Colloid and Interface Science Communications 64 (2025) 100814

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Colloid and Interface Science Communications

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/colcom

Advancing lipid nanoparticles: A pioneering technology in cosmetic and

dermatological treatments
Anil Pareek a , Devesh U. Kapoor b,* , Sandeep Kumar Yadav c , Summya Rashid d,
Mohammad Fareed e , Mohammad Suhail Akhter f,g, Ghazala Muteeb h , Madan Mohan Gupta i ,
Bhupendra G. Prajapati j,k,**
a
Department of Pharmaceutics, Lachoo Memorial College of Science and Technology (Autonomous), Jodhpur, Rajasthan 342001, India
b
Dr. Dayaram Patel Pharmacy College, Bardoli 394601, Gujarat, India
c
Department of Pharmacology, SGT College of Pharmacy, Shree Guru Gobind Singh Tricentenary (SGT) University, Gurugram, Haryana 122505, India
d
Department of Pharmacology & Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University, P.O. Box 173, Al-Kharj 11942, Saudi Arabia
e
Department of Basic Medical Sciences, College of Medicine, AlMaarefa University, P.O. Box 71666, Riyadh 13713, Saudi Arabia
f
MLT Department, College of Nursing and Health Sciences, Jazan University, Jizan, Saudi Arabia
g
Health Research Center, Jazan University, Jizan, Saudi Arabia
h
Department of Nursing, College of Applied Medical Sciences, King Faisal University, Al-Ahsa 31982, Saudi Arabia
i
NIMS Institute of Pharmacy, NIMS University Rajasthan, Jaipur, India
j
Shree S. K. Patel College of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, Ganpat University, Kherva 384012, Gujarat, India
k
Faculty of Pharmacy, Silpakorn University, Nakhon Pathom 73000, Thailand

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) represent a groundbreaking advancement in the realms of cosmetics and derma­
Lipid nanoparticles tology, providing advantages over traditional formulations. This paper explores the revolutionary potential of
Nanotechnology LNPs, particularly Solid Lipid Nanoparticles (SLNs) and Nanostructured Lipid Carriers (NLCs), in enhancing
Dermatology
cosmetic and dermatological applications. The review highlights the advantages of LNPs, including improved
Cosmetics
Drug delivery systems
skin penetration, improved bioavailability and controlled release of active ingredients, which together contribute
Skin disorders to their superior performance compared to conventional formulations. Notable applications discussed include
their roles in acne treatment, anti-aging solutions, wound healing, skin-lightening products, and sunscreens. This
study examines the structural features and formulation techniques of LNPs, highlighting biocompatibility, and
targeted delivery capabilities. We also explore emerging uses such as genetic medicine and mRNA vaccine de­
livery, alongside market trends and consumer acceptance. By summarizing recent developments and identifying
existing challenges, this paper offers a thorough overview of LNPs for future research in pharmaceutical and
cosmetic advancements.

1. Introduction nanotechnology-based delivery systems are composed of solid and

liquid lipids, forming nanoparticles ranging from 50 to 500 nm in size
Therapeutic and cosmetic products have long demonstrated the po­ [4]. Their unique structural and compositional attributes enable them to
tential to deliver active molecules through topical and transdermal ap­ overcome traditional barriers, enhancing the stability, bioavailability,
plications. However, traditional formulations face significant and penetration of active ingredients [5].
challenges, including poor stability, low bioavailability, and limited Traditional formulations such as liposomes and the emulsions in
penetration into deeper skin layers [1]. As a transformative solution, cosmetics and dermatology suffer from poor stability, requirement of
nanotechnology has become an integral tool in advancing cosmetic and time-consuming process, low bioavailability, and limited skin penetra­
dermatological sciences [2]. Among the most promising developments tion of active ingredients [6]. Additionally, the skin’s natural barrier
in this field are LNPs [3]; particularly SLNs and NLCs. These advanced function poses a significant challenge to the delivery of these active

* Corresponding author.
** Corresponding author at: Shree S. K. Patel College of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, Ganpat University, Kherva 384012, Gujarat, India.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (D.U. Kapoor), [email protected] (B.G. Prajapati).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colcom.2024.100814
Received 24 October 2024; Received in revised form 20 November 2024; Accepted 28 November 2024
Available online 7 December 2024
2215-0382/© 2024 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
A. Pareek et al. Colloid and Interface Science Communications 64 (2025) 100814

ingredients to deeper layers, where they are most needed [7]. Re­ factors such as the solubility of the bioactive compounds in the lipid
searchers have devised nano-lipid carriers to tackle these issues, spe­ phase, their incorporation efficiency, the stability of the lipid matrix,
cifically for dermal and transdermal uses. LNPs offer numerous and important parameters like particle size, drug loading capacity, and
advantages, such as their small particle size allowing close interaction release profiles [9,10].
with the stratum corneum, facilitating drug penetration through the NLCs were created to overcome the limitations associated with SLNs,
skin, and enabling sustained drug release from lipid nanocarriers for including issues of drug loss and inadequate loading efficiency resulting
continual drug retention, release, and optimal systemic drug absorption from lipid recrystallization. The distinctive crystal architecture of NLCs
[6]. Additionally, owing to the occlusive nature of lipid nanocarriers, facilitates an increased drug capacity while reducing the likelihood of
they reduce transdermal water loss, leading to skin moisturization, drug expulsion during both production and storage phases. The incor­
elasticity improvement, and enhanced drug penetration, making them poration of liquid lipids enhances drug solubility and allows for a more
suitable for application on damaged skin [8]. regulated release profile in comparison to SLNs. Although NLCs remain
This paper aims to provide a comprehensive review of recent ad­ solid at physiological temperatures, they possess a lower melting point,
vancements in the application of LNPs, focusing on their structural in­ and their disordered structure provides additional space for drug
novations, mechanisms of action, and practical applications in dissolution [11]. In research conducted by Ahalwat et al., Isoniazid-
dermatology and cosmeceuticals. Key contributions include a detailed loaded NLCs were developed utilizing tristearin and stearyl amine as
exploration of their use in anti-aging therapies, skin-brightening agents, solid lipid components, linoleic acid as the liquid lipid, and Tween 80
moisturizers, sunscreens, and treatments for inflammatory skin diseases. along with Pluronic F-127 as surfactants. The optimized formulation
Furthermore, this review discusses emerging opportunities for LNPs in demonstrated a mean particle size of 306.4 ± 3.53 nm, a zeta potential
genetic medicine, such as mRNA delivery, immunotherapy, and nutra­ of +19.08 ± 1.73 mV, a polydispersity index of 0.539 ± 0.06, an
ceuticals. By addressing current challenges like scalability, long-term encapsulation efficiency of 72.39 ± 1.39 %, a drug loading of 15.93 ±
stability, and targeted delivery, this paper identifies potential research 0.30 %, and an in vitro drug release rate of 66.35 ± 1.44 % [12].
directions that can expand the utility of LNPs in both therapeutic and The Fig. 1 depicts the composition of SLN and NLC, containing a core
cosmetic fields. Through this analysis, we seek to establish LNPs as a lipid matrix and surfactant that is filled with drug molecules [7]. The
cornerstone technology that bridges the gap between scientific innova­ matrix consists of lipids that are solid at both room and body tempera­
tion and consumer-driven solutions, offering enhanced efficiency and ture, such as triglycerides (trilaurin, tristearin and tripalmitin), fatty
safety for next-generation skincare and pharmaceutical products. This acids (stearic acid), steroids (cholesterol), waxes (cetyl palmitate),
work sets the stage for further exploration of LNPs’ transformative po­ partial glycerides (imwitor), fats and waxes. The choice of lipids affects
tential in personalized medicine and advanced dermatological the particle size, drug loading capacity, and release profile. Commonly
treatments. used surface stabilizers are 0.5–5 % (w/v) and can consist of phospho­
lipids, bile salts, soy lecithin, ovolecithin, phosphatidylcholine, polox­
2. Structure and composition amers, and polysorbates. A mixture of surfactants can be used to
improve the stability of SLNs [13].
SLNs and NLCs consist of a lipid matrix that may include solid and/or NLCs are classified according to the combination of lipids and oils
liquid lipids, emulsifiers, co-emulsifiers, water, and potentially bioactive [14].
compounds or drugs. This lipid matrix can be formed from a single The three different categories of NLCs include (i) imperfect type, (ii)
highly crystallized solid lipid or a mixture of lipids with different amorphous type, and (iii) multiple oil-in-solid fat-in-water type. Type I
physical properties, such as melting points [9]. These nanoparticles are non-lamellar phases are produced by combining solid lipids with various
stabilized by a surfactant layer, which may consist of a single surfactant types or chain lengths of triglycerides [15]. Failing to include drugs
or a combination of emulsifiers and co-emulsifiers. The physical state of leads to the formation of numerous empty spaces and flaws. When solid
the lipid matrix is vital for the mobility of the bioactive compounds. To lipids do not undergo recrystallization while cooling NLCs, they produce
enhance SLNs and NLCs as delivery systems, it is essential to consider amorphous solid particles referred to as amorphous type (Type II). The

Fig. 1. Schematic representation of the composition structures of LNPs: Solid Lipid Nanoparticle (SLN) and Nanostructured Lipid Carrier (NLC).

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shapeless NLCs manage the undesired drug release and enhance the shelf routes of drug penetration into the skin. Intracellular transport involves
life. Several kinds of Type III NLCs are created by blending solid lipids the movement of drugs through the relatively hydrophilic keratinocyte
with oil components containing medium and long-chain triacylglycerols environment and then through the highly lipophilic intercellular lipid
and oleic acid [16]. During cooling, the oil component must exceed its matrix. The intercellular pathway is the primary route for transporting
solubility in solid lipid, creating nano oil compartments. Type III small, uncharged, and lipophilic molecules, as they diffuse through the
(Multiple type NLCs) are created by mixing solid lipids with an oil like cells of various skin layers and intercellular lipid domains [24]. Drug
oleic acid, along with medium and long-chain triacylglycerols [17]. transportation through the skin’s appendages, such as sweat glands, hair
follicles, and sebaceous glands, is referred to as the trans-appendageal or
3. Preparation and stability “shunt” route, creating a continuously permeable conduit that directly
crosses the stratum corneum.
The formulation of SLNs and NLCs involves two primary steps: the
initial preparation step and the secondary preparation step [14]. The 4.1. Mechanisms of skin penetration for SLNs and NLCs
first step entails creating SNLs and NLCs, while the second step involves
drying the synthesized nano lipid particles through lyophilization or SLNs and NLCs leverage their unique physicochemical properties to
drying to enhance storage stability [18]. The techniques for creating penetrate the skin effectively, delivering active ingredients to the tar­
SNLs and NLCs are summarized in Table 1, providing details on their geted layer.
subtype, a brief description of the processes, as well as the advantages
and disadvantages based on recent research studies [19]. 4.1.1. Transcellular penetration
Several factors impact the stability and size of SLNs and NLCs, with Transcellular penetration involves the passage of SLNs and NLCs
particle size and dispersion being key factors in lipid nanoparticle sta­ directly through the cells of the epidermis, particularly keratinocytes.
bility, often indicated by the polydispersity index [20]. The particle The lipid nature of these nanoparticles allows them to merge with the
composition and the processing technique primarily determine the lipid bilayers of cell membranes [25]. The process involves endocytosis,
characteristics of the particles [21]. where nanoparticles are engulfed by the cell membrane and transported
into the cell, and exocytosis, where they are expelled on the other side,
4. Transport pathway for skin penetration reaching deeper skin layers [26].

The outermost layer of the skin, known as the stratum corneum, acts 4.1.2. Intercellular penetration
as the primary barrier to prevent drug molecules from entering the skin SLNs and NLCs enter through the spaces between the cells of the
[22]. Drug molecules are mainly transported into different skin layers stratum corneum in intracellular penetration. The LNPs disrupt the
through the trans-epidermal and trans-appendageal pathways. The tightly packed lipid matrix between corneocytes [25]. This disruption is
trans-epidermal pathway can be further divided into intracellular facilitated by the lipid composition and small size of SLNs and NLCs,
(transcellular) and intercellular micro routes [23]. Fig. 2 illustrates the which allows them to diffuse through the intercellular lipid layers. The

Table 1
Methods of preparation of SNLs and NLCs formulations.
Method Techniques Process Advantages Disadvantages

Primary preparation step

High energy High-pressure Uses high pressure to force lipid and drug Uniform particle size distribution, High energy input, potential for lipid
methods homogenization mixture through a narrow gap, resulting in scalable production, high encapsulation degradation
small particles efficiency
Hot homogenization Lipids and drugs are heated to a molten state, High drug loading capacity, improved Temperature-sensitive drugs may degrade,
homogenized to form nanoparticles stability, versatile lipid selection lipid modification required for specific
applications
Cold homogenization Homogenizes lipid and drug mixture at low Preserves thermolabile drugs, reduces Requires longer homogenization times,
temperatures to form nanoparticles lipid oxidation potential for larger particle size
distribution
Ultrasonication Uses high-frequency sound waves to Efficient encapsulation, particle size Equipment variability, potential for
generate cavitation, forming nanoparticles reduction, mild processing conditions particle aggregation
Supercritical fluid Uses supercritical fluids (e.g., CO2) to Eco-friendly, precise particle size High operational costs, specialized
technology dissolve and precipitate lipids, forming control, enhances bioavailability equipment and expertise required
nanoparticles
Low energy Microemulsion Uses surfactants and co-surfactants to form Enhanced drug loading capacity, stable Complex formulation optimization,
methods technique stable microemulsion, followed by drug formulation, controlled release profiles potential for phase separation
loading
Phase inversion Changes in temperature induce phase Controlled drug release, stable Temperature-sensitive process, long
temperature inversion of lipid and drug mixture, forming formulation, potential for large-scale production times
nanoparticles production
Organic Solvent Dissolves lipids and drugs in a solvent, forms Simple process, suitable for heat- Residual solvent, potential for drug loss
solvent emulsification/ emulsion, followed by evaporation to form sensitive drugs, versatile formulation during solvent removal
based evaporation nanoparticles options
Membrane Forces lipid and drug solution through a Narrow size distribution, continuous Membrane fouling, limited scalability
emulsification porous membrane to form droplets, followed production, suitable for large-scale
by solidification manufacturing

Secondary preparation step

Secondary Spray drying Atomizes lipid and drug solution into fine Rapid process, scalable, improves High initial investment in equipment,
step droplets, dried rapidly to form nanoparticles stability and shelf life potential for particle aggregation
Freeze-drying Freezes lipid and drug solution, followed by Enhanced stability, preserves bioactivity Long processing times, potential for
sublimation under vacuum to form dry of sensitive drugs, suitable for complex collapse of nanoparticle structure during
nanoparticles formulations drying

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Fig. 2. Illustration of routes of penetration through stratum corneum (SC). Topically applied LPNs can penetrate the stratum corneum in one of three different ways:
(A) Intracellular route: LPNs cross the SC through lipid matrix between corneocytes (B) Transcellular route: LPNs cross the SC directly through the cells of the
epidermis (C) Transappendageal route: LPNs enter hair follicles, sweat glands, or skin furrows for either penetration to the dermis or retention for increased
drug release.

stability and dispersibility of the nanoparticles are greatly influenced by bioavailability for effective treatment of Parkinson’s disease [32].
surfactants and stabilizers. These agents enhance the ability of SLNs and Chantaburanan et al. prepared ibuprofen-loaded SLN dispersions and
NLCs to navigate through the intercellular spaces, improving penetra­ conducted in vitro skin permeation study. The result exhibited high
tion and bioavailability of the encapsulated drugs. penetration of ibuprofen to the receptor phases from SLN dispersions
compared to nano emulsion owing to the higher occlusion factors of the
4.1.3. Follicular penetration SLN [33].
The natural openings of hair follicles to deliver SLNs and NLCs into Tacrolimus is a BCS class II drug that is poorly soluble in water due to
deeper skin layers. Hair follicles provide a direct route for nanoparticles its high log P values. After dermal application, Tacrolimus primarily
to bypass the stratum corneum. SLNs and NLCs can penetrate the accumulates in the stratum corneum and struggles to penetrate deeper
follicular openings and reach the dermis and release active ingredients skin layers. Kang et al. [34] prepared tacrolimus-loaded thermosensitive
[27]. The size and surface properties of the nanoparticles are critical. SLNs for enhancing skin penetration. The tacrolimus-loaded SLNs and
Smaller particles are more likely to penetrate the narrow follicular the reference product (Protopic® ointment, Astellas Pharm, Japan) were
openings. Additionally, surface modifications with coatings or func­ applied daily to the shaved skin of five rabbits for two weeks. After 24 h
tional groups can enhance the targeting and retention of nanoparticles post-application, the rabbits were sacrificed and skin was excised for
within hair follicles, optimizing their therapeutic potential [28]. evaluation of drug residual present in skin using HPLC and FT-IR im­
aging. Tacrolimus-loaded SLNs demonstrated superior drug delivery to
4.1.4. Trans-Appendageal penetration deeper skin layers compared to the reference ointment. Fig. 3 (a) illus­
It transports of SLNs and NLCs through skin appendages such as trates the results of the HPLC analysis, which revealed that the pene­
sweat glands. Through this route [29], SLNs and NLCs can penetrate the tration of tacrolimus from SLNs was statistically significant at depths of
epidermis and potentially reach the dermis. Surfactants and stabilizers 50–100 μm, 100–150 μm, and 0–300 μm relative to the reference oint­
that prevent aggregation and promote dispersion can enhance pene­ ment. Fig. 3 (b) presents the FTIR-imaging of tacrolimus distribution
tration [28]. across the skin depth in the in vivo skin penetration study. The
tacrolimus-loaded SLNs delivered the drug in large quantities up to 300
5. Benefits of LNPs in cosmetics and dermatology μm while tacrolimus was not detectable below 150 μm in case of
reference ointment. The tacrolimus-loaded SLNPs effectively released
In comparison to conventional delivery systems, SLNs and NLPs offer the drug in significant amounts, reaching up to 300 μm, whereas the
numerous which enhance the efficacy, stability, and safety of active reference ointment showed no detectable levels of tacrolimus below
ingredients. The key benefits of these LNPs are as follows: 150 μm.

5.1. Enhanced skin penetration 5.2. Controlled release profiles

The SLNs and NLPs significantly increase the penetration of encap­ Nano-lipid particles offer controlled and sustained release of active
sulated active ingredients into the skin. The small size and lipid-based ingredients which minimizes the need for frequent application, im­
composition of SLNs and NLCs allow them to pass through various proves patient compliance, and maintains a consistent therapeutic effect
skin pathways, including transcellular, intercellular, and follicular over time [35]. Rahman et al. fabricated SLNs loaded with curcumin for
routes. Enhanced penetration ensures that active ingredients reach the the effective treatment of lung cancer. The fabricated curcumin-SLNs
targeted skin layers, increasing their efficacy and providing better demonstrated sustained release profile up to 120 h [36].
therapeutic outcomes [30]. The topical application of L-Glutathione is
difficult because it cannot effectively penetrate stratum corneum. Liu 5.3. Improved stability of active ingredients
et al. encapsulated glutathione into SLNs to improve its skin penetration
and stability [31]. Nano-lipid particles protect encapsulated active ingredients from
For the effective skin penetration of Resveratrol, Bandiwadekar et al. degradation. The lipid matrix shields sensitive compounds from envi­
developed resveratrol loaded SLNs-microneedle patches. The formu­ ronmental factors such as light, oxygen, and enzymes. Improved sta­
lated SLNs- microneedle patches revealed high skin penetration and bility enhances the shelf life of cosmetic and dermatological products

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Fig. 3. In vivo skin penetration Test (a) HPLC analysis of residual tacrolimus into skin. The results are expressed as mean ± standard error. Statistical significance was
determined using the student’s t-test. *p-value<0.05, ** p-value<0.01 (b) FTIR-imaging of the stratum corneum and skin at different depths after in vivo skin
penetration test using the reference product and TCR-SLN-1. Adapted with permission from [34].

[37]. and organ-specific toxicity, warranting cytotoxicity assays and tox­

Kafetzis et al. demonstrated the improved stability of RNA loaded icokinetic studies [47]. A comprehensive understanding of these factors
LPNs [38]. Lyophilized mRNA-LNPs have been shown to produce vac­ is crucial for ensuring the safety and efficacy of LNPs in medical appli­
cines with long-term stability and strong antigenicity against corona cations, particularly in drug delivery and vaccine development [48].
virus [39].
5.6. Targeted delivery
5.4. Enhanced bioavailability
The surface of lipid nanoparticle can be modified with ligands or
By improving solubility and facilitating deeper penetration, nano- functional groups to target specific skin cells or receptors. Targeted
lipid particles enhance the absorption and availability of encapsulated delivery enhances the specificity and effectiveness of treatments,
compounds. Higher bioavailability ensures that a greater proportion of reducing the required dosage and minimizing systemic side effects [40].
the active ingredient reaches its target site, maximizing its therapeutic The LNPs are the most effective and clinically validated delivery systems
or cosmetic effect [40]. for transporting small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) to specific organs or
Mahajan et al. developed acitretin loaded SLNs based gel for topical cells within the body [49]. For target delivery of siRNA, Moukhtari et al.
treatment of psoriasis. SLNs exhibited high local skin bioavailability formulated siRNA-SLNs for the effective treatment of cancer [49]. Su
without skin irritation [41]. et al. developed the mRNA therapeutics (Firefly luciferase and Cy5-
Firefly luciferase mRNA) loaded SLNs for target delivery of mRNA
5.5. Biocompatibility and safety therapeutics at lungs. The results exhibited the promising potential of
SLNs as target specific delivery of mRNA therapeutics in several disease
SLNs and NLCs are composed of lipids that are generally recognized [50].
as safe (GRAS) and are similar to the skin’s natural lipids. This
biocompatibility reduces the risk of irritation, allergic reactions, and 5.7. Enhanced cosmetic elegance
other adverse effects, making them suitable for sensitive skin and long-
term use [42]. Lipids are generally regarded as biocompatible; however, SLNs and NLCs form smooth, non-greasy, and easily spreadable
the properties of nanoscale structures can modify their characteristics, formulations. Improved texture and feel make products more appealing
thereby affecting biological interactions. Important factors such as size, to consumers, enhancing their user experience and satisfaction. Pawar
surface charge, and lipid composition play a significant role in the in­ et al. formulated adapalene loaded SLNs gel having and minocycline for
teractions of LNPs, which may lead to cytotoxic and genotoxic effects the treatment of acne. The texture analysis of the gel indicates a
[43]. It is crucial to meticulously evaluate these properties when favourable profile for topical delivery [51].
investigating the impact of LNPs on biological systems [44]. The eval­
uation of LNPs must address their potential to cause skin allergies, im­ 6. Applications of LNPs in cosmeceuticals
mune responses, and toxicity. Skin allergies may arise from specific
lipids or additives in formulations, necessitating patch testing and LNPs are extensively used in both dermatology and cosmeceuticals to
sensitization studies [45]. Immune responses can be triggered by improve skin delivery and address various skin concerns. A compre­
cationic lipids, leading to inflammation; thus, in vitro and in vivo immune hensive overview of the use of LNPs, including SLNs and NLCs, in the
assessments are essential [46]. Additionally, LNPs may exhibit cellular treatment and enhancement of skin conditions is presented in Fig. 4.

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penetration was reported [58]. To increase the stability and skin-

lightening effects of kojic acid, Khezri et al. produced NLCs containing
the acid using high-speed homogenization. These lipid nano particles
increased solubility, skin penetration capability, tyrosinase inhibitory
activity and stability [59]. To increase the solubility kojic acid dipal­
mitate in oil medium, it was encapsulated in SLNs and kojic acid
dipalmitate-SLN cream was developed as topical delivery of kojic acid
dipalmitate by Mohammadi F. et al. [60].

6.3. Moisturizing

NLCs and SLNs can build an occlusive layer that increases skin hy­
dration, inhibits water loss through evaporation, and improves skin
look. When different NLCs formulation were compared it was found that
occlusion factor improved with increase in oil content. A comparison
skin hydration effect was studied between Cutanvoa nanorepair Q10
conventional o/w cream with NLS formulation. The NLS cream pre­
sented higher skin hydration effect hydration without irritation [61].
The NLC formulation showed the improved physical stability and
improved occlusive properties with the incorporation of the addition of
propylene glycol or lecithin. NLCs showed a 60 % reduction in TEWL
with improved skin hydration [62].

6.4. Sunscreen

Fig. 4. Applications of LPNs in dermatology and cosmeceuticals. LNPs have attracted considerable attention for their potential
application in different types of sunscreens (inorganic, herbal, synthetic,
Table 2 exhibits a summary of a literature review on recent research and and mixed) due to their ability to exhibit a synergistic UV scattering
publications that have been studied. The list of commercially available effect as a carrier for sunscreen agents. Furthermore, SNPs and NLCs
cosmetic products based on LNPs is presented in Table 3. have been shown to enhance the sun protection factor of UV filters and
simultaneously reduce the required amount of sunscreen agent, leading
to decreased production costs [63]. Nikolic et al. developed NLCs in
6.1. Anti-aging
hydrogel form containing UV chemical filters such as ethylhexyl tri­
azone, bis-ethylhexyloxyphenol methoxyphenyl triazine, and ethylhexyl
Antioxidant offers and anti-aging molecules often encounter issues in
methoxycinnamate. The findings of study indicate a 445 % increase in
topical applications, including low solubility in water, poor skin ab­
the SPF value of UV filters [64]. Researchers developed an NLC hydrogel
sorption, or instability. Encapsulating these molecules in LNPs a solu­
containing oxybenzone to enhance its solubility. The NLC hydrogel was
tion, improving their stability, solubility, and skin permeability [52].
prepared successfully, addressing issues related to oxybenzone crystal­
Muller et al. reported the enhanced stability and sustained antioxidant
lization and irritation, resulting in a six-fold increase in UV protection
activity of CoQ10 loaded SLNs resulted in improved skin firmness and
factor [65]. Niculae et al. encapsulated the UV filter methoxydibenzoyl
reduced wrinkle formation [53]. The encapsulated resveratrol in SLNs
methane, leading to an enhancement in the photoprotection effect [66].
showed increased skin penetration and prolonged anti-aging effects.
Different NLC formulations were created to administer octocrylene
Antioxidants like CoQ10 and resveratrol are encapsulated in SLNs to
and avobenzone using a varied combination of solid lipids and oils.
prevent degradation and prolong their effectiveness while minimizing
These formulations exhibited a controlled release profile and demon­
the appearance of aging [54]. Pople et al. developed NLCs loaded with
strated photoprotective properties (SPF of 40–45 and FP-UVA of 27–34)
retinol, achieving enhanced stability and reduced irritation. The retinol-
in comparison to conventional cream preparation [67].
loaded NLCs exhibited improved skin penetration and prolonged
Longer-lasting UV protection with fewer adverse effects is achieved
release, resulting in significant anti-wrinkle effects [55]. Suter et al.,
by encapsulating chemical and physical sunscreen ingredients in NLCs,
prepared SLNS having peptide by hot high pressure homogenization
which increases their photostability. Customers are more likely to accept
technique. The peptide-loaded SLNs was found to be effective in pro­
these formulations due to their enhanced dispersibility and visual
tection of DNA damage and skin. The improved delivery system en­
appeal.
hances skin penetration, leading to visible reduction in wrinkles and fine
lines [56].
6.5. Hair care

6.2. Skin brightening Hair loss was treated with a variety of medications. However, as a
result of the systematic absorption, they displayed several side effects.
The application of Phenylethyl resorcinol was limited due to its poor Researchers have developed LNPs to deliver medications topically
solubility and instability against light. Phenylethyl resorcinol loaded without entering the bloodstream through the skin. SLNs and NLCs
NLCs resolved this issue by showing improved physicochemical and could be a promising option for treating hair loss. Padois et al. developed
photo stabilities. The Phenylethyl resorcinol-NLC exhibited significant SLNs containing minoxidil and compared them to the standard minox­
cellular tyrosinase enzyme inhibition activity and efficient delivery of idil solution. They conducted in vitro skin penetration studies using
skin whitening agent. Increased stability and bioavailability of the Franz-type glass diffusion cells and pig ear skin, demonstrating that
vitamin C-loaded SLNs produced by Kim et al. resulted in better skin SLNs loaded with minoxidil were as effective as the conventional solu­
lightening and decreased hyperpigmentation [57]. tion without causing any harmful effects [68]. Hamishehkar et al. tar­
Sahudin et al. formulated Chitosan SNPs containing arbutin using an geted androgenic alopecia by loading flutamide, a 5a-reductase enzyme
ionic cross-linking method and increase ain permeation and skin inhibitor, onto SLNs [69]. Comparing these nanoparticles to flutamide

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Table 2
List of LNPs used in cosmeceuticals.
Application Active Ingredient Type of Lipid Benefits References
Nanoparticle

Anti-Aging Coenzyme Q10 SLNs Improved skin firmness, reduced wrinkles [53]
Resveratrol SLNs Enhanced stability, prolonged anti-aging effects [54,85]
Retinol NLCs Enhanced stability, reduced irritation [55]
Peptides NLCs Protect DNA damage, reduced wrinkles [56]
Skin Brightening Phenylethyl resorcinol SLNs Increased photostability and solubility [57]
Arbutin SLCs Improved permeation and skin penetration. [58]
Kojic Acid NLCs Improved solubility, skin penetration capability and tyrosinase [59]
inhibitory activity and stability
kojic acid dipalmitate SLNs Increase solubility in oil and enhanced skin lightening effects. [60]
Moisturizing (Skin Cutanvoa nanorepair Q10 (Xanthan NLCs Enhanced skin hydration effect without irritation. [61,86]
hydration) gum)
Glycol and Lecithin NLCs Decreased TEWL, Improved hydration and occlusion of the skin [62]
Sunscreen UV Filters NLCs Improved stability, Synergistic interaction between NLCs and UV filters [64]
Oxybenzone NLCs Effective UV protection, reduced irritation [65]
Methoxydibenzoyl methane SLNs Improved stability, Effective UV protection [66]
Octocrylene and Avobenzone NLCs Effective UV protection, Controlled release profile [67]
Hair Care Minoxidil NLCs Enhanced delivery, promotes hair growth [68]
Flutamide NLCs Improved treatment for androgenic alopecia [69]
Finasteride and Minoxidil LNPs Stable formulation, efficient to reach dermis and hair follicles without [68]
systematic absorption
Anti-Acne Isotretinoin SLNs High entrapment efficiency, high stability and high anti-acne activity [70]
Adapalene SLNs Effective topical delivery without systemic entry [71]
Isotretinoin and α-Tocopherol acetate SLNs Sustained release of drug for treatment of acne without irritation [72]
Spironolactone SLNs No toxicity on fibroblast cells with [73]
good biocompatibility
Neem oil SLNs High drug entrapment efficiency, longer stability [74]
Adapalene and minocycline SLNs High drug entrapment efficiency with antibacterial activity [51]
Retinoic acid SLNs Controlled release and high entrapment efficiency. [75]
Azelaic acid SLNs Improved solubility, high skin penetration power [75]
Dapsone SLNs Increased the quantity of dapsone retained in the skin in a controlled [76]
release profile, and increased its skin permeability
Tretinoin and Clindamycin phosphate NLCs High stable formulation, targeting potential for effective treatment of [77]
acne without irritation and toxicity.
Antioxidant Ferulic acid SLNs Increased aqueous solubility and high stability [79]
Protection Quercetin and luteolin SLNs High entrapment efficiency, Increased skin penetration and sustained [79]
release profile
Resveratrol, Vitamin E, and NLCs, Improved stability with long-lasting antioxidant benefits [81]
Epigallocatechin Gallate SLNs
Idebenone and Tocopheryl Acetate NLCs Improve in solubility and skin penetration profile. [82]
Quercetin SLNs Increased in vitro skin permeation efficiency [84]
Naringenin, nordihydroguaiaretic acid, NLCs high entrapment efficiency loading capacity, longer stability, in vitro [87]
and kaempferol sustained release profile

hydroalcoholic solution, they demonstrated stability over two months delivery without the drug entering the bloodstream, thereby minimizing
and greater skin deposition, indicating improved drug localization. In the adverse effects of adapalene [71]. The researchers developed an SLN
addition, when compared to the hydroalcoholic solution of flutamide, gel for the topical delivery of Isotretinoin and α-tocopherol acetate, and
the in vivo studies demonstrated increased hair growth, possibly due to it exhibited sustained release of the drug for acne treatment without
the higher retention and extended release of the medication from the causing irritation [72].
SLNs [69]. Additionally, they loaded the anti-androgenic drug spironolactone
Gomes et al. conducted research in which they used ultrasonication into an SLN gel and investigated its efficacy in topically delivering the
to create NLCs that contained two anti-alopecia medications: finasteride treatment for facial acne vulgaris. This approach effectively reduced the
and minoxidil. The particle size was found to be 200 nm which was number of lesions in the treated patients [73]. Neem oil, a natural
efficient to reach dermis and hair follicles without systematic absorption ingredient, was added to SLNs made by the double emulsification
[68]. technique with varying lecithin and Tween 80 concentrations. The
particle size of SLNs was found to be decreased with increase in amount
of surfactant. The SLNs shown entrapment efficiency of 82.10 % and
6.6. Anti-acne treatments longer stability. The outcomes indicate the possible use of SLNs as a
medication delivery method for the treatment of acne [74]. The
NLCs and SLNs encapsulating anti-acne drugs enhanced skin pene­ adapalene-SLNs gel has antibacterial properties that are comparable to
tration and provided regulated release, leading to more effective acne those of a commercial formulation that contains both clindamycin and
treatment. Frequently, acne treatments result in dryness and discomfort. adapalene. Hence, SLNs show great potential as an innovative drug
By facilitating regulated release and enhancing the penetration of anti- delivery system for acne treatment [51].
acne drugs, encapsulation in LNPs lessens these side effects and im­ The use of SLNs containing all-trans retinoic acid represents an
proves the tolerability and efficacy of treatments. Raza and colleagues interesting strategy for topical acne treatment. SLNs offer the possibility
prepared and assessed SLN isotretinoin, which demonstrated a high of controlled release and enhanced penetration into the hair follicles,
entrapment efficiency of 89.49 ± 4.1 %, as well as high stability and which may mitigate side effects. Retinoic acid -loaded SLNs were created
potent anti-acne activity. This was achieved without causing any skin using glyceryl behenate as the lipid matrix and an amine to improve
inflammation when compared to the commercially available drug [70]. entrapment efficiency [75]. The poor aqueous solubility and low skin
The SLN gel containing adapalene demonstrated effective topical

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A. Pareek et al. Colloid and Interface Science Communications 64 (2025) 100814

Table 3
Different types of marketed cosmetic products based on LNPs.
Brand/Product Company Type Active Ingredients Cosmetic Application References

Youthful face contour Sany Skincare SLNs Epidermal growth factor, antioxidants, plant Antiwrinkle, skin firming cream [88]
creme extracts, and peptides
Allure Body Cream Chanel, France SLNs Squalene, linalool, tocopheryl acetate, hexyl Moisturizing [89]
cinnamal, limonene, ascorbic acid, citric acid
Soosion Facial Lifting Soosion NLCs Jojoba oil, herbal extracts, peptides Antiwrinkle cream [90]
Cream SLN Technology
SURMER Creme Legere Isabelle Lancray, France NLCs Kukuinut oil, Monoi Tiare Moisturizing cream for Sensitive and [91]
Protection Tahiti® (flower extract), Glistin (synthetic Dry Skin
pseudopeptide),
coconut milk, and wild
indigo seed extract
VITAMINA - Masque Creme Isabelle Lancray, Paris NLCs Vitamin A, Vit. E, Acerola cherry extracts, Kiwi Anti-wrinkles/Anti-aging [92]
Fraicheur aux Fruits extrat
NLC deep effect repair Beate Johnen, Germany NLCs Q10, TiO2, highly active oligo saccharides Treat wrinkles around the eye [53]
cream
Cutanova Cream Dr. Rimpler, Germany NLCs Ubidecarenone, Antioxidant and Anti-aging [53]
Nanorepair Q10 polypeptide, Hibiscus
extract, ginger extract, and
ketosugar
Cutanova Cream Dr. Rimpler, Germany NLCs Coenzyme Q10, TiO2, polypeptide, ursolic acid, Antioxidant and Anti-aging [52]
Nanovital Q10 oleanolic acid, sunflower seed extract
NanoLipid Q10 CLR Chemisches Laboratorium Dr. NLCs Ubidecarenone and black currant seed oil Anti-aging & skin repair [53]
Kurt Richter GmbH (CLR),
Germany
Olivenöl Anti Falten Medipharma Cosmetics NLCs Olea europaea oil, Anti-wrinkles (Remove wrinkles [52]
Pflegekonzentrat (Dr. Peter Theiss group), panthenol, Acacia senegal, around the eye and mouth)
Germany tocopheryl acetate
Phyto NLC Active Cell Sirehemas, Malaysia NLCs Olive oil, Cucumis sectivus extract, curcuma Anti-hyperpigmentation Anti- [93]
Repair xanthorrhiza extract wrinkle/Ani-aging, skin rejuvenating
moisturizer
Olivenol Medipharma cosmetics NLCs Olea Europaea Fruit Oil, Tocopheryl Acetate, Anti-wrinkle, eye puffiness and rings [94]
Augenpfegebalsam Caprylyl Glycol, Caffeine, Lecithin, Helianthus near eye.
Annuus Seed Oil, Rhodiola Rosea Root Extract

penetration problem of azelaic acid was resolved by developing azelaic and penetrability of quercetin and luteolin up to 19-fold [80]. The
acid loaded NLC gel. According to research, NLCs gel shows great research findings indicate that resveratrol and vitamin E-loaded NLCs
promise as a vehicle for improving azelaic acid’s tissue targetability and are promising delivery vehicles for antioxidant compounds, offering
efficacy without sacrificing its therapeutic anti-acne profile or safety long-lasting antioxidant benefits for the skin [81].
[75]. The physicochemical properties of Idebenone were improved by
The cationic NLC formulation loaded with dapsone improved the encapsulation into NLCs to increase its skin permeation efficiency.
anti-rosacea action, increased the quantity of dapsone retained in the Montenegro et al. reported that co-loading Idebenone and Tocopheryl
skin in a controlled release profile, and increased its skin permeability. Acetate (VitE) into NLC could be a potential topical antioxidant
These positive findings suggest that cationic NLC is a potential carrier formulation with improved stability against light [82].
for the safe topical administration of dapsone [76]. The NLCs of Topical distribution is the most effective method of treating skin-
tretinoin and clindamycin phosphate prepared by highspeed related problems; nevertheless, the primary obstacle is the high hydro­
homogenization-sonication technique were investigated for physico­ philicity to use GSH topically, which causes poor penetration into the
chemical properties, permeation, in vivo anti-acne and toxicity. The stratum corneum, and its low stability in aqueous circumstances. The
finding of results proved the NLC as a potential delivery carrier for GSH-SLNs showed increased physicochemical stability of GSH, and
effective topical treatment of skin acne [77]. improved its skin penetration efficiency to impart antioxidant effect in
deeper layers of skin [83]. In vitro skin permeation efficiency of hydro­
phobic antioxidant quercetin was increased by formulation of quercetin-
6.7. Antioxidant protection SLN by homogenization and ultra-sonification method using palmitic
acid and the different ratios of Tween® 80 (surfactant). The natural
Encapsulating natural and synthetic antioxidants in LNPs improves compounds loaded with NLCs showed in vitro protective effects against t-
their stability, skin penetration and guarantees prolonged release. This BHP-induced oxidative stress in HaCaT cells [84].
promotes skin health and offers long-lasting defence against oxidative
damage [78]. The NLCs were found to be potential delivery carrier for 7. Applications of LNPs in skin disease
the combination natural compounds, naringenin, nordihydroguaiaretic
acid, and kaempferol to the skin. The NLCs showed high entrapment LNPs are emerging as potential vehicles for the delivery of thera­
efficiency and loading capacity with in vitro sustained release of incor­ peutic agents to treat a variety of skin diseases including infectious
porated compounds. The problem of low aqueous solubility and poor disease [95] and inflammatory conditions [96].
stability of ferulic acid was improved by encapsulation of ferulic acid They are suitable for both infectious and inflammatory skin condi­
into NLCs [79]. tions due to their increased penetration into the skin, protection of
The problem of poor solubility and transdermal penetration was active ingredients from exposure or controlled release profiles [96]. A
solved by creating a hydrogel formulation based on SLNs. Using the hot literature review of recent research and developments has been studied
emulsification-ultrasonication method, Aanisah N et al. developed SLNs and summarized in Table 4.
loaded with the natural antioxidant compounds quercetin and luteolin.
These SLNs resulted in increased solubility and enhanced skin retention

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A. Pareek et al. Colloid and Interface Science Communications 64 (2025) 100814

Table 4
List of active pharmaceutical ingredient loaded LNPs used for treatment of skin diseases.
Disease Type Skin Disease Lipid Active Ingredient Benefits Reference
Nanoparticle
Type

Infectious Bacterial Infections/ LNPs Rifampicin Enhanced antibacterial activity against S. aureus, better skin [98]
wound healing penetration
SLNs Simvastatin Improved drug stability, and enhanced penetration without [99]
inflammation and toxicity.
NLCs Antimicrobial peptides Improved antibacterial activity, increase the stability and [100]
(AMPs) solubility of AMP at physiological pH (7.4)
SLNs Lacticin 3147 Improved antibacterial activity, increases the stability and [101]
solubility of lacticin
Fungal Infections SLNs Miconazole nitrate Enhanced drug penetration, sustained release, more [104]
effective treatment.
SLNs Fluconazole Improved drug solubility, and enhanced efficacy. [105]
SLNs Sulconazole Enhanced antifungal activity, better patient compliance, [106]
reduced side effects.
NLCs Bifonazole continuous release profile and prospective topical treatment [107]
Viral Infections SLNs Acyclovir Improved antiviral activity, enhanced skin penetration, and [110,144]
prolonged release.
High encapsulation efficiency, and relatively high loading
capacity
SLNs Arborescens essential high stability and high permeation efficiency of oil into the [145]
oil skin.
SLNs Ritonavir Higher encapsulation efficiency, improved antiviral activity, [111]
and controlled release of ritonavir
Inflammatory Acne Vulgaris SLNs Adapalene Improved drug stability, reduced irritation, and better skin [51]
penetration.
SLNs Benzoyl Peroxide Reduced side effects, enhanced therapeutic efficacy. [113]
SLNs Salicylic Acid Improved penetration, and better management of acne [114]
symptoms.
SLNs Niacinamide Improved penetration [115]
SLNs, NLCs Phytochemicals Enhanced drug skin penetration and Prolonged release [74,116,117,146]
[122]
Psoriasis SLNs Noscapine Enhance solubility and skin permeation [124]
LNPs Dithranol Enhanced drug stability and skin permeation, reduced skin [125]
irritation
LNPs Cannabidiol Efficient delivery system [126]
SLCs Acitretin Better skin penetration reduced systemic side effects. [41]
SLCs Methotrexate Enhance solubility and skin permeation [127]
SLNs Cyclosporine Improved skin penetration and management of psoriasis [128]
symptoms, enhanced patient compliance.
SLNs Leflunomide Reduced skin irritation and improve patient compliance. [129]
SLNs Apremilast Enhanced efficacy [130]
NLCs Luteolin Better skin penetration, prolonged drug release, improved [131]
management.
NLCs Riluzole Improved efficacy [132]
NLCs Tazarotene-Calcipotriol Better skin penetration, prolonged drug release, improved [133]
management.
NLCs Fluocinolone Acetonide Increased the solubility and reduced the skin irritation issue [134]
and Acitretin of Fluocinolone Acetonide, Sustained release of
encapsulated drugs.
Atopic Dermatitis LNPs corticosteroid Improved skin hydration, reduced inflammation, enhanced [136,137,147]
(Eczema) barrier function.
NLCs Tacrolimus Enhanced efficacy, reduced side effects. Enhance solubility [34,148]
and skin permeation
NLCs cyclosporine Improved solubility and transdermal penetration [139]
Hyperpigmentation SLNs Azelaic acid Improved penetration, reduced hyperpigmentation [15,142]
NLCs
SLNs Hydroquinone High tyrosinase inhibition activity with enhanced skin [143,149]
NLCs penetration
NLCs Kojic Acid Enhanced delivery, reduced melanin production, more [60]
effective treatment.
SLNs Ginger oil and Effectively penetrate the deepest layer of the skin [141]
hexylresorcinol
SLNs curcumin High skin penetration with effective treatment of [45]
pigmentation

7.1. Infectious skin diseases 7.1.1. Bacterial infections

The effective delivery of antibacterial agents is required to treat skin
LNPs have gained significant attention in the treatment of infectious infections such as impetigo and cellulitis. The antibacterial effects of
diseases due to their versatility in drug delivery, ability to encapsulate a rifampicin loaded LNPs was reported to treat Methicillin-resistant
wide range of therapeutic agents, and improved targeting of infected Staphylococcus aureus infection successfully in a skin wound in mice.
cells [97]. The result shown that the effect was found at low dose of rifampicin as
compared to the free drug because if increased skin penetration

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A. Pareek et al. Colloid and Interface Science Communications 64 (2025) 100814

efficiency of drug in LNPs [98]. The hydrophobic drug, Simvastatin was 7.2. Inflammatory skin diseases
encapsulated in SLNs and formulated with hydrogel to treat skin wound.
It was reported that SLNs increase the solubility of simvastatin and 7.2.1. Acne vulgaris
increased skin penetration without casing inflammation and skin Acne vulgaris, characterized by inflammation and infection of the
toxicity. The wound was healed ten-fold better than treated with iodo­ sebaceous glands can be treated effectivity with anti-inflammatory and
povidone [99]. Antimicrobial peptides might serve as effective adju­ antimicrobial agents [112]. LNPs were developed to deliver adapalene
vants to boost antibiotic efficacy and combat the problem of [71], benzoyl peroxide [113], salicylic acid [114] and niacinamide
antimicrobial resistance, or they could be a viable replacement for [115] to enhance the delivery of these agents in the skin. The findings
existing antibiotics. The problem with Methicillin-resistant Staphylo­ showed that SLNs and NLCs improved the penetration of drug and
coccus aureus is that it is unstable and soluble at physiological pH 7.4. enhanced therapeutic efficacy in treating acne. The phytochemicals
The formulation of nisin Z into NLCs can increase the stability and sol­ from different plant extracts have promising anti-acne activity due to
ubility of nisin and antibacterial activity against gram-positive bacterial their anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antioxidant and sebostatic ac­
species associated with skin infections [100]. The lacticin 3147 is a dual- tivities [116].
acting bacteriocin (antimicrobial peptide) that exhibits potency against Anti-acne phytochemicals such as curcumin [117], quercetin [118],
several clinically significant and resistant to antibiotic gram-positive curcuminoids [119], neem oil [74], α-terpineol [120], cannabidiol
bacteria. The lacticin 3147 loaded SLNs were developed for the treat­ [121] and cinnamon oil [122] were loaded for improving skin perme­
ment of skin wound infection [101]. ation, drug solubility and stability enhancement properties in the topical
treatments of skin acne.
7.1.2. Fungal infections
SLNs have gained significant interest as a delivery system for topical 7.2.2. Psoriasis
application to minimize side effects such as allergic reactions and severe Psoriasis is characterized by chronic inflammation and the prolifer­
skin reactions while enhancing the antifungal properties of drug [102]. ation of skin cells. Topical administration of immunosuppressive and
SLNs can accommodate hydrophilic, hydrophobic, or lipophilic drugs to anti-inflammatory drugs to the skin is necessary for effective treatment
enhance their chemical and physical stability in challenging environ­ [112]. Conventional topical formulations have limited use due to their
ments. The incorporation of poorly soluble medications, biologicals, low skin penetration into psoriatic skin, which results in poor thera­
proteins, and other antifungal agents into SLN can enhance their ther­ peutic effectiveness and may also produce adverse effect on skin.
apeutic effectiveness, bioavailability, and specificity in targeting [103]. Therefore, LNPs are formulated for the delivery of drugs having low
Jain et al. developed the miconazole nitrate loaded SLNs prepared by solubility profile, skin permeation efficiency and stability issue for the
modified solvent injection method and evaluated its topical application effective treatment of psoriasis [123].
for the treatment of skin infection, candidiasis. In vitro sustained release Devin et al. [124] developed noscapine loaded SLNs (NOS-SLNs) and
profile was obtained over 24 h with 10-fold increased drug retention evaluated its pharmacological activity against imiquimod induced pso­
profile in comparison to miconazole nitrate suspension and miconazole riasis mice model. The Fig. 5 (C) represents the protective effect of NOS-
nitrate hydrogel [104]. The formulation of topical gels containing SLNs in imiquimod induced psoriasis mice. The results analysis of ear
fluconazole-loaded SLNs was discovered to be highly effective in treat­ thickness, ear length and psoriasis area and severity index (PASI) score
ing skin pityriasis versicolor [105]. are represented in Fig. 5 (A, B and D). The mice of all the groups except
To enhance skin penetration and improve antifungal action, SLNs control group were treated with imiquimod for ten days. The protective
loaded with sulconazole were prepared using the high-shear homoge­ treatment was given from day six to ten every day. After days, the
nization method. The gel containing sulconazole -SLNs exhibited thickness and length of ear was significantly ameliorated in the mice
improved stability, sustained release profile, and antifungal activity. The treated with 1 % NOS-SLNs compared to imiquimod treated and 0 %
use of sulconazole-SLNs gel resulted in enhanced safety, accessibility, noscapine loaded solid LNPs treated mice. The effect was highest with 1
and tolerability as an antifungal agent compared to conventional de­ % NOS-SLNs but it was not significantly high compared to clobetasol
livery systems [106]. A study by Deep A. et al. [107] confirmed that group (Standard). The ear length was significantly higher in 1 % NOS-
bifonazole loaded NLCs exhibited sustained release over 24 h compared SLNs treated mice compared to imiquimod and 0 % NOS-SLNs and
to the marketed formulation for treating topical fungal infections caused cream-1 % NOS treated mice. The PASI was decreased in all treatment
by Candida albicans. group. The PASI score was significantly decreased in 1 % NOS-SLNs
compared to 0 % NOS-SLNs and cream-1 % NOS treated mice. Due to
7.1.3. Viral infections their nanoscale size, the 1 % NOS-SLNs were able to penetrate the skin
Although many antiviral drugs are already on the market, their layers more effectively than the cream formulation, enhancing their
effectiveness is often limited by factors such as poor solubility, low efficacy.
permeability, poor bioavailability, untargeted release, adverse side ef­ To improve the photostability and reduce skin irritation of dithranol
fects, and viral resistance. Antiviral agents are encapsulated in nano­ was encapsulated in LNPs. The encapsulated drug formulation showed
particles, which can be made of natural or synthetic materials, to form the improved drug stability and skin permeation of dithranol along with
delivery systems to overcome these challenges [108]. Free antivirals reduced skin irritation for the effective treatment of psoriasis [125]. The
generally do not penetrate the lipids of the skin very well, which reduces LNPs of cannabidiol were developed and its anti-psoriatic effect were
their effectiveness. Therefore, antiviral drugs are loaded into LNPs that evaluated in imiquimod-induced psoriasis model in mice. The findings
ensure absorption of the encapsulated drug into the systemic circulation support the usefulness of cannabidiol as a treatment for psoriasis and
to reach therapeutic plasma levels [109]. Acyclovir-loaded SLNs were highlight LNPs as a potentially efficient delivery system for cannabidiol
developed and an in vitro drug release study demonstrated the effective to the skin [126].
use of acyclovir-loaded SLNs as a controlled release formulation for the The outcomes of results showed developed SLN-based gel formula­
treatment of viral infections. in vitro antiherpetic activity of arborescens tion is effective and safe topical delivery platform for acitretin with no
essential oil encapsulated in SLNs was evaluated against Herpes Simplex irritation on skin and higher skin deposition of drug. Similarly, to
Virus-1 (HSV-1) by Lai F et al. [110]. The SNLs showed the high stability overcome problems associated with the conventional topical formula­
and high permeation efficiency of arborescens essential oil into the skin. tion, Methotrexate [127], Cyclosporine [128], Leflunomide [129],
The study demonstrated that the SLNs are a potential nanocarrier that Apremilast [130] are encapsulated in SLNs. While Luteolin [131],
can not only effectively encapsulate ritonavir but also sustain its anti­ Riluzole [132], Tazarotene-Calcipotriol [133], Fluocinolone acetonide
viral activity and control the release of ritonavir [111]. [134], were fabricated as NLCs for topical administration in the effective

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A. Pareek et al. Colloid and Interface Science Communications 64 (2025) 100814

Fig. 5. The effect of NOS-SLNs in imiquimod induced psoriasis mice; A) thickness of ear B) length of ear, C) Imiquimod induced psoriasis mice and treatment group
and D) PASI score. The results are represented as Mean ± SD (n = 6). (+compared to the control group +++p value <0.001, compared to Imiquimod group p value
<0.01 and p < 0.001, and #compared to NOS-SLN group). Adapted with permission [124].

treatment of psoriasis. in improved skin hydration, reduced inflammation, and enhanced bar­
rier function [136,137].
7.2.3. Atopic dermatitis (eczema) The LNPs were developed for delivering tacrolimus, showing better
Chronic inflammation and a compromised skin barrier characterize skin penetration and prolonged drug release, leading to improved
atopic dermatitis. The main goal of treatment is to restore the skin management of atopic dermatitis [34,138].
barrier and decrease inflammation. Topical corticosteroids are the rec­ One effective medication for atopic dermatitis is cyclosporine. The GI
ommended first-line therapy for atopic dermatitis due to their anti- tract absorbs cyclosporine incompletely and inconsistently; it is a poorly
inflammatory and anti-proliferative effects. Despite their therapeutic soluble medication. Serious adverse effects result with the oral use of the
benefits, they can lead to side effects like telangiectasia, burning skin, majority of cyclosporine formulations. NLCs gel loaded with cyclo­
and skin atrophy. The potential side effects resulting from the systemic sporine was developed as a solution to these issues. This cyclosporine
absorption of topical corticosteroids, such as atrophy and skin thinning, dermal gel based on NLC would aid in enhancing transdermal penetra­
can be avoided by using LNPs as a delivery carrier [135]. Researchers tion, resulting in targeted and regulated medication release [139].
encapsulated a different form of corticosteroid in LNPs, which resulted Tetrahydrocurcumin exhibits stronger anti-inflammatory properties

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A. Pareek et al. Colloid and Interface Science Communications 64 (2025) 100814

compared to curcumin, making it a promising option for treating in­ specific targeting in the treatment of hyperpigmentation, with improved
flammatory conditions. Saini et al. developed tetrahydrocurcumin skin retention capabilities [15].
loaded SLNs and formulated into a gel to improve skin penetration, Hydroquinone loaded SLNs were developed to increase its skin
targeting the treatment of inflammatory disorders and atopic dermatitis. penetration, to reduce side effect due to systemic absorption and to in­
The tetrahydrocurcumin-SLN gel demonstrated 1.44 times greater skin crease stability against oxidation of hydroquinone. The finding of results
hydration compared to the tetrahydrocurcumin gel in Lacca mice, sug­ indicates that SLNs are potential drug carrier for topical administration
gesting the occlusive properties of SLNs when integrated into the gel of hydroquinone to reduce melanin content [143]. Hydroquinone-NLCs
formulation. The Microscopic images (Fig. 6) revealed notable differ­ reported for better tyrosinase inhibition activity than hydroquinone
ences in the thickness of the stratum corneum in treated skin samples solution and improved light stability of hydroquinone.
compared to untreated (control) skin [140]. Khezri and colleagues developed SLNs containing kojic acid. Their
Atopic dermatitis was induced in Lacca mice by applying 1-chloro- findings demonstrated that the SLNs exhibited high efficacy in pene­
2,4-dinitrobenzene topically on the hairless dorsal region daily for 12 trating the skin, controlled release, and greater tyrosinase inhibition
days, as indicated by the SCORAD index (72.6). Mice treated with free activity compared to conventional kojic acid formulations [59]. The
tetrahydrocurcumin showed some improvement in atopic dermatitis experimental study reported that NLCs and SLNs are effective in deliv­
symptoms, with a SCORAD index of 24.4 ± 0.58 on day 22, compared to ering ginger oil and hexylresorcinol, allowing for deep skin penetration
the untreated group. However, the groups treated with and the gradual release of active components that lighten and depigment
tetrahydrocurcumin-SLN gel and tetrahydrocurcumin-SLN dispersion the skin over time. To address skin pigmentation, curcumin, a well-
exhibited complete recovery, achieving SCORAD indices of 0. The known plant-derived compound, was enclosed in curcumin-SLNs. Sub­
reduction in atopic dermatitis symptoms was significantly greater (p ≤ sequent investigations into drug deposition revealed that the curcumin-
0.05) in the groups treated with tetrahydrocurcumin-SLN compared to SLNs gel (82.32 % ± 0.39 %) retained a higher amount of the drug in the
those receiving free tetrahydrocurcumin. This study demonstrated the skin after 24 h compared to regular curcumin gel (28 % ± 0.24 %) [45].
enhanced effectiveness of tetrahydrocurcumin when incorporated into
SLNs, as the small particle size and occlusive properties of the SLNs 8. Recent developments and future perspective
allowed deeper skin penetration and prolonged retention at the target
site, leading to improved therapeutic outcomes in atopic dermatitis. Recent advances in SLNs and NLCs have significantly broadened
Further, Histopathological analysis (Fig. 7) validated the efficacy of the their applications in a number of areas, especially in pharmaceuticals
tetrahydrocurcumin-SLN gel in reducing inflammation linked to atopic and cosmetics. Significant progress has been made in enhancing the
dermatitis [140]. bioavailability and efficacy of these lipid based nanocarriers, in partic­
ular for drugs with poor solubility. LNPs have revolutionized drug de­
7.2.4. Hyperpigmentation livery because of their capacity to encapsulate and distribute both
Hyperpigmentation disorders such as melasma require the delivery hydrophilic and hydrophobic medicines with better bioavailability and
of skin-lightening agents to deeper skin layers. In order to effectively targeting capabilities. In pharmaceutical applications, SLNs and NLCs
control melasma, topical hypo-pigmenting medications have lately been have been developed to improve drug stability, enabling targeted de­
extensively studied for encapsulation into nanocarrier-based delivery livery by surface modifications [150,151]. Different routes can be used
systems [141]. The SLNs having 10 % azelaic acid exhibited potent in­ to administer the SLNs and NLCs, including topical, oral, parenteral,
hibition of tyrosinase enzyme and reduced melanin content in B16F10 ocular, pulmonary, and brain drug delivery, to deliver the incorporated
melanoma cells. The hyperpigmentation efficacy was found to be similar drugs to the target site [152].
to 20 % azelaic acid marketed cream but at a lower dose (10 %) without Researchers developed formulations based on SLNs and NLCs for the
showing dermal irritancy [142]. The results of the experiment indicated treatment of cancer, gene therapy, neurological disorders, and vaccine
that NLCs loaded with azelaic acid would be a promising carrier for site- technology [153]. LNPs have recently been employed as carriers of
mRNA responsible for encoding the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein into the
host cells. Pfizer/BioNTech and Moderna have created two authorized
mRNA vaccines utilizing NLCs as delivery systems. Chen et al. developed
LNPs using 4N4T lipids for delivery of mRNA vaccines targeting SARS-
CoV-2 and its variants, such as Delta and Omicron. Their research
demonstrated that 4N4T-LNPs achieved a markedly higher mRNA
translation efficiency in comparison to the approved SM-102-LNPs
[154]. Villar et al. formulated several types of delivery systems,
including nanoemulsions, nanocapsules, and LNPs, to encapsulate
mRNA that encodes the receptor-binding domain protein of the SARS-
CoV-2 spike. The toxicity and biological activity of these formulations
were evaluated in vitro using transfected 293 T cells and in vivo in mice
that received homologous prime/boost immunization. The results
demonstrated that most formulations were successful in achieving sub­
stantial levels of receptor-binding domain protein expression. Among
these, both modified and classical LNPs showed exceptional efficacy as
delivery systems, effectively generating strong binding and neutralizing
antibody responses against SARS-CoV-2 [154]. Outside of the healthcare
sector, LNPs are also utilized in nutraceuticals and functional foods to
enhance the delivery of bioactive compounds, thereby improving their
effectiveness and absorption [155].
LNPs face challenges in dermatology, including high production
Fig. 6. Microscopic images of mouse skin show hydration levels in different costs due to complex manufacturing and scalability issues [20]and long-
treatment groups: (A) untreated mice skin, (B) SLN gel base, (C) term safety concerns such as potential tissue accumulation, immune
Tetrahydrocurcumin-SLN dispersion, (D) Tacroz® Forte (reference ointment), reactions, and skin irritation risks [156]. Addressing these requires cost-
and (E) Tetrahydrocurcumin-SLN gel. Adapted with permission from [140]. efficient methods, sustainable materials, and comprehensive safety

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A. Pareek et al. Colloid and Interface Science Communications 64 (2025) 100814

Fig. 7. The images depict the appearance of mouse skin (upper panel) and histopathological sections (lower panel) from different treatment groups in animal models
of 1-chloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene -induced atopic dermatitis. The groups include: positive control (A1, A7), Tetrahydrocurcumin-SLN dispersion (A2, A8),
Tetrahydrocurcumin-SLN gel (A3, A9), Tacroz® Forte ointment (A4, A10), free Tetrahydrocurcumin gel (A5, A11), and blank SLN gel (A6, A12). Adapted with
permission [140].

studies for broader dermatological application. CRediT authorship contribution statement

9. Conclusions Anil Pareek: Writing – original draft, Data curation. Devesh U.

Kapoor: Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing, Visuali­
LNPs, particularly SLNs and NLCs, represent significant advance­ zation. Sandeep Kumar Yadav: Writing – review & editing, Data
ments in both the pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries. These in­ curation. Summya Rashid: Writing – original draft, Data curation.
novations improve drug stability, solubility, and skin penetration, while Mohammad Fareed: Writing – review & editing, Data curation,
also enabling controlled and targeted delivery mechanisms. By Conceptualization. Mohammad Suhail Akhter: Writing – original
addressing the limitations associated with traditional formulations, they draft, Data curation. Ghazala Muteeb: Writing – review & editing,
contribute to enhanced therapeutic outcomes and increased patient Formal analysis, Data curation. Madan Mohan Gupta: Writing – review
compliance. Their applications are diverse, encompassing various & editing, Data curation. Bhupendra G. Prajapati: Writing – review &
dermatological and cosmetic treatments, such as addressing infectious editing, Conceptualization.
and inflammatory skin disorders, providing anti-aging benefits, pro­
moting skin brightening, ensuring moisturization, and offering sun
protection. Nonetheless, challenges remain, particularly regarding Declaration of competing interest
safety concerns, including potential toxicity, skin irritation, and long-
term compatibility with skin. Ongoing research is crucial to optimize The authors declare that, he has no established competitive financial
these formulations for improved stability, deeper skin penetration, and interests or personal relationships that may have influenced analysing
sustained release. Furthermore, emerging fields such as genetic medi­ this paper.
cine and immunotherapy offer promising avenues for exploration. The
successful use of LNPs in mRNA vaccines, particularly for SARS-CoV-2, Data availability
underscores their potential in nucleic acid therapies, gene editing, and
vaccine innovation. The LNPs-based various pharmaceutical and cos­ No data was used for the research described in the article.
metics products are already commercialized in the market and other
products including nutraceuticals and nanoreactors will explore their Acknowledgment
benefits in future. With vast scope and development in the area of LNPs,
it is undeniable that LNPs represent one of the most favourable and This study is supported via funding from Prince sattam bin Abdulaziz
promising fields in contemporary nanotechnology. Future investigations University project number (PSAU/2024/R/1445). Authors express their
should focus on overcoming existing challenges, such as scaling pro­ thanks and gratitute to AlMaarefa University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia for
duction, reducing costs, and improving the precision of LNP-based sys­ providing support to publish this article. Dr.Prajapati extends his sincere
tems. Additionally, advancements in LNP applications within appreciation to the Faculty of Pharmacy, Silpakorn University,
nutraceuticals and nanoreactors could expand their impact. Given their Thailand, for their generous support, which enabled the completion of
adaptability and potential, LNPs are poised to remain integral to nano­ this work.
technology, fostering innovative progress in healthcare and cosmetics.
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