‼️Important

information
 Resources
Name Type Notes

File Textbook ● Review Weekly: Reading and Resources in each Module

File Article ● Review Weekly: Reading and Resources in each Module

Key terms and concepts

Term Definition Notes

Word Describe in 1-2 sentences ● Add visuals, charts, supporting ideas, or

relevant resources such as external
links

Name Describe in 1-2 sentences ● The content should support your

understanding of the term

Concept Describe in 1-2 sentences ● Memory devices or visual aids can help
with recall

Weekly Discussion Assignments and

instructions

Weekly Discussion Assignments Notes

1-1 Discussion: Historical Lenses Begin by introducing yourself. Discuss your prior knowledge of and interest in the
history of Native Americans and the history of the colonization of North America
by Europeans. Explain how this course will assist you in your future—
Weekly Discussion Assignments Notes

academically or professionally.

Then review the Final Project Guidelines and Rubric and read the articles posted
in this module’s resources. In this discussion board, you will discuss the
approaches to this topic as discussed in the readings, and you will identify which
approach, or combination of approaches, best suits your own ideas and
preferences.

The assigned articles propose several different historiographical approaches or

lenses to use when considering the early American encounters between Native
Americans and Europeans. In your initial post, identify the approaches you find
most compelling by completing the following points:

● Explain why you find one approach, or a combination of approaches,

more compelling.
● As part of your explanation, discuss why you have rejected other
approaches or lenses.
● Identify and explain at least two potential topics you may want to focus
on for the final project and how those relate to the approaches or lenses
discussed here.
● Support your response using at least two sources from this module’s
resources cited in Chicago/Turabian format.

2-1 Discussion: Political & Economic This module’s resources focus on the way that Europeans conceptualized the New
Lenses World. They examine Europeans’ reactions to what they found and also how it
aligned with what they expected to find. After reading these resources, write an
initial post that includes the following points:

● Describe what you think are the most significant preconceptions

Europeans had about the New World based on their own perspective and
cultural bias.
● Support your response using at least two sources from this module’s
resources cited in Chicago/Turabian format.

3-1 Discussion: Meeting the New World This module’s readings present a variety of European perceptions of Native
Americans. Some of these perceptions are clearly contradictory. Now that you
have had time to read and consider the articles, you may notice that Native voices
are missing. For your initial post, include the following points:

● Explain how the history of contact should be taught by considering the

sources that exist and those that do not.
● Consider what sources, if they were available, would change historical
interpretations.
Weekly Discussion Assignments Notes

● Support your response using at least two sources from this module’s
resources cited in Chicago/Turabian format.

4-1 Discussion: Images & Interpretation This module’s readings introduce important ideas about the interaction between
biology, geography, and human history. Drawing on Crosby’s foundational ideas
and the other readings for your initial post, include the following points:

● Respond to the argument that purposeful and accidental exchange of

flora, fauna, and microbial agents reshaped the world.
● Ensure you consider the way that this late twentieth-century topic
reshaped American Indian historiography.
● Support your response using at least two sources from this module’s
resources cited in Chicago/Turabian format.

5-1 Discussion: Pristine Lands & Noble This module’s resources touch on a debate that is all but settled in the
Savages historiography. The “Noble Savage” is understood to be dehumanizing, and if
North America had pristine lands untouched and unmanipulated by humans, they
would have been long gone by the end of the Pleistocene. However, these ideas
are embedded in popular culture. They find constant repetition in films, images,
works of fiction, and political speeches. Therefore, it is an important idea to
grapple with and deserves careful analysis.

For your initial post, include the following points:

● Respond to the idea that the Americas was a pristine land peopled by
Noble Savages.
● Consider how that idea is reflected in the European accounts of their
encounters and how the idea has affected the historiography of early
American encounters.
● Support your response using at least two sources from this module’s
resources cited in Chicago/Turabian format.

7-1 Discussion: Women in the New This module’s resources illustrate various perceptions of gender in early America.
World For your initial post, include the following points:

● Discuss the degree to which you think the role of women in the New
World, as conceived of by Europeans, was impacted by the unique
circumstances in the New World. This consideration includes
intermarriage between Native Americans and Europeans.
● Consider the impact of race on gender roles and the opportunities
available to early American women.
Weekly Discussion Assignments Notes

● Support your response using at least two sources from this module’s
resources cited in Chicago/Turabian format.

8-1 Discussion: Slavery Slavery, specifically African slavery, had a profound impact on the Americas by
introducing additional cultures, languages, and worldviews. For your initial post,
include the following points:

● Identify what you believe are the most important impacts of African
slavery on the relationships between tribes and colonists during these
early American encounters.
● Defend your reasoning.
● Ensure that your discussion is focused on early American encounters;
exclude the American Civil War and the long-term political conflicts in the
United States.
● Support your response using at least two sources from this module’s
resources cited in Chicago/Turabian format.

9-1 Discussion: Planning & Development Several nations and countless individuals had visions of the empire in the New
of an Empire World, and many tried to realize these visions. Moreover, empires already existed
in the New World, and some of them facilitated the creation of new ones. After
reading this module’s resources, write an initial post that includes the following
points:

● Describe what you believe to be the most significant outcomes of the

various efforts to define, plan, and create empires during the period of
early American encounters.
● Support your response using at least two sources from this module’s
resources cited in Chicago/Turabian format.

10-1 Discussion: Revisiting the History Throughout this course, you have discussed misconceptions and errors that are
of Early American Encounters harmful to developing an accurate history and creating historical interpretations
of early American encounters. Hopefully, your mindset has changed or become
more nuanced since this course began. In this discussion board, you will connect
the perspectives reviewed in this module’s resources with the research you
conducted for your final project.

After reading this module’s resources, write an initial post that includes the
following points:

● Describe how your views of early American encounters have evolved

since the beginning of this course.
● Identify at least two required readings from this course that you found
Weekly Discussion Assignments Notes

most illuminating, cited in Chicago/Turabian format, and describe why

you found them so powerful.
● Identify at least one source from your final project that you found the
most illuminating, cited in Chicago/Turabian format, and describe why
you found it to be so powerful.

Weekly Writing Assignments and instructions

Weekly Writing Assignments Notes

1-2: ● Final Project Review

2-2: Final Project Milestone One: Topic Compose a brief summary of your topic and an initial bibliography of at least five
Choice & Bibliography primary or secondary sources. At least one of your sources must be a primary
source. Your topic summary should include the following critical elements:

● Summary places the topic within the context of current historiography.

● Summary provides a preliminary exploration of the major ideas and
issues around the topic.
● Bibliography contains at least five relevant and credible research
sources, at least one of which is a primary source.

3-3: Final Milestone Two: Critical

Comparison Essay ● Locate and read two scholarly articles from refereed journals relating to
your selected final project topic. One of these articles should directly
address the ideas of the other (e.g., challenging, adding to, overturning).
If, as part of your research for your topic, you locate a panel-style article
that includes a debate among participants, this would be an acceptable
replacement for the two articles if it is long enough to complete an
effective analysis. Write an essay that identifies the thesis of each article
and analyzes the differences between the approaches and arguments.
Include your evaluation of the thesis of each article, providing support for
your statements.

5-2: Final Project Milestone Three: ● Finalize your essay thesis statement. Your thesis statement should make
Thesis Statement & Annotated a clear argument central to your essay. Develop an annotated
Bibliography bibliography of at least seven primary or secondary sources. For each
Weekly Writing Assignments Notes

source, give a brief synopsis (2–3 sentences) of the source's contents and
a brief evaluation (2–3 sentences) of the source's application and
importance to your topic. The sources you select must clearly support
your argument and support the development of a historiographical essay.

6-1: Short Paper: Cultural Go-Betweens ● In this module, you have explored the middle ground as it relates to early
American encounters. While reading, you should consider the importance
of the middle ground, or the go-between, to formulating your own
understanding of this subject.
● In this short paper, you will use primary and secondary sources to defend
an argument about how an individual you’ve identified fits the definition
of a go-between.

7-2: Final Project Milestone Four: ● Submit a draft of your final project: a historiographical essay.
Historiographical Essay Draft

9-2: Final Project Submission: Submit your historiographical essay. It should be a complete, polished artifact
Historiographical Essay containing all of the critical elements of the final product. It should reflect
the incorporation of feedback gained throughout the course.
📋 Discussion
Posts
 Discussion Posts
● Don’t forget to Comment on 2-4 classmates

Task Status Due Points No

1-1: Discussion Post Not started Mar 27, 2025 -/25 ● Historigraphical A
Encounters

2-1: Discussion Post Not started Apr 3, 2025 -/25 ● Conceptualizing

3-1: Discussion Post Not started Apr 10, 2025 -/25 ● Meeting the New

4-1: Discussion Post Not started Apr 17, 2025 -/25 ● Images and Inter

5-1: Discussion Post Not started Apr 24, 2025 -/25 ● Pristine Lands an

7-1: Discussion Post Not started May 8, 2025 -/25 ● Women in the Ne

8-1: Discussion Post Not started May 15, 2025 -/25 ● Slavery

9-1: Discussion Post Not started May 22, 2025 -/25 ● Planning and Dev
Empire

10-1: Discussion Post Not started May 29, 2025 -/25 ● Revisiting the Ea
Encounters
Mod 1 Post
Begin by introducing yourself. Discuss your prior knowledge of and interest in the history of Native
Americans and the history of the colonization of North America by Europeans. Explain how this course
will assist you in your future—academically or professionally.

Then review the Final Project Guidelines and Rubric and read the articles posted in this module’s
resources. In this discussion board, you will discuss the approaches to this topic as discussed in the
readings, and you will identify which approach, or combination of approaches, best suits your own ideas
and preferences.

The assigned articles propose several different historiographical approaches or lenses to use when
considering the early American encounters between Native Americans and Europeans. In your initial
post, identify the approaches you find most compelling by completing the following points:

● Explain why you find one approach, or a combination of approaches, more compelling.
● As part of your explanation, discuss why you have rejected other approaches or lenses.
● Identify and explain at least two potential topics you may want to focus on for the final project
and how those relate to the approaches or lenses discussed here.
● Support your response using at least two sources from this module’s resources cited in
Chicago/Turabian format.

__________________________________

Module 1 Discussion: Historiographical Approaches to First Encounters

Hi everyone! My name is Tabitha Adkins, this is my second term here at SNHU, as well as my second

time around working on my Master’s degree in History (though before last term, my last class was in

2020). I’m from a small town in South Texas close to San Antonio, and have a 9-year-old chihuahua, a

4-year-old tom cat, and a 5-month-old kitten. The areas of history that I’m interested in are really broad

and very all over the place, but my current hyper fixation has been on Manifest Destiny. You can

usually find me listening to which ever history documentary I can find in order to have something on in

the background while either working or relaxing. I have a few eras of time that I love diving into,

ancient Egyptian, the Witch Trials, and Native American history to name a few of my favorites. That I

have some native blood just makes it all the more interesting for me to dig into the histories.
Prior to me beginning my readings, other than some research from my family while they were looking

for what tribe(s) we had blood from (Lipan Apache), my knowledge of Native American history and the

colonization of North America was shaped by my research into Manifest Destiny from previous course

work I’ve done, as well as, mainstream historical narratives and media. That these narratives and media

outlets emphasize the European side and minimize the resistance of the Indigenous peoples seems to be

a reoccurring theme for the traditional historiography. Some major events that I was aware of were: the

Trail of Tears, Wounded Knee. Texas specific events I’m aware of are: the Salt Creek Massacre, the

Fort Parker Raid and the forced relocation of the Caddo Tribe as well as the relocation of the Mescalero

and Lipan Apache to a New Mexican reservation in the 1870s. However, I have not really considered

the ways that the histories of Indigenous peoples were generally looked at with the context of

historiography. This week’s readings have underlined the diversity and complexity of the perspectives

of the Indigenous communities. This course will further assist me in my abilities to analyze historical

events through different and multiple lenses, prioritizing agency and indigenous perspectives rather than

taking the view of them as victims.

According to historian Juliana Barr, the traditional timeline of American history began in 1492, which

disregards the longer history of the Native American Nations, highlighting the arrival of the Europeans

as the “official” start of “civilization in the Western Hemisphere, specifically the North American

Continent.[1] Barr gives a critique against the notion of the colonization of the Europeans being the

beginning of “real history” in the Americas, arguing that the Indigenous peoples were here and had been

engaged in a very complex economic, political and even military like struggles for generations before

contact had been made.[2] Having the narrative framed this way has not only perpetuated the

marginalization of the Indigenous perspectives, but also created a distortion of the reality of the ongoing

struggles of resistance and Native governance.

These readings have given a demonstration that the history of Indigenous peoples is not a simple

presentation of victimization, disappearance or even dispossession, rather it is one of adaptation,

survival and sovereignty. Historian Scott Richard Lyons’ article, “Actually Existing Indian Nations:

Modernity, Diversity, and the Future of Native American Studies,” criticizes the more romanticized and

static notion of the Indigenous identity that have been continuously reinforced.[3] The general argument

being that sovereignty wasn’t simply a goal, but more of a lived experience, “to advocate for their

people’s self-government, sovereignty, and control of land and resources.”[4] This is a perspective

which challenges the traditional settler narratives. Likewise, historian Jace Weaver’s “More Light than

heat,” gives criticism of the scholarly approach that gives precedence of theoretical abstraction over the

real life struggles of the Indigenous peoples.[5] The insight of these critiques is necessary because of

the spotlight on the active role of the Indigenous people in the shaping of their futures.

Another historian, Frederick Hoxie, author of “‘Thinking like an Indian’: Exploring American Indian

Views of American History,” also supported the more anti-colonialist perspective, with the argument of

the long rejection of the traditional framework for the more favorable one of recognition and self-

determination. With Vine Deloria Jr. and other Indigenous scholars emphasizing, “The modern Indian

movement for national recognition has its roots in the tireless resistance of generations of unknown

Indians who have refused to melt into the homogeneity of American life and accept American

citizenship.”[6] Additionally, utilizing a more interdisciplinary approach to Native Americans as

historian Gregory Gagnon emphasized, “American Indian Studies is an exciting field that demands

interdisciplinary scholarship and wide-ranging reading.[7] Gagnon emphasizes, “Indian agency in their

own lives and their own societies is stressed as a refutation of older scholarship which focused on

societies in stasis, unchanging except when prodded by outside forces like the United States; secondly,

scholars now draw on American Indian sources and cultural paradigms to elucidate the Indian
experience.”[8] These are crucial understandings not just to be historically accurate, but in order to

understand the more contemporary Native issues surrounding their everyday lives.

Being able to engage with these perspectives will allow my understanding to deepen in the field

of Native American studies, providing a foundation for the topic in a more informed manner. As Hoxie

suggests, the challenge of “thinking like an Indian,” lay with understanding the history from a non-

Anglo westernized narrative, but rather from the multiple perspectives of the Indigenous experiences.[9]

It is the realization that as historians we must engage with the real-life experiences of the Native

communities, to approach the history not as a narrative of conquest or of assimilation, but rather as the

ongoing struggle for justice and a people’s sovereignty.

Bibliography

Barr, Juliana. “Scaling Time in Pursuit of Native Sovereignty in American History.” The

Sixteenth Century Journal 49, no. 2 (2018): 447–50. https://www.jstor.org/stable/27038399.

Gagnon, Gregory. “American Indian Studies: It Takes Many Disciplines.” North Dakota

Quarterly 78, no. 4 (September 1, 2011): 48–57. https://research.ebsco.com/linkprocessor/plink?

id=cc827afc-19bf-3b66-af88-5769ec4b74c7.
 Hoxie, Frederick E. “‘Thinking like an Indian’: Exploring American Indian Views of American

History.” Reviews in American History 29, no. 1 (2001): 1–14.

http://www.jstor.org/stable/30031022.

Scott Richard Lyons. “Actually Existing Indian Nations: Modernity, Diversity, and the Future of

Native American Studies.” American Indian Quarterly 35, no. 3 (2011): 294–312.

https://doi.org/10.5250/amerindiquar.35.3.0294.

Weaver, Jace. "More Light than Heat: The Current State of Native American Studies." American

Indian Quarterly 31, no. 2 (Spring, 2007): 233-255,350. https://www.proquest.com/scholarly-

journals/more-light-than-heat-current-state-native/docview/216860086/se-2.

[1] Juliana Barr, “Scaling Time in Pursuit of Native Sovereignty in American History,” The Sixteenth
Century Journal, 49, no. 2 (2018): 448.

[2] Barr, 449.

[3] Scott
Richard Lyons, “Actually Existing Indian Nations: Modernity, Diversity, and the Future of
Native American Studies,” American Indian Quarterly, 35, no. 3 (2011): 296.

[4] Lyons, 308.

[5] JaceWeaver, “More Light than Heat: The Current State of Native American Studies,” American
Indian Quarterly, 31, no. 2 (2007): 113.

[6] FrederickHoxie, “‘Thinking like an Indian’: Exploring American Indian Views of American
History,” Reviews in American History 29, no. 1 (2001): 11.

[7] Gregory Gagnon, “American Indian studies: It Takes Many Disciplines,” North Dakota Quarterly
(2012): 57.

[8] Gagnon, 49.

[9] Hoxie, 13.

Mod 2 Post
This module’s resources focus on the way that Europeans conceptualized the New World. They examine
Europeans’ reactions to what they found and also how it aligned with what they expected to find. After
reading these resources, write an initial post that includes the following points:

● Describe what you think are the most significant preconceptions Europeans had about the New
World based on their own perspective and cultural bias.
● Support your response using at least two sources from this module’s resources cited in
Chicago/Turabian format.

________________________________________________________________________________

Module 2 Discussion: Conceptualizing a New World

To me one of the most significant preconceptions held by Europeans about the New World,

would be that it was a blank, uncivilized space that was just waiting to be claimed, commodified and

Christianized. That they viewed the Indigenous peoples not as the complex societies that they were,

rather they likened them to childlike figures that needed to be converted to Christianity or as people that

could be exploited. In his 1493 “Letter to Santangel,” Christopher Columbus reflected on this,

describing the Native peoples as “guileless and so generous with all that they possess, that no one would

believe it who has not seen it. … They refuse nothing that they possess, if it be asked of them; on the

contrary, they invite anyone to share it and display as much love as if they would give their hearts.”[1]

This one statement to me reveals an attitude that is reducing the Indigenous peoples to being simple,

innocent, and exploitable, which aligned perfectly well with the colonial ambitions of the Europeans.

Such broad characterizations were ones that were used in order to justify the conquest and slavery of the

people, which colored the Indigenous peoples as being spiritually void and subordinate, and unworthy of

the freedoms that those of Anglo-European origins had, but also as if they were simply waiting for the

intervention of the Europeans to “civilize” them in order to become worthy.

The problem with these types of attitudes was that they were not formed merely from the

European’s interactions with the Indigenous peoples, rather they were reinforced and shaped by pre-
existing religious ideologies and cultural frameworks. According to historian Helen Nader, “the

Americas and Americans do enter the European consciousness in the mid-sixteenth century, they are

used as one more piece of evidence in long-standing European intellectual and religious debates.”[2] So

instead of forcing a re-assessment of the knowledge, America was simply absorbed into he already

ongoing arguments about civilization, human nature and theology. Historian and Professor James Axtel

supports argument when he writes about the expectations of the Europeans being less about the reality

and more about confirming what had happened.[3] What these sources show me is that the “New

World,” was seen less as a new discovery, and more of a projection. The Europeans had seen what they

were expecting to see, and not what was actually there. Even material exchanges between the

Indigenous peoples and the Spaniards followed the prescribed expectations that had been shaped by

previous encounters. As Historians Floris Keehnen and Angus Mol observed, “The Spanish relied on a

set of trade goods previously proved successful in exchanges with indigenous peoples of West Africa. In

addition, indigenous Caribbean cultures employed an array of exchange valuables and especially valued

lustrous objects.”[4]

For me, it was ultimately these very misconceptions of the colonizers that I believe served a

much deeper purpose. Historian Alvin Padilla-Babilonia argued, “The infantilization of Indigenous and

other colonial peoples as dependent peoples was fundamental to their racialization and colonial

exploitation.”[5] This is an argument that I agree with as it gave further evidence in the ideas of Anglo-

Europeans intentionally characterizing those that were classified as “other” in order to justify their

actions in doing and taking what they wanted.

Bibliography
 Axtell, James. “Columbian Encounters: Beyond 1992.” The William and Mary Quarterly 49, no.

2 (1992): 335–60. https://doi.org/10.2307/2947276.

Columbus, Christopher. “Letter to Santangel,” Early Americas Digital Archive, (1493).

Keehnen, Floris W. M., and Angus A. A. Mol. “The Roots of the Columbian Exchange: An

Entanglement and Network Approach to Early Caribbean Encounter Transactions.” Journal of

Island & Coastal Archaeology 16, no. 2–4 (April 1, 2021): 261–89.

doi:10.1080/15564894.2020.1775729.

Nader, Helen. “The End of the Old World.” Renaissance Quarterly 45, no. 4 (1992): 791–807.

https://doi.org/10.2307/2862637.

Padilla-Babilonia, Alvin. “Sovereignty and Dependence in the American Empire: Native

Nations, Territories, and Overseas Colonies.” DUKE LAW JOURNAL 73, no. 5 (February 1,

2024): 943–1035. https://research.ebsco.com/linkprocessor/plink?id=bad2c341-0555-35a3-a63f-

bc47578759c3.

[1] Christopher Columbus, “Letter to Santangel,” Early Americas Digital Archive, (1493).

[2] Helen Nader, “The End of the Old World,” Renaissance Quarterly 45, no. 4 (1992): 791.

[3] James Axtell, “Columbian Encounters: Beyond 1992,” The William and Mary Quarterly 49, no. 2 (1992).
[4] Floris W. M. Keehnen and Angus A. A. Mol, “The Roots of the Columbian Exchange: An Entanglement and Network
Approach to Early Caribbean Encounter Transactions,” The Journal of Island and Coastal Archaeology 16, nos. 2-4 (2021):
264.

[5] Alvin Padilla-Babilonia, “Sovereignty and Dependence in the American Empire: Native Nations, Territories, and
Overseas Colonies,” DUKE LAW JOURNAL 73, no. 5 (February 1, 2024): 948.
https://research.ebsco.com/linkprocessor/plink?id=bad2c341-0555-35a3-a63f-bc47578759c3.
Mod 3 Post
This module’s readings present a variety of European perceptions of Native Americans. Some of these
perceptions are clearly contradictory. Now that you have had time to read and consider the articles, you
may notice that Native voices are missing. For your initial post, include the following points:

● Explain how the history of contact should be taught by considering the sources that exist and
those that do not.
● Consider what sources, if they were available, would change historical interpretations.
● Support your response using at least two sources from this module’s resources cited in
Chicago/Turabian format.
Mod 4 Post
This module’s readings introduce important ideas about the interaction between biology, geography, and
human history. Drawing on Crosby’s foundational ideas and the other readings for your initial post,
include the following points:

● Respond to the argument that purposeful and accidental exchange of flora, fauna, and microbial
agents reshaped the world.
● Ensure you consider the way that this late twentieth-century topic reshaped American Indian
historiography.
● Support your response using at least two sources from this module’s resources cited in
Chicago/Turabian format.
Mod 5 Post
This module’s resources touch on a debate that is all but settled in the historiography. The “Noble
Savage” is understood to be dehumanizing, and if North America had pristine lands untouched and
unmanipulated by humans, they would have been long gone by the end of the Pleistocene. However,
these ideas are embedded in popular culture. They find constant repetition in films, images, works of
fiction, and political speeches. Therefore, it is an important idea to grapple with and deserves careful
analysis.

For your initial post, include the following points:

● Respond to the idea that the Americas was a pristine land peopled by Noble Savages.
● Consider how that idea is reflected in the European accounts of their encounters and how the
idea has affected the historiography of early American encounters.
● Support your response using at least two sources from this module’s resources cited in
Chicago/Turabian format.
Mod 6 Short
Paper
In this short paper, you will use primary and secondary sources to defend an argument about how an
individual you’ve identified fits the definition of a go-between.

Compose a short paper sketching the life of an individual in an early American middle ground. Select an
individual who operated as a go-between in the middle ground. The person you select should have
operated as a bridge or connection between a Native American people or tribe and a group of European
colonists or American colonists. To find an appropriate individual, consider the examples offered in the
readings, as well as your own research for the final project. As you think about a person to focus on, you
should look to tribal websites for primary documents and to better lead you to multiple perspectives.

Compose a short paper that identifies an individual in an early American middle ground and defend a
thesis statement that argues why this person fits the definition of a go-between. Using secondary and
primary evidence, write an essay that argues for your thesis and provides analysis of the go-between’s
impact.

What to Submit
The short paper should follow these formatting guidelines: 3–4 pages not including title page and
references, double spacing, 12-point Times New Roman font, one-inch margins, and citations in
Chicago/Turabian format.
Mod 7 Post
This module’s resources illustrate various perceptions of gender in early America. For your initial post,
include the following points:

● Discuss the degree to which you think the role of women in the New World, as conceived of by
Europeans, was impacted by the unique circumstances in the New World. This consideration
includes intermarriage between Native Americans and Europeans.
● Consider the impact of race on gender roles and the opportunities available to early American
women.
● Support your response using at least two sources from this module’s resources cited in
Chicago/Turabian format.
Mod 8 Post
Slavery, specifically African slavery, had a profound impact on the Americas by introducing additional
cultures, languages, and worldviews. For your initial post, include the following points:

● Identify what you believe are the most important impacts of African slavery on the relationships
between tribes and colonists during these early American encounters.
● Defend your reasoning.
● Ensure that your discussion is focused on early American encounters; exclude the American
Civil War and the long-term political conflicts in the United States.
● Support your response using at least two sources from this module’s resources cited in
Chicago/Turabian format.
Mod 9 Post
Several nations and countless individuals had visions of the empire in the New World, and many tried to
realize these visions. Moreover, empires already existed in the New World, and some of them facilitated
the creation of new ones. After reading this module’s resources, write an initial post that includes the
following points:

● Describe what you believe to be the most significant outcomes of the various efforts to define,
plan, and create empires during the period of early American encounters.
● Support your response using at least two sources from this module’s resources cited in
Chicago/Turabian format.
Mod 10 Post
Throughout this course, you have discussed misconceptions and errors that are harmful to developing an
accurate history and creating historical interpretations of early American encounters. Hopefully, your
mindset has changed or become more nuanced since this course began. In this discussion board, you will
connect the perspectives reviewed in this module’s resources with the research you conducted for your
final project.

After reading this module’s resources, write an initial post that includes the following points:

● Describe how your views of early American encounters have evolved since the beginning of this
course.
● Identify at least two required readings from this course that you found most illuminating, cited in
Chicago/Turabian format, and describe why you found them so powerful.
● Identify at least one source from your final project that you found the most illuminating, cited in
Chicago/Turabian format, and describe why you found it to be so powerful.
📋 Writing
Assignments
Writing Assignments

Task Status Due Points Notes

1-2: Final Project Not started Mar 30, 2025 Non-Graded ● Final Project Re
Review

2-2: Final Project Not started Apr 6, 2025 -/50 ● Topic Proposal
Milestone 1

3-2: Final Project Not started Apr 13, 2025 -/50 ● Critical Compar
Milestone 2

5-2: Final Project Not started Apr 20, 2025 -/60 ● Thesis Stateme
Milestone 3

6-1 Short Paper Not started Apr 27, 2025 -/40 ● Cultural Go-Bet

7-2: Final Project Not started May 11, 2025 -/60 ● Historiographic
Milestone 4

9-2: Final Project Not started May 25, 2025 -/515 ● Research Paper
Submission
FPM 1
Milestone One: Topic Choice and Bibliography
In Module Two, you will compose a 1- to 2-page summary of your topic and an initial
bibliography of at least one primary and four secondary sources. Your topic summary should
include the following rubric criteria:

● A well-developed summary that illustrates your understanding of the topic within the
context of current historiography
● Summary that explores issues and major ideas related to the topic
● Bibliography that incorporates credible and relevant material from at least four
secondary sources and one primary source into the summary

This milestone is graded with the Milestone One Rubric.

FPM 2
Milestone Two: Critical Comparison Essay
In Module Three, you will locate and read two scholarly articles from refereed journals relating to your
selected final project topic. One of these articles should directly address the ideas of the other (i.e.,
challenging, adding to, overturning, and so on). If, as part of your research for your topic, you locate a
panel-style article that includes a debate among participants, this would be an acceptable replacement
for the two articles if it is long enough to complete an effective analysis. Write an essay that identifies
the thesis of each article and analyzes the differences between the approaches and arguments. Include
your evaluation of the thesis of each article, providing support for your statements. This milestone is
graded with the Milestone Two Rubric.
FPM 3
Milestone Three: Thesis Statement and Annotated Bibliography
In Module Five, you will finalize your essay thesis statement. Your thesis statement should make a clear
argument central to your essay. Develop an annotated bibliography of at least one primary and six
secondary sources. For each source, you will provide a citation in Chicago/Turabian style, give a brief
synopsis (2–3 sentences) of the source’s contents, and supply a brief evaluation (2–3 sentences) of the
source’s application and importance to your topic. The sources you select must clearly support your
argument and support the development of a historiographical essay. This milestone is graded with the
Milestone Three Rubric.
FPM 4
Milestone Four: Historiographical Essay Draft
In Module Seven, you will submit a draft of your historiographical essay. It should contain all the rubric
criteria of the final product and incorporate any feedback gained throughout the course so far. The
purpose of this draft is to receive feedback on your work to date and receive guidance to meet
proficiency. You will further develop your feedback from this draft into your final submission. This
milestone is graded with the Milestone Four Rubric.
FPS
Final Submission: Historiographical Essay

In Module Nine, you will submit the historiographical essay. It should be a complete, polished artifact
containing all the rubric criteria of the final product. It should reflect the incorporation of feedback
gained throughout the course. This submission is graded with the Final Project Rubric.

Prompt
You will begin by conducting a literature search similar to what you would do at the beginning of a
major research project, write a synthesis of historiographical interpretations, and identify the trajectory
of future work on a topic. Note that your topic must be chosen with the approval of the instructor.
Respond to the key question: “How have historians’ interpretations of your topic changed over time?”

Specifically, you must address the following rubric criteria:

1. Pose an introduction with an argumentative thesis statement to establish a narrative that

addresses the key question and addresses the historiographical development of your topic.
A. How have interpretations changed over time? Explain how the interpretations are the
same or different.
B. Why did those interpretations change over time? Explain the resulting implications to
historical truths.
2. Critique and analyze the current historiographical interpretations for their credibility,
methodologies, and biases within the sources and analyze what they do and do not do well in
contributing to our understanding of the topic.
A. Identify when each source was produced, where it was produced, by whom it was
produced, and in what form.
B. Address the strengths and weaknesses that each source represents and how these
impact the work’s value in contributing to our understanding of the topic.
3. Situate the topic in the greater timeframe and scope of American history within the course,
connect it to the reasons or effects of European colonization of the New World, and explain the
topic’s significance for and consequences on other events, people, and institutions.
A. In what ways do the effects of colonization manifest themselves in your topic?
B. In what ways do the impacts of colonization manifest in your topic?
4. Defend what your analysis reveals about popular interpretations, ideas, and beliefs about the
period by synthesizing the sources with your argument.
A. Explain how the primary sources illustrate the conclusions you’ve drawn about the
historiography.
B. Explain how the secondary sources illustrate the conclusions you’ve drawn about the
historiography.
C. Connect all sources to your argumentative thesis statement.
5. Identify opportunities for future research related to the paper topic, explain why the gap is
worthy of further research, and explain potential new methodologies or approaches that are
directly applicable to the topic.
A. What gaps in the historiography have you identified?
B. In what ways would the topic benefit from some new approach? Discuss what future
directions research could take on this topic.
6. Use credible research from both primary and secondary sources to defend the analysis.
A. Meaningfully integrate supporting evidence from at least eight sources, of which at
least two are primary sources.
📝 Class notes
Mod 1 3-24-25
notes
Owner Tabitha Adkins

Instructor Dr. Molly Sergi

Subject Early American Encounters

Mar 24, 2025

Reading #1: History Program Smart Reading Guide

I. Pre-Reading Analysis:
A. Before beginning a book or article, the guide suggests evaluating the bibliographic
information and the author’s background.

Bibliographic Information: Consider the title, publication date, publisher, and

length of the book.

● Does the publication date influence the relevance of the work?

● Does the title indicate a specific argument or perspective?

Author's Credentials: Research the author’s academic background and previous

publications.

● Is the author recognized as an authority in the field?

● Does the author's institutional affiliation or past work indicate potential biases?
 ●
II. Skimming Key Sections of the Book

Rather than reading cover to cover, target specific sections to quickly grasp the book’s
argument:

● Cover and Front Matter: Preface, foreword, and acknowledgments may provide insight
into the book’s purpose, influences, and historiographical significance.
● Table of Contents: Helps outline the structure and key themes of the book.
● Index: Identifies frequently discussed topics and figures.
● Bibliography: Shows which primary and secondary sources the author relies on, which
may reveal biases or gaps in research.
III. Focused Reading Strategy
A. Introduction: The most critical section, as it often contains the thesis,
methodology, sources used, and historiographical placement.
B. Conclusion & Epilogue: Summarizes the book’s argument and often situates its
findings in a broader historical context.
C. Chapter Introductions & Conclusions: These sections typically summarize
arguments and provide key evidence.
D. Visual Aids (Tables, Charts, Maps, Appendices): Can reveal the author’s
analytical approach and reliance on quantitative vs. qualitative data.
IV. Taking Notes & Organizing Analysis
The guide suggests keeping structured notes to compare multiple books. A useful approach is to
create a table with the following categories:
A. Bibliographic Entry (Chicago Style)
B. Author’s Background
C. Topic & Scope
D. Historiographical Significance
E. Methodology & Sources
F. Thesis Statement
G. Key Supporting Arguments
H. Strengths & Weaknesses
I. Reviews Consulted
V. Reviewing External Criticism
A. Look for academic reviews (via JSTOR, Google Scholar, or book review databases).
B. Reviews can highlight strengths, weaknesses, and the book’s contribution to the
field.

How This Guide Can Be Applied

This reading strategy is particularly useful for:

● Historiographical essays where you need to compare multiple scholars' views.

● Preparing literature reviews for research papers.
● Graduate-level research that requires analyzing a large number of sources efficiently.
By following this approach, readers can critically engage with a text’s arguments and sources
while efficiently managing their reading workload. Would you like assistance in applying this
guide to a specific book or topic?

Reading #2: Literary Article: “Thinking Like an Indian”:

Exploring American Indian Views of American History
Overview:
Frederick E. Hoxie examines how Native Americans have interpreted American history and how
historians should engage with Indigenous perspectives. He challenges the idea that there is a
single “tribal viewpoint” and instead presents a range of Indigenous historical narratives shaped
by different experiences, contexts, and political realities. The essay explores various frameworks
through which Native people have understood and responded to American history.
KEY THEMES:
VI. The Challenge of Defining an “Indian” Perspective on History

A. Hoxie questions whether Native people "think" about history in a uniform way.

B. He argues that historical perspectives among Indigenous communities vary greatly

due to different experiences with colonization, displacement, and adaptation.

C. While Native traditions often share common values, history is interpreted

differently depending on context and time period.

VII. Early Native Historical Narratives: The Nativist View

A. During the 18th and 19th centuries, Indigenous prophets and leaders like Neolin,
Tenskwatawa, and Handsome Lake developed religious and political frameworks
that positioned Native people as separate from European invaders.

B. These leaders emphasized Indigenous unity, rejected European influence, and

viewed colonization as a moral and spiritual corruption.

C. This perspective portrayed Native history as completely distinct from that of

European settlers.

VIII. Moralistic Interpretations of History

A. Figures like William Apess (Pequot) and Charles Eastman (Sioux) presented
history through a moralistic lens, arguing that Americans had failed to live up to
their own ideals of democracy and fairness.

B. Apess criticized white hypocrisy, urging Native and non-Native people to fight
against racism and injustice.

C. Eastman, a Sioux physician and writer, argued that Indigenous societies embodied
democracy and morality better than Euro-American civilization.
IX. Anti-Colonial perspectives and Indigenous Sovereignty

A. In the 20th century, thinkers like D’Arcy McNickle framed Native history within
global anti-colonial movements, arguing that Native nations had the right to self-
governance.
B. McNickle saw Native struggles as part of a larger decolonization movement,
paralleling the fight for independence in Africa and Asia.
C. He advocated for the recognition of tribal sovereignty, arguing that Native nations
should have the power to govern themselves on their own terms.
X. Contemporary Indigenous Historiography

A. Hoxie explores how modern Indigenous scholars, such as Vine Deloria Jr. and
Ward Churchill, have shaped Native historical narratives.
B. Deloria focused on treaty rights and sovereignty, framing American expansion as a
colonial enterprise.
C. Churchill went further, arguing that the history of Native people in the U.S.
constituted a "holocaust" due to the scale of violence and destruction.
D. Other Native historians, like Donald Fixico, adopt a moralistic approach,
emphasizing American greed and injustice while advocating for Indigenous
resilience.
XI. The Complexity of “Thinking Like an Indian”

A. Hoxie concludes that there is no single way to "think like an Indian" about history.
B. Indigenous historical perspectives are diverse, shaped by politics, experience, and
cultural background.
C. Rather than seeking a single "Native perspective," historians should recognize the
plurality of Indigenous voices and their evolving interpretations of history.

Conclusion

Hoxie argues that Native perspectives on history are not monolithic but reflect a variety of
intellectual traditions, ranging from nativist resistance and moral critique to anti-colonial activism
and contemporary scholarship. He urges historians to engage deeply with Indigenous viewpoints
while acknowledging their complexity and diversity.

Reading #3: Literary Article: Scaling Time in Pursuit

of Native Sovereignty in American History
Overview

Juliana Barr critiques the traditional framing of American history, which often dismisses
Indigenous history as "prehistory" and treats Native sovereignty as a concept that only became
relevant in the 19th century. She argues that scholars must adopt a longue durée approach,
acknowledging Native history as a continuous and significant force in shaping the continent long
before and after European contact.
KEY THEMES:
XII. The Problem of Prehistory vs. History in American Narratives
● Barr highlights how traditional American history creates an artificial divide between
“prehistory” (before 1492) and “history” (after European arrival).
● This framing erases centuries of Native agency, reducing Indigenous contributions to
passive subjects of environmental and demographic changes.
● She argues that Indigenous nations were making history long before European arrival, with
their own political structures, conflicts, and power shifts.
XIII. Rethinking the Timeline of American History
A. Instead of viewing 1492 as the beginning of American history, Barr suggests that
European arrival was just another chapter in a much longer Indigenous history.
B. She argues that the formation of the United States in 1776 should not be seen as the
central point of American history but as part of a larger, ongoing timeline.
XIV. The Role of Native Sovereignty Across Centuries
A. Barr argues that Native sovereignty should not be studied only in the context of its
decline in the 19th century but should be understood as an enduring force.
B. Indigenous empires, such as the Comanche, rose to power after 1492, challenging
the narrative of inevitable Native decline.
C. She asserts that the United States will never be truly “post-colonial” as long as
Native nations remain only "semi-sovereign" under U.S. law.
XV. Disease, Colonization, and the Long-Term Impact on Native Populations
A. Paul Kelton’s research is cited to compare Native population decline with the Black
Death in Europe, arguing that Indigenous peoples faced not just disease but also
invasion, displacement, and genocide.
B. Unlike Europe, where populations rebounded in about 300 years, Native
populations were continually suppressed, making full recovery difficult.
C. If measured on the same scale, Barr suggests Indigenous demographic recovery
might not be complete until the 22nd century.
XVI. Viewing the U.S. as One of Many Contenders for Power
A. The United States is often portrayed as the dominant force in North American
history, but Barr reframes it as just one of many nations competing for power.
B. She points out that European colonization did not mark the beginning of history but
was instead part of an ongoing struggle among Indigenous nations.

Conclusion

Barr calls for historians to move beyond Eurocentric timelines and embrace a broader, deeper
view of American history. Recognizing Native sovereignty across centuries, rather than just in
moments of resistance or decline, offers a more accurate and just representation of Indigenous
history.

Reading #4: Literary Article: More Light than Heat:

The Current State of Native American Studies
Overview:
 Jace Weaver is a prominent scholar in Native American Studies, known for his work on Indigenous
literature, sovereignty, and community engagement. More Light than Heat likely explores the
tensions and debates within Native American Studies, advocating for a balance between
theoretical discourse and real-world Indigenous issues.
KEY THEMES
XVII. Critique of Theoretical Approaches
A. Weaver often critiques overly abstract academic theories that fail to address
tangible Native struggles.
B. He argues for scholarship that is not only intellectually rigorous but also relevant to
Indigenous communities.
XVIII. Indigenous Identity and Sovereignty
A. The book examines the complexities of Indigenous identity, particularly in relation
to federal recognition, cultural authenticity, and self-determination.
B. Weaver emphasizes that Indigenous identity should be shaped by Native peoples
rather than external academic or legal frameworks.
XIX. The Role of Literature and Storytelling
A. He highlights how Native literature serves as both a tool for resistance and a means
of preserving cultural knowledge.
B. Storytelling is positioned as a key component of Indigenous survival and identity.
XX. Community-Based Scholarship
A. Weaver advocates for a more engaged approach to Native American Studies, where
research directly benefits Indigenous communities.
B. He promotes “communitism,” a term he coined to describe scholarship that
prioritizes communal well-being over individual academic prestige.
XXI. Criticism of Postcolonial Theory
A. He challenges the application of postcolonial theory to Indigenous studies, arguing
that it often misrepresents Native realities.
B. Weaver insists that Native sovereignty and self-governance should be understood
on their own terms rather than through Western academic frameworks.

Conclusion

Weaver calls for Native American Studies to be more action-oriented, focusing on sovereignty,
real-world challenges, and community engagement rather than getting lost in abstract theory. His
work bridges the gap between academia and activism, urging scholars to prioritize Indigenous
voices and needs.

Reading #5: Literary Article: American Indian Studies:

It Takes Many Disciplines by Gregory Gagnon
Overview
Gregory Gagnon emphasizes the interdisciplinary nature of American Indian Studies (AIS) and the
necessity of integrating multiple fields—law, history, archaeology, political science, literature, and
 sociology—to fully understand Native American experiences. He reviews various scholarly works
that contribute to the discipline, highlighting the field’s goals: advocating for Indigenous
communities, correcting historical ignorance, and preserving sovereignty.
KEY THEMES
XXII. Interdisciplinary Approach in American Indian Studies

A. AIS must incorporate diverse disciplines to provide a comprehensive understanding

of Native experiences.
B. The field emerged to challenge outdated narratives that portrayed Indigenous
societies as static and unchanging.
C. Scholars now prioritize Native agency and Indigenous perspectives in research.
XXIII. The Role of Tribal Sovereignty and Legal Studies
A. Understanding federal Indian law is crucial to AIS.
B. Stephen Pevar’s The Rights of Indian Tribes provides a foundational understanding
of legal issues affecting Native communities, such as treaties, land rights, and the
Indian Child Welfare Act.
C. Legal scholars like Matthew Fletcher emphasize innovative approaches to tribal
sovereignty.
XXIV. Native Agency in History
A. Frederick Hoxie’s This Indian Country highlights Native leaders who worked within
the U.S. system to preserve tribal sovereignty.
B. Leaders such as Vine Deloria Jr. and Robert Yellowtail used American legal and
political structures to assert Indigenous rights.
C. This challenges narratives that only portray Native resistance through armed
conflict.
XXV. Archaeology and Indigenous Identity
A. Meghan Howey’s Mound Builders and Monument Makers explores how Indigenous
societies in the Great Lakes region used ceremonial structures to maintain cultural
unity.
B. The work rejects the outdated notion that Native cultures were unchanging before
European contact.
XXVI. The Iroquois and Sioux in Diplomacy and Conflict
A. William Campbell’s Speculators in Empire and Matthew Rhoades’ Long Knives and
the Longhouse examine how the Iroquois leveraged diplomacy to maintain power
despite declining influence.
B. Doreen Chaky’s Terrible Justice explores conflicts between the Sioux and U.S. forces
but lacks a clear thesis.
XXVII. Indianization and Cultural Adaptation
A. William Swagerty’s The Indianization of Lewis and Clark argues that the expedition
adapted to Indigenous lifestyles as it moved westward.
B. The study shows how cultural exchanges shaped American history, but its
conclusions are somewhat self-evident.
XXVIII. Gender and Marriage in Native Societies
A. Catherine Denial’s Making Marriage examines how Dakota and Ojibwe women
maintained legal and social independence, challenging American legal norms.
B. Even missionaries and settlers adapted to Indigenous marriage customs.
XXIX. Challenges to Assimilation Policies
 A. C. Joseph Genetin-Pilawa’s Crooked Paths to Allotment discusses alternative
proposals to forced assimilation.
B. He argues that some American policymakers sought to preserve tribal sovereignty,
but systemic racism and expansionism ultimately prevented these efforts.
XXX. The Importance of Place and Oral History
A. Mni Sota Makoce by Gwen Westerman and Bruce White documents the Dakota’s
deep historical ties to Minnesota.
B. Oral traditions and archaeological records affirm Indigenous claims to ancestral
lands.
XXXI. Native Identity and Literature
● David Treuer’s Rez Life provides a personal and historical perspective on reservation life.
● He argues that Native identity has shifted from a distinct culture to an ethnic identity
influenced by external forces.
● The book critiques romanticized views of Native culture while acknowledging ongoing
struggles and adaptations.
11. The Debate Over Métis Identity
● Contours of a People, edited by St. Onge, Podruchny, and Macdougall, examines Métis
identity as a unique blend of Indigenous and European ancestry.
● Métis communities are culturally distinct yet lack the same legal recognition as First
Nations in Canada.

Conclusion

Gagnon’s article highlights the complexity and evolving nature of American Indian Studies. He
stresses that the field must remain interdisciplinary, responsive to contemporary issues, and
grounded in Native voices. The study of Indigenous experiences must continue to challenge
outdated stereotypes, advocate for sovereignty, and document the ongoing struggles and
achievements of Native peoples.

Reading #6: Literary Article: Actually Existing Indian

Nations: Modernity, Diversity, and the Future of Native American
Studies by Scott Richard Lyons
Overview

Scott Richard Lyons explores the evolution of Native American Studies, its political roots, and its
role in contemporary scholarship. He argues that Native nations are not static entities defined
solely by tradition but are modern, diverse, and deeply engaged with global issues. His central
thesis is that Native American studies should embrace this reality rather than rely on outdated
notions of authenticity and assimilation.
KEY THEMES
XXXII. Origins of Native American Studies
 A. Native American Studies emerged in the 1960s as part of the Red Power movement
and the broader ethnic studies movement.
B. It was created in response to activism and demands for educational reform, pushing
for curricula that included diverse perspectives.
XXXIII. Shifts in Native American Studies
A. The early study of Native cultures often focused on "ethnographic-formal" analysis,
ignoring historical, social, and political contexts.
B. More recent frameworks—Nationalism, Indigenism, Cosmopolitanism, and Tribal
Transnationalism—highlight Native sovereignty, traditional worldviews, and global
Indigenous activism.
XXXIV. The Concept of Tribal Transnationalism
A. Indigenous movements are increasingly global, utilizing international platforms
such as the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples.
B. Movements like the Zapatistas demonstrate a new form of Indigenous resistance
that merges local tribal autonomy with global anti-neoliberal activism.
XXXV. Modernity and Diversity in Native Nations
A. Lyons challenges the idea that Indigenous identity must be tied strictly to
traditionalism.
B. He describes the Leech Lake Reservation, showing how modernity and diversity are
integral to Native life (e.g., mixed religious beliefs, economic structures,
governance).
C. Native identity is complex and cannot be reduced to binaries like "modern vs.
traditional" or "authentic vs. assimilated."
XXXVI. Sovereignty and Colonialism
A. Native nations exist within the paradox of being sovereign yet colonized.
B. Federal Indian law creates a system where Native people experience dual identities
—both as American citizens and as members of their tribal nations.
XXXVII. Critique of Essentialism in Native Studies
A. Some scholars argue that Native literature is inauthentic if written in English or
using Western literary forms.
B. Lyons rejects this view, arguing that Native culture has always been adaptive and
that nationalism should focus on sovereignty rather than strict cultural purity.
XXXVIII. Future Directions for Native American Studies
A. Lyons calls for an approach that acknowledges modernity and diversity while still
advocating for sovereignty and decolonization.
B. He warns against romanticized views of Indigenous life that ignore contemporary
realities.

Conclusion

Lyons argues that Native American Studies must move beyond outdated ideas of authenticity and
assimilation to embrace the complexities of contemporary Native nations. He calls for scholarship
that recognizes the diversity, modernity, and sovereignty of Native peoples while continuing the
fight against colonialism and oppression.
 Reading #7: Website: What is a Scholarly Source?
XXXIX. Definition of a Scholarly Source
A. A scholarly source is written by scholars for scholars and is intended to
advance knowledge in a particular field rather than entertain or sell information.
B. Scholars have advanced degrees (master’s, doctorate) and conduct research to
contribute to their discipline.
C. Scholarly research often includes survey results, data, and references to prior
studies.
XL. Differences Between Scholarly and Popular Sources

A. Popular sources (e.g., newspapers, magazines, blogs) are meant to inform or

entertain the public.
B. Scholarly sources (e.g., journal articles, research studies) focus on deep analysis,
research findings, and academic discussion.
C. Scholarly sources are often peer-reviewed, meaning experts in the field evaluate
the research before publication to ensure credibility.
XLI. Identifying a Scholarly Source

To determine if a source is Scholarly:

A. Check the author: Look for credentials such as a professor, researcher, or expert
with an advanced degree.

B. Identify the audience: If the publication targets academics and researchers, it is

likely scholarly.

C. Verify the publisher: Academic journals (e.g., The Journal of Educational Behavior)
and university presses (Columbia University Press) are strong indicators of
scholarly work.

D. Look for peer review: Articles published in peer-reviewed journals are

validated by experts and considered credible.

XLII. Characteristics of a Scholarly Source

A. Uses high-level academic language and discipline-specific jargon.

B. Includes structured sections (e.g., methods, results, analysis).
C. Provides formal citations (parenthetical citations, footnotes, or bibliographies).
D. Presents original research rather than summarizing existing knowledge.
XLIII. Evaluating the Credibility of a Source

To assess whether a source is both credible and scholarly, consider these four criteria:

A. Relevance: Is the source directly related to your research topic?

■ Skim the abstract or summary before deciding if it fits your needs.
B. Date: How recent is the publication?
 ■ Some disciplines require the most up-to-date research, while others (e.g.,
history) may rely on older sources.
C. Type: Where was the source published?
■ University affiliations and academic journals indicate scholarly work,
whereas commercial websites or newspapers do not.
D. Authority: Who wrote the source?
■ Ensure the author has an advanced degree and relevant expertise.
XLIV. Where to Find Scholarly Sources
A. Library databases (e.g., JSTOR, Google Scholar, university libraries) provide access
to peer-reviewed journals and academic books.
B. University subscriptions allow students to access credible sources for free.
C. Librarians can help: Many universities offer 24/7 online chat assistance with
research librarians.
XLV. Becoming a Research Skeptic
A. Always verify the credibility of sources before using them.
B. If an author’s claim cannot be verified, keep searching for other sources that support
the same findings.
C. Research means to "search again and again"—refining your ability to identify
scholarly sources takes practice.

Final Takeaway
● Scholarly sources are essential for credible academic research.
● Learning to identify and evaluate them is a skill that improves with time.
● When in doubt, seek assistance from librarians or trusted academic databases.

Reading #8: Literary Article: Intimate Atlantics:

Toward a Critical History of Transnational Early America
XLVI. “

Reading #9: Literary Article: Atlantic History:

Definitions, Challenges, and Opportunities by Alison Games
Alison Games explores the field of Atlantic history, examining its definitions, methodologies, and
challenges while assessing its significance as a historical framework. The article discusses how the
Atlantic world serves as a unit of analysis to study connections between Africa, Europe, and the
Americas, as well as the intellectual challenges that come with this approach.
XLVII. Defining Atlantic History

A. Atlantic history examines the interconnected histories of four continents (Europe,

Africa, North America, and South America) through the lens of the Atlantic Ocean.
 B. The field is inspired by Fernand Braudel's Mediterranean history, but the Atlantic
lacks the geographic and political coherence that Braudel attributed to the
Mediterranean.
C. The Atlantic region was historically fragmented, and the idea of an "Atlantic system"
is largely a modern scholarly construction.
XLVIII. Theoretical Challenges in Atlantic History

A. Unlike the Mediterranean, the Atlantic was not perceived as a single unit in the past
but rather as separate regional and imperial domains.
B. The Atlantic region includes vast geographic and environmental differences, such as
the Sahara Desert, the Caribbean, and Arctic territories.
C. Historians debate whether the Atlantic should be studied as a whole ("circum-
Atlantic"), through comparisons ("trans-Atlantic"), or within specific local contexts
("cis-Atlantic").
XLIX. Major Themes in Atlantic History

A. The Transatlantic Slave Trade:

■ One of the strongest areas of Atlantic history research.
■ The forced migration of Africans shaped the entire region through economic,
cultural, and social exchanges.
■ Paul Gilroy’s "Black Atlantic" (1993) emphasizes the role of African diaspora
in shaping modern identities.
B. Colonialism and Empire:
■ Historians of colonial societies explore interactions between European
settlers, Indigenous peoples, and enslaved Africans.
■ Many colonial historians seek an Atlantic perspective to avoid the limitations
of nation-state-centered historiography.
C. Economic and Commercial Networks:
■ Trade and migration connected the Atlantic world.
■ The sugar, tobacco, and silver trades played a crucial role in shaping imperial
economies and labor systems.
D. Circulation of Ideas and Cultural Exchange:
■ The Atlantic facilitated the spread of religious, political, and philosophical
ideas.
■ The Age of Revolutions (1775–1830s) highlights how movements for
independence, abolition, and democracy circulated across the Atlantic.
L. The Evolution of Atlantic History as a Field

A. The field expanded rapidly in the late 20th century, fueled by conferences, academic
journals, and university programs.
B. Harvard University’s International Seminar on Atlantic History, led by Bernard
Bailyn, played a major role in shaping the discipline.
C. Scholars increasingly integrate Atlantic history with global history to understand
larger patterns of migration, trade, and empire.
LI. Criticisms and Future Directions

A. Challenges in Methodology:
■ The lack of archival sources for many regions, particularly in Africa, makes it
difficult to construct a fully comprehensive Atlantic history.
 ■ Some scholars argue that Atlantic history is too Eurocentric, as it often
prioritizes European perspectives over Indigenous and African experiences.
B. Tensions Between Atlantic and National Histories:
■ While Atlantic history seeks to move beyond national narratives, many
academic institutions still organize history departments by country or
region.
■ Some historians argue that focusing on the Atlantic obscures local histories
and internal developments.
C. Expanding the Scope of Atlantic History:
■ Scholars suggest including connections between the Atlantic and other global
regions, such as the Pacific and Indian Oceans.
■ There is a growing effort to restore Africa's central role in Atlantic history
beyond just the context of slavery.

Conclusion

● Atlantic history provides a valuable framework for understanding global connections but
also faces methodological and conceptual challenges.
● The field must continue evolving to incorporate new perspectives, particularly those of
Indigenous peoples and Africans who shaped the Atlantic world.
● Despite its challenges, Atlantic history remains a powerful tool for analyzing migration,
trade, culture, and empire in an interconnected world.

Reading #10: Literary Article: Promises and Perils of

Transnational History
LII. “
📝 Class notes
Mod 2 3-31-25
notes
Owner Tabitha Adkins

Instructor Dr. Molly Sergi

Subject Early American Encounters

Mar 31, 2025

Reading #1: Literary Article: Columbian Encounters:

Beyond 1992
LIII.

Reading #2: Literary Article: The End of the Old World

LIV.

Reading #3: Literary Article: The Alchemy of Conquest:

Science, Religion, and the Secrets of the New World, Part II, Ch. 4
LV.
 Reading #4: Literary Article: The Roots of the
Columbian Exchange: An Entanglement and Network Approach to
Early Caribbean Encounter Transactions
LVI. “

Reading #5: Literary Article: Thief, Slave Trader,

Murderer: Christopher Columbus and Caribbean Population Decline
LVII. “

Reading #6: Literary Article: Sovereignty and

Dependence in the American Empire: Native Nations,
Territories, and Overseas Colonies
LVIII. “

Reading #7: Literary Article: Columbus, Letter to

Santangel
LIX. “
📝 Class notes
Mod 3 4-7-25
notes
Owner Tabitha Adkins

Instructor Dr. Molly Sergi

Subject Early American Encounters

Apr 7, 2025

Reading #1: Literary Article: ‘Are These Not Also

Men?’: The Indians’ Humanity and Capacity for Spanish Civilization
LX.

Reading #2: Literary Article: A Short Account of the

Destruction of the Indies
LXI.
 Reading #3: Literary Article: The Black Legend
Revisited: Assumptions and Realities
LXII.

Reading #4: Literary Article: Bartolome De Las Cases

and the Defense of Amerindian Rights: A Brief History with
Documents
LXIII. “

Reading #5: Website: Early Images of Virginia Indians:

The William W. Cole Collection
LXIV. “

Reading #6: Website: Browse JCB Archives of Early

American Images
LXV. “

Reading #7: Literary Article: Gathering Souls: Jesuit

Missions in the Spanish Empire
LXVI. “

Reading #8: Literary Article: The Sons of Noah and

the Construction of Ethnic and Geographical Identities in
the Medieval and Early Modern Periods
LXVII. “

Reading #9: Literary Article: Juan Gines de Sepulveda

on the Nature of the American Indians
LXVIII. “
📝 Class notes
Mod 4 4-14-25
 notes
Owner Tabitha Adkins

Instructor Dr. Molly Sergi

Subject Early American Encounters

Apr 14, 2025

Reading #1: Literary Article: The Columbian Exchange:

Plants, Animals, and Disease Between the Old and New World
LXIX.

Reading #2: Literary Article: Fifty Years Later - The

Legacy of Alfred Crosby’s “The Columbian Exchange: Biological
and Cultural Consequences of 1492”
LXX.
 Reading #3: Literary Article: The Cultural Landscape
of the Pawnees
LXXI.

Reading #4: Literary Article: A Broken Frontier:

Ecological Imperialism in the Canadian North
LXXII. “

Reading #5: Literary Article: The ‘Columbian Exchange’

and Landscapes of the Middle Rio Grande Valley, USA, AD
1300-1900
LXXIII. “

Reading #6: Literary Article: “Heavy Shadows and

Black Night”: Disease and Depopulation in Colonial Spanish America
LXXIV. “

Reading #7: Literary Article: Teaching the Columbian

Exchange
LXXV. “
📝 Class notes
Mod 5 4-21-25
 notes
Owner Tabitha Adkins

Instructor Dr. Molly Sergi

Subject Early American Encounters

Apr 21, 2025

Reading #1: Literary Article: ‘When WIld in Woods the

Noble Savage Ran’: The European Discourse of American
Utopianism, 1748-1783
LXXVI.

Reading #2: Literary Article: Miraculous Plagues:

Epidemiology on New England’s Colonial Landscape
LXXVII.
 Reading #3: Literary Article: The Pristine Myth: The
Landscape of the Americas in 1492
LXXVIII.

Reading #4: Literary Article: The Ecologically Noble

Savage Debate
LXXIX. “

Reading #5: Literary Article: Annotated Bibliography

Samples
LXXX. “

Reading #6: Literary Article: Virgin Land and Savage

People
LXXXI. “

Reading #7: Literary Article: American Environmental

History: The Development of a New Historical Field
LXXXII. “

Reading #7: Literary Article: Natural Philosophy and

an Early Racial Idiom in North America: Comparing English and
Indian Bodies
LXXXIII. “
📝 Class notes
Mod 6 4-28-25
 notes
Owner Tabitha Adkins

Instructor Dr. Molly Sergi

Subject Early American Encounters

Apr 28, 2025

Reading #1: Literary Article: The Middle Ground

Revisited: Introduction
LXXXIV.

Reading #2: Literary Article: Creative

Misunderstandings and New Understandings
LXXXV.
 Reading #3: Literary Article: What is the Middle
Ground, Anyway
LXXXVI.

Reading #4: Literary Article: Cultural Brokers and

Intercultural Politics: New York-Iroquois Relations, 1664-1701
LXXXVII. “

Reading #5: Literary Article: “A Friend to Go

Between Them”: The Interpreter as Cultural Broker During Anglo-
Iroquois Councils, 1740-70
LXXXVIII. “

Reading #6: Literary Article: The Importance of

Mestizos and Mulatos as Bilingual Intermediaries in
Sixteenth-Century Spain
LXXXIX. “
📝 Class notes
Mod 7 5-5-25
notes
Owner Tabitha Adkins

Instructor Dr. Molly Sergi

Subject Early American Encounters

May 5, 2025

Reading #1: Literary Article: A “Labyrinth of

Uncertainties”: Penobscot River Islands, Land Assignments, and
Indigenous Women Proprietors in Nineteenth-Century Maine
XC.

Reading #2: Literary Article: Forty Canoes of Women:

The Lives and Legacy of Algonquian WOmen of 17th-Century France
XCI.
 Reading #3: Literary Article: Malinche, Pocahontas, and
Sacagawea: Indian Women as Cultural Intermediaries and National
Symbols, “Introduction”
XCII.

Reading #4: Literary Article: Eden’s Translations:

Women and Temptation in Early America
XCIII. “

Reading #5: Literary Article: The Female Opossum and

the Nature of the New World
XCIV. “

Reading #6: Literary Article: “Some Could Suckle Over

Their Shoulder:” Male Travelers, Female Bodies, and the Gendering
of Racial Ideology, 1500-1700
XCV. “
📝 Class notes
Mod 8 5-12-25
 notes
Owner Tabitha Adkins

Instructor Dr. Molly Sergi

Subject Early American Encounters

May 12, 2025

Reading #1: Literary Article: “It has Always Been

Customary to Make Slaves of Savages”: The Problem of
Indian Slavery in Spanish Louisiana Revisited, 1769-1803
XCVI.

Reading #2: Literary Article: To “Doe some Good Upon

Their Countrymen”: The Paradox of Indian Slavery in Early Anglo-
America
XCVII.
 Reading #3: Literary Article: Reviewed Work: The
Other Slavery: The Uncovered Story of Indian Enslavement in
America by Andres Resendez
XCVIII.

Reading #4: Literary Article: America’s Western

Problem
XCIX. “

Reading #5: Literary Article: Early-American

Literature: Reassessing the Black Contribution
C. “

Reading #6: Literary Article: A Narrative of the

Uncommon Sufferings, and Surprizing Deliverance of Briton
Hammon
CI. “

Reading #7: Literary Article: Bar Fights

CII. “
📝 Class notes
Mod 9 5-19-25
notes
Owner Tabitha Adkins

Instructor Dr. Molly Sergi

Subject Early American Encounters

May 19, 2025

Reading #1: Literary Article: Canaanites in a Promised

Land: The American Indian and the Providential Theory of Empire
CIII.

Reading #2: Literary Article: Properties of Empire:

Indians, Colonists, and Land Speculators on the New England Frontier
CIV.
 Reading #3: Literary Article: The Rituals of
Possession: Native Identity and the Invention of Empire in
Seventeenth-Century Western North America
CV.

Reading #4: Literary Article: The “Four Indian Kings”

and the Imaginative Construction of the First British
Empire
CVI. “

Reading #5: Literary Article: Thrush Coll Indigenous

London: Native Travelers at the Heart of the Empire (The Henry
Roe Cloud Series on American Indians and Modernity)
CVII. “

Reading #6: Literary Article: Claiming the New World:

Empire, Law, and Indigenous Rights in the Mohegan Case, 1704-1743
CVIII. “

Reading #7: Literary Article: Scots, Indians and

Empire: The Scottish Politics of Civilization 1519-1609
CIX. “
📝 Class notes
Mod 10 5-26-25
notes
Owner Tabitha Adkins

Instructor Dr. Molly Sergi

Subject Early American Encounters

May 26, 2025

Reading #1: Literary Article: Indigenous Humanity and

Early American Archives
CX.

Reading #2: Literary Article: Dialogue as Conquest:

Mapping Spaces for Counter-Discourse
CXI.
 Reading #3: Literary Article: And the Injun Goes
“How!”: Representations of American Indian English in White Public
Space
CXII.

Reading #4: Literary Article: ‘Guardians of the Indian

Image’: Controlling Representations of Indigenous Cultures in TV
CXIII. “

Reading #5: Literary Article: Colonizing the Universe:

Science Fictions Then, Now, and in the (Imagined) Future
CXIV. “