose, tongue, body and mind which leads to eye contact, ear contact etc.) are discussed. The idea of
contact with the consciousness which makes feelings and cravings is mentioned. The Six External Sense
Bases (bāhirāni āyatanāni) (visible forms, sound, smells, tastes, touches and mental objects) are also
mentioned.
Theravāda Buddhism teaches that the ―consciousness‖ comes in ―contact‖ with the ―sense bases‖ which in return
creates a ―feeling‖ and then a ―craving.‖ Buddha taught that each of these sense bases are burning with passion,
aversion and delusion which all lead to suffering. Buddha probably taught achieving nibbāna (Note 4) from
suffering came about by detaching oneself from the Six Base Senses by which the burning of passion (craving)
would fade away.
The core philosophy of Theravāda includes:
 The Four Noble Truths, which specifically discuss the idea of suffering (Note 5).
 Dependant Origination (paṭiccasamuppāda) and the Twelve Links (nidānas) which is a theory that describes
saṃsāra (Note 6), karma and rebirth (Note 7).

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 The Five Aggregates which are especially related to impermanence (annica).

 The Five Hindrances, which are created by the Five Aggregates.
 The Noble Eightfold Path, which is the path to nibbāna and consists of eight practices: Right view, right
resolve, right speech, right conduct, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness and right samādhi. The
first practices of the Noble Eightfold Path seem to set the practitioner up for meditation (Note 8).
 Three Unwholesome and Three Wholesome Roots (Note 9).
 The Four Aspects of Mindfulness, which are the foundational practises that lead to jhāna.
 The Seven Factors of Enlightenment (satta bojjhaṅgā or satta sambojjhaṅgā), which include, mindfulness,
investigation into the nature of reality, energy, joy, tranquility, concentration and equanimity. These seem to
be developed especially out of mindfulness practises.
 The Four Jhānas, which are directly used to become an arahant.
 Ten Fetters.
 The Six Realms of Existence.
 The Four Stages of Enlightenment (or Four Levels of Enlightenment).
The primary philosophy of Theravāda Buddhism seems to be based on the idea of no-self. The earliest mention of
no-self maybe in the Anattalakkhaṇa Sutta (The Discourse on the No-self Characteristic). In this discourse ones
gets an idea of what Buddha may have meant by no-self. The key points are as follows:
 There are Five Aggregates which means there are five bundles that constitute and completely explain a
sentient being‘s mental and physical existence.
 The five bundles, aggregates or heaps are: Form (rūpa), sensations (feelings received from form) (vedanā),
perceptions (sañña), mental activity or formations (saṅkhāra) and consciousness (viññāṇa).
 The aggregates demonstrate that they are each in themselves impermanent, subject to suffering (dukkha) and
thus unfit for identification with a ―self.‖
 In the Theravāda tradition, suffering arises when one identifies with or clings to a bundle. This suffering is
extinguished by relinquishing attachments to the aggregates.
5.3 Theravādin Meditation Techniques
Theravādin meditation techniques can be highly varied depending on the school the technique comes from but
the general key features that most schools include or adhere to are as follows:
1) Awareness: Abiding in conscious awareness by just watching thoughts come and go without having a
conversation with them. This is also somewhat mentioned in the Mahāsatipaṭṭhāna Sutta (The Great
Discourse of the Foundations of Mindfulness).
2) Observing the breath: The Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta (The Discourse of Establishing Mindfulness) says to go into a
forest and sit underneath a tree and simply watch the breath. If the breath is long, then notice that it is long, if
short, then notice it is short. The Ānāpānasati Sutta (Breath Mindfulness Discourse) is a discourse that details
the Buddha‘s instructions on using awareness of the breath (ānāpāna) as an initial focus for meditation. The
Mahāsatipaṭṭhāna Sutta (The Great Discourse of the Foundations of Mindfulness) also discusses this method
of being mindful of the breath.
3) Nimittas: These are heavily discussed in Theravādin Buddhism, see Ajahn Brahmavamso (2005) for further
details.
4) Jhāna: The ultimate goal is to enter into the jhānas or deep meditation, see Ajahn Brahmavamso (2005) for
further details on the Thai Forest meditation technique used to enter jhānas (Note 10).

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6. Mahāyāna Buddhism

Figure 2. The Mahāyāna Path to Enlightenment

In figure two above, the reader can immediately see a completely different model when compared to Theravādin
Buddhism. In this case the aim is to become a Buddha and not an arahant. There is also postponed nibbāna and
thereby rebirth, instead of, nibbāna and no rebirth. The routes to nibbāna in Mahāyāna are also different of
which there are four. The first is the gradual path (gradualism), where one initially arouses bodhicitta by
cultivating the Four Immeasurables (brahmavihārās), then one works on becoming a bodhisatta by overcoming
the Five Poisons (kilesas or 五毒) and cultivating the Six Perfections (pāramī), after which one then works on
the Ten Grounds (bhūmis) by which one can find their Buddha-nature which has actually always been there and
is thereby present at all stages and levels. The second route which is emphasised in Zen Buddhism is sudden
awakening (subitism) where one suddenly realises their Buddha-nature. The third route is the accelerated one,
which is used in Tibetan Buddhism and requires ―initiation‖ into tantric techniques. The fourth route is that of
skilful means (upāya). Making a bed from scratch using a manual could be regarded as the gradual path. If
someone taught you the skills to make the bed then this would be a skilful means. The parable of the burning
house in the Lotus Sutra is a famous skilful means story.
6.1 The Evolution of Buddhism under Foreign Conditions
As Buddhism travelled to East Asia and eventually north to Tibet, it under went various changes, whereby new
schools of Buddhism emerged that could all be grouped under Mahāyāna Buddhism. The three main schools are
as follows:
1) Chán (禪) Buddhism from China
2) Vajrayāna along with Mantrayāna, Guhyamantrayāna, Tantrayāna, Tantric Buddhism and Esoteric
Buddhism that are associated with Tibet, Mongolian and Bhutan
3) Zen Buddhism from Japan
Each of these schools are highly varied and their approach to Buddhism differs. Subitism is sometimes
emphasised in Zen, tantric practices can be emphasised in Tibetan Buddhism and skilful means is discussed in
the Lotus Sutra (which is emphasised in Chán Buddhism). Three key features that all of these schools have in
common are:
1) The path of the bodhisattva where ones strives to become a fully awakened Buddha, a samyaksaṃbuddha or
samyaksaṃbodhi, which is done for the benefit of all sentient beings and is therefore also called the
―bodhisattva vehicle (bodhisattvayāna).‖ It could be said that Buddhism changed from the Theravādin
tradition, where the path is about ―me‖ to a path that is now about ―you‖ (hence the postponement of nibbāna
in the bodhisattva path). This idea of changing the path to be about ―you‖ is extremely apparent in Tibet
Buddhism and the works of the Dalai Lama (who is meant to be the incarnation of the Bodhisattva of

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Compassion or Avalokiteśvara). The idea of the Bodhisattva path can be summed up in the following three
verses:
With a wish to free all beings
I shall always go for refuge
to the Buddha, dhamma and saṅgha
until I reach full enlightenment.
Enthused by wisdom and compassion,
today in the Buddha‘s presence
I generate the Mind for Full Awakening
for the benefit of all sentient beings.
As long as space endures,
as long as sentient beings remain,
until then, may I too remain
and dispel the miseries of the world. (Gyatso, 2002, p. 119)
Repeating these verses three times is used to generate the altruistic intention of bodhicitta and is a part of the
ceremony for generating bodhicitta. See Gyatso (2002, pp. 113-119) for further details.
1) Most schools of Mahāyāna Buddhism incorporate the Ten Grounds which are levels of attainment, along with
the cultivating of the Four Immeasurables, Six Perfections and also emphasise the idea of the Five Poisons
and the importance of overcoming them.
2) The concept of Buddha-nature is central to all Mahāyāna schools.
6.2 Buddha-Nature
In Chán Buddhism, Buddha-nature is called fóxìng (佛性). It is also called juéxìng (覺性) which means
―awareness nature.‖ Zen Buddhism came from Chán Buddhism, so Buddha-nature is also called busshō (佛性)
in Japanese.
A possible variation to the words Buddha-nature but with the same meaning is the tathāgatagarbha. In Chinese
tathāgatagarbha is rúláicàng (如来藏). In Chinese càng (藏) means ―to hide,‖ ―store‖ or ―conceal.‖ Within
Mahāyāna Buddhism the terms tathāgatagarbha and buddhadhātu are used interchangeable. This allows us to
get a possible definition of the word tathāgatagarbha for the early Chinese Buddhists; ―a Buddha-nature that is
stored within in us but hidden under layers of conditioning.‖
Tathāgata is primarily a Pāli word that Gautama used when referring to himself, it is commonly found in the
Pali Canon. The word means ―one who has thus gone.‖ It can also be translated as ―one who has thus come,‖
and thereby could potentially have the meaning that the tathāgata is beyond all coming and going. The ―garbha‖
means ―root, embryo and essence (Lopez, 2001, p. 263).‖ Peter Harvey (2013, p. 139) translates
tathāgatagarbha as ―embryonic Buddha‖ and explains that this embryo is seen in all living beings and that no
matter how deluded they are, they can mature into a Buddha.
According to Wayman and Wayman (1990, p. 42), the idea of the tathāgatagarbha is grounded on the concept
that there is an intrinsically pure consciousness which is capable of growing into Buddhahood. In the
Tathāgatagarbha Suttas it is this pure consciousness that is regarded to be the seed from which Buddhahood
grows.
The tathāgatagarbha of sentient beings
Is like the honey in a cave or tree.
The entanglement of ignorance and tribulation
Is like the swarm of bees
That keep one from getting to it.
For the sake of all beings,
I expound the true dhamma with skilful means,
Removing the bees of kilesa,

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Revealing the tathāgatagarbha. (Grosnick, 2007, p. 97)

6.3 Three Key Features of Tibetan Buddhism
As Tibet was one of the later countries to receive Buddhism, it incorporated various ideas from different schools
of thought: Buddha-nature (most likely from China), tantra techniques (most likely from India‘s yogis) and the
idea of no-self (probably from the Theravādins). Tibetan Buddhism is incredibly varied in its schools of thought
and teachings. Some generalised and well-known features of Tibetan Buddhism are as follows:
First feature: Doctrine of two truths. Madhyamaka school of Mahāyāna Buddhism was founded by Nāgārjuna.
This school set forth the Buddhist doctrine of the two truths which differentiates between two levels of reality
(satya) in the teachings of the Buddha. These were the ―provisional‖ (saṁvṛti) truth and the ―ultimate‖
(paramārtha) truth. The provisional truth is the world we see through our conditioned mind, while the ultimate
truth is the real reality of the world which is one empty of any mental conditioning.
Second feature: The concept of emptiness. Nāgārjuna's major thematic focus was the concept of emptiness
(śūnyatā). The Dalai Lama (2010) gives a definition of emptiness. He says it does not mean zero but instead that
it is something which is there but what is there, has no independent absolute existence, as everything is always
changing and therefore dependent on something. As part of his analysis on the emptiness of phenomena in the
Mūlamadhyamakakārikā, Nāgārjuna critiques own-being or own-becoming (svabhāva) in several different ways.
He discusses the problems of positing any sort of inherent essence to causation, movement, change and personal
identity. Nāgārjuna’s logical analysis is based on four basic propositions (Dumoulin, 1998, p. 43):
1) All things (dhamma) exist: Affirmation of being, negation of non-being
2) All things (dhamma) do not exist: Affirmation of non-being, negation of being
3) All things (dhamma) both exist and do not exist: Both affirmation and negation
4) All things (dhamma) neither exist nor do not exist: Neither affirmation nor negation
Yogācāra’s believe the world is made up by the way you see it with your mind and therefore to some degree,
everything is an illusion. This illusion is a kind of emptiness as there is lack of subject-object duality (a real lack
of subject-object, not an imagined one). The Yogācāra’s said there are three realities: Transcendent reality (the
ultimate reality of viewing things with an empty mind), dependent reality (the world seen through mental
conditioning) and the imaginary reality (the reality of dreams). See vijñapti-mātra for further details.
Third feature: The diamond mind. In a book written by Jeffery Hopkins but based on the Dalai Lama‘s oral
teaching he describes the following:
I have great interest in the statement by many wise persons in all orders of Tibetan Buddhism that their
systems come down to the same final principle (Dalai Lama, 2016, p. 41).
Dalai Lama (2016, pp. 42-43) goes on to describe the names given to this basic principle:
 Fundamental innate wisdom of clear light
 Fundamental innate mind of clear light
 Space-diamond pervading space
 Ordinary consciousness
 Jewel Mind
 Innermost awareness
 Diamond mind of clear light
Dalai Lama (2016, p. 42) explains that everything, without exception, is complete in the continuum of
―innermost awareness,‖ and that inner awareness is naturally arisen since it has always been and will always be.
6.4 Mind Training
In Tibetan Buddhism mind training is called lojong. The essence of lojong is training the mind to stop grasping
at the self.
Whatever harms are in the world, whatever dangers and sufferings are in the world, all of these arise from
grasping at the self; what good is this great demon for me? (From A Commentary on the “Seven-Point
Mind Training by Sé Chilbu Chökyi Gyaltsen) (Jinpa, 2011, p. 58).
If ―self-grasping‖ is the greatest demon to ever exist, what is the antidote for it? Nāgārjuna, in a Letter to a

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Friend gives the answer:

Even stupid animals such as cows know how to rescue themselves from suffering; they know how to get
water when they suffer from thirst; they know how to get fresh new shoots when they suffer from hunger.
Thus, being concerned about our own suffering is not the Wise Ones‘ way of thinking. Bodhisattvas
always neglect their own happiness and wisely concern themselves with the benefit of countless other
beings. This is their great significant quality. Through this, Wise Ones are not only able to accomplish
their own highest happiness, but are also able to fulfil the needs of countless other beings (Wangchen,
2009, p. 100).
An example of mind training (not meditation) from the Theravādin schools are the brahmavihāras which are
known as a series of ―four Buddhist meditation practices‖ and are designed in order for one to cultivate them.
They are sometimes also known as the, Four Immeasurables (appamaññā). See Bhikkhu Bodhi (2000, p. 89) for
further details.
The four brahmavihāras:
1) Loving-kindness (mettā): Generally wishing happiness for all beings
2) Compassion (karuṇā): The wish for all beings to be free of suffering
3) Empathetic joy (muditā): Happiness for others good fortune
4) Equanimity (uppekkhā): Equanimity in all of life‘s ups and downs
6.5 Breath Training
The Chinese Daoists and many Chinese Buddhists used the breath to influence their qì as did the yogis, who
used their breath to influence their prāṇa. It is interesting how for both the Daoists and the yogis, the words qì
and prāṇa can both mean life force, energy and/or vital breath. It is also important to note that there was a
tradition of not breathing (seen as a very high level of cultivation) in meditation amongst both the ancient
Chinese Buddhists and Indians. Prāṇāyāma is mentioned in verse 4.29 of the Bhagavadgītā, it describes the
breath as completely stopping to remain in trance. Venerable Hsuan Hua also taught that external breathing
reaches a state of stillness in correct meditation.
A practitioner with sufficient skill does not breathe externally. That external breathing has stopped, but
the internal breathing functions. With internal breathing there is no exhalation through the nose or mouth,
but all pores on the body are breathing. A person who is breathing internally appears to be dead but
actually he has not died. He does not breath externally but the internal breathing comes alive. (Hua, 2004,
p. 46)
6.6 Mahāyāna Buddhism Combined the Idea of No-Self and Emptiness Together
6.6.1 The Doctrine of No-Self According to Chán Buddhism
In Chinese no-self is written wúwǒ (無我) which means ―no/without self.‖ In the Mahāyāna tradition it is said,
the nature of all aggregates are intrinsically empty of independent existence. The early Mahāyāna Buddhist texts
link their discussion of emptiness to no-self and nibbāna. They do so, states Choong (1999, p. 86) in three ways.
First, in the common sense of a monk‘s meditative state of emptiness. Second, with the main sense of no-self or
―everything in the world is empty of self.‖ Third, with the ultimate sense of nibbāna or realisation of emptiness
and thus an end to rebirth cycles of suffering. It is therefore sometimes stated that the no-self doctrine is another
aspect of emptiness, its realisation is the nature of the nibbāna state and an end to rebirths.
This idea is summed up in the Classic Śamatha-vipassanā Meditation Manual, chapter six: The actual
cultivation, written by Śramaṇa Zhìyǐ (沙門智顗) (538-597 CE), it says:
As for each of the and every one of all the dhammas, consisting of causes and conditions, they are empty,
devoid of any [inherently-existent] entity. One puts the mind to rest and penetrates to the original source.
It is on this account that one is known as a śramaṇa (Bhikshu Dharmamitra, 1990, p. 105).
6.6.2 The Doctrine of No-Self According to Tibetan Buddhism
Nāgārjuna denied there is anything called a self-nature as well as other-nature, emphasising that ―such
obsessions can be prevented by the perception of emptiness (Kalupahana, 2015, p. 56).‖ For further details on
Nāgārjuna’s analysis of emptiness, see Billington (2002, pp. 58-59). In Tibetan Buddhism (Gelug tradition) a
framework is given to prove there is no-self. This framework is based on the analysis of whether or not this ―I‖
truly exists and if it does, where? The framework is as follows (Wangchen, 2009, p. 205):

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1) Reflecting on whether an inherently existing self exists among the aggregates

2) Reflecting on whether the inherently existence self exists separately from the aggregates
3) Conclusive reasoning: The conclusive reasoning is, if the ―I‖ neither exists among the aggregates or
exists separately from them, then the ―I‖ cannot exist at all.
Lama Tsonghkapa said:
Gaining the pure realisation of emptiness is not only a matter of being able to negate the inherent
existence of the self. It is just as important to maintain the existence of the ―I‖ at the conventional ―I.‖
(Wangchen, 2009, p. 211).
6.6.3 Intrusive Philosophical Daoist Influences in Chán Buddhism
Chinese Buddhism and later Tibetan Buddhism (probably from Chinese Buddhist influences) mixed the idea of
emptiness and no-self together as one concept. The most likely reason for this is that Chinese Buddhists
combined the core philosophical Daoist idea of emptiness with the core Theravādin idea of no-self as a means to
understand a difficult and complex concept.
Goddard (2007, p. 19) describes how Daisetsu Suzuki spoke of it as:
The natural evolution of Buddhism under Daoist conditions.
The idea of emptiness/nothingness is Chinese Buddhism is mentioned in detail in the Not Real Empty Doctrine
《不真空論》Bùzhēn Kōnglùn. The philosophical Daoist influences are apparent in this text. In philosophical
Daoism the idea of wú (無) or emptiness/nothingness is especially emphasised (see Dàodéjīng chapter eleven
and chapter forty-eight for two examples). In the Not Real Empty Doctrine text below, the use of the character
wú (無) or emptiness/nothingness is used many times.
《不真空論》有其所以不有，故雖有而非有，有其所以不無，故雖無而非無。雖無而非無，無者不
絕虛；雖有而非有，有者非真有。
[To] have is so [to] not have, therefore, although [you] have, yet [you do] not have (無), [to] so have is
not nothing (無), therefore, although [there is] nothing (無), yet [there is] not [really] nothing (無).
Although [there is] nothing (無), yet not [really] nothing (無), nothing (無) is not completely empty.
Although having, [is] yet not having, having is not really having.
Traditionally speaking the first Buddhist text in Chinese was the Forty-two Chapters Spoken by Buddha Classic
《佛說四十二章經》Fú Shuō Sìshí'èr Zhāng Jīng. In this text we find the character for Dao (道) used well over
sixty times. We also see the characters for non-action, wúwéi (無為). This text gives clear insight into how early
Buddhism was immediately changed and adapted to fit the new Chinese culture.
《佛說四十二章經.第二章》佛言: 出家沙門者，斷欲去愛，識自心源，達佛深理，悟無為法. 內無
所得，外無所求，心不繫道，亦不結業。無念無作，非修非證，不歷諸位，而自崇最，名之為道。
Buddha said, [the] śramaṇa [who has] left [his] home, cuts off [his] desires [and,] gets rid [of his]
affections, [he] knows [the] origins [of his] heart, penetrates [the] depth of Buddha‘s principles [and]
awakens [to the] method of non-action (無為). Having emptiness (or nothingness) [with]in, [and] seeking
nothing (or emptiness) externally, [his] heart [is] not tied [by any] method, [and he is] also not bound [by]
karma. Thinking [of] nothing [and] doing nothing, not cultivating, not attaining, without passing through
all [the] positions (steps), yet [he him]self [reaches the] loftiest [of all], [this is] called the Dao (道).
We also see strong parallels between the Dàodéjīng, chapter eleven and the idea of intangible, wúxíng (無形) and
tangible, yǒuxíng (有形) in Chinese Buddhism. In chapter eleven of the Dàodéjīng it talks about the use or
―being‖ (tangibleness) of a cup lies in its ―non-being,‖ or emptiness (intangibleness).
《道德經.十一章》埏埴以為器，當其無，有器之用。
Mould clay so [as to] make [a] vessel, by its emptiness (無), [the] vessel has use (有).
《大乘顯識經》舌與食物俱有形色而味無形。
In a Chinse Buddhist text called the Dàchéng Xiǎnshí Jīng it says: [The] tongue and foods all [have their]
tangible (有形) (visible) colours, yet [they also have] tastes [that are] intangible (無形).
It is sometimes mentioned by Chinese Buddhists that there are two types of meditation. The intangible type,
where one just remains in their own awareness or the tangible one, where one focuses on something (such as the
tip of the nose).

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The dāntián (丹田) is another intrusive concept consistently used and mentioned in ancient Chinese Buddhist
texts. In a famous Buddhist text called the Classic Śamatha-vipassanā Meditation Manual, chapter nine:
Treatment of disorders, written by Śramaṇa Zhìyǐ (538-597 CE), it says (Bhikshu Dharmamitra, 1990, p. 177):
《修習止觀坐禪法要.九章》次有師言躋下一寸名憂陀那此云丹田。
Next [there are] masters [that] have said: One inch below the navel [is] called the yōutuónà (udāna). It [is]
said [this is the] dāntián.
Udāna is one of the five vāyus (the one that is responsible for the upward breath). It is also one of the ten petals
or prāṇas which is said to be regulated by the manipūra cakra.
6.7 Buddhists Brought Medical Knowledge with Them to China at a Very Early Stage in History
The Indian Buddhists did not just bring Buddhism with them, they also appear to have played an especially
critical role in the history of Chinese medicine. This is extremely important because many Chinese meditation
practices were based on Chinese medicine theory (one such example is the microscopic orbit meditation).
According to certain scholars, some of the so-called famous ancient God-like Chinese medicine doctors, appear
to have come from India. Two such examples are Huàtuó (華佗) and Biǎnquè (扁鵲).
In most accounts of Chinese medical history, one reads of the transmission of Indian medicine to China in
the early medieval period via Buddhism. In the vast number of Chinese Buddhist texts pertaining to
healing from the period, no human figure is more elaborated than the ―Medicine King,‖ Yīwáng 醫王,
known in Sanskrit as Jīvaka Kumārabhṛta. Historical studies of Indo-Sinitic medical exchange in English,
French and Chinese long have pointed to similarities between the biographies of Jīvaka and the legendary
Chinese physicians Biǎnquè and Huàtuó. (Salguero, 2009, pp. 183-184)
It is possible to know that Buddhists were connected to China at least as early as Prince Líuyīng 劉英 (who died
71 AD) but probably much early. These connections are important because they portray how early the Buddhists
may have been bringing medical knowledge to China and how early they were influencing meditation techniques
within China (if there were even any at such an early stage).
《後漢書.列傳.西域傳》世傳明帝梦见金人，長大，顶有光明，以问群臣。或曰：
「西方有神，名曰
佛，其形長丈六尺，而黄金色。」帝於是遣使天竺，问佛道法，遂於中國图画形象焉。楚王英始信
其术，中國因此颇有奉其道者。後桓帝好神，數祀浮图，老子，百姓稍有奉者，後遂轉盛。
In the Hòu Hànshū (above), it describes how in the West there is a god whose name is Fó (佛) (Buddha), after
which a golden statue of him is described. The Hòu Hànshū is a book that covers the history of the Han dynasty
from 6 to 189 CE. Meaning that Buddha was already well known in China around that time, clearly portraying
networking between India and China.
Even though Chinese medicine is famous for its acupuncture theory and points, which contributed heavily to the
various schools of later Daoism, it was the Indians who had written about marma points (most likely the
precursors to acupuncture points and cakras) possibly as early as around 1700 BCE but especially from the
Suśrutasaṃhitā (Frawley, Ranade, & Lele 2003, p. 8). Similarities between these two systems of medicine are
numerous, for example: Using the pulse as the primary tool for diagnosis and having many similar concepts (five
elements - five movements; yin/yang - puruṣa/prakṛti; jīng/qì – vīrya/prāṇa; hot/cold – pitta/kapha;
conception/governing vessels – idā/piṅgala; five tastes - six tastes etc). Both Chinese medicine and Āyurveda
have far too many similarities for it to be mere coincidence (Note 11).
It is interesting to note that according to Bronkhorst (2007, p. 56) it is with Buddhism and the Greater Magadha
area that the origins of Āyurveda begin. If this is correct it furthers strengthens the argument that Greater
Magadha had a highly developed culture with sciences that were especially advanced for that time in human
history. Bronkhorst (2007, p. 58) explains that there were differences in the practice of medicine between the
Vedic cultural area and Greater Magadha, and that Āyurveda does not have its roots in Vedic medical practices.
The healing of these Brahmins as described in the above passage … magico-religious, using sorcery,
spells and, amulets and reminiscent of the early Vedic medical tradition reflected in the Atharvavedaḥ.
This form of healing is, on the whole, contrary to the empirical and rational medicine of the early
Buddhist and Āyurvedic literature, in which references to magical techniques are rare (Bronkhorst, 2007,
p. 58).
6.8 Mahāyāna Meditation Techniques
All Mahāyāna schools use chanting as meditation in their own respective languages. Below are the three main
schools of Mahāyāna and their meditation techniques.

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Chán Buddhism: For a detailed version of early Chán Buddhist meditation, see the Classic Śamatha-vipassanā
Meditation Manual, written by Śramaṇa Zhìyǐ (538-597 CE). The opening lines of chapter six: The actual
cultivation, is as follows:
As for the cultivation of calming-and-insight, there are two modes. The first is cultivation while sitting.
The second is cultivation while moving through objective conditions and as one relates to the objective
sphere (Bhikshu Dharmamitra, 1990, p. 103).
The text goes on to explain that in ―calming during seated meditation‖ there are three methods (Bhikshu
Dharmamitra, 1990, p. 105):
 Calming by anchoring attention on an object in the objective sphere (i.e. tip of nose or navel).
 Calming through controlling the mind (i.e. exerting control no matter what comes up in the mind in order to
prevent it from running off and becoming scattered).
 Calming through realisation or truth (i.e. dhammas are simply produced through cause and condition,
therefore, if the mind does not seize upon them, the false thinking mind will come to rest).
Followed by this are two methods of insight used during seated meditation (Bhikshu Dharmamitra, 1990, p.
109):
 Counteractive insight (i.e. contemplation of impurity aimed at counteracting desire, contemplation of
loving-kindness aimed at counteracting hatred, contemplation of the sense realms to counteract attachment
to the self and contemplation of breath counting aimed at counteracting excessive discursive thinking).
 Right insight contemplation (i.e. the contemplation of all dhammas as devoid of inherently existent aspects
and also as produced from cause and condition etc).
The text goes on to further to describe that when the practitioner is in meditation, if his mind is dim and he is
falling asleep (sinking), then he should cultivate insight to bring forth illumination. If his mind is moving about
(floating), then he should cultivate calm in order to bring it to a halt (Bhikshu Dharmamitra, 1990, p. 111).
Zen Buddhism: See Harada (1993, pp. 73-83) for a Zen Buddhist meditation technique based on Hakuin Ekaku
teachings (this technique of meditation clearly has Chinese origins with its focus on the abdomen). The key
feature of Zen meditation in all schools is the emphasis on posture.
These forms are not the means of obtaining the right state of mind. To take this posture is itself to have
the right state of mind. There is no need to obtain some special state of mind. (Suzuki, 2011, p. 7)
Tibetan Buddhism: Meditation techniques can be vast and varied and sometimes appear to have been influenced
by later Indian yogic techniques. See Dalai Lama (2008, p. 94) and Dalai Lama (2016, p. 12) for two different
forms of visualisation techniques. For a highly detailed description on how one school of Tibetan Buddhist does
cakra meditation, see Gangchen (2010). Another example of Tibetan visualisation meditation is tummo
meditation. It is also called Chandali yoga and creates ―yogic heat.‖ This style of breathing was mentioned in the
Six Dharmas of Nāropa (1016-1100 CE) and has similarities with the haṭhayoga school of thought. The vase
breathing technique is especially important.
The vase breathing meditation comprises four steps: Inhaling; filling the right and left channels with air;
milking the air from the two side channels into the central channel; and exhaling or shooting up like an
arrow (Yeshe, 2015, p. 122).
The overall technique of tummo is very complex, see Yeshe (2015) for full details. A very short and simplified
version of it (vase breathing) was described by Drukchen Pema Karpo (1527-1592 CE) in A Record of
Mahāmudrā Instructions.
Expel the stale breath three times. Slowly inhale the upper air through the nose. Draw up the lower air and
apply yourself to holding it as much as you can. That which is called the ―mind difficult to completely
tame‖ is focused upon as being nothing other than wind, so that when the movement of the wind ceases,
thoughts that stray toward objects will also cease (Roberts, 2014, p. 111).

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7. Philosophical Daoism

Figure 3. The Basic Principles of Philosophical Daoism

Figure three above is based on the authors interpretation of the key principles presented in the Dàodéjīng. The
Dao part on the left is based upon the sky, earth and man model presented throughout ancient Chinese thought.
The sky is empty, wú (無), and the laws of nature are based on yin and yang (duality). Man adheres to the earth‘s
laws through the philosophy of emptiness in action or non-action, which means, to abide by nature‘s way as a
guiding principle for living. To adhere to the skies emptiness, one uses emptiness as a guiding philosophical
system. To further expound on these ideas the five ―virtues‖ were given by Laozi which provide examples of
how to live according to the sky and earth. For example, the value of a cup lies in its emptiness and nature does
not interfere or contend; it just is.
7.1 Two Types of Daoism
1) Daoist religion (道教): This was created by the ancient Chinese as a response to the arrival of Buddhism
(Knauer, 2006, pp. 90-91).
2) Daoist philosophy (道家):
 Defining what is philosophical Daoism is difficult, as the belief system incorporates many different ideas over
a long period of time. The author would include the works of Laozi, Zhuangzi and associated texts, together
with those Daoist practices centered specifically around the abdomen under the heading of ―philosophical
Daoism.‖
The reason for grouping practices centered around the abdomen as related to philosophical Daoism is as follows; it
seems as though within China, Laozi was the first author to use the word ―abdomen‖ in his writings in a
philosophical sense.
《道德經.第三張》是以，聖人之治，虛其心，實其腹，弱其志，強其骨。
Dàodéjīng, chapter three: So, [the] sage manages [by] emptying the heart, filling the abdomen, weakening
the will [and] strengthening the bones.
《道德經.第十二章》是以，聖人，為腹不為目，故，去彼取此。
Dàodéjīng, chapter twelve: So, [the] sage does [with his] abdomen [and does] not do [with his] eyes,
therefore, [he] leaves that [and] gets this.
While the abdomen may simply refer to the stomach, and is therefore a simile that means, all one needs in life is
to have enough food to be satisfied. Knowing the heavy emphasis that is placed on the abdomen in Chinese
martial arts, Daoism in general and some forms of Daoist meditation; combined with the fact that in Japan the
character used for ―tanden‖ (dāntián) is hara (腹), which is the same used by Laozi and it may suggest a much

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deeper meaning then just a simple body part.

 Possible early proto-origins in the Western Zhou dynasty with Indo-European nomads, connecting the
philosophy of Dao to that of Zoroastrian Iranians and Vedic Indo-Aryans.
Just as one could easily argue that Dao is the core concept presented in the Dàodéjīng, one may also put forward
the idea that ṛta permeates all early Ṛgvedic thought due to it being the principle of cosmic order. There is a
strong correlation between the idea of Dao presented in the Dàodéjīng, and that of ṛta (truth/cosmic order) from
the Vedas, where ṛta could be described as:
The principle of cosmic order that ensures the integrated functioning of the natural order, divine order,
human order, and sacrificial order (Holdredge, 2004, p. 215).
The idea of ṛta is commonly mentioned as being equivalent to the Zoroastrian concept of aṣ̌a (Ara, 2006, p. 107),
with both having tripartition/tripartite function at their basis. Zoroastrian; earth, atmosphere, and heaven (Ara,
2006, p. 107). Society was based on three groups; ―āthravan (priest) rathaēštār (one who stands in the chariot, a
warrior) and vāstryō-fšuyant (husbandman, farmer)‖ (Ara, 2006, p. 106). The concept of ṛta has three key
features; ―gati (continuous movement or change), saṅghaṭana (a system based on interdependence of parts) and
niyati (inherent order of interdependence and movement)‖ (Sharma, 1990, p. 16), while society was based on;
Brāhmaṇa (priest) kṣatra, (warrior) and vaiśya (herder-cultivators). The Dao also followed tripartition:
《道德經.四十二章》道生一，一生二，二生三，三生萬物。
Dàodéjīng, chapter forty-two: [The] Dào produces one, one produces two, two produces three [and] three
produces [the] ten thousand things.
《道德經.二十五章》故，道大，天大，地大，王亦大。
Dàodéjīng, chapter twenty-five: Therefore, [there is the] great Dào, great sky, great earth [and the] king
[who is] also great.
In proto-Daoism we also see tripartition in relation to the Yìjīng’s trigrams, along with the sky, earth and man (天
地人) model presented throughout early Daoist thought; chapter ten: Tàihóng (泰鴻) of the《鶡冠子.泰鴻》
Héguānzi is one such early example where this model (sky, earth, man) is mentioned.
While the Dao, ṛta and aṣ̌a were not necessarily dualistic in themselves, their surrounding philosophies were.
Zoroastrian; dualism was based on two fundamental causal principles; chaos and order, which were the
underlying existence of the entire world (Ara, 2006, p. 107). For Vedic dualism see Nāsadīya Sūkta. We can also
note that these same dualistic and tripartition divisions are central to the Sāṅkhya school (puruṣa, prakṛti and the
guṇas). Early Daoist literature also mentions dualism through the idea of yin and yang (see Dàodéjīng chapter
forty-two) as does proto-Daoism with its use in the Yìjīng (broken and solid lines).
Similarities between Dao and ṛta can be found throughout each concept‘s literature. Just as the Dao preceded
god (see Dàodéjīng chapter four), we find ṛta also came before the gods.
The ṛta or dharma was not created or willed by any being or beings, the gods or any other above them. It
existed before them but became known to them. (Brown, 1961, p. 373)
Committing oneself to the Dao and there is harmony and longevity (see Dàodéjīng chapter thirty and forty-two).
Committing one‘s actions to the governance of ṛta and there are many ―goods,‖ such as health and survival.
Indian people … placed on the side of ‗good,‘ such things as: happiness, health, survival … The highest
good (summum bonum), however, expresses itself in the total harmony of the cosmic or natural order
characterized as ṛta … The prescribed pattern of social and moral order is thus conceived as a correlate of
the natural order … This convergence of the cosmic and the moral orders is universally commended in
due course in the all-embracing appellation of dharma. (Bilimoria, 2007, p. 33)
This strong correlation between the Dao and ṛta can be summed up in the way they are both very similar to
nature, the natural world, nature‘s regulation, nature‘s order and nature‘s way.
In the Ṛgveda Saṃhitā (c.1500–1200 BCE), the earliest and most authoritative of the Vedic texts ṛta is the
principle of cosmic order that ensures the integrated functioning of the natural order … As the regulative
principle of the natural order ṛta governs the movements of the sun, moon, and stars, the rhythms of the
seasons, and the cycles of day and night. Ṛta is the power of natural law that causes the rains to fall, the
rivers to flow, and the sun to send forth its light. (Holdredge, 2004, p. 215)
In the Dàodéjīng, chapter twenty-five, it says:

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《道德經.二十五章》人法地，地法天，天法道，道法自然。
Man patterns (models) [him-self on the] earth, [the] sky patterns (models) [it-self on the] Dào [and the]
Dào patterns (models) [it-self on] nature.
These tripartition and dualistic features mentioned above may have an Indo-European origin, as Indo-European
society followed a tripartite ideology, while its myths and religions were based on dualism (Mallory, 1989, pp.
139-140). If proto-Daoism was developed in the Zhou dynasty with the Yìjing’s trigrams being one such example,
and the hypothesis of Ramsden (2021) is correct, in that the Zhou kings were Indo-European in culture; combine
this with the idea that the Andronovo culture (an Indo-European culture) was Indo-Iranian (Mallory & Adams
1997, p. 20) and the Zoroastrians (who were Iranians – second migratory wave of Indo-Iranians) and the
Indo-Aryans (first migratory wave of Indo-Iranians) (Note 12) were the progenitors of Vedic culture (there is
much evidence for this, with one key piece being; Vedic Sanskrit and Avestan are almost mutually intelligible,
see Ramsden (2021, pp. 9-11) for further details) (Note 13), then the fact that the concepts of Dao, ṛta and aṣ̌a
appearing to be similar may not actually be so coincidental.
 There is no evidence to suggest a person named Laozi ever existed (Mair, 1990, pp. 119-130).
 Some scholars note parallels between the Dàodéjīng and the Bhagavadgītā (Mair, 1990, p. xv).
 Early Daoists were generally known as the huánglǎo (黃老).
 Chinese dàoyǐn (導引) (Note 14) has a strong correlation to Indian yoga. Its connection is not based on
modern-day āsana (as originally āsana was related to seated meditation postures) but may potentially be
based primarily on breathing techniques. One example of early dàoyǐn practises is described below.
《莊子.外篇.刻意》 吹呴呼吸，吐故納新，熊經鳥申，為壽，而已矣，此道引之士，養形之人，彭
祖壽考者，之所好也。
[Zhuāngzǐ said:] Blow, breath out, exhale, inhale; expelling [the old], thereby receiving [the] new, [stand]
vertical [like a] bear, [and] extend [the body like a] bird, [so as] to [have a] long life, that is it! This [is]
the scholars dàoyǐn, [and what the] people [who] nourish [their] form, [and those who wish to] examine
Péngzǔ’s longevity [are] fond [of].
In the《說文解字》Shuōwén Jiězì we are told that the ―dào‖ (導) of dàoyǐn (導引) means the ―yǐn‖ (引) of dàoyǐn
(導引). The ―yǐn‖ (引) of dàoyǐn means to draw, stretch or pull, like you would a bow. In numerous ancient texts
(Note 15) we commonly see the dàoyǐn (導引) characters used with the character qì 氣 (導引蓄氣，導引致氣，
行氣導引，導引行氣). The character 氣 qì (Note 16), has had many meanings over the centuries but can mean
―vital air/energy.‖
In regard to prāṇāyāma, the yoga practitioners from the Krishnamacharya tradition explain that āyāma means to
extend and stretch (Desikachar, 1995, p. 54) while prāṇa has the exact same meaning as qì. In this case
prāṇāyāma would mean to extend and stretch the vital air/energy (by using the breath). The author would
translate dàoyǐn as, ―stretching, pulling, leading (or guiding).‖ As mentioned above this stretching or pulling is
most commonly used with the character for qì. Here we get the exact same meaning as prāṇāyāma.
 A book called Laozi was compiled around 300 BCE, probably by various authors over a certain time period.
 The dé part of the Dàodéjīng may have been in response to the more hierarchical and authoritarian governing
systems that were developing at the time.
 Comparisons can be drawn between India‘s idea of non-action (karma means action) and Laozi‘s non-action.
The Jains followed a non-action primarily of the body, the Buddhists followed a non-action specifically of the
mind to the senses, the Brahmans followed a non-action of the mind and the Daoists followed a non-action of
action, which means living as naturally as possible.
 It‘s difficult not to notice the striking similarities between Laozi‘s Dao and Kapila‘s Sāṅkhya school. Both are
strongly dualistic and atheist and both have the theory of three: Sāṅkhya has the three guṇas and Dao has the
sky (天), earth (地), man (人). The correlations between the idea of the Dao and Puruṣa are also similar.
This Puruṣa is all that yet hath been and all that is to be. (Ṛgveda, mandala ten, hymn ninety, verse two)
《道德經.第一章》無名天地 之 始，有名萬物 之母。
Dàodéjīng, chapter one says: Nameless, the start [of the] sky [and the] earth. [To] have [a] name, the
mother [of] ten thousand things.
 The ideas of Dao and dé (德) have permeated Chinese language and thinking. In Mandarin, ―I know‖ is wǒ

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zhīdào (我知道), ―I know the Dao.‖ A person of high morals and wisdom is said to have dàodé (道德), Dao
and virtue.
7.2 Core Principles of Daoist Philosophy
1) Emptiness and how it has manifested all that exists: Based on the idea of the wújí (無極) (see Dàodéjīng,
chapter eleven and chapter twenty-eight).
2) Naturalness, zìrán (自然): Based on the idea of the tàijí (太極) or yin and yang and follows the laws of
nature (see Dàodéjīng, chapter twenty-five).
3) No action, yet nothing is not done, wúwéi ér wú bù wéi (無為而無不為): Based on using the above two
principles in daily life (see Dàodéjīng, chapter forty-eight).
4) Five ―virtues‖: Laozi‘s virtue is built on living in accordance with the above three principles and does not
have anything to do with integrity or morals in the modern sense of the word (see chapter five where Laozi
says, the sage treats the people as straw dogs).
5) The ultimate goal of early Daoists appears to have been longevity (Note 17) and therefore survival and
health (see Dàodéjīng, chapter thirty-three).
7.3 Daoist Meditation Techniques
1) Laozi: Breath like a baby (see Dàodéjīng, chapter ten). This method hints towards some form of breath
observation without any interference.
《道德經.第十章》專氣致柔，能嬰兒乎。
Concentrate [your] qì (breath) [to] attain softness, can [you be like an] infant?
2) Embryo Breathing Classic《胎吸經》Tāixījīng: This text conveys a breathing technique where both the in
breath and the out breath initiate from the abdomen (See appendix 4 for a full translation of the text).
《胎息經》胎從伏气中结，气從有胎中息。
[The] embryo comes [from the] accumulation [of] concealed qì, [the] qì comes [from] having breathed [at
the] embryo.
The Tāixījīng is probably the first detailed version of tǔnà (吐納) breathing that was mentioned in old Chinese
medical books like the 《傷寒雜病論》 Shānghán Zábìng Lùn. It was also mentioned in the《後漢書》Hòu
Hànshū, where it is clearly described as a type of breathing method.
《後漢書.列傳.崔駰列傳》呼吸吐納
Tǔnà breathing.
3) Zhuāngzǐ 莊子 also recommended breathing practices:
《莊子.內篇.大宗師》古之真人，其寢不夢，其覺無憂，其食不甘，其息深深。真人之息以踵，眾
人之息以喉。屈服者，其嗌言若哇。其耆欲深者，其天機淺。
The Zhēnrén [of] old, [did] not dream [when] they slept, they [did] not feel anxiety, [their] food [was] not
sweet, [and they] breathed deeply. Zhēnrén breathed with [their] heels, [while] everyone [else] breathed
with [their] throats. [When] surrendering, their choking words [were] like [the] sound of vomiting. Their
deep lusts, desires, [and] their [understanding of the] the skies design [is] shallow.
《淮南子·精神训》吹呴呼吸，吐故内新。
《論衡·道虚》若吹呴呼吸，吐故内新，熊經鸟伸，凫浴猿躩，鸱視虎顾，是养形之人也，不以滑
心。
The same eight characters (underlined above) of this breathing that are found in《莊子.內篇.大宗師》Zhuāngzǐ
are also mentioned in the《淮南子·精神训》Huáinánzǐ and the《論衡·道虚》Lúnhéng as seen in the above two
lines. It is interesting to note the emphasis on the out breath with the three characters: Chuī xǔ hū (吹呴呼),
while only one character for the in breath, xī (吸).
4) Melting butter visualization (with an emphasis on the dāntián) to treat ―Zen sickness‖ (see Hakuin Ekaku:
Idle Talk on a Night Boat,《夜船閑話》Yasen Kanna.
5) Certain styles of Zen Buddhist meditation probably give the most detailed version of a common type of
Daoist meditation (meditating on the breath in the abdomen). Focusing on the abdomen is intrusive to
Buddhism, see Harada (1993, pp. 73-83) for the details on the meditation technique.

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The key feature of many types of Daoist meditation is the focus on the abdomen, sometimes called the dāntián
and/or sea of qí, qìhǎi (氣海) (Note 18). Many forms of Daoist meditation appear to be based on Chinese
medicine theory as the dāntián was first mentioned as a part of early medical theory.
《太上老君中經.卷上》丹田者，人之根也，精神之所藏也。
[The] dāntián [is] the root [of a] person. (See appendix 5 for a translation)
According to Chinese medicine theory, by putting the heart fire (the minds intent) underneath the kidney water in
the abdomen, the body is able to make kidney qí or steam. The character for qì (氣) is steam coming off of rice.
This kidney qí is the base qí of the body. The kidneys also contain the pre-heaven qí (先天之氣). In nearly all
traditional Chinese meditations the qí is sent down (this is the opposite to yoga, where energy is normally sent
up).
王宗岳《太極拳論》氣沉丹田。
In the Tàiíiquán lùn is says: [The] qì sinks [to the] dāntián.
There is another character for qì that is pronounced the same way, qì (炁). It is an uncommon character and is
sometimes used when writing religious Daoist talismans.
The idea of the Chinese abdomen can be summarised as follows:
1) One should send qì, heart fire or intent down to the abdomen to make qì or to store it.
2) Breathing should initiate and be controlled by the abdomen.
3) The root of a person is the abdomen.
4) Focusing on the abdomen is commonly emphasised in Chinese internal martial arts where all movement
should initiate from it.
5) In Chinese medicine it stores the sperm, menstrual fluid, pre-heaven qì and kidney qì, which are seen as the
foundation for the entire body.
This idea that the fire (on the upper part of the body) should always return to the water (in the lower part of the
body) has been a core theory in Chinese medicine since early times. If the fire was unable to return to the water
(in the lower part of the body), the body would be in a state of illness. The idea was to always increase the
kidney‘s concealing, cáng (藏) function so that is could solidify, gù (固) the concealment of yang qì (fire) in the
abdomen. In this way, the mind (fire) was anchored where it would not be easily irritated or disturbed.
《道德經.二十六章》重為輕根，靜為躁君。
Dàodéjīng, chapter twenty-six says: Heavy is root [to the] light, quiet is [the] monarch [to the] irritable.
The fire mentioned above is specifically related to kidney fire (or yang) and was occasionally known as the
dragon fire. This is because in ancient times within China it was sometimes believed that when the dragon stays
in water there is no rain, when the dragon moves, then there is rain. This idea is represented in the Book of
Changes,《易經》Yǐjīng by the kǎn guà (坎卦) where yang is in the middle of two yins.
《医理真传》龍行則雨施，龍藏則雨止. (Zheng, 2009)
In the Yīlǐ Zhēnchuán it says: [When the] dragon moves then rain comes, [when the] dragon hides then [the]
rain stops.
This emphasis on the abdomen has permeated Chinese thinking for two millennia, the author calls this idea
―concealing the dragon fire.‖
8. Brahmanism
Later Brahmanism, Hinduism and yoga have many different schools of thought and appear to be all related to
each other in some way or another. They do though seem to have common threads and ideas throughout.
8.1 The Early Ideas of Karma and Saṃsāra
It appears as though the early ideas of karma and saṃsāra do not have their origins with Brahmanism but instead
with Buddhism.
Greater Magadha was a cultural area in which Vedic religion played no role. An important feature of the
culture of this area was the belief in rebirth and karmic retribution, the belief that the present life will be
followed by other lives whose qualities are determined by acts carried out in the present or preceding
lives. A number of religious thinkers—among them the founders of Buddhism and Jainism—were not

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happy with the thought of an endless cycle of rebirths and looked at ways to break out of it. The Buddha
and the Jina taught different ways to put an end to rebirth and karmic retribution, that is, they taught
different paths to liberation. This was clearly the central concern of these teachers and their followers, a
concern that had nothing to do with the concerns that find expression in Vedic religion (Bronkhorst, 2017,
p. 362).

Figure 4. Foundations of Later Brahmanism

Many scholars (such as Friedrich Max Müller) have reconstructed a type of proto-Indo-European religion based
off the Ṛgveda. One needs to be wary of doing this as many nuances and complexities are involved, see Jackson
(2002) for an in-depth analysis in regard to this issue. In most of these reconstructions we find the names of
Ṛgvedic gods and goddesses used. The following six tend to be the most significant:
1) Dyáuṣ (Sky-God)
2) Pṛthvī (Earth Goddess)
3) Aśvin (Twin Horseman)
4) Uṣás (Goddess of the Dawn)
5) Sūrya (Sun God) associated with mitrā́ váruṇā (whom have a strong relationship with ṛta)
6) Indra (Storm God)
While the six gods mentioned above are only based on reconstructions, we can confirm that the three most
important deities in the Ṛgveda were most likely Indra, Váruṇa, and the Nā́ satyā (another name for the Aśvin)
(Anthony, 2007, p. 50). One may note here some significant changes as these gods clearly lose their importance
within later Brahmanism/early Hinduism to gods such as Viṣṇu, Brahmā and Śiva. Another example of an
important shift is with regard to ṛta and dharma, where dharma somewhat takes on the concept of ṛta in later
Brahmanism (Note 19).
While many features of early Brahmanism became lost or changed with time, others still kept their significance
even though in a different way. Indo-European society was based around three groups; the priests, the kings and
the warriors. It appears that while god/s gave these peoples cows; an important source of just about everything, it
was the role of the warrior to procure more cows, which were then given to the priests, who would sacrifice them
back to the god/s, which played the all-important and encompassing role of maintaining cosmic order (Mallory,
1989, p. 138).
Given this enormous importance of cattle within the socioeconomic order, it comes as no surprise that the
Indo-Europeans were always interested in preserving the cattle they had and in procuring more. Their
prayers are filled with requests for cattle, and cattle raiding seems to have been one of the most important

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pursuits of the warriors (Lincoln, 1976, p. 63).

The Proto-Indo-Europeans established for themselves: The differentiation of priests and kings as differing
types of the sovereign; the priest‘s role as ritual specialist, the king‘s as that of complete man; the
separation of the three social classes; the unique position of cattle as the intimate companion of man ab
origine and source of all good things; and, last, the crucial importance of sacrifice in the creation and
preservation of the world order (Lincoln, 1976, p. 43).
The author would argue that in general, there are two primary forms of Brahmanism. Early Brahmanism (Vedic
religion) which did not know the idea of rebirth and karma (Vedic literature does not appear to mention it)
(Bronkhorst, 2017, p. 363). This early Brahmanism was primarily concerned with the correct performance of
sometimes highly complex rituals in the service of the various royal courts (Bronkhorst, 2017, p. 363). Later
Brahmanism (which emerged out of the breakdown period of the Vedic period) was very different, where the
Brahmin was now depicted as an ascetically-inclined individual who concentrated primarily on personal rites
and avoided much contact with the outside world (Bronkhorst, 2017, p. 364). It is this Brahmanism that begins to
incorporate many of the ideas that we now see in Hinduism such as karma and reincarnation.
Brahmanism is an ancient belief system with a complex history, figure four above, only describes one potential
simplified later model of it, so as to help the reader grasp some of its fundamental concepts. On the left is the
idea of saṃsāra which is very different to Buddhism. In Brahmanism, dharma can mean ―one‘s (cosmic) duty‖
and does not mean Buddha‘s teachings or natural laws. There is reincarnation and not rebirth. There is
reincarnation into one of the four main castes as opposed to rebirth into one of Six Realms. Later Brahmanism
had a self (ātman) while Buddhism had no-self. In later Brahmanism the goal was for ātman to reunite with
Brahman by which mokṣa was achieved. This was normally accomplished through the use of one of the four
yogas. Buddhism instead aimed to ―blow out‖ (the flame) or achieve nibbāna, so there was no rebirth.
Brahmanism also included the four traditional aims of life and many different gods, with the three devas being of
significant importance.
8.2 Comparing Later Brahmanism to Buddhism
If we were to imagine a white piece paper with nothing on it, we could call this the Buddhist mind of
enlightenment. If we now take this piece of paper and put as many black dots on it as possible, we now have the
unenlightened mind. As long as there are black dots (conscious imprints formed by the Twelve Links of
dependent origination), there is something to be reborn. Once the white paper is clear of all the black dots, it is
over (nibbāna), as there is nothing to be reborn.
Later Brahmanism, Hinduism and yoga believe in reincarnation (not rebirth). Now if we imagine this white piece
paper and instead draw a big black dot in the middle, here we have the soul (ātman) that is reborn and reborn
until it is pure enough to once again to return and merge with the universal soul (Brahman) whereby one
achieves mokṣa.
The idea of rebirth in Buddhism, which is a form of continuity and the idea of reincarnation from later
Brahmanism, where a soul is reincarnated, create two different models of saṃsāra. Later Brahmanism‘s saṃsāra
referred to a cycle of reincarnation, where one had to do their duty or dharma to gain karmic merit, so as to be
born into a higher caste. In the Buddhist version of saṃsāra one was bound to the cycle of rebirth through the
afflictions (kilesas) and the actions that one took because of them, whereby the Twelve Links led to rebirth which
focused not a caste system of rebirth but of six different realms.
One of the earliest mentions of karma in later Brahmanism comes from the Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad (4.4.5).
The idea of karma in later Brahmanism is described below:
The long and short of it is that doing good and bad deeds under the impulse of desire, anger, etc., is the
cause of the ātman’s identification with everything; its undergoing transmigration and passing from one
body to another; for impelled by this, the self takes one body after another. Therefore, good and bad deeds
are the cause of its transmigratory existence. Scriptural injunctions and prohibitions are directed to this.
Herein lies the utility of the scriptures. (Swami Madhavananda, 1950, p. 715).
8.3 Similarities between the Brahman’s Heart and the Chinese Heart
The Brahman‘s heart is one that stores Brahman and is not something physical in the tangible sense. A similar
idea is found in Chinese medicine theory. In the Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad (4.1.7) it says:
The heart, O Emperor, is the abode of all things and the heart, O Emperor, is the support of all beings. On
the heart, O Emperor, all beings rest. The heart truly, O Emperor, is the supreme Brahman. His heart does

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not desert him, who, knowing thus, worships it (Kawosa, 2020, p. 93).
In Chinese medicine theory, it is the heart, xīn (心) that stores the spirit, shén (神) and is the only ―organ‖ that
does not have the flesh, yuè zi páng (月子旁) character attached to it (腸, 肝, 膽, 腎, 膀胱, 脾, 胃, 肺). The
fact that it does not have a flesh character attached to it, indicates that the heart was seen as something more than
just an organ, in that it was something intangible. In Chinese language, the mind and the heart both use the same
character, xīn (心), giving the character two different but possibly intermixed meanings.
8.4 A Key Feature of Later Brahmanism was to Bring the Soul in an Up and Outward Direction
Many of the key teachings of later Brahmanism are found in the Mahābhārata, Bhagavadgītā and Upaniṣads.
The core aspect of later Brahmanism is that the soul must reconnect with the universal soul and to do this, it
should leave the body in an up and outward direction. This idea of sending the energy upwards is found in the
Bhagavadgītā (8.10/12).
Chapter 8.10: He who does so, at the time of his departure, with a steady mind, devotion and strength of
yoga and setting well his life force in the centre of his eye brows, he attains to this Supreme Divine
Person (Radhakrishnan, 2014, p. 273).
Chapter 8.12: All gates of the body restrained, the mind confined within the heart, one‘s life force fixed in
the head, established in concentration by yoga (Radhakrishnan, 2014, p. 273).
It is also mentioned in the Upaniṣads:
Kaṭhopaniṣad (6.16): There are 101 channels of the heart. One of them flows to the head. Going upwards
my means of it, one reaches immortality (Mallinson & Singleton, 2017, p. 187).
In the Bhagavadgītā (8.24-25) we find a similar concept where it is more auspicious to die in spring and summer.
In the first six months of the year, the energy is moving up and outwards. This helps the soul go up, out and
possibly back through the fontanelle; the place from which it traditionally first came in.
Chapter 8.24: The six months of the northern path (of the sun), then going forth the men who know the
Absolute go to the Absolute (Radhakrishnan, 2014, p. 278).
Chapter 8.25: The six months of the southern path (of the sun), then going forth, the yogi obtains the
lunar light and returns (Radhakrishnan, 2014, p. 278).
Sending the energy upwards is also at the heart of haṭhayoga practice:
Kuṇḍalinī (a goddess) resides at the base of the spine and through practices that initially only included
visualisation, but subsequently in haṭhayogic traditions, acquired physical components, is made to rise up
through the central channel (suṣumna), to the crown of the head where she is united with her male
counterpart Śiva (Mallinson & Singleton 2017, pp. xix-xx).
8.5 Meditation Techniques in Later Brahmanism/Hinduism
As previously mentioned, later Brahmanism wanted to make the mind completely still of any activity
whatsoever.
The early Brahminic teachings on meditation certainly drew upon the non-dualistic philosophy of the
early Upaniṣads. The goal of yogic practice in some of the early Upaniṣads and the Mokṣadharma is to
attain a state of consciousness not unlike deep sleep, a state of consciousness so attenuated that its attainer
is said to be ―like a log of wood.‖ (Wynne, 2007, p. 43).
As later Brahmanism was the predecessor of Hinduism, most techniques used in Hinduism are either directly or
indirectly developed from later Brahmanism. The four most common forms of meditation nowadays are:
1) Chanting and mantra: This is done firstly by chanting out loud, loudly, (with perfect precision in regard to
pronunciation) after which the chanting is changed to chanting underneath the breath and finally the chanting
is done in the mind.
2) Ōṁ is pronounced AUM in English and is the first chant usually taught, followed sometimes by the Gāyatrī
mantra. In the Chāndogyopaniṣad (first Prapāṭhaka) it says:
Let a man meditate on the syllable Ōṁ, called the udgitha; for the udgitha (a portion of the Sāmaveda) is
sung, beginning with Ōṁ. The full account, however, of Ōṁ is this: The essence of all beings is the earth,
the essence of the earth is water, the essence of water the plants, the essence of plants, man, the essence of
man, speech, the essence of speech the Ṛgveda, the essence of the Ṛgveda the Sāmaveda, the essence of the

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Sāmaveda the udgitha (which is Ōṁ). That udgitha (Ōṁ) is the best of all essences, the highest, deserving
the highest place, the eighth (Müller, 1900, pp. 1-2).
3) Visualising one of the Hindu gods in the mind‘s eye as to take on its characteristics and therefore benefits.
4) Mixed forms of meditation that include a variety of techniques. One such example is the ghee lamp
meditation called trāṭak meditation. According to Johari (1998, p. 63) trāṭak meditation is a form of
meditation designed to raise the energy level of consciousness by focusing on a source of light, with the ghee
lamp being the most beneficial for this purpose. This process of concentration and meditation on the ghee
lamp flame can be divided into ten stages. See Johari (1998, pp. 63-64) for further details.
9. Yoga
Foundations ofYoga
G oal:K

Śiva
Śaki kuṇḍalinī

Tw enty
Six vāyu
nāḍīs

Three
M ahā bandha
kuṇḍalinī suṣum nā
1.
prana vāyu
suṣum nā nāḍīs
2.
kuṇḍalinī
3.
prāṇa vāyu

If the blood is not

sattvic vāta pitt clean, then the
kapha w ill n o t
fu n ction (rotate)
Ām a correctly. Therefore,
blood circulation is
agní essen tial for th e
proper functioning
ofthe .

vīryam

Figure 5. Foundations of Yoga (based on the work of Krishnamacharya, 1934)

Figure five above gives one possible reconstructed model of yoga that may have been used by the ―father of
modern day yoga,‖ Tirumalai Krishnamacharya. This model is based on one of the various haṭhayoga models
where the goal was to send kuṇḍalinī (a female type energy associated with Śakti) up through the seven cakras to
the crown of the head (associated with Śiva), whereby one achieved kaivalya and complete stillness of the mind.
This was attained primarily by; following the aṣṭāṅga; celibacy; the elimination of toxins; eating of foods neutral
in nature; and the use of bandhas and mudrās to move energy from the left and right flanking channels up the
central one.
9.1 The Key Features of Yoga
9.1.1 Four Main Types of Yoga
In modern times yoga is commonly described as having four main paths or types, namely karma yoga (yoga of
action), bhaktiyoga (yoga of devotion), kriyāyoga (yoga of transforming internal energies) and jñānayoga (yoga
of knowledge). Both haṭhayoga and kriyāyoga come from rājayoga. In ancient India there were many different
types of yoga, see Mallinson and Singleton (2016, pp. 23-35) for further details.

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9.1.2 Pātañjalayogaśāstra
Yoga‘s emphasis is on the Pātañjalayogaśāstra which describes an eightfold method called aṣṭāṅgayoga:
1) Morals and ethics (yama)
2) Personal observances (niyama)
3) Physical poses (āsana)
4) Breathing exercises (prāṇāyāma)
5) Turning the mind inwards (pratyāhāra)
6) Concentration or fixation on a single point (dhāraṇā)
7) Meditation (dhyāna)
8) Meditative absorption (samādhi)
According to the Pātañjalayogaśāstra the primary goal of yoga is as follows:
Thus, the most important yoga text, the Yoga Sūtra's of Patañjali (400-500 C.E.) defines yoga as ‗the
cessation of the transformation of awareness.‘ This state is called concentration (samādhi) … When Yoga
Sutra‘s state that the meaning of yoga is cittavrttinirodhah, it means that yoga refers to a dualistic truth,
the realisation of the total separateness of the principle of consciousness, puruṣa, from the material
principle, prakŗti. Yoga as the goal of practice in this text means separation, isolation and concentration,
not union (Jacobsen, 2005, p. 4).
Two centuries prior to the composition of the Pātañjalayogaśāstra saw the beginning of the Buddhist Yogācāra
school, whose identifying feature was the practice of yoga. The Yogācāra textual corpus was considerably more
extensive than that of the Pātañjala tradition. It also clearly influenced the text of the Pātañjalayogaśāstra. The
importance of Yogācāra Buddhism for the understanding of yoga in India in the first millennium CE has been
widely overlooked by scholars (Mallinson & Singleton, 2017, p. xvii).
9.1.3 Tantric Yoga
Tantra means ―a system of essential ritual or instruction.‖ It is usually associated with visualisations of a deity or
deities (with the goal to reach union with the deity), performing certain rituals (such as the consumption of
forbidden substances) and mantra repetition (japa) in order to gain supernatural powers. Tantra has a strong
connection with the idea of cakras and the concept of a yogic body. Cakras are not exclusively used by tantric
cults as they are also used by haṭhayoga practitioners (Mallinson & Singleton, 2017, pp. xvii-xix) and Buddhists
(especially Vajrayāna Buddhists). As tantric yoga had (and still has) many schools of thought, with a complex
history and a vast number of practises, further in-depth discussion is beyond the scope of this paper.
9.1.4 Cakras and Kuṇḍalinī
David White is one of the leading scholars on the history of cakras. Summarising his work on the cakras is as
follows (White, 2010): There have been various cakra systems with the first being a four-fold cakra system,
cakras have always sat aligned on the spinal column of the (yogic) subtle body. This first system was developed
by Tibetan Buddhists and the cakras were probably initially related to mystic locations of the mind (waking,
dreamless, dreaming and maybe an enlightened type state). The goal from the beginning was to bring an energy
up this central column of the yoga body. As time went on this energy was called kuṇḍalinī, a female energy with
a strong relationship to Śakti, which resided somewhere in the lower cakras. Initially these cakras were affected
by sound through mantras but were later affected through mudrās and bhandas (where all orifices were sealed)
and other āsana and prāṇāyāma practices that aimed to raise kuṇḍalinī from the base cakras up into the skull
(and sometimes beyond it). The yoginīs at each cakra play an especially important role through the cremation
ground-based anthropophagy of the yoginīs or ḍākinīs. In the case of the cakra system, as the kuṇḍalinī (which
has a strong relationship to sperm) reaches each level of the cakra/yoginīs, the yoginīs were given a sort of
―fuel/food‖ by which they would in return, endow the yoga practitioner with a certain power (siddhiḥ) as the
cakra ―opened.‖ Eventually all cakras could open giving various powers until the cakra in the skull ―opened‖ by
which the process was complete. In one system though the process was complete when the cakra at the tip of
tongue opened by which a saliva-like nectar fluid was produced and the practitioner swallowed/drank from it
(actually he was offering this liquid to kula-kuṇḍalinī as libation).
It is interesting to note that while the dāntián is sometimes equated with the manipūra cakra (see page
twenty-eight above), in regard to the way it is used in many Tàijí circles (in that it is believed to provide
immense martial power and physical strength) and qìgōng groups (there is a common belief it can create

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miraculous healing and can make one very healthy), it seems nearly identical to the svādhiṣṭhāna cakra in the
way that this cakra can cure illness, create great strength and be used martially.
This svādhiṣṭhāna cakra lies two angulas above the mūlādhāra cakra. If by doing prāṇāyāma abhyāsa
according to the krama and rules caitanya is attained in this cakra, then this will destroy all diseases.
There will be an astounding increase in good health. Any amount of physical work can be done without
any fatigue. Even enemies will admire and adore one who has caitanya in this cakra. Violence will run
away and hide from him. Even a tiger and cow will live in peaceful coexistence in his presence
(Krishnamacharya, 1934, p. 10).
As mentioned before, the dāntián was originally used as a medical concept in ancient China, how, why and when
it changed to become something so similar to the svādhiṣṭhāna cakra is unclear, nevertheless, the similarities
between them do suggest that the Daoists in-particular may have been externally influenced by an Indian source
from outside China. Much further investigation is required to deny or confirm this.
9.1.5 Brahmacharya
Brahmacharya or non-indulgence in sexual activity (or a form of it) was commonly practiced by those affiliated
with later Brahmanism (and Hinduism), Buddhism, yoga and some forms of Daoism. The Hindus follow/ed the
idea of brahmacharya (leading a life according to Brahman) which was the first of four age-based stages
(ashrama) of a human life; the student or brahmacārī spent twenty-five years with his teacher studying the Vedas.
The brahmacārīns were divided into two types, the upakurvaṇa and naiṣṭhika. The former meant those that
offered some return to the teacher. They were only celibate for a certain period of time. The naiṣṭhika on the
other hand remained celibate till their death (Sharma, 2004, p. 30). Hindus may have practiced this form of
celibacy so that young men focused on their studies and learnt self-control.
For Buddhists there was complete celibacy (abstinence of any sexual activity), which was most likely done for
renunciation purposes. Brahmacarya is traditionally regarded as one of the five yamas in yoga, as declared in
verse 2.30 of Pātañjalayogaśāstra. In verse 2.38 of Pātañjalayogaśāstra it states that the virtue of brahmacarya
leads to the profit of virility (vīrya). In later schools of yoga this profit of virility not only leads to good health
but also accumulates energy in the lower cakra/s which strengthens the ability to raise energy upwards. Just as qì
and prāṇa have identical meanings, it seems so does essence/sperm, jīng (精) and vīrya. Forms of celibacy were
also mentioned in both medical and certain Daoist texts within China. In the《黃帝內經》Huángdì Nèijīng it says:
《黄帝内經.上古天真論篇第一》故藏于精者，春不病温。
Therefore, [by] storing [the] essence/sperm [in winter], [in] spring [there is] no warm disease.
Sexual techniques are mentioned by both the ancient Chinese and ancient Indians. Similar sexual techniques are
found in both the Kāmasūtra and the Plain Girl Classic,《素女經》Su Nü Jing.
There were also groups in ancient India and China that did not follow celibacy but instead believed in using sex
to achieve certain goals such as health and longevity. The techniques used by these groups could be highly varied.
There does appear to be three core themes within these group‘s literature in both the Indian and certain
Daoist/Chinese traditions (not philosophical Daoism):
1) Semen reabsorption
2) Absorbing the sexual energy/essences of one‘s sexual partner
3) Restraint of ejaculation
Semen reabsorption:
According to Mallinson (2018, p. 183), the most important mudrā by implication was the vajrolīmudrā, which is,
―a method of drawing liquids up the urethra, which, through enabling bindudhāraṇa, the retention of semen, is
said to lead directly to Rāja Yoga.‖ One purpose of vajrolī could be described as follows:
It is an oblique dismissal of those who ―take upwards‖ (ūrdhvaṃ nayanti) “semen that is falling into/from
a woman‘s vagina‖ (yuvatibhagapatadbindum). The probable meaning is that these yogis are turning back
their semen as it begins to fall during sexual intercourse, i.e., they are preventing ejaculation (Mallinson,
2018, p. 187).
In ancient China there was a technique of semen reabsorption too. This technique was done to prevent
ejaculation and was debated quite heavily in ancient literature as some argued for it, while others argued against
it. This semen reabsorption technique was actually a retrograde ejaculation (probably unbeknown to the
practitioner) which was done by pressing the fingers on the perineum slightly before orgasm.

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The Dao of yin and yang is to treasure the semen. If one can cherish it, one‘s life may be preserved.
Whenever you ejaculate, you must absorb the woman‘s qì to supplement your own. The process of
―reestablishment by nine,‖ means practicing the inner breath nine times. ―Pressing the one,‖ refers to
applying pressure with the left hand beneath the private parts to return the jīng and restore the fluid.
―Absorbing the woman‘s qì” is accomplished by ―nine shallow and one deep‖ stroke. Position your
mouth opposite the enemy‘s mouth and exhale through the mouth (Wile, 1992, p. 104).
Absorbing the sexual energy of one‘s sexual partner:
Both the Chinese and Indian traditions also shared the idea of absorbing a partner‘s energy/essences for health
and other reasons. While in the Dattātreyayogaśāstra we see the goal of vajrolī to stop the loss of semen and
therefore death (Mallinson, 2018, p. 188), there is a later shift in the literature, where in the Sívasaṃhitā tradition,
the vajrolīmudrā becomes used in relation to absorbing their female partners sexual fluids (Mallinson, 2018, p.
190). Here we see parallels to the Chinese literature.
Over and over it is announced that if the going out of the male jīng to meet the female jīng (or blood in
some texts), is the normal course, then logically if this is reversed, and the woman plays the host, it is
man who rebirths himself as an immortal. The concrete process of absorbing the ―external medicine‖ and
raising one‘s own jīng to feed the higher centres in the brain is often analogised as ―reversing the flow of
the Yellow River‖ by means of a ―water wheel,‖ which pulls it up against the direction of the breath and
the normal flow of qì in the meridians (Wile, 1992, p. 35).
We see a similar idea used in the Sívasaṃhitā:
In its teachings on vajrolī (4.78–104) the Sívasaṃhitā praises the technique‘s usefulness in bringing about
bindusiddhi, mastery of semen, but its description of the practice starts with instructions for the yogi to
draw up a woman‘s rajas from her vagina through his penis ... Should his semen fall during the process,
he must draw that upwards too, and the mixing of the two substances within the yogi‘s body is the mixing
of Síva and Sákti (Mallinson, 2018, p. 190).
We also see a similar theme among these yogis, and certain Daoist sects in that women are rated second to men
and are sometimes seen as a kind of enemy (not in the literal sense).
Unlike other early texts which teach vajrolī, the Sívasaṃhitā does not say that it can be practised by
women. In keeping with its Love Magic heritage, however, the Sívasaṃhitā does say that the bindu of one
who has mastered vajrolī will not fall even if he enjoys himself with a hundred women (Mallinson, 2018,
p. 190).
In the early texts, the female partner is called ―woman‖ or ―enemy,‖ but by the last she has become
―other,‖ ―crucible,‖ or ―stove.‖ (Wile, 1992, p. 45).
Ejaculation control:
The ancient Chinese had various methods for ejaculation control, which included, mental imaging, breath control,
perineal compression, pubococcygeal contraction, teeth gnashing, abdominal techniques, along with other
practises, such as entering dead, withdrawing live, and changing partners when there is arousal (Wile, 1992, p.
47).
Mallinson (2020a) discusses the subject of sexual restraint in great detail. Here we find yogic techniques related
to ejaculation control. One technique which is identical to that taught orally in many Daoist sects (not related to
philosophical Daoism) is as follows:
Meanwhile, in most haṭha texts amarolī, the mudrā of the Amara lineage, is a method of mastering the
ejaculatory impulse for which the celibate yogi trains by restraining the flow of urine (Mallinson, 2020a,
p. 188).
Mallinson (2018, p. 204) does mention the vajrolī connection to tantric Buddhism but makes the point that much
more research is required to grasp the depth of these connections.
As I have noted above, vajrolī is likely to have at least some roots in tantric Buddhist traditions … Some
modern practitioners of Tibetan Buddhism claim that vajrolī has been used by Tibetan adepts to absorb
the combined products of sexual intercourse as part of an unbroken yogic tradition that is more than a
thousand years old (Mallinson, 2018, p. 204).
9.2 Haṭhayoga
Haṭhayoga appears at the end of the first millennium CE. A formalised system of it was taught in the thirteenth

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century CE in the Dattātreyayogaśāstra. Methods were drawn from tantric yoga and those of Pātañjala
(Mallinson & Singleton, 2017, p. xx).
The primary goal of haṭhayoga was (and still is for some schools) to send the energy (kuṇḍalinī or bindu or
prāṇa or hamsa depending on the tradition) up the central channel called suṣumṇā; in order to achieve liberation
or immortality. Haṭhayoga actually conveys two different models.

Figure 6. Two Models of Haṭhayoga

The first model is where bindu is returned to the head and also prevented from dripping its store within the head
(candra or moon). This is because in normal bodies, semen continually drips from its home in the skull, whereby
it is either ejaculated or burnt up in the digestive fire (or the sun), which ultimately leads to ageing and death.
The yogi can reverse this though by impelling bindu up the central channel and back into the head by the means
of various mudras, thereby attaining immortality for the practitioner. Other mudrās are used to inhibit the
dripping of this bindu. This model is evident in early haṭha texts such as the Amṛtasiddhi (Note 20) (Mallinson
& Singleton, 2017, p. 180). Even though the detailed workings of this model are not specifically mentioned, nor
explained in texts prior to the haṭha corpus, this model has a clear antecedent in the ancient ascetic tradition of
the ūrdhvaretāḥ tapasvī (the ascetics whose seed is turned upwards). This tradition is closely associated with the
practice of yoga in texts like Mahābhārata, where the loss of semen is prevented at all costs (Mallinson &
Singleton, 2017, p. 180). This could be why the headstand is the ―king of all āsanas.‖
Mallinson and Singleton (2017, p. 181) explain that in haṭhayoga texts from the Vivekamārtaṇḍa onwards, this
model is overlaid with the tantric kuṇḍalinī model of layayoga, complete with its associated cakra system/s
which are not usually found in the earliest bindu-orientated haṭhayoga texts. In this model kuṇḍalinī rises up the
central channel and upon reaching the store of amṛta (nectar of immortality) in the skull, floods the body with
this liquid making the practitioner immortal. There are though contradictory elements to these systems in regard
to the khecarīmudrā (tongue to pallet). In the bindu-orientated model, the khecarīmudrā is used to stop the
leaking of bindu, while in the kuṇḍalinī model it is done to help the body to be flooded with amṛta. The
haṭhayogapradīpikā for example incorporates both khecarī ideas (Mallinson & Singleton, 2017, p. 181).
The ancient Chinese had a somewhat similar model called the small heavenly cycle, xiǎo zhōu tiān (小周天),
also known as the microscopic orbit. In this model the khecarīmudrā, shé dǐ shàng è (舌抵上腭) is used to
connect the conception and governing vessels, rèn dū èr mài (任督二脈) which are very similar to idā and
piṅgala of haṭhayoga. As the khecarīmudrā is used to connect the cycle at the top, the anus is lifted upwards so
as to connect the cycle of energy on bottom, thereby creating an uninterrupted circuit of energy. See Chia (1993,
p. 159) for further details on the small heavenly cycle.

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A practice which has the elements of khecarīmudrā is described in three passages of the Pali Canon. In two of
the passages the technique is said to bring the mind under control and in the third it is said to suppress the
appetite (Mallison, 2007a, p. 17).
9.2.1 Purification, Food Intake and Body Postures
Purification of the body was important in many schools of yoga: The Six Kriyās are one such example. See
Krishnamacharya (1934, pp. 37-43) for further details.
Mitāhāra: Eating the correct foods was also paramount for most schools of yoga. Sattvic foods were eaten so
vāta, pitta, kapha (also known as the tridoṣa) were balanced and the body was not too heaty or too cool. See
Krishnamacharya (1934, p. 35) for what foods can be eaten and for what foods should be avoided. Overeating
was prohibited; āma (toxins) were seen as the root cause of all disease that came about through weak agní
(digestive fire). See Frawley, Ranade and Lele (2003, p. 25) for further details.
All early āsanas were sitting postures. The goal of āsana was to set up a yogi to be able to practice prāṇāyāma.
See Iyengar (1979) for further details on descriptions of various āsanas.
9.2.2 Breath Work
The primary goal of prāṇāyāma was to extent the in and out breath to be as long and slow as possible because
how long you lived was commonly not counted in years but instead by the number of breaths you took (hence
the emphasis on retentions).
The various forms of prāṇāyāma either aim to heal an illness or increase the length of the in and the out breath.
In many systems of prāṇāyāma breath control is accompanied by internal mantra repetition. While the Jains held
the breath, the Buddhists observed it, the early Daoist‘s breathed like babies or with the abdomen and the yogis
aimed to extend the breath.
9.2.3 The Yoga Body
The yoga body is something very different to the biomedical body. It includes; vāyus (five different winds), see
Krishnamacharya (1934, pp. 43-44) for further details; cakras (wheels); padmas (lotuses); bindu (seminal
essence or sperm); kuṇḍalinī (she who is coiled); nāḍīs (a network of channels); suṣumṇā (central channel); idā
(flanks and/or circles the central channel and is lunar); piṅgala (flanks and/or circles the central channel and is
solar); kanda (bulb below the navel where 72,000 nāḍīs cross) and prāṇa (energy). The yogic body was not
exclusively used in India as we also see it used in Tibet Buddhism. See Yeshe (2015) and Gangchen (2010) for
further details on the use of the yogic body in Tibetan Buddhism.
9.2.4 Yogic Seals
Yogic seals or mudrās manipulate the breath or vital energies, see Krishnamacharya (1934, pp. 45-49) for twenty
different mudrās. The earliest mention of mudrās is in the thirteenth century CE in the Dattātreyayogaśāstra
(Mallinson & Singleton, 2017, p. 228). The primary function of these mudrās is the make the energy enter and
rise up suṣumṇā and to control bindu (semen). The idea of mudrās have been used since very ancient times,
Buddha may have tried the khecarīmudrā. The śramaṇa of Buddhas time would hang upside down in the bat
pose in a manner of an inverted seal. Jain ascetics meditated by squatting to put pressure on the perennial region
and thereby seal it (Mallinson & Singleton, 2017, p. 230). The most important mudrā in yoga is the mahāmudrā
which combines the three primary bhandas and is the main method used to send energy up the central channel.
The importance of the mahāmudrā has been stated time and time again throughout yogic literature.
In the Gheraṇḍasaṁhitā (chapter three) is says:
By mastering mahāmudrā the yogi can get rid of all disease (Mallinson, 2004, p. 61).
In the Śivasaṃhitā (chapter four) it says:
In this tantra I shall teach you the mahāmudrā, which is dear to me. In the past, adepts like Kapila have
attained complete perfection after receiving it … Stretch out the right foot and hold it with both hands.
Block the nine doors, put the chin on the chest. Place the mind in the way of the mind and start holding
the breath. This is mahāmudrā. It is kept secret in all the tantras (Mallinson, 2007b, p. 78).
In the Goraksha Śataka (1.57) it says:
Placing the chin on the chest, constantly pressing the left heel against the perineum and holding the
extended right foot with the hands, the yogi should, after inhaling and holding the air full in the chest,
exhale slowly. It (mahāmudrā) is said this is an extremely great mudrā, the destroyer of all human
diseases (Swami Vishnuswaroop, 2017, p. 25).

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Versions of the primary yogic bhandas are also used in the Tàijíquán.
王宗岳《太極拳論》虛領頂勁。
In the Tàiíiquán lùn is says: Empty (relax) [the] neck [and have] strength (lift up) [in the] crown of the
head.
Similar to jālandhara bandha.
武禹襄《身法八要》含胸拔背。
In the Shēnfǎ Bāyào it says: Contain [the] chest [and] draw out [the] back.
This is somewhat similar in practice to uḍḍdiyana bandha in the way the stomach and chest come inwards to
press the thoracic vertebrae outwards.
王宗岳《十三势歌》尾闾中正。
In the Shísān Shìgē it says: Straighten [the] tail bone (which in turn causes the anus to raise upwards).
It is similar to mūla bandha when practised.
The term mahāmudrā is not exclusive to yoga. In Tibetan Buddhism the mahāmudrā is a type of meditation used
in the Kagyü school of Buddhism (it has distinct yoga influences to it).
The Great Brahman has said:
Beings are polluted by seeking meditation.
There is nothing at all on which to meditate.
A single instant of being without yearning.
That is the meditation of the mahāmudrā.
(The Bright Torch by Tselé Natsok Rangdröl) (Roberts, 2014, p. 167)
The preliminaries and explanation for this form of meditation according to Drukchen Pema Karpo (1527-1592
CE) in A Record of Mah̄amudr̄ a Instructions are as follows:
1) Sit with your legs in vajra posture
2) Arrange the hands in the meditation mudrā below the navel
3) Straighten the spine
4) Broaden the shoulders
5) Bend the throat like a hook, with the chin just pressing on the Adam‘s apple
6) Place the tongue against the upper palate
7) Your mind is changed by your senses and in particular your eyes, therefore, gaze a yoke‘s distance in
front of you, without closing or moving your eyes (Roberts, 2014, p. 105).
The crossed legs cause the downward-expelling wind to enter into the central channel. The meditation
mudrā causes fire-like wind to the enter the central channel. The straight spine and straight abdomen
cause the pervading wind to enter the central channel. The bent throat causes the upward-moving wind to
enter the central channel. The tongue against the pallet and the gaze cause the prāṇa to enter the central
channel. As a result, the five winds enter the central channel, every karmic wind enters the central channel
and non-conceptual wisdom arises. This is called the solitude of the body, the unmoving body and the
naturally arising body. Expelling the stale breath and remaining silent is called the solitude of speech, the
unmoving speech and the naturally resting speech. Do not contemplate the past. Do not think about the
future. Do not meditate by deliberate action of the intellect. Do not view ―emptiness‖ as nonexistence. Do
not examine or analyse whatever appears in the present as the objects of the five senses using thoughts
such as ―is‖ or ―isn‘t‖ but look inward. Be loose like a baby, letting the mind rest naturally, without an
instants distraction (Roberts, 2014, p. 106).
See Roberts (2014, pp. 107-123) for a full description of the main practice.
9.2.5 Samādhi
In the Pātañjalayogaśāstra samādhi is the final meditation stage. In Vedānta influenced texts samādhi is
commonly defined as the merging of the individual with the supreme self (Mallinson & Singleton, 2017, pp.
321-323).

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9.2.6 Yogic Powers

While the goal of yoga was commonly that of liberation, in many other cases the goal was to gain some form of
super human power, such as the ability to fly. See Mallinson and Singleton (2017, pp. 359-366) for further
details. See Krishnamacharya (1934, pp. 10-13) in regard to the powers gained by opening certain cakras.
This tradition of obtaining unique abilities from meditation is also a part of Buddhism. There are certain
Buddhist texts (even though rare) that provide detailed instructions on how to obtain super human powers and
abilities. One of these texts is the Visuddhimagga (The Path of Purification) written by Buddhaghosa. See
Bhikkhu Ñāṇamoli (2010) for an English translation of the text. Central to this text is kasiṇa. See Clough (2011,
pp. 77-95) for more on kasiṇa and super powers obtained from Buddhist meditation.
This idea of developing ―powers‖ have been a part of Tibetan culture at least since the late Song and early Yuan
dynasties. We know this not only from the story of Jetsun Milarepa but also from Marco Polo. In book one,
chapter sixty-one, Marco Polo says:
If it should happen to be bad weather, there are certain crafty enchanters who are adepts in necromancy
and the diabolic arts, they are able to prevent any cloud or storm from passing over the spot on which the
Emperor‘s Palace stands. The sorcerers who do this are called Tibet and Kashmir, which are the names of
two nations of Idolaters.
He also mentions in the same chapter how they ―can cause the cups to move from their place without being
touched by anyone.‖
9.3 Liberation
The ultimate goal of yoga was liberation: Mukti or mokṣa (liberation) or kaivalya (isolation). According to the
Pātañjalayogaśāstra kaivalya or isolation means the isolation of the puruṣa (spiritual principle) of Sāṅkhya (that
which sees) from prakṛti (material principle) and its three guṇas (constituent qualities) by viveka (means of
discrimination). The results of the flow of discerning cognition is omniscience (Mallinson & Singleton, 2017, p.
397). The Indian traditions sought liberation in different ways; the Jains achieved liberation through austerity
(tapas); the Buddhist achieved it through meditation; the yogis achieved it through āsanas, mudrās and
prāṇāyāma; the tantric practitioners achieved it through mantra and visualisation; the early Brahmans achieved it
through ritual. The early Daoist‘s on the other hand, appear to have aimed instead for longevity which was
achieved primarily through non-action in daily living and various other techniques centred on protecting and
nourishing the vital energies within the abdomen.
9.4 Buddhism and the Yoga of the Pātañjalayogaśāstra Share a Similar Framework
As previously mentioned, the Yogācāra textual corpus was considerably more extensive than that of the
Pātañjala tradition. It also clearly influenced the text of the Pātañjalayogaśāstra. All words below are in
Sanskrit, so the reader can see the correlation.
In the Pātañjalayogaśāstra, it is commonly taught:
Symptom: Heyaṁ - duḥkham (chapter two, verse sixteen)
Cause: Hetuḥ - avidyā (chapter two, verse twenty-four)
Goal: Hānam - kaivalyam (chapter two, verse twenty-five)
Method: Upāyam - viveka (or aṣṭāṅga; eight-limbs) (chapter two, verse twenty-six).
In Buddhism it is taught:
Symptom: Duḥkham
Cause: Avidyā (first of the Twelve Links).
Goal: Nirvāṇa
Method: Āryāṣṭāṅgamārga (the Middle Way or Noble Eightfold Path).
Parallels between Buddhism and later Brahmanism can also be found in the Kaṭhopaniṣad. This text has caused
must debate in the scholarly community of whether it came before or after Buddhism. One of the most famous
verses is found below:
Know that the ātman is the rider in the chariot,
and the body is the chariot,
Know that the buddhi (intelligence, ability to reason) is the charioteer,

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and manas (mind) is the reins.

The senses are called the horses,
the objects of the senses are their paths,
Formed out of the union of the ātman, the senses and the mind,
him they call the ―enjoyer.‖
Kaṭhopaniṣad (1.3.3-1.3.4) (Deussen, 1980, p. 287)
9.5 Commonalities Between the Vajrayāna Buddhist and Nāth Śaiva Traditions
For quite some time it has been noted by scholars that both Vajrayāna Buddhism and Nāth Śaiva traditions share
much in common. How and why this is the case has been in debate for some time, especially in regard to which
tradition came first; that is to say, who influenced who first. In an article by Mallinson (2019) entitled,
Kālavañcana in the Konkan: How a Vajrayāna Hạthayoga Tradition Cheated Buddhism’s Death in India, much
of the older work and more recent studies on the subject has been amalgamated and analysed in detail. The
following key points were made (Mallinson, 2019, p. 2):
1) The Amṛtasiddhi was the first text to teach hạthayoga’s unique practices. It was composed in a Vajrayāna
environment.
2) The Amṛtasiddhi was directly drawn upon in the creation and development of several later hȧtha texts, none
of which were Buddhist and the earliest of which was most likely the Nāth Śaiva Amaraughaprabodha.
3) It is likely that Konkan and in particular the Kadri monastery (Mangalore) was most probably the place
where the Amaraughaprabodha was composed, and that the composition of the text was due to
appropriation from Vajrayāna Buddhists by the Nāths in regard not only to practice/terminology, but also to
the Kadri monastery itself.
4) Evidence suggests that the overall Kadri Vajrayāna Buddhist tradition was absorbed into Nāths tradition
and was not destroyed, nor was it expelled.
9.6 Yoga Meditation Techniques
Meditation techniques in yoga are incredibly varied, the four below are a little more common than others. There
are three stages (see Mallinson & Singleton, 2017, pp. 283-291 for in depth details): Pratyāhāra (withdrawal),
which is closely related to prāṇāyāma. Dhāraṇā (fixation), which means fixing or locking the mind on one
single point, examples include; a cakra, the tip of nose or the tip of tongue. For tantric practitioners fixation
sometimes meant the sequential visualisation of elements. Dhyāna (meditation), which means Buddhist-like
meditation as it may have been taken from the Buddhists and other similar groups and then incorporated as a
practice (Mallinson & Singleton, 2017, p. 288). Four common yoga meditation techniques are as follows:
1) Prāṇāyāma is mentioned as one of the two types of dhyāna in the Mokṣadharma and Mahābhārata (Mallison
& Singleton, 2017, p. 127). For more on prāṇāyāma see Iyengar (2015).
2) Prāṇāyāma with internal mantra repetition.
3) Meditation using various prāṇāyāma techniques and seals so as to send the energy up the central channel. See
Maehle (2014) for further details.
4) Meditation through āsana, for example śavāsana. See Mehta, Mehta, and Mehta (1990, pp. 150-151) for
further details.
10. Conclusion
The common thread which links these four systems together is the idea of non-action. The idea of non-action
among the four schools does vary quite considerably, it is as follows:
1) Buddhism: Non-action of the body (such as renunciation), non-action of the mind to the senses and
meditation or the emptying of the mind so as to abide in the awareness of it.
2) Daoism: A non-action of action, which means living naturally in the way nature intended one to, with as little
interference as possible.
3) Later Brahmanism and yoga: A complete non-action of the mind (or mental fluctuations).
The idea of a self/soul or a no-self has been of significant debate among the different philosophical systems:
1) Later Brahmanism: There is a life principle that is one in the same with the universal principle.

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2) Jainism: There is a life principle (jīva) that is individual and not part of the universal principle.
3) Theravāda Buddhism: There is the idea of no-self.
4) Mahāyāna Buddhism: Buddha-nature is emptiness, which is the absence of an independent and substantial
self.
5) Yoga: There is the concept of the spiritual principle and its separation or isolation.
6) Philosophical Daoism: The early Daoists may have believed in a self and that one should lessen the idea of
a self and reduce desires (see Dàodéjīng, chapter nineteen).
All of the Indian traditions had the same goal which was some form of liberation. It seems that most early
Daoists did not seek liberation but instead aimed for longevity. Each system used different methods to attain their
goals. Even though the main goal of the Indian philosophies was that of liberation, their ideas of liberation
varied.
1) Buddhism called liberation nibbāna (blow out or extinguish) which meant liberation from the cycles of
rebirth. They achieved this through the Noble Eightfold path and focused primarily on seated meditation.
2) It appears that many Daoists aimed to achieve longevity through natural living and by storing and cultivating
the energies within the abdomen.
3) Those associated with later Brahmanism aimed to unite their soul with the universal soul whereby mokṣa
(liberation) was achieved. This may have originally been done through extreme ritual purity and recitation
but was later achieved through the means of different forms of yoga.
4) The yogis also aimed for liberation which they sometimes call kaivalya. According to the
Pātañjalayogaśāstra, kaivalya (isolation), means isolation of puruṣa (spiritual principle) of Sāṅkhya (that
which sees) from prakṛti (material principle) and its three guṇas (constituent qualities) by viveka (means of
discrimination). This was usually achieved via aṣṭāṅgayoga. The haṭhayoga practitioners in particular
focused primarily on bringing energy from the base of the spine to the top of the head and sometimes aimed
for immortality (like some Daoists) or other superhuman powers.
One common factor among the four schools was that of using breathing techniques:
1) The Buddhists generally observed the breath.
2) The early Daoists may have breathed naturally like an infant or focused on the breath in the abdomen.
3) Those associated with later Brahmanism along with the Jains aimed for the cessation of the breath
completely.
4) The yogis primarily aimed to extend the breath.
Another important comparison made in this paper is the sending of energy or other ―substances‖ up or down.
1) The Theravādan Buddhists did not do anything in this regard. The Tibetan Buddhists sometimes sent their
energy upwards. The Chinese Buddhists sometimes followed certain Daoists and sent their energy
downwards.
2) Those associated with later Brahmanism tried to send their soul/energy up and out.
3) The yogis tried to push their bindu or kuṇḍalinī up to the head.
4) Many Daoists tried to send their qí downwards and into the abdomen.
In conclusion it appears that each of these systems is unique and had (or still has) its own methods of cultivation
and ideas of liberation. It seems fair to argue that even though these systems are different from each other, some
of them integrated particular ideas or theories from a different system other than their own. It is interesting that
even though these philosophies are unique in their own way, they may actually have a common origin, in that
they all follow some form of non-action, which was an idea that seems to have started in the area of the Greater
Magadha.
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Notes
Note 1. In this paper the term ―later Brahmanism‖ is frequently used. By later Brahmanism, the author is
referring to the Brahmanism that emerged out of the breakdown period of the Vedic period.
Note 2. The Three Marks of Existence include: Impermanence (this refers especially to the contemplation of the
impermanence of the body), no-self (contemplation on how you are not the Five Aggregates) and suffering
(contemplating the Four Noble Truths).
Note 3. See appendix 1. Fig. 7. The Mahāsatipaṭṭhāna Sutta (The Great Discourse of the Foundations of
Mindfulness) theory for further details.
Note 4. The direct translation of nibbāna is to ―blow out.‖
Note 5. See appendix 1. Fig. 7. The Mahāsatipaṭṭhāna Sutta (The Great Discourse of the Foundations of
Mindfulness) theory for further details.
Note 6. The direct translation of saṃsāra is ―wandering.‖
Note 7. See appendix 2. Fig. 8. Saṃsāra for further details.
Note 8. See appendix 3. Fig. 9. The Noble Eightfold Path for further details.
Note 9. The Three Unwholesome Roots include: Confusion/delusion (moha), sensual attachment (ragā) and
aversion (dosa). The Three Wholesome Roots are: Wisdom (paññā), generosity (dāna) and loving-kindness
(mettā).

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Note 10. For the most practical aspects of Theravādin Buddhism in regard to its philosophy and cultivation
methods, see Ajahn Chah (2002).
Note 11. It is important to note that the earliest detailed book of Chinese medicine, The Yellow Emperor’s Inner
Classic《黃帝內經》Huángdì Nèijīng arrives quite abruptly and suddenly on the scene within China, with detailed
medical knowledge and theories. Up till now, there have been no texts that come before The Yellow Emperor’s
Inner Classic to portray a chronological development of medical knowledge and theories that are presented
within this ancient text. Combine with the fact that this text most likely appeared after the arrival of Buddhism,
surely warrants some serious investigation and research into why this is the case. Especially considering how
more advanced India‘s medical systems were compared to China‘s ones.
Note 12. In regard to evidence of these two waves of migration, see Burrows (1973, pp. 123-140).
Note 13. Another key piece of evidence commonly cited is that of the four names of gods appearing in the
Hittite-Mitanni treaty, where the Vedic gods Mitrá (possibly a kind of solar deity, known in Avestan as Mithra
and has a strong connection to ṛta), Váruṇa (a sky-god, also connected with ṛta), Indra (god of storms, lightning
and thunder) and the Nā́ satyā (another name for the Aśvin; Avestan: aspā) can be clearly recognized (Burrows
1973, p. 123). These four gods have a strong relationship to the early proto-Indo-European gods (see page
thirty-five above). It does appear that Buddhism also has its own evolution of these gods: Váruṇa (no change to
the name), Maitreya and Śakra. One may note that among these Mitanni texts we also find the use of the word
ṛta, where some royal Mitanni names contained it (Anthony, 2007, p. 49).
Note 14. One of the earliest in depth mentions (ca. 186 BCE) of dàoyǐn type practises in China is in the《引書》
Yǐnshū.
Note 15. These ancient texts include but are not limited to:《黃帝內經.靈樞經.官能》Huángdì Nèijīng, Língshū
Jīng, Guānnéng.《黃帝內經.靈樞經.病傳》Huángdì Nèijīng, Língshū Jīng, Bìng Chuán.《黃帝內經.素聞.奇病
論》Huángdì Nèijīng, Sùwén, Qíbìng Lùn.《史記.列傳.龜策列傳》Shǐjì, Lièzhuàn, Guīcè Lièzhuàn.《申鑒.俗
嫌》Shēnjiàn, Sú Xián.
Note 16. One may note here that the early Chinese ideas of qì are identical to the Indian ideas of prāṇa. Not only
in regard to medical ideas but also in breathing practices.
Note 17. While some ancient Daoist authors wrote much about their health cultivation, yǎngshēng (養生)
techniques and how they themselves lived a long life, there is no external evidence, modern or old, to suggest
they lived long lives. Interestingly though, yoga has had various forms of external evidence, modern and old, to
suggest its practitioners lived very long lives. For example, in the book of Marco Polo, chapter thirty-one, on the
province of Kashmir, Marco Polo says, ―there are in this country eremites, who dwell in seclusion and practise
great abstinence in eating and drinking. They observe strict chastity and keep from all sins forbidden in their law,
so they are regarded by their own folk as very holy persons. They live to a very great age.‖
Note 18. Students of Chinese Medicine would have heard of an acupuncture point called the sea of qì, qìhǎi (氣
海), which is one and half inches below the navel on/in the abdomen. The author spent many years trying to the
find the origin of this name and why this area of the body was so important. The most logical answer comes
from ancient India: ―Twelve digits above the anus and the genital organs and just below the navel, there is an
egg-shaped bulb called the kanda (or kandasthana). From it seventy-two thousand nāḍīs are said to spread
throughout the body, each branching off into another seventy-two thousand.‖ (Iyengar, 2015, p. 32).
Note 19. This shift from early to later Brahmanism is especially important as it provides powerful evidence into
the origins of Old Indic (the language of the Ṛgveda), how early Brahmanism was significantly different to
Buddhism (conveying that Buddhism was not a branch or further development of Brahmanism), and how the
ideas contained within the Ṛgveda were originally superimposed on an indigenous people. Anthony (2007, p. 49)
states that while most Vedic experts agree that the 1028 hymns of the Ṛgveda were compiled in Punjab
(northwestern India) and modern-day Pakistan (1500-1300 BCE), it is the deities, moral concepts and the Old
Indic language of the Ṛgveda that first appear in written texts in northern Syria.
Note 20. Actually, it is the c. 11th-century Amṛtasiddhi, which is the first text to teach any of the unique
haṭhayoga practices and concepts (Mallinson, 2019, p. 2). It is also interesting to note that this text was
composed in a Vajrayāna Buddhist environment which points toward a strong link between Vajrayāna Buddhists
and Nāth yogis (to which haṭhayoga is especially associated with) due in part to both schools having a tradition
of eight-four siddhas (Mallinson, 2020b, p. 421).

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Appendix 1

Figure 7. Mahāsatipaṭṭhāna Sutta (The Great Discourse of the Foundations of Mindfulness) Theory

Figure seven above is one potential model of the Mahāsatipaṭṭhāna Sutta (The Great Discourse of the
Foundations of Mindfulness) theory which includes the entire Buddhist path in regard to becoming an arahant.
The Mahāsatipaṭṭhāna Sutta (The Great Discourse of the Foundations of Mindfulness) discusses the Four Noble
Truths. It says that suffering is equivalent to and caused by the Five Aggregates of Grasping (form, feelings,
perceptions, mental formations and consciousness). The origin of suffering is craving, which has been created by
seeking pleasure of the six senses and six spheres (eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, mind; visible forms, sound,
odours, flavours, touch and mental objects) which are the input mechanisms that create the Five Aggregates. As
craving is the origin of suffering, it must be overcome by its complete extinction and fading away by abiding in
detachment, abandoning the senses and not grasping at anything in the world. The method to do this is called the
Noble Eightfold Path. The first six steps of the path create the basis for a practitioner to practise mindfulness,
which is the foundation to do samādhi and thereby enter jhāna and become an arahant or at least a non-returner
(anāgāmi). This is said to take seven years but can happen much faster.

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Appendix 2

Figure 8. Saṃsāra

Figure eight above provides a model of the Buddhist idea of saṃsāra. Saṃsāra specifically refers to the endless
cycles of rebirth. These endless cycles begin with the Three Poisons and Three Unwholesome Roots which are
the root causes of the afflictions or unwholesome states of mind which result in (bad) karma by which through
dependent origination and the Twelve Links one is reborn into one of the Six Realms. The afflictions are
overcome by the Noble Eightfold Path and bad karma is counteracted by the Three Wholesome Roots to produce
good karma, and therefore a favourable rebirth in a higher realm.

Appendix 3

Figure 9. The Noble Eightfold Path

Figure nine above, describes some of the core teachings of Buddha, known collectively as the Noble Eightfold
Path or Middle Way. The practice of moral virtue means, the cultivation of being virtuous, upright in character,
ethical and moralistic. It includes; right speech (no lying, no divisive speech, no abusive speech, no idle chatter);
right action (no killing, no stealing, no sexual misconduct); right livelihood (no business in weapons, poisons,
alcohol, meat or slavery); right effort (cultivating and maintaining wholesome states of mind, and to undermine
and avoid the unwholesome states); and right resolve (renunciation of the self or ego, no ill-will or ill intent and
harmlessness).
Wisdom is also extremely important on the path to becoming an arahant, as ignorance is the first link of the
Twelve Links. According to the Mahāsatipaṭṭhāna Sutta (The Great Discourse of the Foundations of

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Mindfulness), right view refers to the understanding of the Four Noble Truths and wisdom gained from them.
Right mindfulness means to maintain awareness of either the breath, body, feelings, mind or dhammas at all
times. Right samādhi refers to deep meditation. When this state is achieved one can now begin to enter into
jhāna. It is only through deep and deeper jhāna (there are four stages) that one is able to attain nibbāna and to
become an arahant.

Appendix 4.《胎息經》Tāixījīng
胎從伏气中结，气從有胎中息。
[The] embryo comes [from the] accumulation [of] concealed qì, [the] qì comes [from] having breathed [at the]
embryo.
氣入身來谓之生，神去离形謂之死。
Qì enters [the] body, [this is] called life, [the] spirit leaves [the] form, [this is] called death.
知神氣可以長生。
Know [the] spirit qì, [and you] can live long.
固守虛無，以養神氣。
[Be] entrenched [in the] void [of] emptiness, so [you will] nourish [your] spirit qì.
神行即气行，神住即氣住。
[The] spirit moves, so [the] qì moves, [the] spirit stays, so [the] qì stays.
若欲長生，神气相注。
If [you] desire [to] live long, [the] spirit [and] qì [should] mutually join.
心不动念，無來無去。
[The] heart [does] not stir thoughts, not coming, [and] not going.
不出不入，自然常住.
Not out [and] not in, [it will] naturally dwell.
勤，而行之，是真道路。
[To] diligently do [this,] is [the] true road [of the] Dao.

Appendix 5. Tàishàng Lǎojūn Zhōngjīng

《太上老君中經.卷上》丹田者，人之根也，精神之所藏也，五黑之元也，赤子之府，男子以藏精，女子
以藏月水。主生子，合和陰陽之門戶也。在臍下三寸，附著脊膂，兩腎根也。丹田之中，中赤，左青，
右黃，上白，下黑，方圓四寸之中。所以在臍下三寸者，言法天地人。天一，地二，人三，時四，故曰
四寸。法五行，故有五色。清水鄉，敖丘里。丹田名藏精宮，神姓孔，名丘，字仲尼，傳之為師也。兆
常以夜半存心之，赤黑上行至絳宮，華蓋，各右繞之。太一入黃庭，滿太倉，養赤子，復入太淵，忽忽
不知所在。復念太一，黑還入丹田中止。常念太一玄光道母養真人子丹，正吾身也，自兆名也，勿忘之。
[The] dāntián [is] the root [of a] person. [It] stores [the] vitality (jīngshén) … [It is where a] male stores [his]
sperm, [where a] female stores [her] menstrual fluid … [It is] three inches below [the] navel … [The] root [of]
both [the] kidneys … [In the] middle [it is] red, left green, right yellow, white [on] top, black underneath, [all in]
the middle [of the] perimeter [of] four inches. [The] so [called] three inches below [the] navel [is] speaking
[about the] model [of the] sky, earth and man. Sky [is] one, earth [is] two, man [is] three, [and the] four periods
(seasons) [are four], therefore, [it is] called four inches. Modelling [itself on the] Five Movements, therefore [it]
has five colours … The dāntián [is] named, [the] palace of storing [the] essence (sperm) …

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