Functional English

(Course Code ENG- 321)

1. Foundation of Functional English

 Vocabulary Building (Contextual usage, Synonyms, Antonyms and IdiomaticExpressions)

 Communicative Grammar (Subject-verb agreement, verb tenses, fragments, run-ons,
modifiers, articles, word classes)
 Word Formation (Affixation, Compounding, Clipping, Back Formation)
 Sentence Structure (Simple, Compound, Complex, and Compound Complex

 Vocabulary Building (Contextual usage, Synonyms, Antonyms and Idiomatic

Expressions)
INTRODUCTION TO VOCABULARY
Vocabulary forms an integral part of the process of reading and readers’ comprehension. It refers to the
words needed for communicating effectively. It implies receptive vocabulary and expressive vocabulary.
Receptive vocabulary refers to the words that we hear and read while expressive vocabulary implies the words
that we speak and write. It is rightly said that without vocabulary, it is not possible to convey anything.
 VOCABULARY DEFINITION
Vocabulary is denoted as “the group and collection of words that are known and used by a particular
person”. It can also be defined as “a list or collection of words or phrases that are normally alphabetically
arranged and defined or explained”. Vocabulary is also commonly called word-stock, lexis, and lexicon.
 IMPORTANCE OF VOCABULARY
Vocabulary is an essential part of anyone’s life and the following points describe the importance of vocabulary.
1. Vocabulary is critical for communication and expression.
2. Vocabulary forms the basis of reading comprehension.
3. Linguistic vocabulary and thinking vocabulary work parallel.
4. Vocabulary also forms a basis for judgment many times.
5. For conveying anything, vocabulary is important.
 WHAT IS VOCABULARY IN ENGLISH?
The answer to 'what is vocabulary in English?' is all the words that form a language to be understood by a
specific person or maybe a group of people. Vocabulary in English can be categorized into two types, namely-
active and passive. The words that we use and understand in day-to-day language are termed as active
vocabulary while the ones which we know but use rarely are said to be passive vocabulary.
 THREE TIERS OF VOCABULARY
Vocabulary is described with the following three tiers:
i. Basic Vocabulary
The basic words form the first tier of vocabulary. These words normally have a single meaning and do
not require instruction. Early reading words, sight words, adjectives, verbs, nouns, etc are portrayed in this
tier. 8000-word families in English comprise this tier.
ii. High-frequency Vocabulary
It is also called the multiple meaning vocabulary tiers, this tier comprises words used in a variety of
domains, adult communication, literature, etc. It influences reading and speaking. 7000-word families
comprise this tier. The characteristics for tier two words are as follows:
 It has multiple meanings.  Descriptive vocabulary.
 Vital for reading comprehension.  A diverse environment uses these words.
 Typical mature language.  Used for direct instruction.
 iii. Low-frequency Vocabulary
The words that are used only when specifically required or in a particular domain like weather,
technology, geographical region, occupation, hobbies, school, etc. comprise this tier. About four lakh words in
vocabulary in English comprise this tier.
TYPES OF VOCABULARY
The types of vocabulary can be categorized based on spoken and written vocabulary. Children start
vocabulary-building through listening and speaking even before writing and reading. Every type of vocabulary
has a different aim and purpose. However, the development of one type of vocabulary facilitates another. The
types of vocabulary are discussed below briefly.
1. Listening Vocabulary
Listening vocabulary comprises words that we understand through hearing. A fetus may start
recognizing some words when in the womb. Learning new words is a continuous process, and by the time you
reach adulthood, almost fifty thousand words are understood and recognized by you. Deaf people can be
exposed to visual listening vocabulary for learning.
2. Speaking Vocabulary
Speaking vocabulary consists of words that we actually speak. It has a horizon of around 5000 to 10000
words. These are used for giving instructions and conversations. The number of words in this category is
comparatively lesser than the listening vocabulary.
3. Reading Vocabulary
The major ingredient of vocabulary building is reading. Reading grows and develops your vocabulary.
The words we get to learn while reading a text are termed as reading vocabulary. It may happen that we
understand words through reading vocabulary even if we don’t use it in speaking vocabulary.
4. Writing Vocabulary
Words we recoup while expressing ourselves through writing are termed as writing vocabulary. Writing
vocabulary is normally influenced by the words we are able to spell. We find it easy to express verbally,
through facial expression, or intonation, but writing vocabulary depends upon our expertise in vocabulary.
5. Final Vocabulary
Richard Rorty discovered this term ‘Final Vocabulary’. It is a collection, set, or group of words that
every person applies to justify their actions, beliefs, and lives. Final vocabulary comprises words a person
avails to praise, contempt, express deep feelings, hopes, doubts, etc.
WAYS TO IMPROVE YOUR VOCABULARY
Students can adopt several ways to improve their vocabulary. A few important ways to improve vocabulary
are given here:
 Develop a Reading Habit: Students can improve their vocabulary if they develop a reading habit. It is
easy to improve vocabulary when they come across new words while reading a novel or a newspaper article.
They can add new and unfamiliar words to their list.
 Dictionary and Thesaurus: Students can use online dictionaries and thesauruses for improving
vocabulary. They can find synonyms to the words that are far better than the words used by them. Dictionaries
can help students to learn about root words, related words, and antonyms.
 Word Games: Word games such as scrabble are useful for students to expand and enhance their
vocabulary. Students can note down the important words that they learn while playing the game and can use
them in their writing.
 Flashcards: Students can use flashcards to learn different words. There are many Smartphone apps that
can help students to make flashcards and they can make a number of words everyday to increase their
vocabulary.
 Use new Words in Conversation: Students must try to use new words in their conversation. They can
use the words that they learn from reading or while watching TV in their conversation to remember them.
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 Contextual Usage of Vocabulary:
Understanding words within context involves seeing how words function in different sentences and
scenarios rather than just learning their dictionary definitions. Contextual learning is essential because it helps
clarify meaning that might not be evident from a definition alone. Contextual usage helps in understanding not
just what words mean, but how they are used. It often highlights subtle differences in meaning and usage that
are crucial to mastering a language. The Oxford Learners Dictionary makes a sentence with every word to
show how it is used in context. The learner should also adopt some strategies to learn new vocabulary through
contextual usage.
Strategies:
o Reading: Different reading materials (books, articles, and blogs) expose you to words in various contexts.
o Listening and watching: Engaging with different forms of media such as movies, podcasts, and speeches
helps in learning how native speakers use language in different contexts
o Writing and speaking exercises: Regular practice of writing sentences and speaking in scenarios helps
reinforce how words are used contextually.

 Synonym:
The word "synonym" comes from the Greek and Latin languages “synōnymon” which is a combination
of the words sýn and -ōnymon-. Sýn means "together, similar, and alike" and -ōnymon- is a form of the word
onoma which means "name” The exact person who first used the word "synonym" in English is not definitively
known, but it is believed to have been introduced into the language by early English lexicographers and
scholars around the early 15th century.
DEFINITION:
A synonym is a word that has the same meaning as another word (or nearly the same meaning). For
example, beautiful and attractive are synonyms of each other because they both refer to someone or something
that looks good. Synonyms are different words that have the same or similar meanings. They come in every
part of speech, including nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions etc.
Example, let’s look at synonyms for good. As one of the most commonly used words, good has a lot of
synonyms that mean the same or almost the same thing: fine, excellent, satisfactory, wonderful, superb, etc.
Synonyms of synonymy (polysemy, homonymy, and contronymy)
Synonyms get their name from synonymy, which is when different words have the same or similar
meanings. But synonymy is often confused with other types of word relationships: polysemy, homonymy, and
contronymy. To clear things up, let’s take a closer look at what those terms mean.
 Polysemy is when one word has different meanings. For example, the word sound can sometimes
mean “noise,” but other times it can mean “healthy.” The only way to tell the correct meaning is by context; if
someone says they “heard a sound,” you know the meaning is noise because you can’t hear healthy.
 Homonymy is when words have different meanings but either the same spelling or the same
pronunciation (or both). There are two types of homonyms: homophones and homographs.
Homophones are words with different meanings and different spellings, but they are pronounced the same,
such as theirs, there, and they’re. Homographs are words with different meanings but the same spelling, such
as lead (the metal) and lead (the verb that means “to guide”). Homographs may or may not be pronounced the
same—it doesn’t matter.
 Contronymy is even rarer than the others. A contronym is a type of homonym where the words are
spelled and pronounced the same, but their meanings are opposite. For example, the verb buckle can mean “to
connect something”: The man buckled his belt. But it can also mean “to break a connection”: The chair buckled
under the man.

 Antonym
The word "antonym" comes from the Greek words anti- and -onym, which mean "opposite" and "name"
respectively. The term was first used in 1857 in a book by British clergyman Charles John Smith.
DEFINITION: Antonyms are words with opposite meanings. For example, an antonym of good is bad, while a
synonym of good is fine. Examples
o Happy → Sad, Unhappy, Miserable, Depressed
 o Big → Small, Tiny, Minuscule, Puny
o Full → Empty, Vacant, Hollow, Bare
o New → Old, Aged, Ancient, Obsolete
o Easy → Hard, Difficult, Challenging, Grueling
o Quiet → Loud, Noisy, Boisterous, Cacophonous
o Clean → Dirty, Filthy, Grimy, Squalid
NOTE: Understanding synonyms and antonyms is helpful when using a dictionary or thesaurus. Especially
in a thesaurus, a word’s entry often lists both synonyms and antonyms to help your writing.

 IDIOMATIC EXPRESSIONS :
Idioms are phrases where the meanings cannot be inferred from the meanings of the individual words. They
are an integral part of every language, cultural-based and often central to fluent language use. Mastery of
idiomatic expressions is often a hallmark of language proficiency, aiding in more natural and colloquial
communication.
Strategies
 Contextual learning: Since idioms can rarely be understood from their literal meanings, learning them in
the context of dialogue or narrative is most effective.
 Practice and Repetition: Incorporate idioms into speech writing to better as assimilate their usage.
 Acculturation: Engaging with native speakers and consuming media like films, songs, and books helps in
understanding the appropriate contexts and usage of idiomatic expression.
CONCLUSION
Expanding vocabulary through the understanding of contextual usage, synonyms, antonyms, and
idiomatic expression enhances not just language skills but overall cognitive abilities. It allows for more
sophisticated expression and interpretation, essential in both personal interaction and formal communications.
Regular practice and conscious learning are key to effectively building and retaining a rich vocabulary.
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Subject-verb Agreement: [Rules of Verb] DONE

Verb Tense: DONE
Modifiers: Adjective, Adverb DONE
Articles: DONE
World class: Parts of Speech (Complete) DONE
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 Communicative Grammar (Subject-verb agreement, verb tenses,
fragments, run-ons, modifiers, articles, word classes)
COMMUNICATIVE GRAMMAR
i. Communicative grammar is an approach to teaching and learning grammar that focuses on the
communicative function of language. It emphasizes the use of grammar in real-life situations and aims to
develop learners' ability to communicate effectively.
ii. In communicative grammar, grammar rules are taught in context and are directly linked to meaningful
communication. This approach recognizes that grammar is a tool for communication and that learners need to
understand how to use grammar structures in different situations.
FEATURES OF COMMUNICATIVE GRAMMAR
1. Contextualized Learning: Grammar is taught in meaningful contexts, such as conversations, stories, or
real-life situations. Learners are exposed to authentic language use and are encouraged to use grammar
structures in relevant contexts.
2. Functional Approach: Grammar is taught based on its communicative function. Learners are taught how
to use grammar structures to express meaning, convey messages, and achieve specific communicative goals.
3. Interactive Activities: Communicative grammar involves interactive activities that promote
communication and language use. These activities can include role-plays, discussions, debates, and problem-
solving tasks, where learners apply grammar rules in real-life situations.
4. Focus on Meaning: Communicative grammar prioritizes the understanding and use of grammar in
meaningful communication. Learners are encouraged to focus on conveying meaning rather than just
memorizing grammar rules.
EXAMPLE :
Let's take the example of teaching the present continuous tense using communicative grammar:
1. Context: The teacher sets the context by showing pictures of people doing different activities, such as
cooking, playing sports, or working. The teacher elicits responses from the students about what the people in
the pictures are doing.
2. Meaning: The teacher explains that the present continuous tense is used to talk about actions happening
at the moment of speaking. The teacher provides examples and asks students to create their own sentences
using the present continuous tense.
3. Interactive Activity: The teacher divides the class into pairs or small groups and gives them a task. For
example, they may have to describe a picture to their partner using the present continuous tense. The students
take turns describing and guessing the activities in the pictures.
4. Feedback and Correction: After the activity, the teacher provides feedback and corrects any errors in
grammar usage. The focus is on helping students understand and use the present continuous tense accurately in
a communicative context.
CONCLUSION
By using communicative grammar, learners not only learn grammar rules but also develop their ability
to use grammar structures effectively in real-life communication. This approach promotes active engagement,
meaningful learning, and the development of communicative competence.
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Sentence Fragments
A sentence fragment is a word group that is incorrectly punctuated as if it were a complete sentence,
beginning with an initial capital letter and ending with a period or other end punctuation. To be complete, a
sentence must contain a subject, a predicate or complete verb, and function as an independent clause. A
sentence fragment lacks one or more of these elements; as a result, it cannot stand alone or function as a
sentence.
The subject of a sentence is the “who” or “what” the sentence is about. The word(s) that name the topic
of the sentence is called the simple subject and must be a noun or pronoun. The complete subject is the simple
subject plus its modifiers; the predicate or complete verb says something about the subject. An independent
clause includes a subject and a predicate and can stand alone as a complete sentence.
IDENTIFYING AND CORRECTING SENTENCE FRAGMENTS
 Correcting a Sentence Fragment with a Missing Subject
Except for a command with an implied or understood subject, a word group punctuated as a sentence
without a subject is a sentence fragment.
Example: Michelle came into the room. Closed the door.
How to: Include an appropriate subject to form an independent clause.
Correction: Michelle came into the room. She closed the door.
How to: Turn the fragment into an “-ing” participle phrase attached to the independent clause.
Correction: Michelle came into the room, closing the door behind her.
Note: With a command, or imperative sentence, the subject (“you”) is implied and therefore omitted; for
example, “Don't leave the room!” is the equivalent of “[You] don’t leave the room!”
 Correcting a Sentence Fragment with a Missing or Incomplete Verb
In order for a sentence to be complete, it must contain a complete verb in an independent clause. A
word group punctuated as a sentence without a complete verb is a sentence fragment.
Example: The assembly person in our district.
How to: Include a predicate or complete verb to form an independent clause.
Correction: The assembly person in our district works diligently.
Example: The statue standing in the rotunda of the building.
How to: Add a helping verb to form a predicate or complete verb.
Correction: The statue is standing in the rotunda of the building.
 Correcting a Dependent Clause Fragment
A main or independent clause can stand alone as a complete sentence. However, a dependent or
subordinate clause—because it begins with a subordinating conjunction or relative pronoun— needs to be
attached to an independent clause.
Example: After Maria bought the biology book.
How to: Attach the dependent clause to an independent clause.
Correction: After Maria bought the biology book, she began studying for her exam.
In the above example, the subordinating conjunction “after” indicates a time relationship between the two
clauses.
How to: Delete the subordinating conjunction.
Correction: Maria bought the biology book.
TYPES OF DEPENDENT OR SUBORDINATE CLAUSES
A dependent or subordinate clause contains a subject and a predicate but cannot stand alone as a
complete sentence. Using subordination, a dependent clause can be attached to an independent clause to
provide information about the relationship between the two clauses. There are three types of dependent clauses
according to their use in a particular sentence: adverb, adjective, and noun clauses.
o Adverb clauses modify verbs, adjectives, or adverbs in an independent clause. They usually tell how,
why, when, where, under what conditions, or with what result, and they always begin with a
subordinating conjunction.
Example: After the final performance of the season, the company celebrated with their families.
In the above example, the dependent clause (“After the final performance of the season,”) is attached to
the independent clause (“the company celebrated with their families.”) and forms a complete sentence:
“company” is the subject and “celebrated” is the verb.
Example: The play was extended because it earned favorable reviews from the critics.
Example: Even though I needed to take a break, I continued to study for the exam.
Note that in the examples above, when the dependent or subordinate clause precedes the independent
clause, a comma is used to connect the two clauses; however, when the dependent clause comes after the
independent clause, no comma is used.
Common subordinating conjunctions used to form dependent or subordinate clauses include the
following:
Time: after, as long as, as soon as, before, once, till, until, when, whenever, while
Place: where, wherever
Comparison: as, as if, as though, than
Contrast: although, even though, though, whereas, while
Cause: as, because, since
Condition: even if, if, provided that, unless
Purpose: in order that, so that; and result: so . . . that, such . . . that
o Adjective clauses modify nouns and pronouns, providing necessary or helpful information. These
clauses usually begin with a relative pronoun, such as who, whom, whose, which, and that.
Example: Diana is the girl who always gets to class early.
In the above example, the subject of the sentence is “Diana” and the dependent clause (“who always gets to
class early”) modifies the word “girl.”
Example: The area of study that is most interesting to me is marine biology.
Example: I finally read the book you recommended, which I found very rewarding.
o Noun clauses function as subjects, objects, and complements in sentences. They usually begin with
either that or what or with, who, whom, whoever, or which.
Example: It is very likely that she will win the election.
Example: What the lecturer said pleased the audience.
Example: Whoever answers the question first will be the winner.
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Run-On Sentences
A run-on sentence occurs when two independent clauses run together without proper punctuation or
appropriate conjunctions. These errors can make sentences confusing and difficult to understand. Correcting
run-on’s typically involves adding punctuations, conjunctions, or reconstructing sentences.
Examples:
Incorrect: Raffi sings upbeat children's songs he is an excellent musician.
Correct: Raffi sings upbeat children's songs; he is an excellent musician.
Incorrect: Helen cooked dinner therefore Ralph will wash the dishes.
Correct: Helen cooked dinner; therefore, Ralph will wash the dishes.
 There are several ways to correct a run-on sentence. Before deciding how to fix a run-on, however, examine
the clauses that make up the sentence.
 Decide what the main purpose of the sentence is, then choose one of the following methods to rewrite the
sentence for clarity:
i. Divide clauses into two sentences.
ii. Insert a semicolon between the two clauses.
iii. Use a comma with either a coordinating or subordinating conjunction.
CORRECT RUN-ON SENTENCES BY
i. Dividing the clauses into two sentences by inserting a period between them.
Incorrect: Mary came home from work early we worked hard on our project.
Correct: Mary came home from work early. We worked hard on our project.
ii. Inserting a semicolon between them, if the two clauses are very closely related.
Incorrect: Mary came home from work early she had been feeling ill all morning.
Correct: Mary came home from work early; she had been feeling ill all morning.
iii. Using a comma with a coordinating conjunction to separate the clauses. The coordinating
conjunctions are: and, but, or, so, for, yet, nor.
Incorrect: I was too tired to go to the store the guys shopped for three hours.
Correct: I was too tired to go to the store, but the guys shopped for three hours.
iv. Adding a subordinating conjunction to make one sentence out of the two clauses. Some
subordinating conjunctions are: when, while, because, as, although, if, though, since.
Incorrect: I will watch The Office you do your homework.
Correct: I will watch The Office while you do your homework.
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 Word Formation (Affixation, Compounding, Clipping, Back
Formation)
Word formation in English is the process of creating new words by combining existing words or parts of
words. There are several ways to form words, including adding affixation, abbreviation, forming compound
words, and back formation.
Affixation
Affixation is one of the most common methods of word formation and involves adding affixes to a base
word or stem. Affixes are a bound morpheme, which means they cannot stand alone and must be attached to
another morpheme. Affixation can be classified into two types:
PREFIXATION --- PREFIXES
This involves adding an affix before the stem of the word. For example:
Examples Prefixes
monorail, monolingual mono- means ‘one’
multipurpose, multicultural multi- means ‘many’
post-war, postgraduate post- means ‘after’
unusual, undemocratic un- means ‘not’ or ‘opposite to’
SUFFIXATION --- SUFFIXES
This involves adding an affix at the end of the stem of the word. For example:
Examples Suffixes
terrorism, sexism -ism and -dom are used to form nouns
-er and -or are used to form nouns to
employer, actor
describe people who do things
widen, simplify -en and -ify are used to form verbs
reasonable, unprofitable -able is used to form adjectives
unhappily, naturally -ly is a common suffix used to form adverbs
ABBREVIATION
Abbreviation involves shortening a word. We do this in three main ways: clipping, acronyms, initials
and blends.
i. We use clipping when we shorten or ‘clip’ one or more syllables from a word. We also commonly clip
proper names for people: Examples
 lab: laboratory  Flu: Influenza
 Phone: Telephone  Maths: Mathematics
 Memo: Memorandum
ii. Acronyms are a type of abbreviation formed when the initial letters of two or more words are combined
in a way that produces consonant and vowel sequences found in words. Acronyms are normally
pronounced as words: Examples
 RAM: Random Access Memory (RAM is a term used to describe a computer’s memory.)
 NATO: North Atlantic Treaty Organization
 WAPDA: Water and Power Development Authority.
iii. Initials are similar to acronyms but are pronounced as sets of letters, not as words: Examples
 WHO: World Health Organization, pronounced W–H–O
 CD: Compact Disc, pronounced C–D
iv. We form blends when we combine parts of existing words to form a new word: Examples
 blog: blend of web and log
 motel: blend of motor and hotel
 smog: blend of smoke and fog
COMPOUNDING
When we use compounding, we link together two or more bases to create a new word. Normally, the
first item identifies a key feature of the second word. For example, the two bases back and ache can combine to
form the compound noun backache, and the two bases post and card combine to form the compound
noun postcard. Compounds are found in all word classes.
Compound words can be formed in several ways:
1) Closed Compounds: Two words are joined without any space or hyphen between them such as
“notebook” or “sunflower” or “heartbreaking”
2) Hyphenated Compounds: Words connected by a hyphen, such as “long-term” or “well-known” or
“sugar-free”
3) Open Compounds: Words that are written separately but function as a single unit like “post office” or
“High School” or “Class room”
BACK FORMATION
Back-formation is a word formation process that involves removing part of a word to create a new
word. For example, the word "edit" is a back-formation of the word "editor".
Examples of back-formation
 Edit: From the word "editor"  Vaccinate: From the word "vaccination"
 Burgle: From the word "burglar"  Intuit: From the word "intuition"
 Televise: From the word "television"  Enthuse: From the word "enthusiasm"
 Choreograph: From the word"choreography"  Surveil: From the word "surveillance"
CONCLUSION
These various process not only illustrate the richeness and adaptability of language but also show how
cultural and social changes influence linguistic development. Each method of word formation plays the vital
role in enabling the natural evolution, concepts and societal norms.
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 Sentence Structure (Simple, Compound, Complex, and Compound

Complex Done
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