Chapter: 1 – Introduction to World of Hydrocarbons

Chapter: 1

INTRODUCTION TO WORLD OF HYDROCARBONS

1.1 Definition:
Hydrocarbons are substance made of hydrogen and carbon (among other elements) grade
through three states of matter: gases, liquids and solids.

Fig 1.1: Atomic structure of simple hydrocarbon compounds

1.2 Forms of Hydrocarbons:
 Dry gas – contains largely methane, specifically contains less than 0.1 gal / 1000 ft 3 of
condensable (at surface T and P) material.
 Wet gas – contains ethane propane, butane. Up to the molecular weight where the fluids are
always condensed to liquids.
 Condensates – hydrocarbon with a molecular weight such that they are gas in the subsurface
where temperatures are high, but condense to liquid when reach cooler, surface temperatures.
 Liquid hydrocarbons – commonly known as oil, or crude oil, to distinguish it from refined
hydrocarbon products.
 Plastic hydrocarbons – asphalt.
 Solid hydrocarbons – coal and kerogen – (kerogen strictly defined is disseminated organic
matter in sediments that is insoluble in normal petroleum solvents.
 Gas hydrates – solids composed of water molecules surrounding gas molecules, usually
methane, but also H2S, CO2 and other less common gases.

1.3 Natural Gas:

Given a strict definition by the petroleum industry- "a mixture of hydrocarbons and varying quantities of
non hydrocarbons that exists either in the gaseous phase or in solution with crude oil in natural
underground reservoirs".
The common gasses in reservoirs can be divided based on their origins:
1. Inorganic – Helium, Argon, Krypton, Radon.
2. Mixed inorganic and organic – CO2, H2S.
3. Organic – Hydrogen, Methane, Ethane, Propane, Butane.

Various descriptive terms for natural gas:

 Dissolved gas – that portion of natural gas that is dissolved in liquid phase in the sub- surface. It
can be (and usually is) physically separated from the liquid when the fluids are produced.
 Associated gas – also known as the "gas cap" is free gas (not dissolved) that sits on top of, and in
contact, with crude oil in the reservoir.
 Non-associated gas – free gas that is trapped without a significant amount of crude oil.

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 Chapter: 1 – Introduction to World of Hydrocarbons

 Natural gas liquids – the liquids that can be, and are liquefied, in the field and at gas processing
plants. Include the wet gases, natural gasoline, and condensate.
 Sweet gas (and Oil) – contains no H2S.
 Sour gas (and Oil) – contains H2S.

1.4 Origin of Hydrocarbons:

There are two theories: Inorganic and Organic
1. Inorganic- Hydrocarbons form from reduction of primordial carbon or oxidized forms at high
temperatures in the earth.
2. Organic- accumulation of hydrocarbons produced directly by living organisms, as well as the
thermal alteration of biologically formed organic matter.
It is generally recognized that most hydrocarbons are produced by the organic method. A few
hydrocarbons in the crust may be from inorganic sources, but the majority of them are from organic.

1.5 Petroleum Play:

There are a number of different elements, which need to be combined in order for oil and gas to occur in
commercial quantities. We call this combination of factors a petroleum play. The geological factors
capable of providing the essential ingredients of a petroleum play are:
1. A reservoir unit capable of storing hydrocarbons and yielding them to a well bore at
commercial rates. Reservoir units are generally porous and permeable rock formations such as
sandstones and limestones. Some reservoir units may, however, derive their storage capacity from
the presence of dense fractures. Porosity and permeability generally decrease with depth, or, if you
like, decrease with increasing temperature.
2. A petroleum charge system
comprising organic-rich source rocks, which
have been heated sufficiently to expel
petroleum fluids into porous and permeable
carrier beds, which then transport the fluids
towards sites of eventual accumulation. The
quality of a source rock depends to a large
extent on the type and percentage of organic
carbon in the original material. The heating of
source rocks takes place during burial in
sedimentary basins. Depending on the
geothermal gradient, source rocks may
become mature enough to release liquid
hydrocarbons at depths as shallow as 1km or
at depths greater than 3 km. Firstly, liquid
hydrocarbons are released at temperatures
of about 60 to 90 degrees C. Continued
heating to about 100 to 135 degrees C
causes the generation of gas rather than oil.
These temperature ranges for the beginning
and end of oil generation (the oil window)
depend largely on the type of organic
material in the source rock. The geographical
area where source rocks are being heated to
maturity is commonly known as the source
kitchen.
3. A regional top seal or cap rock to the reservoir unit, which prevents the petroleum fluids in
the reservoir unit leaking away. Top seal rocks must beFigsufficiently
1.2: Occurrence of hydrocarbons
impermeable to act as a barrier
to further migration. Extensive marine shales and dense evaporite beds are ideal regional topseals.
For a regional topseal to be effective, it should not be strongly fractured. Evaporites are ideal
because they bend without breaking even at low temperatures and pressures. Probably the world’s
best regional topseal is the Upper Jurassic Hith Anhydrite of the Middle East.
4. A petroleum trap which concentrates the petroleum fluids at particular locations, allowing
commercial exploitation. Petroleum traps provide what is known as closure at the level of the

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petroleum-bearing reservoir. The simplest petroleum trap would be a simple dome or anticline.
Other common traps are produced by fault movements. These movements might involve extension
of the crust in the form of tilted fault blocks, or contraction of the crust in the form of folds and
reverse faults. More subtle traps are where a porous and permeable reservoir rock passes laterally
into a non-reservoir rock, for example where a limestone reef or a sandy delta passes laterally into
a marine shale. These are called stratigraphic traps because they do not require structural
movements.
5. And finally (and often forgotten) we need a timely relationship of the above four
ingredients in order to make the petroleum play work. For example, there are problems associated
with an early petroleum charge: (i) if hydrocarbons are released before a regional top seal has been
deposited, they will leak away and not be retained in reservoir rocks; (ii) similarly, if structural
movements producing traps are late compared to the hydrocarbon charge, the migrating
hydrocarbons will also migrate through the reservoir but not be retained.

1.6 Finding Oil and Gas:

Oil and gas are difficult to locate, exploration and drilling are key activities in the oil and gas extraction
industry. Oil and natural gas furnish about three-fifths of our energy needs, fueling our homes,
workplaces, factories, and transportation systems. In addition, they constitute the raw materials for
plastics, chemicals, medicines, fertilizers, and synthetic fibers.
Using a variety of methods, on land and at sea, small crews of specialized workers search for geologic
formations that are likely to contain oil and gas. Sophisticated equipment and advances in computer
technology have increased the productivity of exploration. Maps of potential deposits now are made
using remote-sensing satellites. Seismic
prospecting—a technique based on
measuring the time it takes sound waves
to travel through underground formations
and return to the surface—has
revolutionized oil and gas exploration.
Computers and advanced software
analyze seismic data to provide three-
dimensional models of subsurface rock
formations. This technique lowers the risk
involved in exploring by allowing scientists
to locate and identify structural oil and gas
reservoirs and the best locations to drill.
Four-D, or “time-lapsed,” seismic
technology tracks the movement of fluids
over time and enhances production
performance even further. Another method
of searching for oil and gas is based on
collecting and analyzing core samples of
rock, clay, and sand in the earth’s layers.

Fig 1.3: Process of acquiring seismic data at offshore

1.7 Exploitation of Trapped Oil:

After scientific studies indicate the possible presence of oil, an oil company selects a well site and
installs a derrick—a tower like steel structure—to
support the drilling equipment. A hole is drilled
deep into the earth until oil or gas is found, or the
company abandons the effort.
Similar techniques are employed in offshore
drilling, except that the drilling equipment is part of
a steel platform that either sits on the ocean floor,
or floats on the surface and is anchored to the

Fig 1.4: A schematic of an onshore rig

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ocean floor. Although some large oil companies do their own drilling, most land and offshore drilling is
done by contractors.

In rotary drilling, a rotating bit attached to a length of hollow drill pipe bores a hole in the ground by
chipping and cutting rock. As the bit cuts deeper, more pipe is added. A stream of drilling “mud”—a
mixture of clay, chemicals, and water—is continuously pumped through the drill pipe and through holes
in the drill bit. Its purpose is to cool the drill bit, plaster the walls of the hole to prevent cave-ins, carry
crushed rock to the surface, and prevent “blowouts” by equalizing pressure inside the hole. When a drill
bit wears out, all drill pipes must be removed from the hole a section at a time, the bit replaced, and the
pipe returned to the hole. New materials and better designs have advanced drill bit technology,
permitting faster, more cost-effective drilling for longer periods.

Fig 1.5: Tightening of drill pipe rotary table with tongs

Advancements in directional or horizontal drilling techniques,
which allow increased access to potential reserves, have had a 30”
significant impact on drilling capabilities.
20”
Drilling begins vertically, but the drill bit can be turned so that
drilling can continue at an angle of up to 90 degrees. This
technique extends the drill's reach, enabling it to reach separate 13 3/8”
pockets of oil or gas. Because constructing new platforms is Fig 1.3:
costly, this technique commonly is employed by offshore drilling A
operations. schemati
c of an
onshore
When oil or gas is found, the drill pipe and bit are pulled from rig
the well, and metal pipe (casing) is lowered into the hole and Fig 1.6: Conventional & deviated well
cemented in place. The casing’s upper end is fastened to a system
of pipes and valves called a wellhead, or “Christmas Tree,” through
which natural pressure forces the oil or gas into separation and
3°-11°/m
storage tanks. If natural pressure is not great enough to force the Radius=17.5 m
oil to the surface, pumps may be used. In some cases, water,
steam, or gas may be injected into the oil-producing formation to
improve recovery.

Length=122 m
Fig 1.7: Horizontal well

Fig 1.9: Drilling bit

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Fig 1.8: X-mas tree Fig 1.10: Well tubing

 Chapter: 1 – Introduction to World of Hydrocarbons

1.8 Transportation and Processing of Oil and Gas:

Crude oil is transported to refineries by pipeline, ship, barge, truck, or railroad. Natural gas usually is
transported to processing plants by pipeline. While oil refineries may be many thousands of miles away
from the producing fields, gas processing plants typically are near the fields, so that impurities—water,
sulfur, and natural gas liquids—can be removed before the gas is piped to customers. The oil refining
industry is considered a separate industry, and its activities are not covered here, even though many oil
companies both extract and refine oil.

Fig 1.11: Tanker Fig 1.12: Pipeline Fig 1.13: Refinery

1.9 Importance of Oil and Gas:

Oil is a vitally important element of the world's economy. It provides fuel for transport, heating and
power generation, and is used to make a huge range of petrochemicals from plastics to paints.
However, the use of oil in power generation has declined in recent years because of rising prices and
direct competition from natural gas. As well as being cheaper, gas burns much more cleanly, making it
easier for the generating companies to meet increasingly stringent pollution limits.
Oil and gas are non-renewable resources. The time taken to form new oil and gas accumulations is
infinitely long compared to today’s rate of extraction. Whereas there are large enough reserves of coal
to last for a couple more centuries, at current rates of extraction of oil, a very large proportion of the
world’s reserves will be gone in the next 20 to 30 years. It is a declining resource, and its getting
increasingly difficult to find it in large quantities. There is a pressing need to find alternative sources of
energy, such as solar power.

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