Acknowledgement

I would like to thank the teachers of Hanoi National University of Pedagogy 2 and the teachers
of the Mathematics department for helping me during my study at the school and creating con-
ditions for me to complete my graduation thesis. In particular, I would like to express my deep
gratitude to Dr. Tran Van Nghi, the teacher who imparted knowledge, wholeheartedly helped
and guided me throughout the process of studying, researching and completing this thesis.
I declare that under the guidance of Dr. Tran Van Nghi, my thesis is completed without over-
lapping with any other topic. While doing this thesis, I have studied the scientific achievements
of scientists with respect and gratitude.
During the research process, errors and limitations are unavoidable. I look forward to receiving
comments from teachers and all readers to improve my thesis.
Thank you!

Hanoi, April, 2023

Student

Le Ngoc Linh
Confirmation

This graduation thesis has been written on the basis of my research works carried at Faculty of
Mathematics, Hanoi Pedagogical University 2, under the supervision of Associate Professor Dr.
Tran Van Nghi. The results of the thesis do not coincide with other studies.
In addition, the thesis also uses a number of comments and reviews of other authors with
citations.

Hanoi, April, 2023

Student

Le Ngoc Linh

i
Contents

1 Matrix algebra and determinants 3

1.1 Matrix algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.1 Matrix operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.2 Inverse of a matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.1.3 Characterizations of invertible matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.1.4 Partitioned matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.1.5 Matrix factorizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.1.6 Subspaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.1.7 Dimension and Rank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.2 Determinants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.2.1 Introduction to determinants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.2.2 Properties of determinants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

2 Applications of matrix and determinants 19

2.1 Applications of matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.1.1 Computer model in aircraft design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.1.2 A matrix factorization in electrical engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.1.3 The Leontief input-output model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.1.4 Application to computer graphics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.1.5 Applications in production and linear planning . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.1.6 Application of the Leslie-Markov model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.1.7 Graph theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.1.8 Analysis and geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.1.9 Probability theory and statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.1.10 Symmetries and transformations in physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.1.11 Linear combinations of quantum states . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.1.12 Normal modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

ii
GRADUATION THESIS Le Ngoc Linh

2.1.13 Geometrical optics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

2.1.14 Matrices are used to find collinear points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.1.15 Matrices in geology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.1.16 Matrices in Information Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.2 Applications of determinants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.2.1 Random paths and distortion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.2.2 Cramer’s Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.2.3 Application to Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.2.4 A formula for invertible matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.2.5 Determinants as area or volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.2.6 Linear transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.2.7 Supplementary exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

REFERENCES 41

iii
Introduction

1. Reason for choosing the topic

The importance of linear algebra for applications has risen in direct proportion to the
increase in computing power. Today, linear algebra has more potential value for students
in many scientific and business fields than any other undergraduate mathematics subject.
Our ability to analyze and solve equations will be greatly enhanced when we can perform
algebraic operations with matrices. Matrix definitions and theorems are fundamental
tools for dealing with many applications of linear algebra involving two or more matri-
ces in economics and computer graphics. . . Matrices and determinants are used in many
different fields such as in graphic design, manufacturing, population growth problems or
predicting the probability of an event (rain, sun, etc.) After a while, before manufacturing
a car, plane or other item, people often use computer graphic design software to simulate
it and overcome possible risks and Or the great application of matrices and determi-
nants in medicine, especially during the recent COVID-19 pandemic, scientists have used
graphic design software to model simulate viruses and through that find methods and
make vaccines. Have you ever wondered how computers can simulate images of objects
or how to make images move? Whether we predict the population of a country or predict
the weather or in the production problem, all thanks to the contribution of a large part
of the matrix and determinant. We consider the following real problem:
Suppose an economy has three production sectors industry 1, industry 2, industry 3.
Given the matrix of technical coefficients:
 
0, 1 0, 3 0, 2
 
A= 0, 4 0, 2 0, 3.


0, 2 0, 3 0, 1

a) If industry 3 wants to produce 150 million dollars worth of goods, what is the total
input of industry 3?

b) If 3 industries want to produce output of goods worth 120 million dollars, 100 million

1
GRADUATION THESIS Le Ngoc Linh

dollars, and 150 million dollars, respectively, what is the total amount of inputs that
industry 1 supplies to the three industries?

c) Calculate the added value of industry 1, if the value of goods of industry 3 that
industry 1 needs to use for production is 20 million USD.

To solve the requirements of the above problem we need to use the calculations of matri-
ces and determinants. So what are matrices and determinants? And what is its practical
application in life?
In mathematics, the determinant is the chain to volume ratio when matrix A is treated
as a linear transform. The determinant is used to solve systems of linear algebraic equa-
tions. . . The main goal of this work will study on some main knowledge about matrix
algebra, determinants, and their applications.
2. Research purposes

ˆ Studying theoretical and practical bases in the teaching process of geometry to

synthesize and make applications of matrices and determinants in solving linear
algebra problems.

ˆ Providing a system of linear algebra exercises with matrix and determinant applica-
tions to solve.

ˆ Synthesize and give applications of matrices and determinants in practice.

3. Objects and scope of research

ˆ The objects are matrix algebra, determinants, and their applications.

ˆ The scopes are linear algebra problems which have applications of matrix algebra
and determinants.

4. Structure of the thesis

The thesis consists of two main chapters:

ˆ Chapter 1: Matrix algebra and determinants.

ˆ Chapter 2: Applications of matrix and determinants.

2
Chapter 1

Matrix algebra and determinants

1.1 Matrix algebra

The definitions and theorems in this chapter offer some fundamental methods for dealing
with the numerous linear algebraic applications that require two or more matrices. Section
1.1.1 instructs the calculation of operations in matrices. Sections 1.1.2 and 1.1.3 introduce
and describe inverse matrices. Sections 1.1.4 and 1.1.5 examine partitioned matrices and
matrix factorizations, which appear in most modern uses of linear algebra.

1.1.1 Matrix operations

If A is a matrix with m rows and n columns which is signed by Am×n then the scalar entry
in the i-th row and j-th column of A is denoted by aij and is called the (i, j)-entry of A.
Each column of A is a list of m real numbers, which identifies a vector in Rn . Often, these
h i
columns are denoted by a1 , ..., an , and the matrix A is written as A = a1 a2 . . . an .
Observe that the number aij is the i-th entry (from the top) of the j-th column vector aj .
The diagonal entries in an (m × n)-matrix A = [aij ] are a11 , a22 , a33 , ..., and they form
the main diagonal of A. A diagonal matrix is a square (n × n)-matrix whose nondiagonal
entries are zero. An example is the (n × n)-identity matrix, In . A zero matrix is denoted
by 0, so that A = [aij ] = 0 with aij = 0.
a) Sums and scalar multiples
The arithmetic for vectors described earlier has a natural extension to matrices. Let A
and B be two matrices, A is written as A = [aij ], B is written as B = [bij ]. If A = B then
they have the same size and their corresponding columns are equal, that is aij = bij . If A
and B are (m × n)-matrices, then the sum A + B is the (m × n)-matrix whose columns are
the sums of the corresponding columns in A and B. The sum A + B is defined only when

3
GRADUATION THESIS Le Ngoc Linh

A and B are the same size. If A and B have different sizes, then A + B is not defined.
If r is a scalar and A is a matrix, then rA = r[aij ]. As with vectors, −A = (−1)A, and
A − B = A + (−B).

Theorem 1.1. Let A, B, and C be matrices of the same size and let r, s be scalars.

A+B =B+A r(A + B) = rA + rB

(A + B) + C = A + (B + C) (r + s)A = rA + sA
A+0=A r(sA) = (rs)A

b) Matrix multiplication
If A is an (m × n)-matrix, B is an (n × p)-matrix and x is in Rp , denote the column of
B by b1 , ..., bp and the entries in x by x1 , ..., xp . Then Bx = x1 b1 + ... + xp bp . By the
linearity of multiplication by A, A(Bx) = x1 Ab1 + ... + xp Abp . The vector A(Bx) is a
linear combination of the vectors Ab1 , ..., Abp , using the entries in x as weights. In matrix
notation, this linear combination is written as
h i
A(Bx) = Ab1 Ab2 . . . Abp x.
h i
Thus multiplication by Ab1 Ab2 . . . Abp transforms x into A(Bx). Thus A(Bx) is
produced from x by a composition of mappings–the linear transfor-mations. Our goal is
to represent this composite mapping as multiplication by a single matrix, denoted by AB,
so that
A(Bx) = (AB)x. (1.1)

Definition 1.1. If A is an (m × n)-matrix, and if B is an (n × p)-matrix with columns

b1 , ..., bp , then the product AB is the (m×p)-matrix whose columns are Ab1 , . . . , Abp . That
is,
h i h i
AB = A b1 b2 . . . bp = Ab1 Ab2 . . . Abp .

This definition makes the equation (1.1) true for all x in Rp . The equation (1.1) proves
that the composite mapping is a linear transformation and that its standard matrix is
AB. Multiplication of matrices corresponds to composition of linear transformations.
Also, the definition of AB shows that AB has the same number of rows as A and the
same number of columns as B.
The above definition is important for the theory and application of matrices, but the
following rule provides a more efficient method for calculating individual items matrix
multiplication when working small problems by hand.
c) Row-column rule for computing matrix multiplication

4
GRADUATION THESIS Le Ngoc Linh

If the product AB is defined, then the entry in row i and column j of AB is the sum
of the products of corresponding entries from row i of A and column j of B. If (ABij )
denotes the (i, j)-entry in AB and if A is an (m × n)-matrix, then

(AB)ij = ai1 b1j + ai2 b2j + . . . + ain bnj .

d) Properties of matrix multiplication

Theorem 1.2. Let A be an (m × n)-matrix, and let B and C have sizes for which the
indicated sums and products are defined:

i) A(BC) = (AB)C (associative law of multiplication);

ii) A(B + C) = AB + AC (left distributive law);

iii) (B + C)A = BA + CA (right distributive law);

iv) r(AB) = (rA)B, ∀r ∈ R;

v) Im A = A = AIm .

Note 1.1. Im is the (m × m)-identity matrix and Im x = x, ∀x ∈ R.

It doesn’t matter how the matrices are grouped when calculating the product, as long
as the left-to-right order of the matrices is preserved. The order from left to right in
calculations is very important because of AB ̸= BA. If AB = BA, then A and B are
commutative.

Note 1.2. i) In general, AB ̸= BA;

ii) If AB = AC, then it is not true in general that B = C;

iii) If AB = 0, then it is not true in general that A = 0 or B = 0.

e) Powers of a matrix
If A is an (n × n)-matrix and if k is a positive integer, then Ak denotes the product of k
copies of A : Ak = A . . A}. If A ̸= 0 and x ∈ R, then Ak x is the result of left-multiplying
| .{z
k
x by A repeatedly k times. If k = 0, then A0 x should be x itself, so that A0 = I.
f ) Transpose of a matrix
The transpose of an (m × n)-matrix A which is the (n × m)-matrix, denoted by AT .

Theorem 1.3. Let A and B be matrices of the same size. Then,

i) (AT )T = A;

5
GRADUATION THESIS Le Ngoc Linh

ii) (A + B)T = AT + B T ;

iii) (rA)T = rAT , ∀r ∈ R;

iv) (AB)T = B T AT .

The transpose of a product of matrices equals the product of their transposes in the reverse
order.

1.1.2 Inverse of a matrix

Matrix algebra provides tools for manipulating matrix equations and creating various
useful formulas in ways similar to doing ordinary algebra with real numbers. This section
studies inverse matrices.
Given A and C be (n × n)-square matrices. If AC = CA = I, where I is the (n × n)-
identity matrix. Then A is said to be invertible. In this case, C is an unique inverse
of A which is denoted by A−1 , so that A−1 A = I and AA−1 = I. A matrix that is
not invertible is sometimes called a singular matrix and an invertible matrix is called a
nonsingular matrix.
 
a b
Theorem 1.4. Let A =  . If ad − bc ̸= 0, then A is invertible and
c d
 
d −b
A−1 = ad−bc
1  .
−c a

If ad − bc = 0, then A is not invertible.

The quantity ad − bc is called the determinant of A, and is written as det A = ad − bc.

This theorem says that a square matrix A is invertible if and only if det A ̸= 0.

Theorem 1.5. For each b ∈ Rn , the equation Ax = b has the unique solution x = A−1 b,
if A is an invertible (n × n)-matrix.

For invertible matrices, we have the following properties:

Theorem 1.6.

i) If A is an invertible matrix, then A−1 is invertible and (A−1 )−1 = A;

ii) If A and B are square invertible matrices, then so is AB, and the inverse of AB is the
product of the inverses of A and B in the reverse order, that is, (AB)−1 = B −1 A−1 ;

6
GRADUATION THESIS Le Ngoc Linh

iii) If A is an invertible matrix, then so is AT and the inverse of AT is the transpose of

A−1 , that is, (AT )−1 = (A−1 )T .

The product of square invertible matrices is invertible and the inverse is the product of
their inverses in the reverse order. There is an important connection between invertible
matrices and row operations that leads to a method for computing inverses. As we shall
see, an invertible matrix A is row equivalent to an identity matrix, and we can find A−1
by watching the row reduction of A to I.
Elementary matrices
An elementary matrix is one that is obtained by performing a single elementary row
operation on an identity matrix. If an elementary row operation is performed on an
(m × n)-matrix A, the resulting matrix can be written as EA, where the (m × m) matrix
E is created by performing the same row operation on Im . Each elementary matrix E is
invertible. The inverse of E is the elementary matrix of the same type that transforms
E back into I. The following theorem provides the best way to describe an invertible
matrix.

Theorem 1.7. An (n × n)-matrix A is invertible if and only if A is row equivalent to

In . In this case, any sequence of elementary row operations that reduces A to In also
transforms In into A−1 .

An algorithm for finding the invertible matrices

i h
If A and I are placed next to each other to form an augmented matrix A I , then
row operations on this matrix produce identical operations on A and on I. By Theorem
1.7, or there are row operations that transform A to In , and In to A−1 or else A is not
h i
invertible. Algorithm for finding A−1 : row reduce the augmented matrix A I . If A is
h i h i
−1
row equivalent to I, then A I is row equivalent to I A . Otherwise, A does not
have an inverse.
Another view of matrix inversion
h i h i
Denote the column of In by e1 , . . . , en . Then row reduction of A I to I A −1 can be
viewed as the simultaneous solution of the n systems:

Ax = e1 , Ax = e2 , . . . , Ax = en . (1.2)

Where the “augmented columns” of these systems have all been placed next to A to form
h i h i
A e1 e2 . . . en = A I . The equation AA−1 = I and the definition of matrix
multiplication show that the columns of A−1 are precisely the solution of the systems in

7
GRADUATION THESIS Le Ngoc Linh

(1.2). This observation is useful because some applied problems may require finding only
one or two column of A−1 . In this case, only the corresponding systems in (1.2) need be
solved.

Note 1.3. In practical work, A−1 is seldom computed, unless the entries of A−1 are need.
Computing both A−1 and A−1 b take about three times as many arithmetic operations as
solving Ax = b by row reduction and row reduction may be more accurate.

1.1.3 Characterizations of invertible matrices

The following theorem will provide some properties of invertible matrices.

Theorem 1.8. (The invertible matrix theorem) Let A be a square (n × n)-matrix. Then
the following statements are equivalent. That is, for a given A, the statements are either
all true or all false:

i) A is an invertible matrix;

ii) A is row equivalent to the (n × n)-identity matrix;

iii) A has n pivot positions;

iv) The equation Ax = 0 has only the trivial solution;

v) The columns of A form a linearly independent set;

vi) The linear transformation x 7→ Ax is one-to-one;

vii) The equation Ax = b has at least one solution for each b ∈ Rn ;

viii) The columns of A span Rn ;

ix) The linear transformation x 7→ Ax maps Rn onto Rn ;

x) There is an (n × n)-matrix C such that CA = I;

xi) There is an (n × n)-matrix D such that AD = I;

xii) AT is an invertible matrix.

Note 1.4. The invertible matrix theorem applies only to square matrices.

Invertible linear transformations

When a matrix A is invertible, the equation A−1 Ax = x can be viewed as a statement

8
GRADUATION THESIS Le Ngoc Linh

about linear transformations. A linear transformation T : Rn → Rn is said to be invertible

if there exists a function S : Rn → Rn such that:

S(T (x)) = x, ∀x ∈ Rn ; (1.3)

T (S(x)) = x, ∀x ∈ Rn . (1.4)

The next theorem shows that if such an S exists, it is unique and must be a linear
transformation. We call S the inverse of T and write it as T −1 .

Theorem 1.9. Let T : Rn → Rn be a linear transformations and let A be the standard

matrix for T . Then, T is invertible if and only if A is an invertible matrix. In that
case, the linear transformation S given by S(x) = A−1 x is the unique function satisfying
equation (1.3) and (1.4).

1.1.4 Partitioned matrices

A key feature of our work with matrices has been the ability to regard a matrix A as a
list of column vectors rather than just a rectangular array of numbers. This point of view
has been so useful that we wish to consider other partitions of A, indicated by horizontal
and vertical dividing rules. Partitioned matrices appear in most modern applications of
linear algebra because the notation highlights essential structures in matrix analysis, as
in the chapter introductory example on aircraft design.
a) Addition and scalar multiplication
If matrices A and B are the same size and are partitioned in exactly the same way, then it
is natural to make the same partition of the ordinary matrix sum A+B. In this case, each
block of A+B is the (matrix) sum of the corresponding blocks of A and B. Multiplication
of a partitioned matrix by a scalar is also computed block by block.
b) Multiplication of partitioned matrices
Partitioned matrices can be multiplied by the usual row–column rule as if the block entries
were scalars, provided that for a product AB, the column partition of A matches the row
partition of B. The row–column rule for multiplication of block matrices provides the
most general way to regard the product of two matrices. Each of the following views of a
product has already been described using simple partitions of matrices:
Step 1: Definition of Ax using columns of A.
Step 2: Column definition of AB.
Step 3: Use the row-column rule to calculate AB.

9
GRADUATION THESIS Le Ngoc Linh

Step 4: The rows of AB are the product of the rows of A and the matrix B.
A fifth view of AB, again using partitions, follows in Theorem 1.10 below.

Theorem 1.10. (Column-row expansion of AB) Let Rm×n be (m×n)-matrices. If A, B ∈

Rm×n , then
 
row1 (B)
 
h i  row2 (B) 
AB = col1 (A) col2 (A) . . . coln (A)  .
 
 .
.. 
 
rown (B)

Note 1.5. Here colk (A) is the k-th column of A and rowk (B) is the k-th row of B.

c) Inverses of partitioned matrices

A block diagonal matrix is a partitioned matrix with zero blocks off the main diagonal (of
blocks). Such a matrix is invertible if and only if each block on the diagonal is invertible.

1.1.5 Matrix factorizations

An equation that represents A as the product of two or more matrices is factored into the
matrix A. Whereas matrix multiplication involves a synthesis of data, matrix factorization
is an analysis of data.
a) The LU factorization
The LU factorization, described below, is motivated by the fairly common industrial and
business problem of solving a sequence of equations, all with the same coefficient matrix:

Ax = b1 , Ax = b2 , . . . , Ax = bp . (1.5)

When A is invertible, one could compute A−1 and then compute A−1 b1 , A−1 b2 , and so on.
However, it is more efficient to solve the first equation in sequence (1.5) by row reduction
and obtain an LU factorization of A at the same time. Thereafter, the remaining equations
in sequence (1.5) are solved with the LU factorization. At first, assume that A is an
(m × n)-matrix that can be row reduced to echelon form, without row interchanges. Then
A can be written in the form A = LU , where L is an (m × m)-lower triangular matrix
with 1’s on the diagonal and U is an (m × n)-echelon form of A. Such a factorization
is called an LU factorization of A. The matrix L is invertible and is called a unit lower
triangular matrix. Before studying how to construct L and U , we should look at why
they are so useful. When A = LU , the equation Ax = b can be written as L(U x) = b.
Writing y for U x, we can find x by solving the pair of equations

10
GRADUATION THESIS Le Ngoc Linh

Ly = b; U x = y.

First solve Ly = b for y; and then solve U x = y for x. Each equation is easy to solve
because L and U are triangular. The computational efficiency of the LU factorization
depends on knowing L and U . The next algorithm shows that the row reduction of A to
an echelon form U amounts to an LU factorization because it produces L with essentially
no extra work. After the first row reduction, L and U are available for solving additional
equations whose coefficient matrix is A.
b) An LU factorization algorithm
Suppose A can be reduced to an echelon form U using only row replacements that add a
multiple of one row to another row below it. In this case, there exist unit lower triangular
elementary matrices E1 , . . . , Ep such that

Ep . . . E1 A = U. (1.6)

Then,

A = (Ep . . . E1 )−1 U = LU,

where
L = A = (Ep . . . E1 )−1 . (1.7)

It can be shown that products and inverses of unit lower triangular matrices are also unit
lower triangular. Thus L is unit lower triangular. Note that the row operations in the
equation (1.6), which reduce A to U , also reduce the L in the equation (1.7) to I, because
Ep . . . E1 L = (Ep . . . E1 )(Ep . . . E1 )−1 = 1. This observation is the key to constructing L.
c) Algorithm for an LU factorization
Step 1: If A could be reduced to the rank of U by a sequence of row substitution opera-
tions.
Step 2: Place entries in L such that the same sequence of row operations reduces L to I.
Step 1 is not always possible, but when it is, the argument above shows that an LU fac-
torization exists. By construction, L will satisfy Ep . . . E1 L = I using the same E1 , . . . , Ep
as in equation (1.6). Thus L will be invertible, by the invertible matrix theorem, with
(Ep . . . E1 ) = L−1 . From (1.6), l−1 A = U , and A = LU . So step 2 will produce an
acceptable L.

11
GRADUATION THESIS Le Ngoc Linh

1.1.6 Subspaces

This section focuses on important sets of vectors in Rn called subspaces. Often subspaces
arise in connection with some matrix A; and they provide useful information about the
equation Ax = b.

Definition 1.2. The three properties of a subspace of any set H have:

→
−
i) 0 ∈ H;

ii) ∀u, v ∈ H, u + v ∈ H;

iii) ∀u ∈ H, ∀c ∈ R, c→
−
u ∈ H.

Note 1.6. That R is a subspace of itself. Another special subspace is the set consisting
→
−
of only 0 ∈ Rn . This set, called the zero subspace, also satisfies the conditions for a
subspace.

a) Column space and null space of a matrix

In applications and theory, subspaces of Rn often appear with a matrix.

Definition 1.3. The column space of a matrix A is the set col A of all linear combinations
of the columns of A.
h i
If A = a1 . . . an , with the columns in Rn , then col A is the same as span a1 , . . . , an .

Note 1.7. That col A equals Rm only when the columns of A span Rm . Otherwise, col A
is only part of Rm .

Definition 1.4. The set Nul A of all solutions of the homogeneous equation Ax = 0 is
the null space of a matrix A.

When A has n columns, the solutions of Ax = 0 belong to Rn , and the null space of A is
a subset of Rn . In fact, Nul A has the properties of a subspace of Rn .

Theorem 1.11. The null space of an (m×n)-matrix A is a subspace of Rn . Equivalently,

the set of all solutions of a system Ax = 0 of m homogeneous linear equations in n
unknowns is a subspace of Rn .

To test whether a given vector v is in Nul A, just compute Av to see whether Av is the
zero vector. Because Nul A is described by a condition that must be checked for each
vector, we say that the null space is defined implicitly. In contrast, the column space is
defined explicitly, because vectors in col A can be constructed from the columns of A. To

12
GRADUATION THESIS Le Ngoc Linh

create an explicit description of Nul A, solve the equation Ax = 0 and write the solution
in parametric vector form.
b) Basis for a subspace
Because a subspace typically contains an infinite number of vectors, some problems in-
volving a subspace are handled best by working with a small finite set of vectors that
span the subspace. The smaller the set, the better. It can be shown that the smallest
possible spanning set must be linearly independent.

Definition 1.5. A linearly independent set in H that spans H is called a basis for a
subspace H of Rn .

Theorem 1.12. The pivot columns of a matrix form a basis for the column space of that
matrix.

Note 1.8. Be careful to use pivot columns of A itself for the basis of Col A. The columns
of an echelon form B are often not in the column space of A.

1.1.7 Dimension and Rank

This section continues the discussion of subspaces and bases for subspaces, beginning with
the concept of a coordinate system.
a) Coordinate Systems
The main reason for selecting a basis for a subspace H; instead of merely a spanning set,
is that each vector in H can be written in only one way as a linear combination of the
basis vectors. To see why, suppose β = b1 , . . . , bp is a basis for H, and suppose a vector x
in H can be generated in two ways, say,

x = c1 b1 + . . . + cp bp and x = d1 b1 + . . . + dp bp . (1.8)

Then, subtracting gives:

0 = x − x = (c1 − d1 )b1 + . . . + (cp − dp )bp . (1.9)

Since β is linearly independent, the weights in (1.9) must all be zero. That is, cj = dj for
1 ≤ j ≤ p; which shows that the two representations in (1.8) are actually the same.

Definition 1.6. Suppose the set β = b1 , . . . , bp is a basis for a subspace H. The coordinate
vector of x (relative to β) or the β-coordinate vector of x is the vector in Rp

13
GRADUATION THESIS Le Ngoc Linh

 
c1
h i .
x = .
β  . .
cp

For each x ∈ H, the coordinates of x relative to the basis B are the weights c1 , . . . , cp such
that x = c1 b1 + . . . + cp bp .

b) The dimension of a subspace

The following definition makes sense if and only if a subspace H has a basis p vectors
then every basis of H must contain exactly p vectors.

Definition 1.7. The dimension of a nonzero subspace H, is the number of vectors in any
basis for H which denoted by dim H. The dimension of the zero subspace 0 is defined to
be zero.

The space Rn has dimension n. Every basis for Rn consists of n vectors. A plane through
0 in R3 is two-dimensional. A line through 0 is one-dimensional.

Definition 1.8. The rank of a matrix A, is the dimension of the column space of A which
denoted by rank A.

Since the pivot columns of A form a basis for col A, the rank of A is just the number of
pivot columns in A.

Theorem 1.13. (The rank theorem) For rank A + dim nulA = n if a matrix A has n
columns.

The following theorem is important for applications and will be needed in chapters 2. If
you think of a p-dimensional subspace as isomorphic to Rp , the theorem is certainly plau-
sible. The invertible matrix theorem shows that p vectors in Rp are linearly independent
if and only if they also span Rp .

Theorem 1.14. (The Basls theorem) Let H be a p-dimensional subspace of Rn . Any

linearly independent set of exactly p elements in H is automatically a basis for H. Also,
any set of p elements of H that spans H is automatically a basis for H.

c) Rank and the invertible matrix theorem

The various vector space concepts associated with a matrix provide several more state-
ments for the invertible matrix theorem. They are presented below to follow the state-
ments in the original theorem in Section 1.1.3.

14
GRADUATION THESIS Le Ngoc Linh

Theorem 1.15. (The invertible matrix theorem be continued) Let A be an (n×n)-matrix.

Then the following statements are each equivalent to the statement that A is an invertible
matrix:

xiii) The columns of A form a basis of Rn ;

xiv) Col A = Rn ;

xv) dim colA = n;

xvi) Rank A = n;

xvii) Nul A = 0;

xviii) dim nulA = 0.

1.2 Determinants

Beyond introducing the determinant in Section 1.2.1, this chapter presents two important
ideas. Section 1.2.2 derives an invertibility criterion for a square matrix that plays a
pivotal role. Section 1.2.3 shows how the determinant measures the amount by which a
linear transformation changes the area of a figure.

1.2.1 Introduction to determinants

Recall from Section 1.1.2 that a (2 × 2)-matrix A is invertible if and only if det A ̸= 0.
What happens if an invertible (3×3)-matrix A is row reduced? To generalize the definition
of the determinant to larger matrices, we’ll use (2 × 2)-determinants to rewrite the (3 × 3)-
determinant △ described. We write

△ = a11 det A11 − a12 det A12 + a13 det A13 .

Where A11 , A12 and A13 are obtained from A by deleting the first row and one of the three
columns. For any square matrix A, let Aij denote the submatrix formed by deleting the
i-th row and j-th column of A.
h i
Definition 1.9. For n ≥ 2, the determinant of an (n × n)-matrix A = aij is the sum of
n terms of the form ±aij det Aij , with plus and minus signs alternating, where the entries
a11 , a12 , . . . , a1n are from the first row of A. In symbols,
Pn
det A = a11 det A11 − a12 det A12 + . . . + (−1)1+n a1n det A1n = j=1 (−1)
1+j
a1j det A1j .

15
GRADUATION THESIS Le Ngoc Linh

To state the next theorem, it is convenient to write the definition of det A in a slightly
h i
different form. Let A = aij , the (i, j)-cofactor of A is the number Cij given by

Cij = (−1)i+j det Aij .

Then det A = a11 C11 + a12 C12 + . . . + a1n C1n . This formula is called a cofactor expansion
across the first row of A.

Theorem 1.16. The determinant of an (n × n)-matrix A can be computed by a cofactor

expansion across any row or down any column. The expansion across the i-th row using
the cofactors in (13) is

det A = ai1 Ci1 + ai2 Ci2 + . . . + ain Cin .

The cofactor expansion down the j-th column is

det A = a1j C1j + a2j C2j + . . . + anj Cnj .

The plus or minus sign in the (i, j)-cofactor depends on the position of aij in the matrix,
regardless of the sign of aij itself. The factor (−1)i+j determines the following checker-
board pattern of signs:
 
+ − + ...
 
− + − 
.
 

+ − + 
 
.. ..
. .

The above theorem is helpful for computing the determinant of a matrix that contains
many zeros.

Theorem 1.17. If A is a triangular matrix, then det A is the product of the entries on
the main diagonal of A.

1.2.2 Properties of determinants

The following theorem generalizes the results of Section 1.2.1.

Theorem 1.18. (Row operations) Given a (n × n)-matrix A.

i) If a multiple of one row of A is added to another row to produce a matrix B, then

det B = det A.

ii) If two rows of A are interchanged to produce B, then det B = − det A.

16
GRADUATION THESIS Le Ngoc Linh

iii) If one row of A is multiplied by k to produce B, then det B = k. det A.

Suppose a square matrix A has been reduced to an echelon form U by row replace-ments
and row interchanges. If there are r interchanges, then above theorem shows that

det A = (−1)r det U .

Since U is in echelon form, it is triangular, and so det U is the product of the diagonal
entries u11 , . . . , unn . If A is invertible, the entries uii are all pivots. Otherwise, at least
unn is zero, and the product u11 . . . unn is zero. Thus

(−1)r . (product of pivots in U ) when A is invertible

det A = (1.10)
0

when A is not invertible.

Formula (1.10) not only gives a concrete interpretation of det A but also proves the main
theorem of this section.

Theorem 1.19. A square matrix A is invertible if and only if det A ̸= 0.

The above theorem adds the statement “det A ̸= 0” to the invertible matrix theorem. A
useful corollary is that det A = 0 when the columns of A are linearly dependent. Also,
det A = 0 when the rows of A are linearly dependent.
a) Column operations
The next theorem shows that column operations have the same effects on determinants
as row operations.

Theorem 1.20. If A is an (n × n)-matrix, then det AT = det A.

b) Determinants and matrix products

Theorem 1.21. (Multiplicative property) If An×n and Bn×n , then det AB = (det A)(det B).

Remark 1.1. det(A + B) is not equal to det A + det B.

c) A linearity property of the determinant function

For an (n × n)-matrix A, we can consider det A as a function of the n column vectors
in A. We will show that if all columns except one are held fixed, then det A is a linear
function of that one (vector) variable.
Suppose that the j-th column of A is allowed to vary, and write
h i
A = a1 . . . aj−1 x aj+1 . . . an .

17
GRADUATION THESIS Le Ngoc Linh

Define a transformation T from Rn to R by

h i
T (x) = det a1 . . . aj−1 x aj+1 . . . an .

Then,

T (cx) = cT (x), ∀c ∈ R and ∀x ∈ Rn ; (1.11)

T (u + v) = T (u) + T (v), ∀u, v ∈ Rn . (1.12)

Property (1.11) is Theorem 1.18(iii) applied to the columns of A. A proof of property

(1.12) follows from a cofactor expansion of det A down the j-th column. This (multi-)
linearity property of the determinant turns out to have many useful consequences that
are studied in more advanced courses.
Chapter 1 has briefly outlined the definitions, theorems of matrices and determinants.
Section 1.1 systematizes important knowledge about matrices such as definitions, theo-
rems about types of matrices and operations on matrices. Section 1.2 summarizes the
definitions, theorems about determinants and how to calculate determinants.

18
Chapter 2

Applications of matrix and

determinants

2.1 Applications of matrix

There are numerous applications of matrices, both in mathematics and other sciences.
Some of them merely take advantage of the compact representation of a set of numbers
in a matrix. For example, in game theory and economics, the payoff matrix encodes
the payoff for two players, depending on which out of a given (finite) set of alternatives
the players choose. Text mining and automated thesaurus compilation makes use of
document-term matrices such as tf-idf to track frequencies of certain words in several
documents. Complex numbers can be represented by particular real (2 × 2)-matrices via:
 
a −b
a + ib ↔  
b a

under which addition and multiplication of complex numbers and matrices correspond to
each other. For example, (2 × 2)-rotation matrices represent the multiplication with some
complex number of absolute value 1, as above. A similar interpretation is possible for
quaternions and Clifford algebras in general.
Early encryption techniques such as the Hill cipher also used matrices. However, due to
the linear nature of matrices, these codes are comparatively easy to break. Computer
graphics uses matrices to represent objects; to calculate transformations of objects using
affine rotation matrices to accomplish tasks such as projecting a three-dimensional object
onto a two-dimensional screen, corresponding to a theoretical camera observation; and
to apply image convolutions such as sharpening, blurring, edge detection, and more.
Matrices over a polynomial ring are important in the study of control theory.

19
GRADUATION THESIS Le Ngoc Linh

Chemistry makes use of matrices in various ways, particularly since the use of quantum
theory to discuss molecular bonding and spectroscopy. Examples are the overlap matrix
and the Fock matrix used in solving the Roothaan equations to obtain the molecular
orbitals of the Hartree-Fock method.

2.1.1 Computer model in aircraft design

Figure 2.1: Fighter aircraft model.

Engineers at Boeing’s Phantom Works use 3D modeling and computational fluid dynam-
ics (CFD) to design the next generation of commercial and military aircraft. Before
creating physical aircraft models, they study the airflow around a virtual aircraft to an-
swer important design questions such as how and how airflow affects the aircraft. This
has greatly reduced design errors, design cycle times and costs—and linear algebra plays
an important role in the process. Using the fastest computers available commercially, a
Phantom Works team can spend from a few hours to several days setting up and solving
a single airflow problem. To study the airflow, engineers need a highly refined description
of the plane’s surface. The virtual airplane begins as a mathematical matrix model that
exists only in computer memory and on graphics display terminals. To further simplify
the computations, the CFD software at Boeing uses what is called an LU factorization
of the coefficient matrix.To analyze a solution of an airflow system, engineers want to
visualize the airflow over the surface of the plane. This mathematical model organizes
and influences each step of the design and manufacture of the airplane-both the exterior

20
GRADUATION THESIS Le Ngoc Linh

and interior. Thousands of CFD runs may be required. The vector b changes each time,
based on data from the grid and solutions of previous equations. The way air flows around
these structures determines how the plane moves through the sky. The CFD analysis con-
cerns the exterior surface. In addition to the wings and fuselage, an airplane has many
other important parts. A computer creates a model of the surface by first superimposing
a three-dimensional grid of matrices on the original wire-frame model. After the team
analyzes the solution, they may make small changes to the airplane surface and begin the
whole process again. Grouping the variables correctly leads to a partitioned matrix with
many zero blocks. Matrix factorizations: Even when written with partitioned matrices,
the system of equations is complicated.

2.1.2 A matrix factorization in electrical engineering

Matrix factorization is intimately related to the problem of constructing an electrical

network with specified properties. The following discussion gives just a glimpse of the
connection between factorization and circuit design. Suppose the box in Figure 2.2 rep-
resents some sort
 ofelectric circuit, with an input and output. Record
  the input voltage
v1 v2
and current by  . Record the output voltage and current by  .
i1 i2

Figure 2.2: A circuit with input and output terminals.

   
v1 v2
Frequently, the transformation   7→   is linear.
i1 i2
   
v1 v2
That is, there is a matrix A, called the transfer matrix, such that   = A  .
i1 i2
Figure 2.3 shows a ladder network, where two circuits (there could be more) are connected
in series, so that the output of one circuit becomes the input of the next circuit. The
left circuit in Figure 2.3 is called a series circuit, with resistance R1 (in ohms). The
right circuit in Figure 2.3 is a shunt circuit, with resistance R2 . Using Ohm’s law and

21
GRADUATION THESIS Le Ngoc Linh

Kirchhoff’s laws,one can 

show that the transfer matrices of theseries and
 shunt circuits,
1 −R1 1 0
respectively, are   transfer matrix of series circuit and   transfer matrix
0 1 −R2 1
of shunt circuit.

Figure 2.3: A ladder network.

A network transfer matrix summarizes the input–output behavior (the design specifica-
tions) of the network without reference to the interior circuits. To physically build a
network with specified properties, an engineer first determines if such a network can be
constructed (or realized). Then the engineer tries to factor the transfer matrix into ma-
trices corresponding to smaller circuits that perhaps are already manufactured and ready
for assembly. In the common case of alternating current, the entries in the transfer matrix
are usually rational complex-valued functions. A standard problem is to find a minimal
realization that uses the smallest number of electrical components.

2.1.3 The Leontief input-output model

Wassily Leontief’s work, which won him the Nobel Prize, was greatly influenced by linear
algebra. The more complex models used throughout the world are based on the economic
model discussed in this section. Let x be a production vector in which the output of
each sector for a given year is listed. Assume that the economy of a country is split into
n sectors that create commodities or services. Suppose another section of the economy
only consumes goods and services rather than producing them. Let d be a final demand
vector that specifies the values of the commodities and services required from the various
sectors by the nonproductive part of the economy. The vector d may indicate exports,
surplus output, government consumption, consumer demand, or other external demands.
Leontief inquired as to whether there exists a level of output x at which the quantities

22
GRADUATION THESIS Le Ngoc Linh

produced will exactly balance the overall demand for that production, so that

x = Cx + d. (2.1)

Where x is amount produduced, C is the consumption matrix and d is final demand.

Instead of using units like tons or bushels, all input and output values are expressed in
millions of dollars. Production equation (2.1) may also be written as

(I − C)x = d.

The theorem below shows that in most practical cases, (I − C) is invertible and the
production vector x is economically feasible, in the sense that the entries in x are non-
negative.

Theorem 2.1. Let C represent an economy’s consumption matrix and d represent the
final demand.If C and d have nonnegative entries and if each column sum of C is less
than 1, then (I − C)−1 exists and the production vector

x = (I − C)−1 d

has nonnegative entries and is the unique solution of

x = Cx + d.

A formula for (I − C)−1

If d is representative of demand given to industries and they set the level of production
at x = d to meet final demand. In order to produce d, they order raw materials. This
creates an intermediate demand of Cd for inputs. To meet that demand, the industries
need to calculate additional inputs by C(Cd) = C 2 d. Of course, this again creates the
next round of intermediate demand and it goes on indefinitely. We can diagram it as
follows:

Demand Input to meet this demand

Final demand d Cd
Intermediate demand
1st round Cd C(Cd) = C 2 d
2nd round C 2d C(C 2 d) = C 3 d
3rd round C 3d C(C 3 d) = C 4 d
... ... ...

23
GRADUATION THESIS Le Ngoc Linh

The production level x that will meet all of this demand is

x = d + Cd + C d d + . . . = (I + C + C 2 + . . .)d. (2.2)

To make sense of equation (2.2), consider the following algebraic identity:

(I − C)(I + C + . . . + C m ) = I − C m+1 . (2.3)

It can be shown that if the column sums in C are all strictly less than 1, then (I − C) is
invertible, C m approaches the zero matrix as m gets arbitrarily large, and I − C m+1 → I.
Using equation (2.3), write

(I − C)−1 ≈ I + C + . . . + C m . (2.4)

When the column sums of C are less than 1. The approximation in (2.4) means that the
right side can be made as close to (I − C)−1 as desired by taking m sufficiently large. In
actual input–output models, powers of the consumption matrix approach the zero matrix
rather quickly. Likewise, for any d, the vectors C m d approach the zero vector quickly, and
(2.2) is a practical way to solve (I − C)x = d. If the entries in C and d are nonnegative,
then (2.2) shows that the entries in x are nonnegative, too.
The economic importance of entries in (I − C)−1
The entries in (I − C)−1 are significant because they can be used to predict how the
production x will have to change when the final demand d changes. In fact, the entries in
column j of (I − C)−1 are the increased amounts the various sectors will have to produce
in order to satisfy an increase of 1 unit in the final demand for output from sector j.

Example 2.1. For an economy with three sectors I, II, III. The technical coefficients
matrix is:
 
0, 1 0, 15 0, 05
 
C=
 0, 1 0, 15 0, 25.

0, 2 0, 2 0, 1

i) To produce one unit of money for industry II, how many units of the product of
industry I/industry II/industry III are needed?

ii) Assume the external demand matrix of the three industries is (100, 100, 100)T . Find
the total value of products of industry I, II, III.

Solution:

24
GRADUATION THESIS Le Ngoc Linh

i) The amount required by each industry to produce one unit of money for industry II
is the second column of the technical coefficients matrix, respectively:

+) 0.15 currency units of industry I.

+) 0.15 currency units of industry II.

+) 0.2 currency units of industry III.

ii) Applying x = (I − C)−1 d, we have:

      
x1 −0, 15 −0, 05
0, 9 100 153, 3442
      
x) 2 = −0, 1 0, 85 −0, 25 100 = 190, 8646.
      
x3 −0, 2 −0, 2 0, 9 100 187, 602

So the total product value of industry I is 153, 3442; the total value of the product of
industry II is 190, 8646 and the total value of the product of industry III is 187, 602.

2.1.4 Application to computer graphics

Computer graphics are widely used in many fields such as film, advertising, and design.
For example, the effects in the movie Avatar 2, the cartoon your name,... This section
looks at some of the basic math used to manipulate and display graphic images. Such an
image (letter) consists of a number of points, seams or curves and information on how to
fill in closed areas bounded by lines and curves. It is determined mathematically by a list

25
GRADUATION THESIS Le Ngoc Linh

of points. The mathematics of computer graphics is intimately connected with matrix

multiplication. Translating an object on a screen does not correspond directly to matrix
multiplication because translation is not a linear transformation. The standard way to
avoid this difficulty is to introduce what are called homogeneous coordinates. Games
especially 3D – One application of matrices is in games. We use it to alter the object, in
3d space. They use the 3D matrix to 2D matrix to convert it into the different objects as
per requirement.
a) Homogeneous coordinates
Each point (x, y) ∈ R2 can be identified with the point (x, y, 1) on the plane in R2 that lies
one unit above the xy-plane. (x, y) has homogeneous coordinates (x, y, 1). Homogeneous
coordinates for points can be transformed via multiplication by (3 × 3)-matrices, but they
cannot be added or multiplied by scalars.
b) Composite transformations
On a computer screen, a figure must frequently undergo two or more fundamental transfor-
mations in order to move. When homogeneous coordinates are utilized, the composition
of such transformations equates to matrix multiplication.
c) 3D computer graphics
Molecular modeling is related to some of the newest and most fascinating computer graph-
ics research. With 3D (three-dimensional) graphics, biologists and pharmacists can model
the structure of a chemical or a virus. This ability to visualize these latent chemical re-
actions is important for the study of modern diseases and drugs.

Figure 2.4: Covid-19 virus model.

Engineers, scientists and mathematicians have created virtual reality games. It includes

26
GRADUATION THESIS Le Ngoc Linh

helmets and gloves that detect head, hand and finger movements. The helmet has two
small computer screens, one for each eye. It makes the environment in the game more
realistic.
d) Homogeneous 3D coordinates
By analogy with the 2D case,(x, y, z, 1) are homogeneous coordinates for the point (x, y, z)
in R3 . In general, (X, Y, Z, H) are homogeneous coordinates for (x, y, z) if H ̸= 0 and
X Y Z
x= H
,y = H
,z = H
. Each nonzero scalar multiple of (x, y, z, 1) gives a set of homoge-
neous coordinates for (x, y, z).
e) Perspective projections

The 3D object is represented on the 2D computer screen by projecting the object onto a
viewing plane. For simplicity, let the xy-plane represent the computer screen, and imagine
that the eye of a viewer is along the positive z-axis, at a point (0, 0, d). A perspective
projection maps each point (x, y, z) onto an image point (x∗ , y ∗ , 0) so that the two points
and the eye position, called the center of projection, are on a line. The triangle in the xy-
plane in 3D is redrawn in part 2D showing the lengths of line segments. Similar triangles
x∗ y
show that d
= x
d−z
and x∗ = dx
d−z
= x
1− dz
. Similarly, y ∗ = 1− dz
. Using homogeneous
coordinates, we can represent the perspective projection by a matrix, say, P . We want
(x, y, z, 1) to map into ( 1−x z , 1−y z , 0, 1). Scaling these coordinates by 1 − dz , we can also
d d
z
use (x, y, 0, 1 − d
) as homogeneous coordinates for the image. Now it is easy to display
P . In fact,
       
x 1 0 0 0 x x
       
y  0 1 0 0
 y   y
   
P = .  =  .
   
z  0 0 0 0
 z   0
   
   
−1 z
1 0 0 d
1 1 1− d

27
GRADUATION THESIS Le Ngoc Linh

Continuous movement of graphical 3D objects requires intensive computation with (4×4)-

matrices, particularly when the surfaces are rendered to appear realistic, with texture and
appropriate lighting. High-end computer graphics boards have (4 × 4)-matrix operations
and graphics algorithms embedded in their microchips and circuitry. Such boards can per-
form the billions of matrix multiplications per second needed for realistic color animation
in 3D gaming programs.

2.1.5 Applications in production and linear planning

Application to solve system of linear equations using matrices.

Example 2.2. A fashion store that sells shirts, trousers, skirts and t-shirts. On the first
day, 12 shirts, 21 pants, 18 skirts and 3 t-shirts were sold. On the second day, 16 shirts,
24 pants, 12 skirts and 4 t-shirts were sold. On the third day, 24 shirts, 15 pants, 12 skirts
were sold. On Wednesday, 4 shirts, 4 pants, and 4 skirts were sold. Determine the price
of each product knowing that the first day’s revenue is 5, 649 million VND, the second day
is 6 million VND, the third day is 5, 259 million VND and the fourth day is 1, 236 million
VND.

Solution: Let the selling price (million VND) of each shirt, trousers, skirt and T-shirt
be x, y, z, t respectively. We have a system of equations:



 12x + 21y + 18z + 3t = 5, 649



16x + 24y + 12z + 4t = 6


24x + 15y + 12z = 5, 259








4x + 4y + 4z = 1, 236.
Returning to the matrix form, we have:
 
12 21 18 3 5, 649
 
16 24 12 4 6 
.
 

24 15 12 0 5, 259
 
4 4 4 0 1, 236
Using the calculations in the matrix, we get:



 x = 0, 098



y = 0, 125


z = 0, 086







t = 0, 1.

28
GRADUATION THESIS Le Ngoc Linh

2.1.6 Application of the Leslie-Markov model

The two models are different in name but in the same meaning and problem solving:

ˆ Leslie matrix predicts the population growth of a group of organisms, humans,...

after a period of time;

ˆ Markov matrix predicts the probability of an event (rain, sun,...) after a period of
time.

Directions for solving problems are as follows: Suppose we need to find the values of n
numbers after a certain number of periods. Assume that the current value of n numbers
is: X = (x1 , x2 , x3 , . . . , xn )T . From the conditions of the problem, we find the values
′ ′ ′ ′ ′ ′
of X = (x1 , x2 , x3 , . . . , xn )T after one cycle and write in the form: X = M X, where
the matrix M is a square matrix, called the Markov matrix (or Leslie depending on the
problem). Assume the initial values are written in a columnar matrix X0 . When the
matrix after n cycles (values after n cycles) is: Xn = M n .X0 .

Example 2.3. (The Leslie model) Consider females of species A. It is known that females
have a maximum lifespan of 15 years. People are divided into three age groups: group I
from 1 to 5 years old, group II from 6 to 10 years old and group III from 11 to 15 years
old. In group I the females are not yet fertile. Group II gave an average of 4 offspring per
female (excluding males). Group III has an average of 2 offspring per female (excluding
males). The survival rate from group I to group II was 40%, from group II to group
III was 15%. Calculated at the initial time the number of individuals of each group is
500 : 1000 : 1500 respectively. Determine the number of individuals after 5 years.

Solution: Group I has not yet been able to reproduce, group II has an average of 4
children per female, and group III has an average of 2 children per female. The survival
rate from group I to group II was 40%, from group II to group III was 15%. Thus, we
have the Leslie matrix for the above model:
 
0 4 2
 
L= 0, 4 0 0.
0 0, 15 0
At the initial time, the number of individuals in each group is respectively:
   
X0 500
   
A0 =  Y 
 0  =  1000.

Z0 1500

29
GRADUATION THESIS Le Ngoc Linh

Consider at the n-th time then the number of individuals in each age group is respectively:
 
Xn
  n
 Yn  = L .A0 .
An =  

Zn

After 5 years, the number of individuals in each age group is:

   
X5 18148
  5
 
A5 =  Y5  = L .A0 =  1040 .
  

Z5 675, 6

So after 5 years, group I has 18148 individuals, group II has 1020 individuals, and group
III has 675 individuals.

Example 2.4. (The Markov model) According to statistics, a cake shop has the fol-
lowing customer ratio:

ˆ If this week, they come to buy Type 1 cake, then next week, buy Types 1, 2, and 3,
respectively: 0.7, 0.2, 0.1.

ˆ If this week, they come to buy Type 2 cake, then next week, buy Types 1, 2, and 3,
respectively: 0.3, 0.6, 0.1.

ˆ If this week, they come to buy Type 3 cake, then next week, buy Types 1, 2, and 3,
respectively: 0.1, 0.1, 0.8.

Suppose today there are 100 customers to buy cake Type 1, 200 customers to buy cake
Type 2, 150 customers to buy cake Type 3. How many people come to buy cake Type 2
after 2 weeks?

Solution: Let’s say the number of people who come to buy cakes of this Types 1, 2, and
3 this week is x, y, z.
Suppose the number of people who come to buy cakes of Types 1, 2, and 3 weeks later is
′ ′ ′
x ,y ,z .
According to the problem, we have a system of linear equations:

′



 x = 0, 7x + 0, 3y + 0, 1z

′

 y = 0, 2x + 0, 6y + 0, 1z .


 ′
 z = 0, 1x + 0, 1y + 0, 8z

Converting to matrix form, we get:

30
GRADUATION THESIS Le Ngoc Linh

 ′   
x 0, 7 0, 3 0, 1 x
 ′   
y  = 0, 2 0, 6 0, 1 y .
    
′
z 0, 1 0, 1 0, 8 z

According to the problem, the initial matrix is:X0 = (100, 200, 150)T .
After 2 weeks, then,
   
0, 7 0, 3 0, 1 163
   
X2 = 
0, 2 0, 6 0, 1 .X0 = 137.
  

0, 1 0, 1 0, 8 150

So, the number of customers who came to buy Type 2 cake after 2 weeks was 137 people.

2.1.7 Graph theory

The adjacency matrix of a finite graph is a basic notion of graph theory. It records
which vertices of the graph are connected by an edge. Matrices containing just two
different values (1 and 0 meaning for example ”yes” and ”no”, respectively) are called
logical matrices. The distance (or cost) matrix contains information about distances of
the edges. These concepts can be applied to websites connected by hyperlinks or cities
connected by roads etc., in which case (unless the connection network is extremely dense)
the matrices tend to be sparse, that is, contain few nonzero entries. Therefore, specifically
tailored matrix algorithms can be used in network theory.

2.1.8 Analysis and geometry

The Hessian matrix of a differentiable function f : Rn → R consists of the second deriva-

tives of f with respect to the several coordinate directions, that is,

∂2f
H(f ) = ∂xi ∂xj
.

It encodes information about the local growth behaviour of the function: given a critical
point x = (x1 , . . . , xn ), that is, a point where the first partial derivatives ∂f /∂xi of f van-
ish, the function has a local minimum if the Hessian matrix is positive definite. Quadratic
programming can be used to find global minima or maxima of quadratic functions closely
related to the ones attached to matrices. Another matrix frequently used in geometrical
situations is the Jacobi matrix of a differentiable map f : Rn → Rm . If f1 , . . . , fm denote
the components of f , then the Jacobi matrix is defined as

∂fi
J(f ) = ∂xj 1≤i≤m,1≤j≤n
.

31
GRADUATION THESIS Le Ngoc Linh

If n > m, and if the rank of the Jacobi matrix attains its maximal value m, f is locally
invertible at that point, by the implicit function theorem. Partial differential equations
can be classified by considering the matrix of coefficients of the highest-order differential
operators of the equation. For elliptic partial differential equations this matrix is positive
definite, which has a decisive influence on the set of possible solutions of the equation in
question. The finite element method is an important numerical method to solve partial
differential equations, widely applied in simulating complex physical systems. It attempts
to approximate the solution to some equation by piecewise linear functions, where the
pieces are chosen concerning a sufficiently fine grid, which in turn can be recast as a
matrix equation.

2.1.9 Probability theory and statistics

Stochastic matrices are square matrices whose rows are probability vectors, that is, whose
entries are non-negative and sum up to one. Stochastic matrices are used to define Markov
chains with finitely many states. A row of the stochastic matrix gives the probability dis-
tribution for the next position of some particle currently in the state that corresponds to
the row. Properties of the Markov chain-like absorbing states, that is, states that any
particle attains eventually, can be read off the eigenvectors of the transition matrices.
Statistics also makes use of matrices in many different forms. Descriptive statistics is
concerned with describing data sets, which can often be represented as data matrices,
which may then be subjected to dimensionality reduction techniques. The covariance
matrix encodes the mutual variance of several random variables. Another technique us-
ing matrices are linear least squares, a method that approximates a finite set of pairs
(x1 , y1 ), (x2 , y2 ), . . . , (xn , yn ), by a linear function yi = axi + b, i = 1, n which can be for-
mulated in terms of matrices, related to the singular value decomposition of matrices.
Random matrices are matrices whose entries are random numbers, subject to suitable
probability distributions, such as matrix normal distribution. Beyond probability theory,
they are applied in domains ranging from number theory to physics.

2.1.10 Symmetries and transformations in physics

Linear transformations and the associated symmetries play a key role in modern physics.
For example, elementary particles in quantum field theory are classified as representations
of the Lorentz group of special relativity and, more specifically, by their behavior under
the spin group. Concrete representations involving the Pauli matrices and more general

32
GRADUATION THESIS Le Ngoc Linh

gamma matrices are an integral part of the physical description of fermions, which be-
have as spinors. For the three lightest quarks, there is a group-theoretical representation
involving the special unitary group SU (3); for their calculations, physicists use a conve-
nient matrix representation known as the Gell-Mann matrices, which are also used for the
SU (3) gauge group that forms the basis of the modern description of strong nuclear inter-
actions, quantum chromodynamics. The Cabibbo-Kobayashi-Maskawa matrix, in turn,
expresses the fact that the basic quark states that are important for weak interactions are
not the same as, but linearly related to the basic quark states that define particles with
specific and distinct masses.

2.1.11 Linear combinations of quantum states

In 1925, Heisenberg was the first to find a model of quantum mechanics. It represents
the operators of the theory in terms of infinite dimensional matrices acting on quantum
states. This is also referred to as matrix mechanics. One particular example is the
density matrix that characterizes the ”mixed” state of a quantum system as a linear
combination of elementary, ”pure” eigenstates.Another matrix serves as a key tool for
describing the scattering experiments that form the cornerstone of experimental particle
physics: Collision reactions such as occur in particle accelerators, where non-interacting
particles head towards each other and collide in a small interaction zone, with a new
set of non-interacting particles as the result, can be described as the scalar product of
outgoing particle states and a linear combination of ingoing particle states. The linear
combination is given by a matrix known as the S-matrix, which encodes all information
about the possible interactions between particles.

2.1.12 Normal modes

A general application of matrices in physics is the description of linearly coupled harmonic

systems. The equations of motion of such systems can be described in matrix form, with a
mass matrix multiplying a generalized velocity to give the kinetic term, and a force matrix
multiplying a displacement vector to characterize the interactions. The best way to obtain
solutions is to determine the system’s eigenvectors, its normal modes, by diagonalizing the
matrix equation. Techniques like this are crucial when it comes to the internal dynamics
of molecules: the internal vibrations of systems consisting of mutually bound component
atoms. They are also needed for describing mechanical vibrations, and oscillations in
electrical circuits.

33
GRADUATION THESIS Le Ngoc Linh

2.1.13 Geometrical optics

Geometrical optics provides further matrix applications. In this approximative theory,

the wave nature of light is neglected. The result is a model in which light rays are indeed
geometrical rays. If the deflection of light rays by optical elements is small, the action
of a lens or reflective element on a given light ray can be expressed as multiplication of
a two-component vector with a two-by-two matrix called ray transfer matrix analysis:
the vector’s components are the light ray’s slope and its distance from the optical axis,
while the matrix encodes the properties of the optical element. Actually, there are two
kinds of matrices, viz. a refraction matrix describing the refraction at a lens surface,
and a translation matrix, describing the translation of the plane of reference to the next
refracting surface, where another refraction matrix applies. The optical system, consisting
of a combination of lenses and/or reflective elements, is simply described by the matrix
resulting from the product of the components’ matrices.

2.1.14 Matrices are used to find collinear points

Matrices can be used to determine whether or not any three points are collinear. If three
points A(a, b), B(c, d), and C(e, f ) do not form a triangle, they are collinear, and the
triangle’s area should be zero.

2.1.15 Matrices in geology

Matrixes are used in geology to conduct seismic surveys. They are used to create graphs,
statistics, calculate and conduct scientific studies and research in a variety of subjects.
Matrices are also used to represent real-world statistics such as population, infant mor-
tality rate, and so on. They are the most accurate in the survey of the plotting methods.

Example 2.5. The statistics of the number of COVID-19 cases in Ward A are as follows:

Hamlet 1 Hamlet 2 Hamlet 3 Hamlet 4

F0 1 0 2 3
F1 3 6 9 8
F2 5 7 9 11

The above table is represented by the matrix as:

 
1 0 2 3
 
A=  3 6 9 8 

5 7 9 11

34
GRADUATION THESIS Le Ngoc Linh

The statistics of the number of COVID-19 cases in Ward B are as follows:

Hamlet 1 Hamlet 2 Hamlet 3 Hamlet 4

F0 0 1 3 2
F1 3 5 8 10
F2 6 7 9 11
The above table is represented by the matrix as:
 
0 1 3 2
 
B=  3 5 8 10

6 7 9 11
To calculate the total number of cases of two wards, we can use matrix addition:
 
1 1 5 5
 
A+B = 6 11 17 18 
11 14 18 22

2.1.16 Matrices in Information Technology

Matrix data structures are also used by many IT organizations to track user information,
execute search queries, and administer databases. Many systems in the field of information
security are built to deal with matrices. Matrices are employed in the compression of
electronic data, such as the storing of biometric data in Mauritius’s new Identity Card.

2.2 Applications of determinants

This section introduces some practical applications of determinants in life.

2.2.1 Random paths and distortion

In autobiographical book of Mr. Feynman, the Nobel Prize-winning physicist Richard

Feynman tells of observing ants in his Princeton graduate school apartment. He studied
the behavior of ants. He made it a habit to get on the paper ferry to get to the food
and then back to the nest. After the ants learned the habit, he moved back and the ants
were confused between leaving and returning. This shows how they create and follow
trails. Feynman confirmed this conjecture by placing slides on the floor. After the ants
established trails on the slides, he rearranged the slides and thus the trails on them and
directed the ants where he wanted. The ants followed those trails. Suppose Feynman
decided to conduct additional investigations using a globe made of wire mesh on which

35
GRADUATION THESIS Le Ngoc Linh

an ant had to follow each individual rope and choose between going left and right at each
intersection. If an equal number of ants and an equal number of food sources are placed
on the globe, what is the probability that each ant will find its own food source instead
of encountering the trail of another ant and follow it to a shared food source? He created
a rectangular map of the globe using the longitude and latitude on the globe as the x and
y coordinates on the map. To match the surroundings on the map, the image of an ant
near one of the poles must be larger than the image near the equator. How much bigger?
And the problem of ant path and area distortion are both best answered through the use
of determinants.

2.2.2 Cramer’s Rule

This section applies the theory of the preceding sections to obtain important theoretical
formulas and a geometric interpretation of the determinant.
Cramer’s rule is needed in a variety of theoretical calculations. For instance, it can be
used to study how the solution of Ax = b is affected by changes in the entries of b. For any
(n × n)-matrix A and any b ∈ Rn , let Ai (b) be the matrix obtained from A by replacing
column i by the vector b.
h i
Ai (b) = a1 . . . b . . . an .

Theorem 2.2. (Cramer’s Rule) Given an inverse square matrix A. The unique solution
x of Ax = b has entries given by
det Ai (b)
xi = det A
,i = 1, n, ∀b ∈ Rn .

2.2.3 Application to Engineering

A number of important engineering problems, particularly in electrical engineering and

control theory, can be analyzed by Laplace transforms. This approach converts an appro-
priate system of linear differential equations into a system of linear algebraic equations
whose coefficients involve a parameter.

2.2.4 A formula for invertible matrix

Cramer’s Rule leads easily to a general formula for the inverse of an (n × n)-matrix A.
The j-th column of A−1 is a vector x that satisfies Ax = ej where ej is the j-th column of
the identity matrix, and the i-th entry of x is the (i, j)-entry of A−1 . By Cramer’s rule,

det Ai (ej )
{(i, j)-entry ofA−1 } = xi = . (2.5)
det A
36
GRADUATION THESIS Le Ngoc Linh

Recall that Aji denotes the submatrix of A formed by deleting row j and column i. A
cofactor expansion down column i of Ai (ej ) shows that

det Ai (ej ) = (−1)i+j det Aji = Cji ,

where Cji is a cofactor of A. By (2.5), the (i, j)-entry of A−1 is the cofactor Cji divided
by det A. Thus  
C11 C21 . . . Cn1
 
1  C
 12 C 22 . . . C 
n2 
A−1 = . (2.6)
det A  ... .. .. 

 . . 

C1n C2n . . . Cnn

The matrix of cofactors on the right side of (2.6) is called the adjugate of A, denoted by
adj A. The next theorem simply restates (2.6).

Theorem 2.3. (An inverse formula) If A is an invertible (n × n)-matrix, then

A−1 = 1
det A
adjA.

2.2.5 Determinants as area or volume

In the next application, we verify the geometric interpretation of determinants described

in the chapter introduction. We assume here that the usual Euclidean concepts of length,
area, and volume are already understood for R2 and R3 .

Theorem 2.4. The area of the parallelogram determined by the columns of A is det A
for A2×2 . The volume of the parallelepiped determined by the columns of A is det A for
A3×3 .

2.2.6 Linear transformations

Determinants can be used to describe an important geometric property of linear trans-

formations in the plane and in R3 . If T is a linear transformation and S is a set in the
domain of T , let T (S) denote the set of images of points in S. We are interested in how
the area (or volume) of T (S) compares with the area (or volume) of the original set S.
For convenience, when S is a region bounded by a parallelogram, we also refer to S as a
parallelogram.

Theorem 2.5. Let T : R2 → R2 be the linear transformation determined by A2×2 . If S

is a parallelogram in R2 , then

37
GRADUATION THESIS Le Ngoc Linh

{area of T (S)} = det A .{area of S}.

If T is determined by A2×2 , and if S is a parallelepiped in R3 , then

{volume of T (S)} = det A .{volume of S}.

When we attempt to generalize above theorem to a region in R2 or R3 that is not bounded

by straight lines or planes, we must face the problem of how to define and compute its
area or volume. If R is a planar region that has a finite area, then R can be approximated
by a grid of small squares that lie inside R. By making the squares sufficiently small, the
area of R may be approximated as closely as desired by the sum of the areas of the small
squares. See Figure 2.5. If T is a linear transformation associated with A2×2 , then the

Figure 2.5: Approximating a planar region by a union of squares. The approximation improves
as the grid becomes finer.

image of a planar region R under T is approximated by the images of the small squares
inside R. The proof of above theorem shows that each such image is a parallelogram
whose area is det A times the area of the square. If R is the union of the squares inside
R, then the area of T (R) is det A times the area of R. See Figure 2.6. Also, the area
of T (R) is close to the area of T (R). An argument involving a limiting process may be
given to justify the following generalization of above theorem. The conclusions of above
theorem hold whenever S is a region in R2 with finite area or a region in R3 with finite
volume.

Figure 2.6: Approximating T (R) by a union of parallelograms.

38
GRADUATION THESIS Le Ngoc Linh

Matrices and determinants have a wide range of applications in commerce, research, the
social sciences, and other fields. Their applications are very popular and widespread in
many fields such as information technology, production, economics, graphics, physics, ...
Chapter 2 has listed some typical applications of matrices and matrices and determinants
in life.

2.2.7 Supplementary exercises

Exercises 2.2.1. A factory needs to produce 140kg of product A, 328kg of product B and
444kg of product C. Each product needs fixed three types of materials I, II and III to make
it. Knowing that each ton of grade I material costs 3 million dong, it produces 10kg of
grade A product, 20kg of grade B product and 30kg of grade C product. Each ton of grade
II material costs 2 million dong to produce. 10kg of grade A products, 32kg of grade B
products and 36kg of grade C products. Each ton of grade III raw materials costs 1 million
VND to produce 10kg of grade A products, 24kg of grade B products and 32kg of grade C
products Raw material suppliers only sell by ton, not retail.

a) Calculate the number of tons of each type of raw material to buy for the lowest
purchase cost.

b) Calculate the lowest need to buy.

Exercises 2.2.2. Through the survey, it was found that 60% is the probability that a
customer shopping at supermarket A in a certain month will come back to shop at su-
permarket A in the next month and 40% will switch to supermarket B; on the contrary,
20% of customers of supermarket B will switch to shopping at supermarket A in the next
month and 80% of customers are still loyal to supermarket B.

a) Write Markov M matrix.

b) Suppose in the survey month each supermarket has 10, 000 customers. Calculate
the number of customers for each supermarket after 6 months (assuming no new
customers and no customers stopping shopping).

Exercises 2.2.3. In the open Input-Output model, there are three economic sectors, con-
sidering the matrix of technical coefficients:
 
0, 2 m 0, 3
 
C=  0, 3 0, 1 0, 2 .

0, 2 0, 3 0, 2

39
GRADUATION THESIS Le Ngoc Linh

Knowing that the output base of the three economic sectors is (400, 200, 300), then industry
1 provides the open economy with 130 units of goods. Calculate 100 det(A).

40
Conclusion

Matrices and determinants are one of the important parts of linear algebra. Their appli-
cation is even more popular and widely used in different fields. Matrices and determinants
are a useful methods to solve real-life problems, improve students’ thinking and creativity,
and show the importance of mathematics to the surrounding life. The development of
film, technology, and design today is partly due to the help of matrices and determinants.
Mathematics is all around us. In this thesis, we have briefly presented the theory of
matrices and determinants in chapter 1 and their applications in chapter 2. The main
objective of the thesis is chapter 2. There, the applications include: computer graphics,
optics, engineering. information technology, economic analysis, statistics, geology,. . . have
been presented in detail. There are many practical applications of matrices and determi-
nants, but within the framework of this thesis, we cannot cover them all. This work will
be done in the future. We look forward to hearing from teachers and readers.
Bibliography

[1] Strang, G. (2006). Linear algebra and its applications. Belmont, CA: Thomson,
Brooks/Cole.

[2] Lay, D. C., Lay, S. R., & McDonald, J. (2016). Linear algebra and its applications.
Pearson Education.

[3] Lax, P. D. (2007). Linear algebra and its applications (Vol. 78). John Wiley & Sons.

[4] Noble, B., & Daniel, J. W. (1977). Applied linear algebra (Vol. 477). Englewood Cliffs,
NJ: Prentice-Hall.

[5] Meyer, C. D. (2000). Matrix analysis and applied linear algebra (Vol. 71). Siam.

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