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Ali Muinde
Alex da Amélia Alfredo Veriano
Omar Chomar Assuate

Introduction to Sociolinguistics
Licenciatura em Ensino de Inglês com Habilitação em Português

Instituto Superior de Recursos Naturais e Ambiente

Universidade Rovuma
2025
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Ali Muinde
Alex da Amélia Alfredo Veriano
Omar Chomar Assuate

Introduction to Sociolinguistics

Presented to the Department of Letters and

social Science in Sociolinguistics evaluation
requirements. 1st Semester, 4th Year.

MA. Selemane Mitilage

Instituto Superior de Recursos Naturais e Ambiente

Universidade Rovuma

2025
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Content pages
Introduction.......................................................................................................................4

1Sociolinguistics................................................................................................................5

2. Relationship between Language and Society................................................................5

3. Bell’s Criteria on the Distinction Between Language and Dialect................................6

4. Bilingualism and Multilingualism: Code Choice, Mixing, and Switching...................7

Code Choice......................................................................................................................8

Code Mixing......................................................................................................................8

Code Switching.................................................................................................................8

Sociolinguistic Functions of Code Switching and Mixing................................................9

Conclusion.......................................................................................................................10

References.......................................................................................................................10
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Introduction
Sociolinguistics is the study of how language and society influence each other. It
explores how people use language in different social situations and how social factors
such as age, gender, ethnicity, and social class affect the way people speak. According
to Holmes (1992), “Sociolinguistics is concerned with the relationship between
language and the context in which it is used” (p. 1). This means language is not only a
system of rules, but also a social tool that helps people communicate in different
settings. This essay will explain key topics in sociolinguistics, including the definition
of language, the relationship between language and society, Bell’s criteria for
distinguishing between language and dialect, and the concepts of bilingualism and
multilingualism, including code-switching and code-mixing.
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1. Sociolinguistics
Sociolinguistics is a branch of linguistics that focuses on how language is used in
society. On other hand, TRUDGHILI (1974) defines sociolinguistics as the study of
language in its social context. It looks at how language varies depending on where
people are, who they are talking to, and what their background is.

Sociolinguists study the relationship between language and society. They

are interested in explaining why we speak differently in different social
contexts, and they are concerned with identifying the social functions of
language and the ways it is used to convey social meaning. Examining
the way people use language in different social contexts provides a
wealth of information about the way language works, as well as about
the social relationships in a community, and the way people convey and
construct aspects of their social identity through their language.
HOLMES (2013, p.1).

For example, someone might speak differently at home with family than at school or at
work. The same person may use informal language with friends but formal language in
a job interview. These changes in speech are what sociolinguists study.

Sociolinguists are interested in many topics, such as regional accents, slang, gendered
speech styles, and how language can include or exclude people from groups.

2. Relationship between Language and Society

Before we discuss about the Relationship between Language and Society it is important
to define what is is Language first. However, according to SINGH (1988), Language is
a system of communication that uses sounds, words, and grammar to share ideas and
information. It allows people to express thoughts, emotions, and culture. Every human
society has language, and it is essential for communication.

Language and society are deeply connected. The way people speak often shows their
identity, such as their age, region, or social group. Holmes (1992) explains that
language both shapes society and is shaped by it. For example, people may speak
differently at home, at school, or in formal settings. Language can also show power
relationships. For instance, official languages are chosen by governments and used in
education and media, while minority languages might not be officially recognized.
Singh (1988) notes that language can help form and protect cultural identity.
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For example, in many countries, people from different regions speak different dialects.
A person from the north might use different words or pronunciation than someone from
the south. These differences are not random; they show social and cultural influences.

Language also helps people belong to social groups. SINGH (1988) says that language
can show group membership and cultural background. When people speak the same
way, they feel part of the same group. When they speak differently, it can show that
they are from different groups.

Sometimes, language also shows power. For example, the way teachers speak in school
can influence how students speak. Governments may also choose an “official
language,” which affects which languages are seen as more important.

3. Bell’s Criteria on the Distinction between Language and Dialect

Bell’s Criteria for Distinguishing Language and Dialect, Bell (1976) proposed a set of
sociolinguistic criteria to differentiate between a language and a dialect, recognizing
that such distinctions are often influenced by non-linguistic factors. His framework
includes the following seven criteria:

 Standardization – A language is typically standardized with codified grammar

and orthography, unlike dialects which may lack formal rules.
 Vitality – This refers to the extent to which a variety is used in daily
communication; languages usually have broader functional use than dialects.
 Historic Status – Languages often have a recorded historical tradition, whereas
dialects may not.
 Autonomy – A language is seen as an independent system, whereas a dialect is
viewed as dependent on a related language.
 Reduction – Dialects may exhibit limited functional domains and lexical
resources compared to fully developed languages.
 Mixture – Dialects are sometimes perceived as linguistically "mixed," while
languages are seen as more "pure."
 Norms – Languages generally have accepted norms of correctness, which
dialects may lack.
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Bell emphasizes that these criteria are relative and context-dependent. Often, political,
cultural, or ideological influences outweigh purely linguistic considerations in
determining whether a variety is classified as a language or a dialect.

Therefore, it is not always easy to tell the difference between a language and a dialect.
Bell introduced criteria to help make this distinction. These include standardization,
autonomy, and historicity. A language usually has a written form, grammar books, and
is officially accepted. A dialect may not have these things and is often seen as a
variation of a language. Wardhaugh (1986) says that political decisions often affect
whether a way of speaking is called a language or a dialect. For example, Serbian and
Croatian are very similar but are seen as separate languages for political reasons.

4. Bilingualism and Multilingualism: Code Choice, Mixing, and Switching

Bilingualism means speaking two languages, and multilingualism means using more
than two. In many countries, people speak different languages at home, school, and in
the community.

Harmer and Blanc (1989) define bilingualism as the regular use of two languages. In
these communities, people often use code-switching and code-mixing. Code-switching
is changing languages in a conversation, while code-mixing is using elements of one
language inside another sentence. Holmes (1992) says people switch codes for many
reasons, such as to show identity, include someone in the conversation, or show respect.

Bilingualism refers to the ability of an individual to use two languages effectively, while

multilingualism extends this ability to three or more languages. These phenomena are

increasingly common in a globalized world where communication across linguistic

boundaries is frequent. Sociolinguistically, bilingualism and multilingualism are not

only individual attributes but also societal realities, influencing language use in various

contexts.

4.1. Code Choice

Code choice refers to the decision a bilingual or multilingual speaker makes when
selecting which language (or variety of a language) to use in a given social context. This
decision is influenced by various factors, including:
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 Setting (formal vs. informal)

The setting or social context of the interaction: Where are they speaking?
The participants:

a) Who is speaking and

b) Who are they speaking to?
Participants (status, relationship, language proficiency).
The topic of conversation: What is being talked about?
Function or purpose of communication: Why are they speaking?
Norms and expectations of the speech community (Holmes, 2013)
For example, a Mozambican student may choose Portuguese in a classroom discussion,
but switch to a local language like Changana or Sena when talking with friends at home.

4.2. Code Mixing

Code mixing involves the blending of elements (words, phrases, or morphemes) from
two or more languages within the same sentence or utterance. It typically occurs at the
intra-sentential level and reflects a high level of bilingual competence.

Eg: “Vou comprar um bolo na loja, depois I’ll meet you no mercado.”

Here, elements of English are inserted into a Portuguese sentence. Code mixing often
signals social identity, solidarity, or stylistic effect. It can also be a natural outcome of
bilingual cognition, where speakers draw from their entire linguistic repertoire
(Muysken, 2000).

4.3. Code Switching

Code switching refers to the alternation between two or more languages or language
varieties in conversation. Unlike code mixing, code switching can occur at the inter-
sentential or intra-sentential level and may be more structured and context-dependent.

Types of code switching (Poplack, 1980):

Inter-sentential switching: switching between sentences. Eg: “I don’t know what he
said. Mas parecia zangado.”

Intra-sentential switching: switching within a single sentence. Eg: “Ela disse que
estava very tired ontem.”
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Tag switching: inserting a tag or phrase from one language into another. E.g: “Isso é
verdade, you know?”

Sociolinguistic Functions of Code Switching and Mixing

Code-switching and code-mixing are common linguistic phenomena in multilingual

societies. They occur when speakers alternate between two or more languages or
language varieties during communication. These practices are not random or indicative
of confusion, but rather serve specific social and communicative functions.
Understanding the sociolinguistic functions of these processes helps us to see how
language is shaped by identity, context, culture, and society.

These practices serve multiple sociolinguistic functions, such as: Clarification or

repetition for emphasis, Group identity and solidarity, Topic shift or change in tone,
Exclusion or inclusion of participants in a conversation
Display of bilingual competence or cultural affiliation. According to Gumperz (1982),
code switching is often a tool for achieving communicative effectiveness and managing
interpersonal relations.
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Conclusion

Sociolinguistics helps us understand how language works in real life. It shows that
language changes depending on social context. Language is not only a set of rules, but
also a way to express identity, relationships, and power. Bell’s criteria help explain the
difference between language and dialect, while the study of bilingualism and
multilingualism shows how people use more than one language effectively.
Sociolinguistics is important because it connects language to the lives of people in
society.
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References
Harmer, J., & Blanc, M. (1989). Bilinguality & bilingualism. Cambridge: CUP.

Holmes, J. (1992). Sociolinguistics. Longman.

Singh, G. (1988). Languages, race and education. UK: Jaysons & Company.

Stern, H. H. (1983). Fundamental concepts of language teaching. Oxford: OUP.

Trudgill, P. (1974). Sociolinguistics – An introduction to language and society. Penguin

Books.

Wardhaugh, R. (1986). An introduction to sociolinguistics. UK: Basil Blackwell.

Bell, R. T. (1976). Sociolinguistics: Goals, Approaches, and Problems. Batsford.

Grosjean, F. (2010). Bilingual: Life and Reality. Harvard University Press.

Holmes, J. (2013). An Introduction to Sociolinguistics (4th ed.). Routledge.

Muysken, P. (2000). Bilingual Speech: A Typology of Code-Mixing. Cambridge

University Press.

Poplack, S. (1980). Sometimes I'll start a sentence in Spanish y termino en español:

Toward a typology of code-switching. Linguistics, 18(7-8), 581–618.

Gumperz, J. J. (1982). Discourse Strategies. Cambridge University Press.