CHAPTER 1: EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY FOR LEARNING AND

TEACHING

KEY QUESTIONS
After reading this chapter,you should be able to answer the following
questions: What is the purpose of educational psychology?
How can educational psychology contribute to my development as a
teacher? What is the role of reflection in teaching,and which tools will help?
How can l use these reflective tools in quality ways to enhance my teaching?

WHAT IS EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY?

Some students ask:"Why not just simplify and call it psychology? "The
reason is that educational psychology is a discipline in its own right,and
connects the disciplines of education and psychology(Walberg x
Haertel,1992). It involves not only scientific research on the various
dimensions of learning and teaching,but also the investigation of ways to
apply psychological principles to educational contexts with the aim of
enhancing learning and teaching quality.
One of the things students enjoy most about this subject is that,by studying
theories of learning and development,they learn a lot about their own
development and what influences their learning. A number of the effective
teaching practices you experienced at school could be traced back to some
element of educational psychology. As you read this book,you will begin to
understand your own learning processes and how to improve them. You will
also be challenged to think about ways in which teaching could be improved
to cater for student differences and particular student needs.
WHO STUDIES EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY?
The discipline of educational psychology can be applied in many
contexts.You may have taken up this book because you plan to be a
teacher,and must study educational psychology as a foundation unit.Other
readers may be psychology students who are interested in working with
children or adolescents,whether in professional practice or as a counsellor
in a school setting.Others may be preparing to be educational psychologists
-qualified psychologists who specialise in applying their expertise in
educational contexts,and who work in schools or other institutional settings
(for example,university,government or corporate settings)where education
takes place.Still others may be reading this text to better understand their
own learning and the education process.
We recognise that the majority of this books readers will be planning a
teaching or related career .For this reason,our examples focus on carly
childhood,school-aged children and youth.

WHY STUDY ALL THOSE THEORIES?

It is true that when you first start studying educational psychology,you are
introduced to many theories.Some educational psychology students have
been heard to say:"Ed.psych.is just a lot of theory ….Icame to uni to learn
how to teach kids!"Our advice to you is to not lose heart and to remember
that theories have an important purpose.
You will discover that theories form the foundation for understanding many
critical issues that facelearners and educators in the 21st
century.Throughout this book,and particularly in the first half,we link
theory to practice and encourage you to do the same.You will find that
theories help us answer questions such as:What are the best ways of
studying?How can I improve motivation -both mine and others?Why do
some young people give up on themselves,and what can I do about it?How
can technology be used to enhance learning?Is education redundant in the
information age?
Educational psychology and the theories of development and learning
covered in this text will:
● help you understand your own development and factors that have
contributed to it
● provide strategies to enhance the quality of your learning and
motivation
● guide your understanding of how learners learn and how educators
can become more effective in their teaching practice
● contribute to your personal philosophy of learning and teaching.
REFLECTIVE TEACHING
Students sometimes enter teacher education courses with the aim of
discovering the best way to teach'.Researchers in educational psychology
have also looked at what makes an effective teacher.In one international
study,Clarke,Keitel and Shimizu(2006)researched the practices of
competent teachers in16 different countries,including Australia,and found
that many different approaches were used.Theyalso discovered that
effective teachers drew on a variety of teaching and learning strategies.In
line with their conclusions,we argue in this book that there is no one best
way to teach,but rather that effective teaching is linked to making effective
choices for yourself as a teacher,and about your subject matter and for your
students.These may involve choices about curriculum content,learning and
teaching strategics,methods of assessment and reporting,how to motivate
students,catering for individual difference and classroom management.How
do teachers evaluate whether their choices were good ones? Educational
psychology can help.

CHAPTER REVIEW
● Educational psychology is the application of psychological principles
to the study of learning and teaching.
● Studying educational psychology can contribute to your
understanding of yourself as a learner teacher,as well as of your
students,and to your understanding of the learning and teaching
processes themselves
● Effective teaching is linked to making effective choices.and
educational psychology can help to guideteachers in both making and
evaluating their choices.
● Educational psychology informs and deepens reflection on teaching
practice.
● Tools for critical reflection include reflective
journals,portfolios,mentors and observation.
● Developing a personal philosophy of learning and teaching can guide
choices;provide insights into your
● own behaviours,thoughts and feelings;and reveal implicit knowledge
and theories you bring to your practice
● Using existing research can inform practice,provide new ideas for
teaching,evaluate choices and makesense of experiences.
● Conducting research involves asking questions,and seeking answers
to those questions.Methods include experiment,interview and
observation.
● Action research links reflection on teaching toresearch.It involves a
cycle of reflection,planning and action.
● Research quality is determined by validity and reliability.as well as
ethical considerations such as confidentiality.informed consent and
voluntary participation.
CHAPTER 2: EMERGINGS SKILLS
KEY QUESTIONS
● After reading this chapter,you should be able to answer the following
questions:What are some milestones of physical development from
early childhood toadolescence?
● How are physical development,language development and school
skillsconnected?Give examples of the relationships between them.
● How do developments in the brain over time explain the broad
patterns ofdevelopment seen in physical,language and school skills?
● Broadly describe the course of language acquisition.What influences
it?
● How does the teaching of literacy and mathematics build on earlier
developments?
● What are some key principles of development ?
THINKING CRITICALLY ABOUT BRAIN RESEARCH AND THE
CLASSROOM
LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT AND THE CLASSROOM
● Some of the principles drawn from how children learn language
suggest initiatives teachers can implement in classrooms to contribute
to language development:
● Interaction contributes to language development:give students
opportunities to interact with a wide range of partners on a range of
topics.
● Develop vocabulary through talking with students and encouraging
reading about a variety of topics
● Allow children to direct the focus of interaction.
● Explicitly teach students how to use irregular forms.They may not
hear them used consistently in everyday speech.
● Build students'awareness of language by talking about how language
works,and by drawing attention to specific language features in
relation to content areas.
● Contribute to metalinguistic awareness with the use of
riddles,rhymes.jokes and metaphors in middle childhood -but ensure
that all students understand them.Remember that there are individual
differences in the rate of development.
 ● Similarly,explore proverbs and multiple meanings in
adolescence,allowing students both to find layers of meaning in texts
and to construct their own.
● You will see more examples of ways in which language contributes to
learning in the section on the school-based skills of literacy and
numeracy below.

STAGES OF SECOND-LANGUAGE ACQUISITION IN THE CLASSROOM

What will you see in the classroom?There will be considerable variation in
learners'progress inEnglish as an additional language or dialect,depending
on their age.experience and context.but five broad stages of development
have been identified.Goldstein (2014)summarised the features of these
stages of second-language acquisition.
Stage 1:Preproduction
As in first-language acquisition.learners'receptive language advances
further than their expressivelanguage in the early stages of language
learning.There may be a silent period of up to six months during this
stage,and/or a period when students converse with peers but not with
adults in the new language. This should be seen as a natural aspect of the
early stage of second-languageacquisition.Students respond to simple
commands and can understand up to 500 words.
Stage 2:Early production
The focus on receptive language continues.Approximately 3-6 months after
being introduced to the new language,students understand yes/no and
what/when/why questions,and generally use one-to three-word phrases and
formulaic expressions such as “How-are-you?" .They understand and use up
to 1000 words.
Stage 3:Speech emergence
Six months to two years after being introduced to the language.
Learners'comprehension improves, and their vocabulary expands to allow
them to talk in simple sentences.Some grammatical errors are shown in
their speech and writing as they start to use more complex
grammar.Vocabulary increases to about 3000 words.
Stage 4:Intermediate fluency
Approximately three years on.comprehension improves still further,and
learners showcompetent skills in face-to-face conversations.They can
express their thoughts and opinions,using complex constructions,and show
few grammatical errors.Vocabulary continues to increase,to approximately
6000 words.
Stage 5:Advanced language proficiency
Five to seven years after being introduced to the
language,students'grammar and vocabulary are similar to those of a native
speaker.They can use the specialised vocabulary of particular subject areas
and can participate in classroom activities at their grade level.

Nicholas and Lightbown (2008)pointed out that the process of learning a

second language differs for children of different ages.Following are some
suggestions from the literature for supporting second-language learners in
early childhood,middle childhood and adolescence.
EARLY CHILDHOOD
Young children (under seven)draw on features of their first language,such
as word order,to help them to meet the challenges of producing a second
language.
There may be extended periods (months.or even a year such as in one
case)of silence, during which students understand but do not produce the
second language.This may be strategic,with children focusing on learning
from input before they attempt to produce it.
Children may 'code-switch'-use a mixture of first and second language -and
need to learn when this is appropriate,and when they might not be
understood.
Language play is an important feature of young children's use of first
language (see
page 48),and through it,second-language learners can learn and explore the
features of the new language.For example,teachers can use language play
to explore difficult features such as pronunciation through tongue twisters
and rhymes.Children can also attain an identity as a peer in the classroom
through language play and mimicry (Philp Duchesne.
2008).Lightbown and Spada (2008)point out that it is important,however,for
children to move on to adult forms.
For young children,the focus should be on language associated with
activities,actions and simple thinking operations,with language presented
and used in context.
MIDDLE CHILDHOOD
Children need not only to learn the second language,but to learn through it
as well,so that they can develop skills in using the language for academic
purposes.
Second language can be taught in the context of,and through,all curriculum
areas,not just in English classes.

ADOLESCENCE
● Older children may learn from decontextualised language,and from
language associated with more complex thinking.
● Students apply their knowledge of their first language and may rely
on translating to a greater degree than younger learners.They need
also to develop knowledge of the second language and how it
works,so that they can draw on this knowledge independently of the
first
● identity can be particularly important for students in adolescence,and
language is part ofidentity.Consider how to support second-language
learners to construct identities as full members of the class group.
● Opportunities to interact informally with native speakers are
important both to provide inputand to allow the practice of
output.Encouraging positive relationships between native andnon-
native peers in the classroom can thus be valuable.
CHAPTER 3: COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT AND VYGOTSKY’S
SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY
KEY QUESTIONS
● After reading this chapter,you should be able to answer the following
questions:
● What are the four factors that,according to Piaget,contribute to the
development of thinking from infancy to adulthood?
● What are the key developmental milestones in Piaget's sensorimotor?
● preoperational.concrete-operations and formal-operations stages of
cognitive development?
 ● What are some issues educators need to consider when working with
those in the sensorimotor, preoperational,concrete-operations and
formal-operations stages?What roles do social and cultural influences
play in Vygotsky s ideas about children's cognitive development?
● What changes in children's processing of information with
development,and how can these developments explain changes in
reasoning such as Piaget and Vygotsky observed?
● What mechanisms influence cognitive development according to
information-processing theories?

PIAGET'S COGNITIVE STAGES

Piaget believed that rather than being continuous,children's cognitive
development is discontinuous,proceeding sequentially through a series of
distinct'stages'from birth to adulthood,with thinking atone stage building on
the one before,and being qualitatively different from it (see Figure 3.5).A
stage-based concept of development can be likened to climbing stairs:each
step (or stage)in the hierarchical sequence of development involves the
progression to a more advanced level of functioning,which is followed by a
period of consolidation before an individual proceeds to the next step.Piaget
believed that the stages he identified had two very important
properties:first,they are universal (that is,they apply to
everyone);second,they are invariant(that is,unchanging),meaning that the
order in which children pass through the stages cannot be varied.Children
must progress through them in sequence,beginning with the sensorimotor
stage,although some may never reach the final stage of formal
operations.For each of his stages of cognitive development,Piaget identified
what he called 'developmental milestones'-key achievements that have to be
attained by a child at each cognitive level.A number o fdevelopmental
milestones have been identified for each of Piaget's four stages,and selected
examples from each level are shown in Table 3.1.

Stage 1:Sensorimotor period (birth to 2 years)

Piaget termed the first stage of development 'sensorimotor'because infants
act on the world understand the world through those actions,and
particularly through their senses and through motion.We saw this in the
examples of the child in the cot,grasping and seeking to explore things with
his mouth,and the child in the high chair,dropping the cup.Schemas at this
stage are organised patterns ofbehaviour.When you compare a newborn
with a 2-year-old,you become aware of the enormity of the changes that
occur over the sensorimotor stage of development.Newborn infants are
basically helplessand will not survive without assistance.They have no
language,very little mobility and primitive social skills (see Chapter 2). The
sensorimotor stage usually lasts only two years,but is the period in which
the most dramatic developmental changes occur.From being capable of only
reflexive actions such a sucking and grasping,infants begin to gain
voluntary control over their actions,and steadily develop new strategies and
schemes for exploring and interacting with objects and people.They learn to
imitate the actions of others and,in the latter months of the sensorimotor
period,engage in simple forms of pretend play.Three of the developmental
milestones achieved during this period -object permanence,the beginning of
goal-directed or intentional action,and deferred imitation-are of particular
interest.Until they reach about four months of age,infants do not fully
understand that concrete objects have a permanent existence (Lutz
&Sternberg,1999).However,by approximately eight months (see,for
example,Baillargeon,1991,2008;Mareschall,2000;Moore
&Melzoff,2008;Spelke,Breinlinger,Macomber &Jacobson,1992)they have
attained object permanence;that is,if a toy drops out of sight,babies will
look for it,even if they cannot reach out to search for it.Research that
measuredinfants'awareness of object permanence by the length of time at
which they look at a stimulus and their heart rate or brain wave activity
indicates that babies have some awareness of object permanence from as
young as two and a half months,although its mastery is not completed until
about 14 months (Cohen &Cashon,2006).Complete mastery of object
permanence appears to depend on development of the frontal lobes in the
brain's cerebral cortex (Bell,1998)as well as experience.
From about six months of age,infants become capable of goal-directed or
intentional action,meaning that they begin to use their own actions and
vocalisations to influence the actions of others in order to achieve a desired
goal,such as attention,comfort or food (see,for example,Tomasello
&Carpenter,2007).

Stage 2: Preoperational period (2 years to 6 or 7 years)

Symbolic thought is a critical milestone for the preoperational stage,seen in
the acquisition of language,and also in children's play.As we saw in Chapter
2,over the period from about two years of age to the first years of formal
schooling,some astonishing changes occur in communication and language
skills.This acquisition of language permits children to refer to objects that
are not present,and to interact with their environment in much broader
ways.
The emergence of symbolic(or representational)thought is probably most
evident in children's playover the preoperational period.At the simplest
level,a toddler learns to pretend that Teddy is drinking from a cup or having
a bath.Stones become cakes and a broom is a horse.Language also
accompanies this play,and Piaget argued that it directs the child's action
and thinking.Play is very important at thisstage.It is a platform for
developing a child's understanding of symbols and the ways in which
symbols can be used to represent objects and events.Later,games are
played that involve role-taking (Mummy and Daddy,the doctor,Batman,a
princess),and imaginary friends appear.Types of play and their development
are discussed in Chapter 4.
During this period,children begin to create their own stories and to draw
representational pictures(see Figure 3.6).Earlier,in the sensorimotor
stage,children draw largely random scribbles;but graduallythey begin to
attempt to draw realistically.These developments are dependent on the

emergence of representation or the use of symbols.

While there are major achievements in thinking in this stage,Piaget
identified limitations too.Here,Piaget identified three related
issues:egocentrism;centration,or a tendency to be perception-bound;and
animism.
Egocentrism,or the tendency for children to think and talk about things
from their own immediate perspective,is most evident in children's use of
language.For example,a child may talk to a stranger about familiar people
or events and be surprised that the stranger does not share the child's
knowledge of those people and events.You may be familiar with this when
talking to young children on the phone:they are likely to nod for yes'and to
point to someone in the room with them,not accounting for the fact that you
cannot see what they see.Piaget used a task known as the 'three-mountains
problem'to explore children's egocentrism.This involved showing children a
model of three mountains:one snow-capped,the second with a red cross and
the third with a small house on top.The children were then shown some
photographs and asked to choose one that represented what a doll sitting at
the oppositeside of the table would see.Most 4-year-olds did not realise that
theirs was not the only possible view of the model.They could not imagine
what another person,looking from a different angle,would see.They could
only describe what another person might see in terms of what they
themselves saw.Their thinking was egocentric.
Researchers following Piaget have challenged Piaget's findings and
conclusions about children'segocentrism,and the three-mountains task in
particular.Piaget's conclusions have been questioned, because of the
difficulties presented by the three-mountains task,with its unfamiliar
context,use of photographs and abstract nature.In alternative
tasks,Borke(1975),Hughes (in Donaldson,1978)andNewcombe and
Huttenlocher(1992)have found that children as young as three years old are
aware ofothers'different viewpoints,when the task is presented to them in a
familiar context.This has been one of the key challenges to Piaget's
theory:when children's tasks are placed within a familiar context,they are
given a purpose they can understand,they show more advanced thinking
than Piaget described.

Centration refers to children's inability to focus on more than one or two

conspicuous aspects of a situation,and their tendency not to notice
other,less dominant features.A characteristic of children at the
preoperational stage is that they are perception-bound',meaning that they
attend to the physical appearance of objects and situations,and that they
believe what they see.If one object looks taller thananother,they will say
that the taller object is the bigger of the two.If one object looks wider,they
will say that object is bigger (see Box 3.2).
Katie(aged three)touched an electric fence and got a shock.'Ow,it bit me -
bad fence!"was herreaction.This exemplifies another characteristic of
preoperational children,that of animism,or the tendency to think of
inanimate objects as being alive and capable of thinking and feeling like
humans(Flavell,2004;Piaget,1929).Later work has extended this to describe
magical thinking in children at this stage:for example,young children may
believe that the Easter bunny scatters chocolate eggs for them to find,or
that the moon is watching over them(Subbotsky,2010).Some argue that the
animism Piaget observed in children's thinking at the preoperational stage
is learned,rather than being characteristic of this developmental
stage.Adults often talk in animistic ways to children,and children's books
and cartoons often include animism and magical thinking(for example,the
stories of PeterRabbit,or Walt Disney cartoons).Understanding the
distinction between animate or living things and inanimate objects is a
fundamental task in cognitive development (Rakison,2005;Rakison &Poulin-
Dubois,2001).
Stages 3: Concrete-operations period(7 years to 11 or 12 years)
The developmental milestones for the child at the concrete-operationsstage
are many,but there is one that is particularly significant:conservation,or the
child's understanding that certain characteristics (such as length or
volume)of an object do not change when the object's physical
appearancechanges.There are a number of logical principles involved in
conservation at the concrete-operations stage,but in this chapter we focus
on the following five principles:identity,reversibility,compensation,seriation
and classification.These can readily be demonstrated in Piaget's
conservation tasks (see Box 3.2 on page 87).
Three of the conservation principles-identity,reversibility and compensation
-underlie successful performance of the conservation tasks.All three
principles are linked to the very first property of matter children have to
understand:that is,object permanence.Children must learn that things have
a relatively permanent 'identity'or existence.We saw the beginnings of this
understanding emerge in the preoperational period,when children
understand that things (and people)continue to exist even without of
sight.In conservation,this is extended to properties such as volume and
number.A quantity of water is still the same even though its height changes
when you pour it into a fat saucer or into a tallglass.A quantity of playdough
is still the same whether you have it in one lump or break it up into100 little
pieces and spread the pieces over a larger space.Children also learn that
any changes made to objects and materials can be reversed and the
materials changed back into their original form;that is,the water can be
poured back into the glass and the little bits of playdough rolled back into
one biglump.This is reversibility.
Similarly,children learn that changes in any one part of a closed system or
situation will lead to compensation,or complementary changes in another
part.For example,in the water exampleabove,the width of the water in one
glass is compensated by the height of the water in a thinner glass.These
principles appear in children's explanations for their answers in the
conservation tasks.Theyare acquired very slowly.Piaget argued that young
children tend to focus on just one dimension of a situation -usually the most
obvious one -which contributes to this limitation in thinking
aboutcompensation.An explanation of this tendency to focus on one
dimension at a time is young children'slimitations in the ability to control
attention,which depends on development of the prefrontal
cortex(Galotti,2011).

Seriation is concerned with the ability to order objects according to a

dimension such as length orthickness.A child's game of nesting boxes is a
good example of seriation:each box must be fitted into the next by size so
that at the end of the game,all the boxes disappear inside the largest
one.Seriation is important to concepts such as measurement.
Classification occurs when objects are grouped together according to a
criterion such as shape,colour,function or size.It includes,for example,the
knowledge that dogs,cows and donkeys are all animals',and that
pencils,computers and words are all tools for communication'.Seriation and
classificationare among the most important achievements of the concrete-
operations stage.They develop late in this period and indicate that the child
has developed logical operations',or the ability to apply logicalreasoning to
a problem-solving task.
One of the key aspects of dassification is class inclusion,or the
understanding that a number of small collections can be combined in
different ways to form a larger collection.This is sometimes called'multiple
classification',such as occurs when a preoperational child recognises that
something can be afHower and it can be a rose.' Simultaneous multiple
classification'occurs at the concrete-operations stage and is demonstrated
when a 5-or 6-year-old looks at his mother quizzically and
asks,'Mummy,when you are at school being a teacher,are you still my
mummy?”(W)F,personal communication,October
2001).You can try this yourself.Ask a 5-year-old 'How many boys are coming
to your party? "The child might answer Eight'.Now ask the child How many
girls?"and the reply might be "Two'.Arethere more boys or more
girls?"'More boys.''Will there be more boys or more children at your
party?"The child is likely to reply 'More boys'.This last response is not
related to the child not knowing whatchildren'means,because if you ask the
child a separate question,"What are children?",the answer will be Children
are boys and girls'.The problem is that the child is focused on only one
dimension (in this case,the larger group 'boys')and does not understand that
there can be subgroups (that is,"boys and girls)that can be combined into a
bigger,single dass (in this instance 'children').
At the concrete-operations stage,children may seem to use words such
as 'some'and all'appropriately,but their understanding of these terms is not
yet fully consistent with adult usage.Once children realise that objects can
be classified in terms of more than one dimension(that is,the children can
solve a class-incussion problem),they seem amazed if you ask questions
such as Are there more boys or more children?"and can then respond very
quickly to the question.Consider how much of our education system
depends on this type of understanding:you can see why these cognitive
skills are so important and why children need to master them.
The main limitation in children's thinking at the concrete-operations stage
of development is that their understanding of mental operations is
restricted to concrete situations.They are concerned with the present and
are not yet able to think hypothetically,in the abstract.However,their
thinking is no longer dominated by what they see:they can now carry out
tasks that require logical or mathematical reasoning;for instance,arranging
objects in terms of a dimension such as length or weight
(seriation),grouping objects in terms of similar features such as shape or
colour(classification),or predicting if various weights placed at different
points on each side of a balance beam will tip the balance or keep it
horizontal (proportion).
Stage 4:Formal-operations period (11 or 12 years to adulthood)
The key characteristic of the formal-operations stage is that the young
person who has reached this level of cognitive development demonstrates a
capacity to think-not just about concrete realities,butalso about abstract
possibilities or'an infinite number of imaginable
realities'(Siegler,1998,p.43).One task Piaget devised to demonstrate this
was 'the third eye'.He asked children where they would put a third eye if it
were possible to have one,and to explain their thinking
(Piaget,1970).Children at the concrete-operational stage tend to put the eye
on their forehead,in a similar position to their existing eyes,whereas by the
formal-operational stage,they are more inventive,putting it at the back of
their head,in their hand or on a foot (sec Figure 3.8),and to imagine other
uses for their eye.
Piaget saw thinking about one's own thought'as the key clement of cognitive
development in the formal-operational stage.Kuhn and
Franklin(2006)likewise provide evidence to suggest that in
adolescence,what develops is an 'executive function'that gives control over
thinking and monitoring of thought processes,which makes thinking and
learning more effective -we discuss this executive function later in this
chapter,and again in Chapter 6,in the section on metacognition.The main
developmental task for the formal-operations stage is attainment of the
capacity for abstract thought,and for propositional and hypothetical
reasoning.

ư
Adolescents are able to reason logically,speculate and hypothesise far more
readily than concrete-operational children,who are more dependent on what
they see,hear and experience.Adolescents no longer need a reference to
real-life situations in order to do a task.Ideas can be formulated,tried
outmentally,and later tested in real-life situations.Reasoning is now
deductive reasoning,meaning that rules or general principles are used to
form hypotheses about possible solutions to specific problems,with these
hypotheses then being tested to see if the predictions are true.This can be
contrasted withinductive reasoning,or the ability to induce general
principles or rules from knowledge of specific examples,then apply the rules
to predict new instances(see the discussion of discovery learning in
Chapter 6).Ideas about infinity,humanity,democracy or compassion can now
be conceptualised.Thekey developmentxzal milestones to be achieved in the
period of formal-operational thinking are therefore:propositional
thinking',or reasoning about the logic of statements such as:

'hypothetico-deductive reasoning,,or the ability to form hypotheses and

argue from them.
Not surprisingly,in view of his background in science,Piaget used
mathematical and scientific-type
tasks that involved propositional and hypothetico-deductive thinking in the
studies he conducted into

formal-operational thinking (Inhelder &Piaget,1958).

Examples of the scientific-type tasks Piaget used with older children include
a problem that involves probability(see Box 3.4),and others that involve a
pendulum and a colourless chemical(chemical combination).In the
pendulum problem,students are asked to identify the variables that
influence the rate of oscillation in a pendulum's swing.Is it the attached
weight,the height from which the weight is released,the length of the
string,the amount of pressure exerted to set the pendulum swinging,or
some other factor that affects the oscillation rate?Children at the concrete-
operations stage usually consider all possible factors at the same time and
"have great difficulty in excluding the weight factor'(Piaget x
Inhelder,1969,p.148).Older children who have reached the formal stage in
thinking are able to separate the factors and establish that the rate of the
pendulum's swing reflects the length of the string and is unaffected by other
factors.In the colourless chemical liquid problem,a child is shown five
containers that look the same but contain different liquids(water,diluted
sulfuric acid,oxygenated water,bleach and potassium iodide).Water oxidises
potassium iodide in an acid mix,turning the mixture yellow.A child is given
twoglasses,one containing water and the other,sulfuric acid and oxygenated
water.The adult puts two drops of potassium iodide into each glass and the
child watches the chemical reactions.The child is then asked to reproduce
the yellow colour using liquid from the five original containers.Thereare 25
possible combinations that will produce the yellow colour.Younger
children's efforts are unsystematic.They become more systematic at the
concrete-operations stage but still largely use trial and error.If the yellow
colour is achieved,the children generally cannot explain what they did to
get this result.By the formal-operations stage,children systematically
combine the liquids and use reasoning to solve the
problem(Wadsworth,2004).There is a version of these tasks that you can try
on the CourseMate Express website.
Solving problems such as those of the balance scale,the probability task,the
pendulum and the chemical combinations -which involve considering two or
more variables -requires the ability to be systematic,to form hypotheses and
to make deductions from findings.Many adultsfind such tasks exceedingly
difficult.Even Piaget (1974)conceded that most people only reach a formal-
operational level of thinking in the area of their greatest expertise.For many
people it is much easier,or less challenging in a cognitive sense,to function
at a concrete-operations.Interestingly,it has been suggested that Piaget's
formal-operations stage may not be the final stage of cognitive
development.According to this view,adult thinking -when compared with the
thinking of children and adolescents -is characterised by greater
flexibility,and sensitivity to ambiguity and the impact of social,political and
moral influences (Basseches,1984;Labouvie-Vief,
1980).Most current research has challenged the notion of formal operations
as a stage,given that younger children show some deductive and inductive
reasoning,and many adults fail to use formal thinking on unfamiliar
tasks(Kuhn &Franklin,2006).View the CourseMate Express site for a review
of some of this research.

STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS OF PIAGET'S IDEAS

Strengths
Piaget taught us to listen to children and to appreciate the intelligence they
bring to the task of attempting to make sense of their world.Piaget was
interested in how children think and how they come to understand concepts
such as time,space,movement and self.The types of tasks and the
procedures he used to collect data stimulated new ways of thinking about
children's cognitive development.ProbablyPiaget's most important
contributions to the study of child development concern the way in which
we think about children and the methods we use to study
them(Feldman,2013;Miller,2011).Piaget'sfocus on analysing the errors
children make when they solve problems was also significant (see,for
example,Gelman and Gallistel's 1978 work on children's understanding of
number concepts).
Piaget viewed children's cognitive development as a gradual process of
change,with new mental schemas emerging from pre-existing
structures.This view has resulted in a general recognition
by educators that it is the stage of development a child has reached that is
important -not the age.Some curricula in Australia and New Zealand have
taken up this notion.The term'developmentallyappropriate education'is
sometimes used to refer to this idea.The stage not age'concept,or the idea
of matching instructional strategies to children's current level of
understanding,means that teachers need to be aware of their students'level
of reasoning,and plan accordingly.For example,younger students who still
need concrete experiences in their learning need real objects,diagrams and
the written word,not just verbal instruction.At the secondary level,teachers
cannot assume that students are thinkinghypothetically;adolescents may
need considerable assistance not only to begin to reason at this
level,butalso to reason at this level consistently.Indeed,many studies (see
Moshman,2004,for a review)have found that only a minority of adolescents
show advanced formal-operational thinking.
One aspect of Piaget's theory that has not been challenged is the idea that
children actively create their own learning and that direct experience is
essential for such learning to occur.Constructivism,discovery
learning,inquiry-based learning,cooperative learning and other related
approaches(chapters 6 and 7)are extensions of this principle.Piaget's theory
also reminds us that children's thinking is not the same as that of adults.It is
both different and less efficient.Teachers need to be aware of the process of
thinking,not just the outcome.It is not just a question of children getting a
problem right or wrong,but how they do the task,the types of errors they
make and the processes they use to reach an answer that are important for
teachers to assess their understanding.

Challenges to Piaget's ideas

Anyone who strives to develop a grand theory is likely to be criticised,and
this is true of Piaget.The length of time that elapsed between his first
publications in the area of children's cognitive development(in the
1920s)and his last (in 1981),the amount of data he collected and the very
large number of his major publications make such criticism inevitable
(Lourenco &Machado,1996).There was remarkable coherence in Piaget's
work over these six decades(Brainerd,1996),but there was also variability as
his ideas and research methods changed direction and new interpretations
and emphases emerged (Beilin,1992).However,much of the criticism that
has been levelled at Piaget's theory has stimulated further research that,in
turn,has expanded our understanding of how cognitive development
occurs.In this sense,criticism can be seen to have had a positive effect on
the field of educational psychology as a whole.
Ages and stages
One of the first criticisms often made of Piaget's theory concerns his ideas
about the timing of children's attainment of developmental milestones
within the different stages.For example,studies have shown that he
overestimated what the average 12-year-old could do and underestimated
what the preoperational child could do.In particular,researchers have
pointed out instances in young children's behaviour of taking
others'perspectives into account (such as when they use baby talk to talk to
younger children,or turn a picture around to show someone else),and the
ability to show higher levels of reasoning when tasks are simplified or put
into a familiar context.Children also show evidence of deductive reasoning
earlier than Piaget proposed,with gradual improvements over time towards
formal reasoning (Kuhn &Franklin,2006).
Piaget himself commented that the ages at which different stages are
attained are highly variable,and depend on the child's experiences and
social environment (Piaget,1972).The important issue here is the sequence
of changes that occur in the way children think,rather than the ages at
which such changes.Research generally supports this sequence of
changes,although researchers take issue with the notion of stage-like
development,as proposed by Piaget.
Stage concept
Doubts have been raised about Piaget's notion of stages.Evidence such as
that we have discussed from studies showing partial understanding of
formal operations(such as deductive reasoning)earlier in childhood,and an
ability to take others'perspectives in early childhood,suggests development
is not a matter of the absence and then the sudden presence of skills,as
Piaget described,but a gradual acquisition of these abilities.Other studies
showing that children can be trained to successfully respond in the
Piagetian tasks (for example,Beilin,1978;Sicgler &Svetina,2006)also
challenge the notion of stages,as such training builds on basic
understandings children have developed.
Questions have also been raised about whether stages are general,applying
across domains,or particular to specific content domains,such as
number,spatial awareness or social understanding.Neo-Piagetians such as
Case (1992,1998)and Fischer (Fischer &Rose,1996)describe development
within a domain as proceeding in a stage-like manner;but rather than a
single staircase,Case describes development as multiple staircases that link
together.Fischer and Bidell (2006)describe a net of pathways to competence
in a domain,with multiple skills and understandings contributing to
competence. Their theory is not as neat as Piaget's,but the picture of
development gained from research is not neat either.The theory accounts
for the variability that is observed within and between children in
development,which is discussed later in this chapter.

Absence of skills
A further criticism concerns the very negative view of development that
Piaget presented,particularly in relation to the thinking of young
children,who are described in terms of what they cannot do,rather than
what they can do.For example,Piaget saw the preoperational child as
incapable of thinking logically and lacking any understanding of
seriation,conservation,reversibility and so on.His focus was on a transition
from the absence to the presence of a particular type of understanding(with
hypothetico-deductive reasoning as the pinnacle),rather than on the quite
remarkable cognitive capacity that the preoperational child has already
achieved.In Piaget's defence,it is claimed he did not see children at the
sensorimotor or preoperational stage as lacking specific abilities,but rather
as being capable of certain types of understanding that are gradually
transformed over time into new schemas or cognitive structures
(Smith,1993).It may be more useful,as Piaget did in one work (1951),to
describe children's
thinking in terms of tendencies rather than abilities;that is,his theory
describes what children usually do,rather than what they are capable of in
ideal conditions.Interestingly,his description of adults'thinking appears to
take the opposite approach:describing what thinking adults are capable
of,rather than the ways in which they usually think. ( COI TIẾP TRANG 98
GIÁO TRÌNH)
While Piaget was interested in describing what was universal in children's
cognitive development,Vygotsky was interested in differences,and
particularly in how those differences arose from the social,historical and
cultural context in which children grow.
Vygotsky's ideas about the way in which our social,cultural and historical
backeground and experiences shape cognition are demonstrated in
descriptions of children's behaviour in early infancy(see,for
example,Bruner,1975;Kaye,1982;Lock,1978).According to Vygotsky ,infants
are born with an inherited capacity for specific patterns of action.They have
also had prenatal experiences.But from the time of birth,their task is to
acquire a sequence of skills and competencies that are uniquely human,with
language being probably the most important of these skills.This
acquisition,or learning,is achieved through social interaction.As carers
interact with infants,they unconsciously structure the baby's experiences in
ways that reflect the carers'own social,cultural and historical background.
In this way,the child develops not just as an individual,but as a member of a
particular society andculture.The role of adults in development is to help to
socialise the child (see Chapter 11)-to develop his or her thinking in ways
particular to the culture and society in which they live.Vygotsky described
humans'mental abilities as:
lower mental functions'(meaning inherited,involuntary capacities such as
vision,hearing and taste)that are controlled by external objects and events
'higher mental functions'(meaning those developed through social
interaction,including logical and abstract thinking,and language)that
operate internally(that is,'in the head)and are used to control lower mental
functions,to think and to solve problems concerning external objects and
events.

INTERNALISATION (The transformation of extemal processes into

internal processes that quide action and thought)
One of the key concepts that distinguished Vygotsky's theory of cognitive
development from that of Piagetis the notion of internalisation.This is the
notion that individuals internalise the ideas and processes they observe and
participate in during social interaction as new ways of thinking.Their
thinking is gradually transformed through interaction.Like Piaget,Vygotsky
described individuals as active agents in their development.While Piaget
focused on the individual as the agent and constructor of their own
cognitive development,Vygotsky saw development as arising out of social
interaction (in which the child is a participant),and from there,being
internalised by the individual.Vygotsky expressed it in thisway:"The true
direction of the development of thinking is not from the individual to the
social,butfrom the social to individual'(Vygotsky,1986,p.36).Consider how
this might work in the classroom,when a teacher is discussing the causes of
the First World War with her students.In the course of the discussion,the
students put forward theories,while the teacher extends their thinking
about the topic with questions and evidence from her knowledge of
history.She responds to students'ideas,correctsmisconceptions,and asks
questions to prompt them to think in new ways about history.Students also
draw on and respond to one another's ideas.As a result of the
discussion,students internalise these new ways of thinking,and may apply
them to other topics.
SOCIAL INTERACTION
Vygotsky argued very strongly that it is in interaction with others that we
learn how to think.The teacher'smediation of the students learning in the
above example is not merely a passing of knowledge from expert to
novice,nor is it simply construction by the student of new ideas about
history.Ir is a co-construction,made by both the teacher and the student
together as they interact.Thus,for Vygotsky,the individual is active in
development,but so are others;their development arises from social
interactions.He argued that this is particularly important when thinking
about the development of higher mental functions:
Every function in the child's cultural development appears twice:fist,on the
social level and,later,on the individual level;first,between people
(interpsychological)and then inside the child (intrapsychological).This
applies equally to voluntary attention,to logical memory and to the
formation of concepts.All the higher functions originate as actual relations
between human individuals. (104GTR)

ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT ( chidren's current level of

competence on
a task and the level they can achieve with support or guidance)

In thinking about the social context in which children learn,Vygotsky

identified what he called the zonE of proximal development,or the distance
between what children can do by themselves and what they can do with the
help of others.
This is illustrated in the following example (also see Figure 2.17 on page
64).A student was given an addition and a subtraction problem to solve.He
was able to solve the addition problem independently.When solving the
subtraction problem,however,he had difficulty.The teacher gave him a
hint,asking"What number did you start with?"to help him restart at the
correct point.Following this assistance from the teacher,the child was able
to successfully solve the problem.This task was in his zone of proximal
development -something he was unable to do on his own,but capable of
carrying out with the teacher's assistance.Importantly,the teacher did not
tell the student how to solve the problem,but gave him the amount of
assistance he required to solve it himself.The child was still active in
learning.In time,with further practice of this type,this problem will also be
something the child can achieve independently,and the teacher will move
him on to more difficult problems.
Vygotsky argued that teaching should be focused on the zone of proximal
development,and that assessment should aim not to determine what
children can do independently (what they have already learnt to do),but to
find out what the child can do with assistance-what is in their zone of
proximaldevelopment.This is so that teaching can be directed at the
optimum level for each child,to lead their development forward.This
example also shows the role of the teacher in Vygotsky's theory,which is to
assist children to develop understandings and to regulate their own
learning,rather than to tell or demonstrate to them what they are required
to know.
Think about this.If you give a series of tasks to two children and they
perform at the level of the average-year-old,most people would say the
children were performing at the same level.This represents their unassisted
level,or what they can do by themselves. Now,imagine a situation in which
you give both children the same amount of assistance to do the task.You
might give a series of hints or prompts,or structure the task to
make it easier -such as setting out the materials in the order in which they
should be used,or simplifying the instructions.After getting this help,one
child performs like a 12-year-old and the other like a 9-year-old.Given this
outcome,can you claim that the two children are at the same level?Vygotsky
argued that what differs between the two children is theirzone of proximal
development.One child is able to benefit much more from your assistance
than the other.The one who progresses further is in some way more
advanced in relation to the required area of knowledge than the other
child.This difference between what children can do by themselves and what
they can do with the help of others is very important,and gives educators
and other experts a significant role inassisting learners to progress(Rasku-
Puttonen,Etelapelto,Arvaja x Hakkinen,2003;Warwick Maloch,2003).

BUILDING ON VYGOTSKY'S IDEAS

Vygotsky's theory was developed in the 1920s,and a number of
psychologists have since built on and developed the theory and its
applications to education.
Bruner's notion of scaffolding ( The support provided to learners to
enable a task to be done successfully and more independently by adjusting
the assistance to fit the earner's current level of performance)
Revisit the examples given above of the teacher helping the child with his
mathematics task,and the child teaching his friend how to play a
game.Jerome Bruner talked about this particular type of support given by
adults(and expert peers)as scaffolding,using the metaphor of a scaffold that
supports a building during construction,but is later removed (Wood,Bruner
&Ross,1976).This is the support provided to learners to enable a task to be
done successfully and more independently by adjusting the assistance to fit
the learners current level of performance,by breaking the task into small
parts,directing the learner's attention,giving both general and specific
strategies to solve the problem,andproviding lessons in "how'to
learn.However,there is also a gradual ongoing exchange of knowledge
between teacher and learner,as suggestions made by the learner for
modifying the rules are considered.Vygotsky described this as learning
through teaching (LeBlanc &Bearison,2004,p.513).
Collaboration with another,particularly in a naturalistic context such as a
board game,leads to an exchange of roles of teacher and learner,and
cognitive growth in both participants.What is happening here?Who does the
problem solving?To begin with,one child (the teacher)knows how the game
is played and the other child is learning.But as the learner becomes more
confident,they gradually co-construct new rules for the game.This is an
example of what Vygotsky meant when he said that thinking can be a
socialactiviry.It is quite different from Piaget's ideas about the child
as'solitary scientist',or even the role behave to social interaction in
development.It also suggests a more active role for educators and
teachers.Scaffolding is more than a matter of teachers guiding a child
through an activity;the social interaction and co-construction of knowledge
are important features.
Educational terms associated with this type of learning are active
learning,'assisted learning','reciprocal teaching','assisted discovery'and
'collaborative cognition'.
The metaphor of the scaffold also extends to the temporary nature of the
support-it is given only until the student is able to perform the task
independently.This is one of the features that distinguish scaffolding from
other types of teacher support.The student is assisted to become an
independent learner,at increasing levels of cognitive
complexity.Bruner(1986)argued that it is through scaffolding that a child's
zone of proximal development moves forward.

An application of the theory:reciprocal teaching

Reciprocal teaching was pioneered by Annemarie Sullivan Palincsar
(1982)and her colleague AnnBrown(Palincsar
&Brown,1984,1989;Palincsar,Brown &Campionc,1993)to assist learners
withtheir reading comprehension.Since then,it has been adapted for a range
of contexts and cultures (sec,for example,Roh,1997;Taylor and
Cox,1997).Reciprocal teaching combines teacher interventionand student-
directed learning (Palincsar,1998).It adopts the Vygotskian principles of
scaffolding,social interaction,and the use of language to direct thinking
through collaborative learning (see Chapter 6),that peers assist each other
but learning takes place under the guidance of an expert-usually the
teacher-who helps the group with understanding the content matter and
with group-thinking processes (Rogoff,
1998).Cole(1996)found that,by encouraging student interaction,reciprocal
teaching improved students'engagement with learning by enhancing their
opportunities to make meaning of their learning in a social context.
Reciprocal teaching involves four
strategies-'predicting,'questioning','summarising'and'clarifying'-with the
aim of helping readers to construct the meaning of a text and to monitor
their comprehension of it(sec Box 3.9).Teachers explicitly model each of the
four strategies,with the intention of increasingstudents'responsibility for
their own strategy use by asking them to take turns leading the discussion
of the text (Palincsar,1998).As students lead discussions,teachers provide
support to assist them as they practise predicting what will happen next or
practise clarifying the meaning of a text portion.
A similar approach has been used to teach writing,where the four strategies
of reciprocal teaching were used to help 7-to 9-year-olds develop their
story-writing skills.Peer collaboration combined with teacher guidance
resulted in forms of writing that were more mature than writing children
had produced when working alone(Daiute Dalton,1993).Box 3.10 further
discusses results from research into reciprocal teaching.

STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS OF VYGOTSKY'S THEORY

Strengths
One of the most influential of Vygotsky's ideas is that cognitive development
is essentially a socialprocess.Ways of thinking and acting are first acquired
through social interaction and then gradually internalised,or processed
silently in the mind,so that learning proceeds from the 'outside in'(Lutz
&Sternberg,1999,p.292).Vygotsky's focus on the social nature of children's
learning,and the extent to which social experiences structure the way
children think-and in particular the meaning they attribute
to language concepts-is one of the most influential of his ideas for
psychology and education (Duveen,1997;Wells,2000).
Vygotsky's work underpins much of the group work and interactivity that is
characteristic of learning spaces in the 21st century (see Chapter 7).Thus,it
may be said that one of the key strengths of his approach to cognitive
development is its wide-ranging applicability to learning and
teaching,particularly in classrooms with a diverse social and cultural
mix(Winsler,2003).These advantages are highlighted in Chapters 6 and 7,in
which we discuss the practical applications of Vygotsky's ideas.
Limitations
As with Piaget,criticisms of Vygotsky's ideas are frequently associated with
the vagueness or very general terms in which the ideas are
expressed(Miller,1993).This can lead to problems when practitioners
attempt to apply them.Some of the problems associated with Vygotsky's
concept of the zone of proximaldevelopment concern the vagueness of the
concepts involved.For example,is the width of a child's zone the same
across all areas of learning?Does it vary at different times of the day,or with
different levels of motivation in the child or the partner in a tutoring
situation?Is it generally stable?Is it wider if a child is unfamiliar with a
particular curriculum area or tutor,and narrower if the child has already
received some help or is familiar with the tutor?Is there always a gap
between what a child can do alone and what can be done with assistance?
Concern has also been raised about the risk that excessive teacher support-
such as ensuring that children understand key concepts before introducing
a topic -may act as a barrier to spontaneous discovery and independent
learning (Myhill &Warren,2005),and to children's development of self-
regulation skills (de Corte &x Verschaffel,2006).Commenting on the concept
of the zone of proximal development,Bryant (1990)suggested there is no
direct evidence to prove that children's cognitive skills develop as a result
of help from a parent or tutor,although research has shown that cooperative
and collaborative learning approaches were effective in
mathematics,particularly with students with special education needs
(Baker,Gersten &Lee,2002;Kunsch,Jitendra &Sood,2007).However,the
concept of the zone of proximal development has been further developed by
theorists (sceDanicls,2011,for a review).
There has also been doubt expressed about the relevance of Vygotsky's
ideas-developed in 1920s and1930s Soviet Russia in the context of Marxist-
Leninist ideology -to Western education systems in the21st century
(Lambert &x Clyde,2000).Another criticism concerns Vygotsky's failure to
acknowledge the role of developmental influences,such as physical
maturation.
Rogoff(1993)has commented on an overemphasis on the role of language in
intellectual development in Vygotsky's theory.In cross-cultural studies,she
has shown that in many societies,observation and participation in activities
alongside adults are the primary means of learning,rather than
language.Eickelkamp(2008)describes the practice of sand storytelling,or
milpatjunanyi,among girls in Ernabellain central Australia,which she argues
is less about the transmission of knowledge from adults to children than
about the individual's role in shaping development and culture.The activity
itself contributes to understandings about the world -the act of drawing in
the sand is not just a thinking tool,shaping thought through the images
used,but it also shapes understandings about individuals'relationship to the
earth.
You will notice that this critique of Vygotsky's work is much briefer than
that of Piaget's work.Onereason for this is that Vygotsky's view of cognitive
development were not developed as extensively asPiaget's stage
theory.Nevertheless,Vygotsky's ideas offer a very useful,socially oriented
perspective on cognitive development (sce Box 3.10)that complements
Piaget's individualistic model,and has inspired subsequent research
work.Constructivist approaches to learning,such as discovery
learning,inquiry learning and cooperative learning,discussed in Chapter
6,build on Piaget's and Vygotsky's ideas abouthow children's thinking
develops.
CÒN NGUYÊN MỤC NÀY NHA:
CHAPTER 4: SOCIAL,EMOTIONAL AND MORAL DEVELOPMENT
KEY QUESTIONS
● After reading this chapter,you should be able to answer the following
questions:
● What is the difference between self-esteem.self-concept and self-
efficacy?
● What are the self and identity challenges faced by school-aged
children?What is the teacher's role in fostering a healthy sense of
self?
● How do we develop a sense of right and wrong?
 ● How is emotional competence related to understanding others?|How
do peer acceptance and friendship contribute to development?

DIMENSIONS OF THE DEVELOPING SELF

When we listen to the self-reports of Jake and Sarah,we might ask:How are
their beliefs about the self linked to their thoughts,feelings and actions?
Here we focus on three dimensions of self-self-concept,self-esteem and self-
efficacy.All have been linked to making choices about behavior,our
emotional state and academic performance.
Self-concept
Self-concept refers to the collection of knowledge,ideas,attitudes and beliefs
we have about ourselves.It is formed through interaction with our
environment and the people in it.Self-concept is particularly influenced by
feedback and evaluation from significant others,such as teachers,peers and
parents(Marsh,1990).As shown in Figure 4.2,it is also influenced by social
comparison,such as comparing performance or grades with those of
classmates.Self-concept is a cognitive appraisal and has no concrete or
observable features as seen in areas of physical development,but it plays an
important part in understanding ourselves.

DEVELOPMENT OF OUR SENSE OF SELF

Our sense of self across the various self constructs develops gradually and
changes over time.Many of these changes are influenced by other processes
of development,induding the development of sophisticated cognitive skills
(such as abstract thinking)and improvement in our memory and language
skills -quite simply,we become better at reflecting upon and describing
ourselves in greater detail as we get older.As we grow older,we also acquire
more life experience,information about our self greatly expands,and the
number of categories of self-concept and self-efficacy beliefs also
expands.As summarised in Table 4.1,in early childhood,children's self-
descriptions are very much concerned with concrete and observable
characteristics of the self.These self-descriptions are usually very
positive,sometimes unrealistically so,as illustrated in the following account
of exceptional feats of strength and bravery from a 3-year-old:"I can run
real fast ...I can kick a soccer ball real far ...I can climb to the top of the
jungle gym,I'm not scared!I'm never scared!..I'm really strong.I can lift this
chair,watch me!"(Harter,2012,p.29).

DEVELOPING AN IDENTITY
Another 'self'-related concept is the notion of identity.While psychology has
held a long interest in self-perceptions,another field of psychology has
studied the concept of identity to explain the deeply personal quest to find
out who we are.Influenced by the garlic work of Sigmund Freud (1856-
1939),psychologists began to adopt a psychoanalytic approach to explaining
the personality,developmentand competence of individuals.Although
psychoanalytic approaches have declined in influence,the notion of a search
for identity'continues to play a central role in everyday language about the
process of growing up,particularly during adolescence.
ERIKSON'S THEORY OF IDENTITY DEVELOPMENT
Erik Erikson(1902-94)was one such identity theorist who studied the
interrelationship between psychological development and the way
individuals interact socially and with their environment.Heargued that
psychological and social facets of development occur concurrendy and are
interdependent.Erikson viewed development as occurring in stages,with
development in each stage dependent on development in previous
stages.According to this theory,the stages of development are invariant and
build progressively on one another,yet they are qualitatively different.
Theory overview
Erikson proposed that we move through a series of eight psychosocial
development stages in which our selfhood,independence,identity and self-
worth may be developed or crushed,depending on how we resolve issues
and interact with others along the way.Each stage is characterised by a
psychosocial crisis,or turning point'(sce Table 4.2).During these turning
points,we experience a temporary state of conflict and disequilibrium that
must be resolved before we may move to the next stage of psychosocial
development.
According to Erikson,in each psychosocial stage,individuals face a choice
between two ways ofcoping.One way is to resolve crises in a positive
way,which leads to healthy personality development.The alternative is to
resolve crises in a negative way,which leads to difficulties and problems in
later stages if issues are unresolved.As individuals resolve crises they
develop psychosocial strength,which in turn helps them move to the next
stage.Erikson believed that those who fail to resolve particular conflicts may
continue to struggle with these conflicts later in life.He saw the tension
between negative and positive polarities as necessary for healthy
psychosocial development.The ways in which individuals interact with
others help to determine how each crisis will be managed.
Stages of psychosocial development
Erikson's theory is very significant because it represents a lifespan viEW of
development from birth todeath.Table 4.2 identifies the characteristics of
each stage of development.In each stage,the child's or adult's relationship
with significant others is clearly implicated in how they resolve the
psychosocial crisis.
CHAPTER 5: BEHAVIOURAL VIEWS OF LEARNING
KEY QUESTIONS
● After reading this chapter,you should be able to answer the following
questions:What are the main characteristics that distinguish classical
conditioning from operant conditioning?
● Can you describe the principles of positive and negative
reinforcement and give an example of their use in everyday life?
● Why are poker machines so effective in holding players'attention?
● How can a teacher use antecedent-behaviour-consequence (A-B-
C)information to manage behaviour?
BEHAVIOURAL EXPLANATIONS OF LEARNING
The strategy of rewarding students for behaviour or removing something
from them for misbehaviour is a classic behavioural approach to managing
student behaviour,but also for the encouragement of
learning.Essentially,behaviourism views learning as a 'cause and
effect'mechanism,in which external factors lead to a response.Over
time,behaviourists believe this response becomes a learnt behaviour.For
example,when Sam was rewarded for success in the
classroom,behaviourists would say that this increases the likelihood that the
behaviours leading to this success will be repeated,and they refer to this as
learning.In this behaviourist approach,learning is said to occur when
observable and permanent(or relatively permanent)changes in behaviour
result from the influence of external factors such as instruction and
experience.

CONTIGUITY
As explained above,the cause and effect'mechanism of learning is a basic
principle of behaviourist theory.
Cause and effect occurs because people associate or make a connection
between a certain event and the outcome they experience.The behaviourists
referred to these associations as contiguity,and to the cause and effect as
stimulus (S)(something thar affects the senses)and response (R)(a reaction
to a stimulus).Ar the most basic level,this occurs through our senses,such as
our sense of smell.For example,do you associate the smell of salt in the air
with the ocean?If you have learnt this association,the smell of salty air
might trigger thoughts of summer holidays at the beach.Similarly,learning
to recite the alphabet or to count to 10 involves building
associations:saying'a,b,c,d'or'1,2,3'triggers even quite young children to
recite the next letters or numbers in these sequences.Contiguity assumes
that whenever two events presentations occur at the same time,and
frequently enough,then an association will develop -meaningthat in the
future,only one of the events or sensations is needed for the other to also be
remembered.Contiguity is a simple theoretical principle that can be used to
help learners develop associations between specific
stimuli(objects,events,sensations)that often occur at about the same time or
that are cdoscly paired in terms of similarity and contrast.Examples include
learning the alphabet and learning to associate concepts such as "hot-
cold',good-bad'and big-little'.Instances of applied contiguity in learning
include the use of drill and practice or rhyme to teach simple facts such as
the spelling of irregular words (forexample,'i before e except after c)or
number facts (for example,'5×5=25").The principles of contiguity are also
used to help children to remember the details of their name,address and
telephone number.

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING ( classical conditioning : The

association of an automatic response with a new stimulus)
PAVLOV'S APPROACH
Probably the most important contribution to our understanding of stimulus-
responses processes in learning was made by the Russian physiologist Ivan
Petrovich Pavlov (sce Box 5.1).His work identified a process known as
classical conditioning,discovered during his study of digestion and the
production of saliva in dogs.Pavlov(1928)was attempting to study the
relationship between a dog being fed and the dog's salivation and digestion
when he encountered an unexpected development in his laboratory.
Pavlov's laboratory studics were concerned with the relationship between
salivation and the digestive process.Salivation triggers digestion in the
stomach,and if salivation does not occur,then digestion does not
begin.Pavlov argued that salivation is not innate,but rather is a
conditioned”(or learnt)response (as opposed to an innate or involuntary
response like blinking)that originates in the brain's cerebral cortex and that
is governed by the central nervous system(Nobel e-Museum,2003).
This research employed Pavlov's surgical skills,which he used to create
permanent openings in the body of the animal that could be used to directly
observe processes such as digestion (Nobel e-Museum,
2003).For the purposes of Pavlov's study of digestion,a small operation was
performed on the outside of the dog's check to alter the How of saliva to an
opening (or fistula).A glass funnel was attached to the opening to collect the
Howing saliva and the dog was taught to stand quietly on a table while
loosely harnessed (sce Figure 5.3).Pavlov noticed that the dog began to
salivate when it was about to be fed,before it had seen or smelt the food.He
also noticed that whenever the assistant who regularly fed the dog came
into the room,the dog began to salivate as though it had been given
food.Intrigued by this unexpected development,Pavlov changed the focus of
his study from digestion to the process by which a dog salivated at the sight
or sound of the person who fed him,rather than solely at the sight or smell
of food (Hilgard x Marquis,1961).

Pavlov devised a study to examine the way in which the dog learnt to
salivate at a sound rather than at food.He applied the following
procedures,and used the following terms to describe the stimulus-response
process.
1 Neutral stimulus and unconditioned response
First,a tuning fork was sounded for seven to eight seconds before a small
amount of food was moved close to the dog's mouth.At this stage,the sound
of the tuning fork was a neutral stimulus (NS)-thatis,a stimulus that does
not excite or provoke activity-and the dog did not respond to it.There was
no salivation. However,the dog salivated copiously while catching the
food,the food being an unconditioned stimulus(US) or natural, unlearnt,
primary stimulus that elicited the uncontrollable response of salivation in
the dog.In this case,the dog's salivation was an automatic or unconditioned
response (UR) ;that is,no prior training or conditioning was needed to elicit
salivation from the dog in response to food.
2 Conditioned stimulus and conditioned response
Pavlov then sounded the tuning fork just before food was presented to the
dog.His aim was to train or condition'the dog to salivate to the sound of the
tuning fork.Initially,salivation occurred after the tuning fork had been
sounded for 18 seconds,but on later tests,salivation occurred within just one
to two seconds.The previously neutral sound of the tuning fork had become
a conditioned stimulus(CS).The dog now salivated,or gave a learnt or
conditioned response(CR),to the sound of the tuningfork (see Figure 5.4).
3 Discrimination,generalisation and extinction
Subsequently, Pavlov taught the dog to respond to one specific tone from
the tuning fork while ignoring other tones.This taught the dog stimulus
discrimination by learning to only respond to one specific sound.Pavlov was
then able to generalise'the learnt responses by teaching the dog to respond
to a range of different sounds,notjust a single tone of the tuning
fork.Finally,he cxtinguished'the learnt behaviour after he repeatedly
presented the conditioned stimulus (the sound of the tuning fork)without
producing the food.Here,the learnt or conditioned response
(salivation)gradually disappeared as the association between the two events
(sound and food)weakened and disappeared.
Pavlov's influence
Pavlov's research into classical conditioning had a tremendous impact on
ideas about learning.Inparticular,his use of precise observation and
measurement,derived from his work as a physiologist,established an
invaluable framework for future research into human learning and
behaviour.His work attracted the interest of American psychologists,who
adopted Pavlov's terminology as well as his research strategy (Hilgard
&Marquis,1961).

STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

Strengths
Palovs studies of classical conditioning had an impact on research
methodology,both in terms of the value placed on precise observation and
measurement,and the use of a number of experiments to explore any topic
with great precision.
Ar a more practical level,therapists and others often use classical
conditioning principles to reduce fearful or irrational behavior in children
and adults.Many irrational fears and phobias are formed as a result of the
pairing of neutral stimuli with stimuli that trigger an involuntary response
(such as pleasure,anxiety or panic).For example,throwing a child who
cannot swim into deep water an the assumption that this will make the child
learn to swim is likely to result in the child developing a fear of
water.Theraplasts often use procedures derived from facial conditioning to
help us overcome such problems (Alberto &c Thourman,2013).
Limitations
Classical conditioning is largely limited to explaining those behaviours
associated with automatic responses or reflex actions such as fear,sweating
when anxious,or salivating like Pavlov's dog.Not all behaviors are like these
automated responses, however. Rather, some actions and responses are
initiated or controlled by the person,or the person has conscious intent that
is not under the direct or immediate control of an external stimulus. It is not
possible to trigger such actions in the way PaMov triggered salivation in his
dog. Sometimes it is difficult to find responses that can provide a starting
point for instruction,such as when a child is mute at the time when speech
should be emerging.As a result,formal instructional procedures based on
essential conditioning principles are not often used,although classical
conditioning can come about inadvertently and many irrational fears and
phobias,as well as negative or inhibiting responses to daily experiences,are
formed in this way.
Quite apart from these inherent limitations,experimentation with children
such as that done with Little Albert would not be possible today.The ethical
notion of "harm'in research is concerned with any practices that might
cause unnecessary levels of physical harm are psychological and emotional
distress to a research paricipant.It is very unlikely that such research would
be allowed today,or even considered necessary.Albert would need serious
behavioral treatment for his learnt fear response to be extinguished,and one
would hope thar the treatment would be successful.
The implications of classical conditioning far teaching practice are explored
in Box 5.2.

OPERANT CONDITIONING ( operant conditioning: The use of

positive and negative consequences to strengthen or weaken
voluntary behaviour)

THORNDIKE,TRIAL-AND-ERROR LEARNING AND THE LAW OF

EFFECT
Thorndike's(1911,1931)main contribution to the development of
behaviourism was his work on the effect of rewards on behaviour.His
explanation of learning as involving the formation(or'stamping in')of
associations or connections between stimulus and response came to be
known as associationism ( associationism: An explanation of leaming as the
formation of connections between stimuli and responses) trial-and-
errorlearning : An explanation of learning that states that when an
individual is placed in a problem-solving situation, the correct response will
be learnt through being reinforced
law of effect
Responses that have a satisfying outcome are likely to be strengthened and
repeated
law of exercise
Connections between actions and new consequences are strengthened the
more they are repeated

SKINNER AND OPERANT CONDITIONING

From the 1930s and,more particularly,from the 1950s to the
1970s,Skinner(1938,1948,1957,1968, 1971)was, and remains,the most
famous name in the field of operant conditioning,and has been a major
influence in the fields of education and psychology.His main interest was in
the relationship between behaviour and its consequences.
Skinner acknowledged the principles of classical conditioning demonstrated
by Pavlov and Watson.However,he argued that these principles were
incomplete and did not account for the much larger number of behaviours
that individuals initiate spontaneously. He called these self-initiated
behaviours operants because they involved actions that are produced or
emitted voluntarily by the individual as an operator in the environment.
Operant behaviours were contrasted with respondents,these being elicited
or reflex reactions produced when an individual responds (often
involuntarily) to recognised stimuli in the environment. Skinner believed
that many of these voluntary responses could be conditioned and
reinforced.
Operants Voluntary actions usually goal-directed
Respondents Elicited or reflex reactions to a specific stimulus
Reinforcement Increasing or strengthening the likelihood of a behaviour
recurring through use of contingent feedback

antecedent-behaviour-consequence (A-B-C) Behaviour represented as

an ongoing chain of activity involving events that immediately precede the
behavior and that follow it
Antecedent An event that precedes a behaviour
Consequence An event that follows a behaviour
Baseline Level of a specific behaviour prior to intervention
Reinforcer Any event that strengthens the behaviour it follows aversive
A contingently applied stimulus that the recipient finds undesirable and
which reduces the behaviour it follows
Contingency - Reinforcement that is only given when the target behaviour
is produced
positive reinforcement Increasing the likelihood of a behaviour occurring
by contingent presentation of a reward immediately following it
negative reinforcement Increasing the likelihood of a behavior being
repeated by
contingently removing an aversive object or activity
primary reinforcer An unconditioned (unlearnt) stimulus that is innate:y
rewarding
Satiation A stimulus that originally functioned as a reinforcer no longer
functions as a reinforcer
secondary reinforcer A conditioned [learnt]stimulus that functions as a
reward
Premack principle [Grandma's rule]
Any behaviour that is enjoyed and that occurs often can be used to reinforce
behaviours that are not enjoyed and that do not occur often
reinforcement schedule The frequency with which reinforcement is
delivered

antecedents-When and where does the disruption occur?What happens

immediately before?What is the child doing and who is with the child?
behaviour-What docs the child do,when does the child do it and what is
usually happening when the behaviour occurs?(Describe the behavior in
precise terms so that another person can reliably observe and record its
occurrence.)
consequences-What happens immediately following the behaviour?What is
the function of the behavior and what are the outcomes (positive and
negative) for the child?
Extinction Reduction and cessation of a response following the withdrawal
of reinforcement
Punishment Weakening or reducing behaviour through contingent use of
aversive objects or events
response cost Removal of privileges or something pleasant as a
punishment
token economy
Behavioural system using tokens to reward desirable behaviour
contingency contract Students sign a contract to indicate that they
understandand agree with an intervention plan
STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS OF BEHAVIOURAL APPROACHES
TO LEARNING
Strengths
The main strengths of behavioural approaches to learning are that they
provide educators with effective strategies that can be used quite easily to
teach new skills and behaviours quickly and efficiently,particularly to young
children and to students with intellectual disabilities and behaviour
problems.Such strategies are especially useful for teaching action
sequences that need to be performed at an automatic level,such as tying
shoelaces,deaning teeth or even the mechanical aspects of driving a
car.These methods are also effective for managing the many forms of
undesirable behaviour,often minor in nature,that disrupt most classrooms at
some time during the day.Teachers using behavioural methods to manage
such behavior can respond to student disruptions quickly,consistently and
without emotional involvement.
Limitations
A major criticism of behavioural approaches is that they neglect the
contribution of cognition,orcognitive skills,to the learning process. This is
particularly relevant for more complex forms of behaviour,such as problem
solving,for which other approaches may be more appropriate(see Chapters
6,7 and 8). Additional problems that have been identified include concerns
about the impact of long-term dependence on extrinsic rather than intrinsic
forms of reinforcement (sec Kohn,1993),and ethical issues concerning the
use of some types of punishment and aversive techniques (see
Alberto&Troutman,2013; Schloss & Smith,1998).
 CHAPTER 6: COGNITIVE EXPLANATIONS OF LEARNING

KEY QUESTIONS
● After reading this chapter,you should be able to answer the following
questions:What are the key principles of cognitive learning theory?
How do they differ from those of the behavioural approach?
● What are the four key principles of constructivism?How would you put
these into practice in the classroom?
 ● How does information processing influence learning?What is the role
of metacognition in learning and memory?What kinds of cognitive
styles are there?How do they affect learning?

COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORIES

Concerned with instrumental processes and how learners manipulate
information during learning
Cognitive learning theories focus on internal mental processes and their
role in learning. At the heart of cognitive theories of learning is the simple
proposition that knowledge is constructed by the learner and is informed
and influenced by the learner's previous experiences'(O'Donnell,2012).

Psychologicalconstructivism- Focuses on individual learners and how

they construct their own knowledge, beliefs and identity
social constructivism Emphasises the role of social and cultural factors in
shaping learning
KEY PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTIVISM
● Learners are active participants in their learning. Learning by doing'is
central to constructivism in practice (Howe &Bery,2000).
● Learners are self regulated. They construct and monitor their own
learning,and metacognition plays an important role in facilitating this
self-regulation.
● Social interaction is necessary for effective learning. Both Piaget and
Vygotsky acknowledged the role of social interaction with peers and
significant others(such as parents and teachers) in cognitive
development.
● Constructivism encourages individuals to make sense of information
for themselves (Bruner, 1990).This means that knowledge may be
relative and may differ for each learner.(Sce Matthews, 2000,for a
discussion of this issue in the context of mathematics and science
education.)And just as individuals construct their own meaning within
a social and cultural context, knowledge understanding may differ
across learners and contexts.

CONSTRUCTIVISM IN THE CLASSROOM CONTEXT

discovery learning The learner actively manipulates materials or ideas in
the leaming
environment and discovers connections
between them
inquiry learning Students learn contentand discipline-specificthinking and
practicalskils by collaborativelyinvestigating andsolving a problem
problem-based learning (PBL) Students learn content,strategies and
learning skills through collaboratively solving problems
cooperative learning Students working together to gain rewards for
themselves and their group
collaborative learning Students learning together,drawing on one
another's knowledge and skills
peer-assisted learning Encourages social interaction,as peers help each
other to learn
peer tutoring Students are paired in roles of tutor or learner and follow
specific learning strategies
information-
processing model Likens the human mind to a computer that
interprets,stores and retrieves information
short-term memory A temporary storage place with a limited capacity to
store
approximately seven items
executive control Higher-level functions that help with the control of
processes and flow of information
 CHAPTER 7: HUMANIST APPROACHESTO LEARNING

KEY QUESTIONS
● After reading this chapter,you should be able to answer the following
questions:How does Maslow link human needs and learning?
● How have humanist ideas influenced current practices in primary and
secondary education?
● How can teachers best support student wellbeing?
● How does social and emotional learning contribute to academic
achievement?What are the main elements of cooperative learning?
● What elements of humanism do you observe in your own philosophy of
teaching and learning,and in the classrooms you have seen?
Humanism An orientation or philosophy that recognises the uniqueness of
human beings and the qualities of life that contribute to our humanity
Self-actualisation The achievement of one's full potential

Maslow(1968,pp.199-200;Maslow &Lowery,1998)described
humans'basic needs and growthneeds originally in terms of five ascending
levels,later extending these to eight by differentiating the growth needs
(Huitt,2011)(see Figure 7.3):
1 Food,shelter,clothes-sometimes referred to as physiological needs';the
most urgent basic elements needed for survival.
2 Safety protection,security-once basic physiological needs are satisfied,we
seek a sense of security and stability.
3 Belongingness,love-such as that in a family,a community,a clan,a
gang,friendships; involving feelings of affection.
4 Respect,esteem,approval,dignity,self-respect -involving two sets of needs:
a respect from other,induding status,public recognition and acclaim,even
fame and in some instances dominance
b self-respect and feelings about the self,including a sense of competence,
self-confidence, independence and freedom.
5 Cognitive needs-knowledge,understanding and exploration.
6 Aesthetic needs-symmetry,order and beauty.
7 Selfactualisation-freedom for the fullest development of one's talents and
capacities,or theachievement of one's full potential.
8 Transcendence-moving beyond the self,to help others find self-fulfilment
and achieve their full potential,
Maslow referred to levels 1 to 4 in the hierarchy as deficit needs(D-
needs)and levels 5 to8 as representing growth or being needs(B-needs).He
believed that only a small percentage of individuals -less than 1 per cent of
adults (Maslow,1968,p.204)-truly reached the seventh and eight levels of
development,identifying historical figures such as Mahatma Gandhi,Albert
Einstein, Abraham Lincoln and Eleanor Roosevelt as examples of people
who reached this level.
According to Maslow,children whose basic material needs are satisfied (see
Figure 7.4), and who are assured of safety,love and a sense of belonging,are
able to cope with some frustration and disappointment,provided these are
not overwhelming.Such challenges strengthen the individual and lead to
healthy self-esteem that is based not only on the approval of others,but also
on a realistic view of the self,an awareness of personal success,and an
intrinsic motivation towards achievement and growth.

basic needs Lower- lever or 'deficit' needs,such as the need for food,safety.
love and respect
growth needs Higher-level or being'needs,such as the need for self-
actualisation
deficit needs (D-needs) Basic needs that motivate individuals to action in
order to
reduce or eliminate the need
being needs (B-needs)Growth needs that motivate individuals to achieve
personal fulfillment and self-actualisation
Teachers'attitudes to students were essential to developing such
relationships,and they had three core conditions if learning was to be
facilitated:
1 Teachers had to be real or genuine in their relationships with students.
2 Teachers had to prize the learner,accepting them for who they were,and
trusting their ability to learn and develop.He termed this unconditional
positive regard'.
3 Teachers had to have an empathic understanding of their students -an
ability to see the world through their students'eyes,without judging
them(Rogers,1983;Zimring,1994).

non-directive teaching Teaching in which the teacher is a

facilitator.guiding students and nurturing their learning
active listening Attending purposefully to the meaning and intention of
what another person is sayīng

progressive educator A child-centred approach to education based on

a commitment to democratic ideals
open education A model of learning and teaching that
provides a warm caring environment and that builds on children's interests
and experiences and actively involves them in the learning process
HUMANISM AND EDUCATION TODAY
Like cognitive and behaviorist approaches,humanist approaches have
widespread applications in contemporary classrooms.Three main influences
can be observed:
1 Students are allowed to direct the goals and means of their learning.
2 The whole child is considered,particularly by focusing on the social and
emotional aspects of learning.
3 The emphasis is on the relational aspects of learning,including the use of
cooperative group work.
CHAPTER 12; INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION
TECHNOLOGY(ICT)INLEARNING AND TEACHING
KEY QUESTIONS
● After reading this chapter,you should be able to answer the following
questions:
● How are ICTs integral to learning and teaching in today's classrooms?
What are some essential skills for effective use of ICTs by learners?
● How do behavioural,cognitive,constructivist and humanist theories of
learning guide the use of ICTs in education?
● How are ICTs transforming learning and teaching in our classrooms?
● How could using ICTs contribute to inequities among learners?
Discuss strategies for addressing these in your teaching.
● What are some potential positive and negative outcomes of the use of
ICTs in the learning-teaching process?What could you do to maximise
the positive and minimise the negative possibilities?
information and communication technology (ICT) Any technology used
to access, gather, manipulate and present or communicate information.
Such as electronic hardware, software and network connectivity.
digital natives A term used to describe someone who has grown up in the
era of digital technologies
net generation A term used to describe someone who has grown up in the
era of Intemet connectivity
ICT literacy The capacity for purposeful and effective use of ICTs in one's
own setting
information literacy The ability to locate, evaluate and use information;it
extends beyond technical skills
Cyberpsychology The study of psychology and behaviour associated with
the use of ICTs and other technologies
Cyberbullying The use of ICTs and other electronic devices to bully
someone