● Question 1
(a) Briefly discuss the following concepts in Data Communication Network:
Switch: A network device that connects devices in a LAN, forwarding data to specific devices
using MAC addresses.
Router: A device that connects different networks and determines the best path for data
packets based on IP addresses.
Gateway: A network node that acts as an access point to another network, often translating
protocols.
CSMA/CD: Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection, a protocol that detects
collisions in Ethernet networks and resolves them by retransmitting data after random
delays.
(b) Network Classifications:
LAN (Local Area Network): A small network, typically confined to a single building (e.g.,
home or office).
MAN (Metropolitan Area Network): A larger network that spans a city or campus.
WAN (Wide Area Network): A network that covers a large geographical area, such as the
internet.
● Question 2
(a) The seven layers of the OSI model are:
1. Physical Layer: This layer is responsible for the physical transmission of data over a
communication channel. It defines the electrical, mechanical, and procedural
characteristics of the physical medium.
○ Protocols: Ethernet, RS-232
2. Data Link Layer: This layer provides error-free transmission of data frames over a
single link. It handles framing, addressing, and error detection.
○ Protocols: Ethernet, Wi-Fi
3. Network Layer: This layer is responsible for routing data packets across multiple
networks. It handles logical addressing and routing.
○ Protocols: IP, ICMP
4. Transport Layer: This layer provides reliable end-to-end delivery of data between
applications. It handles segmentation, flow control, and error recovery.
○ Protocols: TCP, UDP
5. Session Layer: This layer establishes, manages, and terminates sessions between
applications. It handles dialog control and synchronization.
○ Protocols: NetBIOS, SAP
6. Presentation Layer: This layer is responsible for data formatting and encryption. It
ensures that data is presented in a way that can be understood by both applications.
○ Protocols: SSL, TLS
7. Application Layer: This layer is the interface between the user and the network. It
provides network services to applications.
○ Protocols: HTTP, FTP
Key points to remember about the OSI model:
● It is a conceptual framework, not a physical implementation.
● Each layer is independent of the others, but they work together to provide network
communication.
● The model helps to standardize network protocols and devices, making it easier for
them to interoperate.
(b) Network Topologies:
Star: Central hub (Adv: Easy troubleshooting, Disadv: Single point of failure).
Bus: Shared backbone (Adv: Cost-efficient, Disadv: Collision-prone).
Ring: Devices connected in a loop (Adv: No collisions, Disadv: Break disrupts network).
Mesh: Every device connects to others (Adv: Redundant paths, Disadv: Expensive).
● Question 3
(a) ARP: Resolves IP addresses to MAC addresses in a network. (b) Unicast, Multicast,
Broadcast:
Unicast: One-to-one communication.
Multicast: One-to-many communication.
Broadcast: One-to-all communication within a network. (c) STP and Root Bridge: STP
prevents loops; root bridge is elected based on the lowest bridge ID. Port roles: Root,
Designated, Blocking. (d) Port States and Transitions: Listening, Learning, Forwarding,
Blocking, Disabled.
● Question 4
(a) IP Classes:
Class A: 0.0.0.0–127.255.255.255
Class B: 128.0.0.0–191.255.255.255
Class C: 192.0.0.0–223.255.255.255
Class D (Multicast): 224.0.0.0–239.255.255.255
Class E (Experimental): 240.0.0.0–255.255.255.255
(b) IP Address Calculations:
For 192.168.1.0/24, the network address is 192.168.1.0, broadcast is 192.168.1.255, and
there are 254 usable IPs. Repeat similarly for other cases.
● Question 5
(a) Switch Frame Processing:
Flooding: Sends to all ports except the source.
Forwarding: Sends to a specific destination port.
Discarding: Drops frames for specific reasons (e.g., errors).
(b) STP vs RSTP vs MSTP:
STP: Prevents loops; slower convergence.
RSTP: Faster convergence.
MSTP: Supports multiple spanning trees.
(c) Encapsulation/Decapsulation: Wraps data in headers as it moves down the OSI layers;
removes headers moving up.
● Question 6
(a) Layer 2 vs Layer 3 Switches:
Layer 2: Operates using MAC addresses.
Layer 3: Operates using IP addresses (routing).
(b) Problems of Layer 2 Loops: Broadcast storms, MAC address table instability, and
duplicated frames.
(c) Routing Tie-Breakers: Preference of lower administrative distance, shortest metric, or
highest IP.
● Question 7
(a) Versatile Routing Platform (VRP): Provides routing, switching, and security features.
(b) Web System vs CLI:
Web: Graphical interface for configuration.
CLI: Command-line-based configuration.
● Question 8
(a) Why IP Addresses Are Needed: Unique identification of devices for communication.
(b) IP Address Types:
Public: Globally routable (e.g., 8.8.8.8).
Private: Internal networks (e.g., 192.168.0.0).
Special: Loopback, broadcast, etc.
● Question 9
(a) Routing Table: Lists network destinations, metrics, and next-hop addresses.
(b) Routing Methods: Static, Dynamic (e.g., OSPF), and Default routing.
● Question 10
(a) VLAN: Virtual LAN segments a network to improve security and efficiency.
(b) Interface-Based vs MAC-Based VLAN:
Interface: Assigns VLAN based on port.
MAC: Assigns VLAN based on MAC address.
(c) VLAN Frame Processing: Access ports handle untagged frames; trunk ports handle
tagged frames.
● Question 11
(a) Routing Tie-Breakers: As explained in Q6(c).
(b) Data Transfer Process: As explained in Q5(c).
(c) TCP vs UDP:
TCP: Reliable, connection-oriented, slower.
UDP: Unreliable, connectionless, faster.
● Question 12
(a) VRP Commands: Examples include setting hostname, clock, IP, and more.
(b) AAA and RADIUS: Provides authentication, authorization, and accounting in network
management.
