ETHNOBOTANY

Local Knowledge and Traditions

Editors
José L. Martinez
Vice Rectory of Research
Development and Innovation
Universidad de Santiago de Chile
Santiago, Chile
Amner Muñoz-Acevedo
Chemistry and Biology Research Group
Department of Chemistry and Biology
Universidad del Norte
Barranquilla, Colombia
Mahendra Rai
Department of Biotechnology
SGB Amravati University
Amravati, Maharashtra, India

p,
p,
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A SCIENCE PUBLISHERS BOOK
Cover credit: Reproduced by kind courtesy of Prof. Amner Muñoz-Acevedo (co-editor)

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Martinez, Jose L. (Jose Luis), 1959- editor. | Munoz-Acevedo,
Amner, editor. | Rai, Mahendra, editor.
Title: Ethnobotany : local knowledge and traditions / editors: Josâe L.
Martinez (Universidad de Santiago de Chile), Amner Munoz-Acevedo
(Universidad del Norte Barranquilla), Mahendra Rai (SGB Amravati
University).
Description: Boca Raton, FL : CRC Press, [2018] | Includes bibliographical
references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2018041061 | ISBN 9781138388987 (hardback)
Subjects: LCSH: Ethnobotany. | Medicinal plants.
Classification: LCC GN476.73 .E845 2018 | DDC 581.6/36--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018041061

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 Preface

The local knowledge or indigenous knowledge of the use of plants is based on the
wisdom and experience of the local community since ancient time. In due course
of time, this knowledge becomes the tradition of the local community or tribes.
Such knowledge is passed from one generation to another generation and is applied
in agriculture, medicines and other household activities. In the past decade, the
botanists have made tremendous efforts to gather this knowledge, and eventually,
a new branch of botany known as ‘Ethnobotany’ has originated.
Ethnobotany has always been used as primary source to search biologically
active molecules (ca. 60%) from nature and at the same time, it has contributed to
the development of drugs (pharmaceutical industry) that have improved the quality
of human life. However, some active constituents found within those plants are
not the result of the scientific validations based on traditional medicinal uses of
plants containing them. On the other hand, there are a few documents/books on
ethnobotany (e.g., WHO monographs) containing information about plant-based
treatment for specific chronic diseases such as hypertension, cancer, CNS disorders,
psoriasis, and urolithiasis, etc.
Most of the plants described in the present book have been used in traditional
medicine by local community for specific ailments and the biological activities
related to each “sickness” have been scientifically verified.
We hope that the present book will be an appropriate consultation tool for
scientists/professionals/experts such as ethnobotanists, botanists, cell/molecular
biologists, chemists, pharmacists, pharmacologists, and environmentalists/
ecologists. It will also be useful for undergraduate and postgraduate students from
the same areas and for the pharmaceutical industries.
José L. Martinez
Amner Muñoz-Acevedo
Mahendra Rai
 Contents

Preface iii
1. Mururé (Brosimum acutifolium Huber) in the Treatment of 1
Syphilis in Colonial Amazonia: From Historical Data to the
Actual Contribution in Treatment
Erika Fernanda de Matos Vieira, Maria da Graça Ribeiro Campos
and Flávia Cristina Araújo Lucas
2. Agroecology, Local Knowledge and Participatory Research: 19
Articulation of Knowledge for Sustainable Use of Plant
Resources in Agroecosystems
Santiago Peredo Parada and Claudia Barrera
3. The Path of Ethnopharmacobotany: From Economic Botany 34
to Ethnobotany
Marcelo L. Wagner, Leonardo M. Anconatani, Rafael A. Ricco,
Beatriz G. Varela and Gustavo C. Giberti
4. Patagonian Berries: An Ethnobotanical Approach to Exploration 50
of their Nutraceutical Potential
Melina F. Chamorro, Ana Ladio and Soledad Molares
5. Status of Research on Medicinal Plants in the Cajamarca’s 70
Region, Peru
Juan F. Seminario Cunya, Berardo Escalante Zumaeta and
Alejandro Seminario Cunya
6. Recent Reports on Ethnopharmacological and Ethnobotanical 90
Studies of Valeriana carnosa Sm. (Valerianaceae)
Soledad Molares, Ana H. Ladio and Nicolás Nagahama
7. Traditional Knowledge of Antivenom Plants: Bioactive 103
Compounds and Their Antiophidic Properties
Carolina Alves dos Santos, Marco V. Chaud, Valquíria Miwa Hanai Yoshida,
Raksha Pandit, Mahendra Rai and Yoko Oshima-Franco
vi ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

8. Ethnobotanical Study of Dakshin Dinajpur District of 132

West Bengal — An Overview
Tanmay Chowdhury, Subhas Chandra Roy and Dilip De Sarker
9. Antipsoriatic Medicinal Plants: From Traditional Use to Clinic 158
José Luis Ríos, Guillermo R. Schinella and Isabel Andújar
10. Knowledge of the Ethnomedicinal Plants Used by Tobas and 187
Mocovíes Tribes in the Central-North of Argentina
María I. Stegmayer, Norma H. Alvarez, Melina G. Di Liberto,
Lucas D. Daurelio and Marcos G. Derita
11. Ethnobotany of Teucrium Species 214
Milan S. Stanković and Nenad M. Zlatić
12. Ethnobotanical Issues on Medicinal Plants from Paraguay 232
Rosa Luisa Degen de Arrúa, Yenny González and Esteban A. Ferro B.
13. An Overview of Vetiveria zizanioides (Linn.) Nash (Poaceae): 255
Traditional Uses and Products
Shubhangi N. Ingole
14. Native Medicinal Plants Used for the Treatment of Nervous 275
System Ailments in Chile and the Current State of Its Scientific
Studies
Arline Martínez, Luisauris Jaimes, Raul Vinet, Tiare Segura,
Claudio Laurido and José L. Martínez
15. Medicinal Plants Used by the Tharu Communities in Nepal 288
Shandesh Bhattarai
Index 323
Editors Biography 325
 CHAPTER 1

Mururé (Brosimum acutifolium

Huber) in the Treatment of
Syphilis in Colonial Amazonia
From Historical Data to the Actual Contribution
in Treatment
Erika Fernanda de Matos Vieira,1 Maria da Graça Ribeiro
Campos2,3,* and Flávia Cristina Araújo Lucas4

Introduction
Studying the historical ethnobotany of medicinal plants is a new method of
obtaining information about plants and people derived from historical records,
including documents about botany, anthropology, ecology, and history that are still
used and relevant today (Prance 2000, Medeiros 2009). Living and learning with
diverse ethnic groups have provided valuable contributions to the development of
research about natural products, as well as knowledge about the close relationship

¹ Universidade do Estado do Pará, Belém, Pará, Brasil.

2
Observatory of Herb-Drug Interactions/Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Coimbra, Heath Sciences
Campus, Azinhaga de Santa Comba, Coimbra Portugal.
3
Coimbra Chemistry Centre (CQC, FCT Unit 313) (FCTUC) University of Coimbra, Rua Larga,
Coimbra, Portugal.
4
Herbário MFS, Universidade do Estado do Pará, Belém, Pará, Brasil, Rua do Una, n°156, Telégrafo.
* Corresponding author: [email protected]
2 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

between the chemical structures of compounds and their biological properties

(Viegas Júnior et al. 2006).
Medications considered from natural origin, many of which were used by
native groups, began to spread during the time of colonial Brazil when knowledge
and practices were taken by missionaries, naturalists, and travelers that were
experimenting with new plants and methods to cure diseases using plant chemistry
(Costa 2007, Veríssimo and Pereira 2014). This period was known for the use of
natural resources in the synthesis of toxic and medicinal substances, as well as for the
identification of biologically active molecules (Jain and Sklani 1991, Viegas Júnior
et al. 2006, apud Medeiros 2009). In this historical context, the Jesuit João Daniel,
who lived in Amazonia for 16 years, experimented with a vast repertoire of herbal
recipes. His main work, “The Treasure Discovered on the Great Amazon River
(original title: O Tesouro Descoberto no Máximo rio Amazonas”), is impressive for
a publication produced almost 200 years ago, especially because of how precise
it is in relation to the flora and forms of use (Pinto 2005, Val 2014). His writings
are technical descriptions of healing techniques for the most common diseases of
the time, which often became plagues or pests and were treated with medicinal
plants (Sousa 2013).
In Amazonia, Father João Daniel commented about the seriousness of venereal
diseases among natives and settlers, highlighting the numerous cases of syphilis
that severely affected a large number of people and sometimes became epidemics
that generated innumerable social impacts (Veloso 2001). The description of his
treatment for syphilis mentions the frequent use of a plant popularly known as
mururé, which was considered an effective remedy.
Until the discovery of penicillin, other treatments with plants or chemical
elements, such as mercury, bismuth and arsenic salts, were used to treat syphilis;
however, they were ineffective and caused side effects (Carrara 1996, Veloso
2001). Syphilis is a contagious, systematic, chronic disease, caused by the bacteria
Treponema pallidum, which can be transmitted sexually (called acquired syphilis)
or vertically when a pregnant woman infects the fetus (congenital syphilis) (Neves
and Araújo 2013).
As far back as the 15th century, there were references to serious syphilis
epidemics in Europe; however, the origin of the disease was unknown (Geraldes
Neto et al. 2009). The WHO (2016) estimated that there are approximately
18 million prevalent cases of syphilis in the world and around 5.6 million new
cases per year. In addition, the WHO warned that this disease is becoming more
resistant to penicillin due to its overuse. According to Anvisa (2016c), this is a
problem because penicillin is also effective at treating other bacterial diseases.
Validating the use of plants to treat diseases is recommended by the Ministry
of Health (Ministério da Saúde 2012) and more investigations involving traditional
knowledge and modern technologies to produce medicines should be carried out.
WHO (2011) indicated that approximately 25% of modern medicines originate
directly or indirectly from medicinal plants. In addition, the strong curative efficacy
of plants has been observed since ancient times.
 Mururé in the Treatment of Syphilis 3

The aim of this chapter is to share a case study that can be used as an example
of the tools and the various steps that should be followed in ethnobotanical research.
Based on this, the ethnopharmacology of mururé since the 18th century for the
treatment of syphilis will be described. A correlation of the past-present therapeutic
use and contribution of historical records in the use of natural products will also
be discussed.

Historical Reports of Syphilis, Ethnopharmacology, and

Reactions in the Organism
João Daniel designated syphilis as the Gallic disease. Gallic evil was one of the
common terms used to refer to the disease (Geraldes Neto et al. 2009), as was
morbus gallicus or French evil, due to a famous internal European conflict where
the French army was defeated by the disease (not by weapons) (Sousa 1996).
The proven therapeutic efficacy of mururé was associated with using its
exudate, called Milk of Morure (“Leite do Morure”), which was extracted by cutting
the bark of the tree. The action of this liquid to combat syphilis was also reported
by Pinagé (2011). Due to the abundance of exudate produced, João Daniel called
the tree as the King of the Milks (“Rei dos Leites”). In the transcription below,
the curative and rapid effect of the exudate on syphilis after ingestion has been
mentioned.
“Milk of morure: is the king of the milks, because its effective virtue is
superior to all. It is distilled from the tree of the same name, which we
have already described. It serves to cure the Gallic disease in a marvelous
way because no matter how severe the disease is in the sick, it heals, and
cures in 24 hours, or less, without further preparation”
(“Leite morure: é o rei dos leites, porque na sua eficaz virtude a todos é
superior. É destilado da árvore do mesmo nome, que já descrevemos no
seu lugar. Os seus préstimos são para curar as doenças do gálico por
modo maravilhoso, porque por mais arraigado que esteja este mal nos
doentes, o tira, e os cura em 24 horas, ou menos, sem mais preparos ou
preâmbulos”) (Daniel 2004, p. 556).
The administration of the milk to patients with the disease was very simple.
It was directly ingested after collecting it from the tree, in the shortest possible
time after exposure to air, as indicated here: “[...] duas colheres ordinárias ou três
colheres não tão cheias,” two full spoons or three moderate spoons. After the first
dose, João Daniel wrote that a few additional daily doses are necessary, said the
treatment is effective in 24 hours or less, and highlights the reactions of the body
of the patient after ingestion.
Of the reactions observed after ingesting the milk, it was the urine of the patients
very concentrated with sediment (“[...] bastante materiada”), which resulted from
overloading the kidneys with the ingested medicine and reflected the curative action.
4 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

This was interpreted as an indicator of the effect of the medicinal plant. Similar
urinary tract laden with concentrated sediments also occurs when syphilis patients
use current medicines for this pathology (Neves and Araújo 2013, Anvisa 2016b).
Other effects noted were neurological disorders described by the priest as chills,
tremors, and seizures that arise immediately after ingestion, which were treated
by placing a warm cloth on the stomach.
João Daniel also verified the performance of the plant for cases of neurosyphilis,
which could appear in 12 to 18 months after infection and could be asymptomatic.
He noted a small amount is enough to get rid of the disease and bad mood from
the bones and nerves in one night (“[...] e basta esta pequena quantidade para
dos mesmos ossos e nervos arrancar em uma noute toda doença, e mau humor”).
For neurosyphilis, Vargas et al. (2000) affirmed the strong psychological effect on
the patient, and Barros et al. (2005) characterized it as an infection that affects the
nervous system and can cause lesions on the brain and spinal cord. These clinical
observations were similar to what the Father reported. Neurosyphilis had great
repercussions before the use of penicillin and resurged in the late 20th century,
mainly in HIV patients who were more susceptible to the disease (Neves and Araújo
2013, Caixeta et al. 2014).
Mururé was also prescribed for other illnesses: it treated alporcas, and all
the Gallic diseases “[...] Da mesma sorte cura alporcas, e todas as doenças que
pecam de gálico” (Daniel 2004). Alporca is a term that signifies scrofula, where
there is swelling in the lymph nodes, and is associated with tuberculosis (Sayahi
and Thomas 2005, Capone 2006, Almeida 2012). Carrara (1996) reported that in
the past syphilis was considered by the medical community as an aggravating agent
of tuberculosis. Evidence of this was reported after Father started administering
the milk when there were clinical symptoms of tuberculosis and considered the
treatment very effective.
The experience and effectiveness of using mururé in the missions, on both
Indians and Caucasians, impressed João Daniel who soon saw the export potential
of the species to use as a medicine in Europe. Introducing this plant to Europe would
be the beginning of its wide dissemination throughout the world. The articulation
of knowledge, healing practices, and market views by the Jesuits was discussed
by Pinto (2005), who analyzed the transfer of natural resources and traditional
knowledge to other parts of the world and promoted advances in the sciences
(Calainho 2005, Medeiros 2009, Laws 2013). In relation to this, João Daniel was
a visionary by promoting the value and use of the riches in the region. Studying
mururé and other plants did not simply occur because people were searching for
knowledge about specific plant species, but was instead driven by the fact that these
plants were potentially useful to the colony and cities abroad (Costa 2007, Santos
2013, São Bento and Santos 2015).
Based on tests using mururé to treat syphilis in the 20th century, in the year
1918 there was an elevated number of reported cases (about 6 million people) of
the disease throughout the country. Due to this health crisis, drugstores popularized
 Mururé in the Treatment of Syphilis 5

therapeutic treatments using mururé, as seen in the advertisements written by the

dermatologist Dr. Zopyro Goulart (Figs. 1.1 and 1.2).
In addition to the historical indications of this plant, the species is still
used. In Amazonian communities on the Maruepaua River, the sap of Brosimum
acutifolium is still used in the treatment of rheumatism, dislocations, and swollen
body parts (Baptista 2007). Also, in 2017, you can find mururé bark for sale as

Fig. 1.1. Advertisement for syphilis treatment using mururé in a magazine published in 1918. Source:
Revista Careta, 1918, edition 502.

Fig. 1.2. Advertisement for syphilis treatment using mururé in a magazine published in 1918. Source:
Revista Careta, 1918, edition 501.
6 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

a medicinal product in the largest open fair in Latin America, Ver-o-Peso Fair in
Belém, Pará (Iphan 2017), with similar indications as the historical records from
the 18th century and the 1918 advertisements (Fig. 1.3). The herbalists at Ver-o-
Peso, who are considered holders and transmitters of traditional knowledge in an
urban environment (Dantas and Ferreira 2013), continue to promote mururé as a
curative and therapeutic product for syphilis.

Fig. 1.3. Mururé bark for sale by herbalists at the Ver-o-Peso Fair in 2017.

Brosimum acutifolium Huber. (mururé) in the Treatment of

Syphilis in Colonial Amazonia: A Case Study
Documentary research
The main method of this work involved collecting and analyzing documents (Godoy
1995). The data obtained was then used to conduct a comparative study between
the past and present (Medeiros 2009).
Documentary research and bibliographic works were consulted in this study.
Despite their similarity, Sá-Silva et al. (2009) differentiated them mainly by their
source because the former comprises records that were not analytically treated
(primary source) or insufficiently analyzed, and the latter includes material with
contributions from different authors about a theme (secondary sources).
The book Tesouro Descoberto no máximo rio Amazonas, written between 1757
and 1776 by Father João Daniel (1722–1776), was selected as the main literature
 Mururé in the Treatment of Syphilis 7

source of this study. Father Daniel was a naturalist, who wrote this work in Lisboa
while in prison (due to Pombaline orders), which became a massive codex that is
considered by many historians as a significant document about Amazonia during
the colonial period (Salles 2004). It is the most comprehensive record and most
complete source of knowledge about Amazonia during the 18th century because
the information in it is the result of extensive fieldwork and vast cataloging of data,
especially about the flora of the region (Siewierski 2014). According to Tocantins
(1976), although there are other publications in the same genus, this book is the
“Ecological bible of Amazonia,” and is a complete, well-researched work about
the region produced by a member of the Society of Jesus.

Research sources: consulting works, databases, and files

To study the original works of Father Daniel, the following databases were
searched: Biblioteca Digital Luso Brasileira; Catálogo Biblioteca da Universidade
de Coimbra; Biblioteca Nacional do Rio de Janeiro; the digital collection from
Biblioteca Nacional; and the virtual library at the Universidade Federal do Pará
(“UFPA 2.0”), that has a free PDF version of Tesouro Descoberto no Máximo rio
Amazonas. For all searches, the key words “jesuítas” (Jesuits), “Amazônia colonial”
(colonial Amazonia) “plantas medicinais” (medicinal plants), and “João Daniel”
were used.
Other works and catalogs in libraries were also examined based on searches for
material from the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries related to medicinal plants, as well
as Amazonia and people (missionaries, travelers, and naturalists), who wrote about
colonial Amazonia. The libraries consulted included the following: Museu Paraense
Emílio Goeldi, Belém, Pará, where the Rare Works Section and the Catálogo
Biblioteca Universitatis were searched; University of São Paulo database; and the
Coleção História da Companhia de Jesus no Brasil and Ensaios de história das
ciências no Brasil: às luzes à razão independente. The use of several bibliographic
sources, which considered the Jesuits, medicinal botany, Amazonia and the way
of life in the sociocultural context of the 18th century, allowed different narratives
and interpretations of the writings of João Daniel.
In addition, at the University of Coimbra in Portugal, the general library and
Faculdade de Letras were visited. Some of the notable original documents and
facsimiles consulted were: Florae Lusitanicae et Brasiliensis Specimen Plantae
exoticae Brasilienses; annual report of the feats made by the Society of Jesus in
parts of East India during the years of 604 and 605, by Padre Fernam Guerreiro;
and História da Província Santa Cruz, by Pero de Magalhães de Gândavo, 1605.

Species definition
The species was identified using the taxonomic clues method in Identificação de
termos oitocentistas relacionados às plantas medicinais usadas no Mosteiro de
São Bento do Rio de Janeiro, Brasil, by Medeiros (2010). To properly confirm the
8 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

scientific nomenclature, the following criteria were used: (1) text search of the
common name “moruré” and “mururé”; (2) detailed examination of morphological
descriptions and life form of mururé, both by the Father and other authors; (3)
confirmation of the botanical identification using scientific articles and specimens
listed in virtual herbaria (www.tropicos.org) and the “List of Species of Flora of
Brazil” in “Flora do Brasil 2020 Project” (floradobrasil.jbrj.gov.br)”.
For the writing in older works, spelling and punctuations were modified based
on the current norms for Portuguese. Transcription into Portuguese and identifying
characteristic linguistic terms of the period were based on Estratégia e Táctica da
Transcrição (Castro and Ramos 1986). For quotes by some authors, the vocabulary
used was absolutely respected.

Past-present comparative study

The past-present study compares how the use of plant resources in the past was
related to local ethnoknowledge (Medeiros 2009). The indicated therapeutic
history was analyzed using current scientific directories of plant research that
provide information about compounds, isolated substances and pharmacology,
which included the following: The Plant List (National Center for Biotechnology
Information), PubMed, Biological Abstract, Jstor, Biblioteca Regional de Medicina
da Unesp (Bireme), Medline, Phytotherapy Research, and Pubchem Compound.

Medical-pharmaceutical concepts during colonization

During encounters between Europeans and people who would eventually be
colonized, various plant species were collected and introduced to different parts
of the world where they were cultivated in the gardens of royalty and published in
floras and catalogs, influenced the art world and, most importantly, were included
as basic ingredients in European pharmacopeias (especially Lusitanian) (Vigier
1718, Almeida 1976). Missionaries, apothecaries, druggists and traders combined
their knowledge from other places with the knowledge of indigenous and African
populations to promote American ingredients, medicines, and recipe books
(Domingues 1992).
The movement of plants around the world and their virtues are recorded
in manuscripts. Within this area, João Curvo Semedo impacted society with
“Memorial de Vários Simplícios Que da Índia Oriental, da América, e de Outras
Partes do Mundo Vem ao Nosso Reino para Remédios de Muitas Doenças” (s/d,
but before 1716), which describes around eight dozen drugs and medicines based
on information from people who made observations in India and other parts of
the world. In Amazonia, João Daniel was considered affectionate (“afeiçoado”)
and tropicalized (“tropicalizado”) for coexisting with nature in the tropics in both
dimension and depth. Due to his observations about the most notable (“notáveis”)
herbs of Amazonas, and because he saw so many medicinal plants, he soon thought
about the possibility of multiplying the herbs (“multiplicados herbulados”) for
 Mururé in the Treatment of Syphilis 9

commercialization because they were rare, came from America, and could boost
the economy of the 18th century.
The advancement of religious and exploratory missions in Amazonia favored
greater rapprochement and contact between different peoples and ethnicities. This
period, comprising the 18th century, recorded significant documentary data about
diseases of various natures that proliferated during these encounters (Veríssimo and
Pereira 2014). Sexually transmitted diseases, such as syphilis, became worrying
and resulted in strong social consequences that included a change in behavior in
the population, for example, the use of condoms made of sheep intestines (Veloso
2001). Guilherme Piso, in História Natural do Brasil Ilustrada (1648), highlighted
the venereal evil (“mal venéreo”) in Africans, Indians, Dutch and Portuguese due
to contagion from intercourse. He considered this disease as endemic to the region
and noted the efficiency of treating it with indigenous remedies (“[...] sara logo,
só com os remédios indígenas”).
The increased incidence of diseases resulted in a search for treatments using
tests and formulas with therapeutic plants, which took place at houses built by the
Jesuits near forests. According to Father João Daniel (1722–1776), the traditional
pharmacies of the Jesuits were supplied with precious woods, miraculous barks,
large forests of copaiba, umeri balsams, and the leaves and bark of cinnamon
and quina, among other plants. This allowed them to take advantage of these
natural resources and, with the help of the American Indians that were deeply
knowledgeable about the forest and extremely skilled at extracting the resources,
to use medicines in the missions and give them to white settlers so they would be
sent to Europe where they were needed (Daniel 2004).
The commercial potential of Amazonian natural products was frequently
valorized by João Daniel who, according to Pinto (2005), had a very peculiar
intellectual and scientific vision for the formation of the missionaries that made
up the religious order due to the importance of this knowledge as a mechanism of
exploitation and power.

The mururé plant

The plant cited in Tesouro Descoberto with the common name mururé (Fig. 1.4) is
Brosimum acutifolium Huber (Moraceae). This is a terrestrial tree native to Brazil
that occurs in the Amazonia and Pantanal phytogeographic domains, known to
occur in the North (Acre, Amazonas, Pará, Rondônia, and Roraima), Northeast
(Maranhão) and Central-West (Mato Grosso) regions, and might also occur in the
Southeast Region (São Paulo). The Flora of Brazil lists three subspecies for this
taxon, including Brosimum acutifolium subsp. interjectum C.C. Berg that is endemic
to Brazil and is known to occur in the states of Amazonas, Pará and Maranhão, in
the Amazonian region (Romaniuc Neto et al. 2015).
The species is described as a large tree that can reach 35 m height, which has
abundant white sap, is elongated, and has lanceolate leaves (Berg and Dewolf
1975, Rodrigues 1989). It occurs in tropical and subtropical climates, where the
10 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

Fig. 1.4. Specimen of mururé, donated by the “Rio de Janeiro Botanical Garden” to “The New York
Botanical Garden”, collected in the state of Pará in 1927 (Source: www.nybg.org).

average temperature is between 22°C and 30°C, and prefers sandy and clayey sand
soils with an average amount of organic matter (Revilla 2001, apud Pinagé 2011).

Present time: phytochemical studies and therapeutic applications

The presence of secondary metabolites in plants (these compounds are often
produced in a phase subsequent to growth) can be influenced by various
environmental, climatic or temporal factors, and can be associated with handing
methods related to collection and storage (Gobbo-Neto and Lopes 2007).
Discovering useable therapeutic plant species is still an extremely complex
 Mururé in the Treatment of Syphilis 11

process, especially because of the diversity of plants. In this context, the present
traditional and popular knowledge, as well as information from communities that
have produced this type of knowledge in the past, remain valuable resources for
identifying medicinally useful plants (Pereira and Cardoso 2012, Medeiros 2009).
Ratifying this, the WHO (2011) reported that the amount of modern medicines from
plants is significant and could reach 60% for antitumor and antibacterial drugs.
Mururé (Brosimum acutifolium Huber), despite being used for other purposes
(e.g., in cosmetics and food), is mostly employed medicinally because its latex
and bark efficiently act against many illnesses and its sap has antiarthritic and
antisyphilitic properties (Rodrigues 1989, Pinagé 2011). For treating syphilis,
a daily dose of the sap should be used that does not exceed 8 g since an excess
amount produces side effects, such as joint pain, polyuria (increased amount of
urine), nausea and dizziness; however, literature also mentions the use of the bark
prepared as a tea (Matta 2003, apud Pinagé 2011), contrary to João Daniel who
only mentioned the sap.
Works reported the use of the species in Amazonian communities. According
to Coelho-Ferreira et al. (2005), B. acutifolium is one of the 228 species that
comprise the phytopharmacopoeia of the Marudá fishing community in the interior
of Pará. In addition, Monteles and Pinheiro (2007) documented its use as a blood
purifier (by preparing bottles with its bark) by a Quilombola community in the
municipality of Presidente Juscelino which, according to IBGE (2016), is part of
Maranhão in Amazonia.
In pharmacological studies, the flavonoid BAS1 (4’-hydroxy,7,8-(2’’,2”-
dimethyl-pyran)-flavan) was isolated from Brosimum acutifolium (Moraes 2011).
In this work, the mechanism of anti-inflammatory action of BAS1 in stimulated
murine macrophages was characterized. The results demonstrated that BAS1, at
high concentrations, had a cytotoxic effect. In addition, there was a reduction in
the factors leading to inflammation and the flavonoid exhibited anti-inflammatory
activity.
The antiproliferative and antineoplastic activities of four flavonoids
from B. acutifolium were investigated by Maués (2013), who isolated
two flavans, 4’-hydroxy-7,8-(2”,2”-dimethylpyran)-flavan (BAS-1) and
7,4’-dihydroxy-8,(3,3-dimethylallil)-flavan (BAS-4), and two chalcones,
4,2’-dihydroxy-3’,4’-(2”,2”-dimethylpyran)-chalcone (BAS-6) and
4,2’,4’-trihydroxy-3’-(3,3-dimethylallil)-chalcone (BAS-7), and verify the effects
on rat glioblastomas in vitro. The study concluded that the BAS-1, BAS-4 and
BAS-7 flavonoids had antineoplastic potential as an agent in therapy, and that the
BAS-4 flavonoid was the most promising because its action on tumor cells was
more efficient and its cytotoxic activity was the least harmful to healthy cells.
Other studies indicated the presence of various flavonoids in the bark of mururé
(Torres et al. 2000, Takashima and Ohsaki 2002, Takashima et al. 2005). The latter
study evaluated the activity of four flavonoids against leukemia cells, which had a
cytotoxic effect on cells resistant to vincristine (the drug used to treat the illness).
12 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

Thus, some chemicals’ structures of the isolated compounds from mururé sap/bark,
e.g., flavans (BAS-1, and BAS-4), and chalcone (BAS-7) can be seen.
Baptista (2007), did ethnobotanical studies in the interior of Amazonia,
as “Selected Concentrated Brosimum acutifolium (SCBA)”, and used the sap
for phytochemical experiments testing the antinociceptive (analgesia) and
antiedematogenic actions in mice. This work reported that at certain doses SCBA
prevented the development of edema in mices. The study also investigated the
phytochemical constituents of B. acutifolium latex and found the presence of
saponins, proteins and amino acids, phenols, and alkaloids. The results demonstrated
that the analgesia promoted by SCBA is due to one or more secondary metabolites,
such as saponin, which exhibit anti-inflammatory activity. The anti-oedematous
activity was verified and explained by the action of the sap on the chemical mediators
that promote an inflammatory state. According to Cruvinel et al. (2010), edema is
a clinical sign of inflammation.
Baptista (2007) also studied the acute and sub-acute toxicity and the metabolites
present in mururé bark. The work identified saponins that damage cells by altering
the permeability of membranes, which destroys them. This type of alteration can
be explained by the amphiphilic behavior of saponins, which can form complexes
with steroids, proteins and membrane phospholipids that have a variable number of
biological properties, including actions on cell membranes (Schenkel et al. 2004).
In a study about takini, a hallucinogen used by shamans in Amazonia that is
prepared from the sap of B. acutifolium, Moretti et al. (2006) identified the presence
of the alkaloid bufotenin (5-hydroxy-dimethyltryptamine) that is a compound with
psychotrophic properties. This alkaloid is present in other species of Brosimum as
B. utile (Kunth) Pittier and has been studied for its antifungal and antibacterial
activities due to the toxic effect on the DNA of microorganisms (Haro 2015,
Manotoa 2015).
Overall, saponins are important because in addition to their action on
membranes, they help in the absorption of other compounds, which increases the
immune response (Schenkel et al. 2004), and the alkaloid bufotenine promotes
bactericidal activity.

Considerations about Syphilis and Present Treatment

The Ministry of Health, through the National STD and Aids Program, published
that syphilis is one of the most common causes of genital ulcers (Brasil 2006) and,
through the Department of Epidemiological Surveillance, declared that the profile
of diseases leading to the formation of these ulcers (such as syphilis) is associated
with an increase in risk of HIV contamination (Brasil 2010). Another major concern
is the number of congenital syphilis cases in 25 countries in Latin America and the
Caribbean, which includes 250 thousand new cases per year. Generally, this type of
syphilis is neglected in epidemiological statistics, and is usually related to poverty
and underdeveloped conditions (Organização Pan-Americana da Saúde 2009).
 Mururé in the Treatment of Syphilis 13

In Brazil, the epidemiological bulletin about syphilis (published by the Ministry

of Health) noted that due to an increase in coverage of prenatal services, all regions
in Brazil reported an increase in pregnant women with syphilis compared to the
previous year (Brasil 2015a). The publication also states that the North Region of
the country has the highest rates of late diagnosis (the last trimester of gestation),
hindering treatment and increasing infant mortality rates, which continue to grow;
the Northeast and North regions have the highest rates of infant mortality caused
by congenital syphilis, which were above the national average of 2.2 in 2004 and
rose to 5.5 per 100,000 live births in 2013.
Although penicillin is the most effective and inexpensive form of treatment
for syphilis, there is a current national shortage of the medication due to the lack of
raw material for its production in the global market (Brasil 2015b). Further, there
are problems with the distribution of this medication to states and municipalities,
mainly because, according to Sforsin et al. (2012), there is a high demand for this
drug to treat patients and not all receive the treatment (Brasil 2015a). Thus, many
people are left waiting for a solution.
As explained above, syphilis is currently treated mainly with penicillin, which
inhibits enzymes that catalyze the formation of cell wall precursors and, thus,
interferes with the integrity of the wall. This induces T. pallidum death due to the
entrance of water into the organism (Guinsburg and Santos 2010). Except for rare
cases where the patient is allergic to the medicine, it is advised to use penicillin
first; as a last resource, alternative medication should be used, although many are
not as effective as penicillin that can resolve primary and secondary cases with
only one dose (Avelleira and Botino 2006).
According to Anvisa (2016d), penicillin has a nucleus with a ß-lactam ring,
which is responsible for the antibacterial action in the medicine. There are four
penicillin groups, including benzylpenicillins that are natural penicillins. The group
of natural penicillins includes those used to treat syphilis: penicillin G benzathine,
which is used to treat most cases; crystalline penicillin, which is a variety used for
cases of neurosyphilis and congenital syphilis; penicillin G procaine, which is used
for congenital syphilis; and penicillin V, which is not directly used to treat syphilis
but to desensitize patients who are allergic to other types of penicillin (Avelleira
and Botino 2006).
Anvisa (Brazilian Health Regulatory Agency, Ministry of Health) (2016a)
notes that benzylpenicillins (benzathine and procaine penicillins) are administered
intramuscularly, crystalline penicillin is administered intravenously, and only
penicillin V is administered orally. Digestive activity interferes with the properties
of penicillin and, for this reason, penicillin generally needs to be administered using
something else (Fariña and Poletto 2010). This differs with the method mentioned
by the Father, who indicated oral ingestion for the latex. The effects of mururé can
be explained based on a study by Maués (2013), who found saponins in the latex
that, like penicillin, destroy cell membranes.
14 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

Treatment with penicillin can produce side effects, including hypersensitivity,

cutaneous manifestations, renal toxicity, haematological toxicity, and neurotoxicity
(Anvisa 2016b). The Jarisch-Herxheimer reaction is common when treating diseases
caused by spirochetes due to the release of antigens from the bacterial cell wall,
which can occur soon after the treatment with the antibiotics, and includes symptoms
characterized by a sudden onset of fever, chills, headaches, myalgia, rashes and,
sometimes, refractory shock (Neves and Araújo 2013, Brasil 2016).
The adverse effects described by the Father, including shivering, tremors,
and convulsions (“[...] arrepiamentos, tremores, e convulsões”), correspond to
symptoms of the Jarisch-Herxheimer reaction. This shows that mururé destroys
treponemas that cause syphilis by acting on the cell walls of the bacteria, which is
evidence of metabolomic similarities between the action of mururé and penicillin.
Another corresponding aspect is how fast the penicillin and sap act, where results are
seen after one dose. A urine analysis is often conducted as a diagnostic parameter to
look for harmful substances eliminated by the body. This factor has been observed
in many studies, such as Han et al. (2016), who evaluated the effect of ketamine
using urine as a study tool. In addition, saponins are important components for
the action of many plant drugs, especially due to their diuretic effect, and are used
as an adjuvant because they aid absorption mechanisms and increase the immune
response (Schenkel et al. 2004).
Finally, it was observed that despite the different modes of ingestion, both
penicillin and the exudate of mururé have a correlated reaction that results in the
desired medicinal effect (i.e., fighting syphilis). Thus, clinical reports documented
in past and present bring to light similarities and alternatives for proposing new
syphilis drugs.

Conclusions
Current treatment methods for syphilis mostly involve the use of penicillin with
no reference of using Brosimum acutifolium, although there are historical medical
records that note mururé is effective. The search for new medicines and the value
of Father João Daniel’s documents are evidence of the great naturalistic ability of a
plant that, due to the success of its medicinal effects, elevated mururé in the Tesouro
Descoberto do Máximo Rio Amazonas to the potential drug category. Countries that
currently lead the world in syphilis cases and suffer from elementary social problems
(e.g., related to the production and distribution of medicines) should note this fact.
The search for medicinal properties in plants as a solution to the unavailability
of medicine, mainly using past evidence, strengthens the relationship between
people and plants, and is important to science today. The analysis made in this work
show that the study of historical documents can be an important tool to develop
medicine because these works are potential resources to find new drugs.
 Mururé in the Treatment of Syphilis 15

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Sousa, J.G. 1996. Impacto Social da Sífilis: Alguns aspectos históricos. Medicina Interna 3: 184–192.
Takashima, J. and Ohsaki, A. 2002. Brosimacutins A-I, nine new flavonoids from Brosimum acutifolium.
Nat. Prod. Res. 12: 1843–1847.
Takashima, J., Komiyama, K., Ishiyama, H., Kobayashi, J. and Ohsaki, A. 2005. Brosimacutins J-M, four
new flavonoids from Brosimum acutifolium and their cytotoxic activity. Planta Med. 7: 654–658.
Tocantins, L. 1976. A Bíblia Ecológica do Padre João Daniel. pp. 7–24. In: Daniel, J. (ed.). Tesouro
Descoberto no Máximo rio amazonas. Biblioteca Nacional, Rio de Janeiro, Brasil.
Torres, S.L., Arruda, M.S.P., Arruda, A.C., Muller, A.H. and Silva, S.C. 2000. Flavonoids from Brosimum
acutifolium. Phytochemistry 8: 1047–1050.
Val, A.L. 2014. Amazônia um bioma multinacional. Ciênc. Cult. 66: 20–24.
Vargas, A.P., Carod-Artal, J.F., Negro, M.C.D. and Rodrigues, M.P.C. 2000. Demência por Neurossífilis:
Evolução clínica e neuropsicológica de um paciente. Arq. Neuropsiquiatr. 58: 578–582.
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Imazon, Belém, Brasil.
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 CHAPTER 2

Agroecology, Local Knowledge

and Participatory Research
Articulation of Knowledge for Sustainable Use
of Plant Resources in Agroecosystems
Santiago Peredo Parada1,2,* and Claudia Barrera2

Introduction
Sustainable management and conservation of natural resources fulfill the
requirements of the rural communities involved and the necessities of the joint
work among the different actors of a territory. For that, it is imperative to use an
integrated approach, with established strategies allowing the deployment of all the
ecological and social-cultural potential that a community has in the environment
in which it is developed.
In this context, the local knowledge of peasants is fundamental because it
represents a collective learning process mediated by the environment in which they
live. This experiential knowledge has allowed, many times, to develop survival
strategies based on the multifunctionality of their farms as a result of their capacity
for cognitive adaptation.
Hence, it is necessary to promote space for the active participation of people
through dynamic processes in which individuals are part of the decisions that affect
them. Participatory research constitutes a methodology that seeks the participation
of the community for its own benefit establishing a new relationship between
theory and practice.

1
Department of Agricultural Management, Universidad de Santiago de Chile, Chile.
2
Agroecology and Environment Group, Universidad de Santiago de Chile, Chile.
* Corresponding author: [email protected]
20 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

Agroecology, as a scientific approach, constitutes an interaction between

the knowledge of the peasant groups and that of technologists, which through
participatory dynamics, allows, among other things, an alternative construction
for the ecological management of the biodiversity at different territorial levels.
The purpose of this chapter is to present the local knowledge as an epistemic
source for the agroecology. For its pursuit, in the first part, the main elements of
peasant knowledge are addressed as a fundamental component of their ecosystems
with the strategy of harmonious management of nature. Secondly, in a schematic
way, the main features of participatory research and its application/adaptation to the
peasant work on biodiversity management are presented. Finally, the experiences
with rural communities in Central and Southern Chile are discussed.

Local Knowledge as an Epistemic Source for Agroecology

Norgaard (1985) was one of the first authors who laid the epistemological bases
of agroecology. He described the following elements as important traditional farm
systems: (1) ecological and social systems have an agricultural potential; (2) this
potential has been explored/absorbed by traditional peasants by means of trials,
errors, natural selection and cultural learning processes; (3) the knowledge is
incorporated into traditional cultures through cultural learning, which stimulates
and regulates the feedback of social systems to ecosystems, and (4) the nature of
the potential of the socioecological system may be better understood by studying
how traditional agricultural cultures have explored/absorbed that potential.
Based on these elements, the most important part of the agroecological work,
related to the study, understanding, re-valorization and visibility of the great
potential contained in the traditional agrarian systems and culture, is sustained.
According to Altieri and Nichols (2000), four aspects of these systems of traditional
knowledge are important for the agroecologists:
1. The knowledge of the environment concerns, among others, to the climatic
seasonality, by using indicators such as the phenology of local vegetation,
soil types, edaphic fertility grades and categories of use.
2. The native biological taxonomies that are well-known, e.g., the insects and
arthropods playing preponderant roles because they serve as food, medicine,
and also, those that are important for folklore and the mystic, in which the
ethnobotanical aspects have been most and appropriately documented.
3. The knowledge of agricultural practices oriented to the understanding of
adaptation mechanisms in under-stress and changing situations in which have
been observed a horizontal as well as vertical crop organization, exploitation
of microenvironment variety, maintenance of materials and waste closed
cycles through practices of effective recycling, interdependence of ecological
complexes, usage of local resources, and predominance of human and animal
energy.
 Agroecology, Local Knowledge and Participatory Research 21

4. The experimental nature of traditional knowledge based not only on the acute
observation but also on the experimental learning, such as the selection of seed
varieties for specific environments, new agricultural methods to overcome
the biological or socioeconomic particular limitations, among many others.
The characteristic of local knowledge pointed out by Gómez-Benito (2001)
shows the close relation between the local culture and its environment that, through
the appropriation processes of nature, has been configuring new landscapes evident
in highly complex agroecosystems. However, this knowledge is not the result of
a merely empirical exercise, but rather as a multipurpose strategy that seeks to
maximize the benefit of the social group and thereby guarantee the conditions,
allowing its social and material reproduction. As stated by van der Ploeg (1990),
this knowledge has an internal organization. This local knowledge is transferred by
way of language (Toledo and Barrera-Nassols 2008) and therefore, it is transmitted
along the spatio-temporal structure using a different logic, that is, the orality.

Participatory Research and its Agroecological Application

Methodological strategies derived from the above argument are defined regarding
the incorporation of diverse actors, who together complement the knowledge in
a way such that it serves to achieve the objectives established in the research. An
imperious element in this type of research is the participation because it provides
the different actors (peasants and researchers) with equal positions (the same
status) when defining the most suitable strategy. In general terms, it could be
said that participatory research is a methodological proposal, incorporated into a
strategy in action defined, which involves its own beneficiaries in the production of
knowledge. It is a combination of action, learning, education and research (López
de Ceballos 1992).
The object of this type of research (Ardón 2001) is not the advance for science,
but the people themselves know and analyze a reality in three constitutive moments:
(1) the objective processes; (2) the perception of peasants (level of consciousness)
of these processes (in particular human being), and (3) the experience of peasants
assimilated into their definite structures. Meanwhile, the role of the researcher is
to contribute to the formulation of techniques explaining the social reality from
its historical perspective, which are translated into these theories in the particular
processes of the groups with which they interact.
Participatory research can be characterized as basically qualitative research,
in which quantitative elements can be included, but always within the context of
a qualitative problem. In addition, it is the production of knowledge about the
dialectical relationships, which manifest themselves in the social reality, that is,
between the objective structures and the way in which they are perceived in the
historical relationship with these structures.
Another fundamental characteristic in this type of research is the importance
of working together with various institutions shaping the social fabric of a territory.
22 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

The professional researcher, as a fellow of the research, is embarked, together with

the others, in the process of learning, action and research. This implies invalidating
its neutrality in the approach (if it has ever existed), which does not mean that
the scientific criteria of precision in the observation and objectivity should not
be maintained, but rather be combined with the interests of the community.
Participation is not only visualized in the design and execution of the research, but
also in the use of the results for the subjects’ actions (Guzmán and Alonso 2007).
In a systematic and selective way, it could be said that the main characteristics
of participatory research are the following:
1. The community must be immediately and directly benefited. It cannot be
justified only as a basis for intellectual exercises. It is important that the
community or population take advantage, not only of the results of the
investigation, but also of the process itself.
2. The research should involve the community/population throughout the whole
process, from the problem formulation to the interpretation of the discoveries
and the discussion of the solutions.
3. The process must be considered as part of the educational experience serving
to determine the needs of the community.
4. The effective participation of professional researchers and promoters is
defined based on their theoretical contribution (contributions that facilitate
a logic of analysis) and practice (background information, training capacity
and committed participation).
5. Research is a dialectical process, a dialogue through time and it is not the
static image of a point in time.
6. Its purpose is the liberation of the creative potential and the mobilization of
human resources for the solution of the problem.
7. This is a permanent research process: if the needs change, the actions generate
new research.
8. Process is done from the inside and under the optics.
9. The study of the problematic, in its historical structural interrelations and in
the context of the global society, is encouraged.
Guzmán and Alonso (2007) reported that in the case of work with farmers, the
holistic understanding of reality by researcher is due to the overlap of the set of
techniques with popular knowledge, and the systemic perception that the farmer has
of his agroecosystem. This type of research has proven to be effective for promoting
social changes in rural/countryside areas. The processes of agroecological transition
through technological innovation/incorporation, the acquisition and deployment of
skills of various actors, and the organization by the groups involved so that they
can continue the process by themselves is an example of this.
One of the first stages carried out in a participatory research process is based
on the needs and motivations expressed by the community; the research is designed
and planned according to the endogenous potential, both in its ecological and social
dimension. This potential constitutes the starting point of a process that necessarily
 Agroecology, Local Knowledge and Participatory Research 23

implies establishing symmetrical relationships among the different actors involved

in such process. Therefore, the knowledge forms of each actor are in a position
of equality, which is crucial to generate the necessary conditions allowing this
dialogue between knowledge.
Once these conditions are generated (through a series of meetings and
workshops), the methodological strategy used in the research, whose purpose is
to determine the potential of bio-cultural diversity (Peredo 2009), is carried out in
two phases (Fig. 2.1) in which the first two practical techniques are simultaneously
applied. The first one consists of a survey based on a semi-open questionnaire,
whose objective is to collect the information related to biodiversity (e.g., natural,
planned, cultivated, associated) present in the community, its use or property, the
way in which the families obtained it, its availability throughout an annual cycle,
the preparation form and how this knowledge is transmitted/exchanged/socialized
into the community. In summary, it is to have an approach to local knowledge tied
to the resources and the socialization agents.
Through this technique—typical of the social sciences—it is intended to
establish a register of the species present in the community and their respective
complementary information relevant to the objective of participatory process.
The second of the mentioned techniques consists of plotting/making transect,
census, or collection (depending on the agroecosystems and the important species
for the investigation) with the objective of verifying and elaborating in the field,
an inventory of those species (biodiversity) distributed in the community. In this
way, it is possible to determine the “local” and “foreign” species found in the
agroecosystems.

Fig. 2.1. Technique articulation on the methodological strategy.

In the second stage, the interviews are performed with specific members of
the community, chosen for the detailed and precise knowledge they have about
the attributes of the species of interest for the community. The application of this
technique (in-depth interviews) is recommended among older adults (men/women)
as it allows the establishment of symmetrical relationships enriching the horizontal
dialogue, thereby expanding the research scope on the “secrets” of local wisdom.
Using the aforementioned methodological strategy allows an approach to
work with agricultural communities in order to diagnose its biocultural potential;
24 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

the manner in which these techniques are articulated enables the expansion of the
known and unknown information by the different members of the community. The
simultaneity in the application of the techniques, in addition, allows to connect and
complement the quantitative antecedents with those of qualitative nature. On the
other hand, the complementarity of the techniques (in quali- and quantitative terms)
permits to extend the previously established attributes (characteristics, variables)
of the study. The combination of the techniques, consequently, is indispensable
insofar as the agroecosystem is an agrarian unit where both sociocultural and
biophysical elements converge.
It is convenient to reinforce that in the proposed methodology the main actors
are the community members, which acquire a decisive role for the achievement of
the final objectives through the execution of concrete actions. The methodological
design, therefore, requires that the strategies be established, adjusted, and modified
as a result of this interaction and as an emerging product during the development
of the research (Peredo and Barrera 2002a). Pursuant to Guber (2004), the research
process is flexible, creative, and heterodox because it is joined to the constant and
parallel relationship between observation and elaboration, obtaining information
and data analysis. This process generates new concepts and explanatory connections
based on initial assumptions, which are reformulated and enriched by the actors’
categories and contextualized in the social life. For this, times and spaces are made
more flexible by obeying the reason (rationality) of life in the countryside (Toledo
1993), where the different tasks and the time distribution are managed on the basis
of the daily activity of each one.

Agroecological Research: The Potential of Endemic Species

and the Importance of the Knowledge Socialization
In reference to the methodological application previously described, two concrete
cases are presented. The first one referred to the action developed with the species
Dasyphyllum diacanthoides as a result of the participatory research carried out
with a group of peasants from the Andean area of Huechelepún (Araucanía Region,
Chile). After having identified the potential of this community, it was agreed to
investigate two scientific aspects unknown for the species: the nutritional value
and the reproductive strategy, considering the potential of the species as forage
and its inclusion in the design of resilient agroforestry systems.
The second case refers to a work carried out with the Andean community
of Armerillo (Maule Region, Chile) in which, as a result of the methodological
application, the knowledge level and socialization of the floristic resources of its
environment was determined.

The Trevo: Endemic Species of “Unknown” Use as Forage

The trevo (Dasyphyllum diacanthoides) is an evergreen tree that can reach up to
1 m in diameter and 10 m in height. It resists extreme weather conditions such as the
 Agroecology, Local Knowledge and Participatory Research 25

snow season in sub-mountainous areas inhabited by peasants and their livestock. A

very interesting phenotypic characteristic of the species is the presence of a pair of
thorns of 0.8–1.5 cm long in the young branches, which disappear at the height of
1.5 m. The old branches are glabrous and without thorns, located in the upper part
of the tree (Abarzúa et al. 2007), which makes it difficult to access for the animals.
Among all its properties, the best known is medicinal (Hoffmann et al. 2003); it
is used as a febrifuge, diuretic, antiseptic, antitussive, purgative and astringent, to
eliminate warts and heal wounds, against rheumatism and bruises, and liver attacks
(Muñoz et al. 1981, Montenegro et al. 1994, Estomba et al. 2005, Zampini et al.
2007, Valencia 2013). In addition, trevo has the characteristic of being palatable for
the animals used by peasants in the extreme mountainous areas, where the climatic
conditions are adverse for the establishment of pastures.
In relation to the possibility of reproducing this species, after having developed
a research based on local knowledge and the endogenous resources of the
community (Peredo et al. 2015), the results indicated that it is possible to propagate
D. diacanthoides by means of semi-lignified cuttings (Table 2.1) and the values,
in agreement with the variables defined by the farmers, can be relevant for the
establishment of massive plantations. The propagation prospect of D. diacanthoides
coincides with research carried out on other native species in Chile, such as those
from Nothofagus genus (Santelices and García 2003) as well as for endemic species
such as Berberidopis corallina Hook.f (Latsague-Vidal et al. 2008), Eucryphia
glutinosa Poepp & Endl. (Latsague-Vidal et al. 2009) and Guindilia trinervis
Gillies ex Hook. et Arn. (Jordan et al. 2010). Therefore, the potential established
by the peasants from D. diacanthoides, considering its native-endemic nature and
economic importance for both medicinal and forage uses, is worth noting.
On the other hand, an important aspect related to the reliability of propagation
of plants is the callus formation and rooting: the percentage values between the
formation and rooting in each treatment suggested that the callus formation was
different in the rooted stakes. This is relevant since the formation of calluses does
not always lead to rooting in the stake. Non-formation of roots in all the calluses
was described by Priestley and Swingle (1929), and by Latsague-Vidal et al.
Table 2.1. Survival, callus formation, rooting and radicular growth in D. diacanthoides on different
treatments.

SEwt SEwht NEwht NEwt

Survival (%)* 8 44 92 88
Callus formation (%)* 8 56 96 84
Rooting (%)* 50 81,8 83 81,8
No of roots (x ± de) 2±0 2,7 ± 0,4 2,6 ± 0,6 2,9 ± 0,7
Root length (cm) (x ± sd) 4,4 ± 0,8a 5,2 ± 4,7a 7,2 ± 4,7 b 5,3 ± 1,5a
Root length max (cm) 4,6 15,7 17,7 5,7
a, b: means with different letters—significantly different (p ≤ 0.05) U Mann-Whitney’s test. * Logistic
regression. SE: south exposition; NE: north exposition; wt: with thorns; wht: without thorns. X: mean;
sd: standard deviation.
26 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

(2009). The high percentage of callus formation in D. diacanthoides, especially in

treatments with stems obtained from mother plants with northern exposure, would
indicate that the maintenance conditions of stalks are adequate for the rhizogenesis
process (Santelices and García 2003, Latsague-Vidal et al. 2009).
De Vastey (1962) was a pioneer in demonstrating the importance of the branch
location in the upper part of the mother tree from where the stakes will be obtained,
as well as the position of the stakes in the same branch, which has a localized
rooting due to the unequal distribution of phytohormones and nutritional reserves
in the different parts of the tree. Leakey and Coutts (1989) attributed rooting only to
changes and redistribution of carbohydrates in the cuttings; Santelices and Bobadilla
(1997) identified that for Quillaja saponaria, the greatest rooting is achieved in
stakes obtained from the lower parts of the plant.
This study showed that rooting is greater in spineless cuttings from mother
plants with northern exposure, that is, those obtained from branches located more
than 2 m high. Conforming to Abarzúa et al. (2007), the spineless branches of
D. diacanthoides would be the oldest; however, since these tissues are
ontogenetically younger, they are more easily differentiated (Taiz and Zeiger 1991,
Rodríguez et al. 2005). This would explain the greater rooting of spineless stakes
from mother plants with northern exposure. In the literature reviewed, reports were
not found on the importance of environmental conditions where the mother plant
is located and from which the stakes that will be propagated are obtained. The
study also allowed to verify the greatest success of propagation, measured through
survival and root growth, which occurred in stakes from mother plants located in
the northern exposure. According to Taíz and Zeiger (1991), this condition would
favor the photosynthetic metabolism of the plant and, therefore, it would have
more reserves of carbohydrates as they are exposed to the sun for a longer time.
The low survival presented in the stakes with thorns from mother plants with
southern exposure could indicate their lower suitability for vegetative propagation.
The most probable cause would be their diminished physiological condition (Taíz
and Zeiger 1991) or their genotypic condition different from mother plants exposed
to the north. This is suggested by Santelices (2005), who attributed differential
rhizogenesis, in stakes of Nothofagus alessandri Espinosa, from different mother
plants.
Regarding the nutritional value indicated by the farmers, of the different edible
parts (sprout, leaf and stem) of D. diacanthoides, the results of the proximal analysis
performed on them are presented in Table 2.2. The values of crude protein (CP)
and crude fiber (CF) for the stem are highlighted, since they are the lowest and the
highest, respectively, possibly due to the high lignin content of the species. The
lower PC, DM and P values presented by this part, together with the higher fiber
values, would indicate that due to the nutritional contribution of the younger parts,
it would be the most suitable to be used as fodder. However, since it is a potential
feed based on the browsing, the field observations indicated that there was no
selection by the livestock.
 Table 2.2. Chemical composition of the parts of D. diacanthoides eaten by cattle.

DM CP ME EE P TA CF ADF NDF
M SD M SD M SD M SD M SD M SD M SD M SD M SD
Shoot 39.95 1.52 a 7.76 0.15 a 2.49 0.02 a 2.36 0.07 a 0.13 0.004 a 11.11 0.45 a 23.53 0.56 a 32.91 0.92 a 39.42 0.82 a
Leaf 39.49 1.52 a 8.72 0.25 b 2.68 0.03 b 2.78 0.25 a 0.15 0.004 b 13.34 0.68 a 19.15 0.68 b 32.38 0.82 a 36.68 0.18 a
Steam 46.53 1.08 b 5.03 0.10 c 1.94 0.05 c 2.28 0.27 a 0.10 0.01 c 5.33 0.22 b 35.97 1.06 c 46.38 0.25 c 57.15 0.21 c
Mean Value 41.78 1.06 7.23 0.36 2.38 0.07 2.46 0.12 0.13 0.01 10.04 0.78 25.95 1.62 35.09 1.64 42.15 2.32

DM = dry matter; CP = crude protein; ME = metabolizable energy; EE = ether extract; P = phosphorus; TA = total ash; CF = fiber crude; ADF = acid detergent fiber;
NDF = neutral detergent fiber. a, b, c: significantly different (p ≤ 0.05). M = mean; SD = standard deviation.
Agroecology, Local Knowledge and Participatory Research
27
28 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

Otherwise, when comparing the average values of the metabolizable energy

and the percentage of digestible dry matter determined for D. diacanthoides with
the studies carried out in other species of trees used as forage in different parts of
the world, this species stands out as an important source of energy and its relative
potential value as food (Ayala et al. 2006). It is a relevant fact considering that
D. diacanthoides is used as a nutritional source in sub-mountainous areas where
very-low temperatures (< 0°C) are recorded for more than half a year (March to
September), and it can be determinant for the maintenance of the animal body
temperature in such conditions (Bondi 1989) and in the compensation of the growth
rate (Zea and Díaz 1990).
Based on the report by Anrique et al. (2014), the most important factor to
optimize the absorption of nutrients in ruminant animals is the energy-protein
ratio. Depending on this relationship and considering the main food sources
for the central-southern region of Chile, it was observed that the CP value (7.2) for
D. diacanthoides was lower than for forage species (in green) such as
M. sativa (18.9), T. pratense (14.4) and A. nuda (12.9), but higher than
T. aestivum (3.5) and similar than Z. mays (7.5). Despite the fact that some species
mentioned above presented CP values higher than “trevo”, a species widely known
as forage (hay) showed an average value (7.3) closer and comparable to that of
D. diacanthoides. Nevertheless, it should be clarified that hay has improved/
increased its value due to the use of an appropriate management and better
technology, whereas the value of “trevo” is intrinsic (not manipulated/modified
through improvements). With respect to the energy values, D. diacanthoides (2.38)
was only surpassed by A. nuda (3.34) and Z. mays (2.62); in turn, it was slightly
higher than M. sativa (2.35) and even considered in the range of good (2.3–2.6)
when it was compared with energetic contribution value of prairie silage.
The balanced energy-protein relationship of D. diacanthoides, according
to the proximal analysis, positions it as a potential supplementary nutritional
alternative, also allowing for its availability in winter as an energy source. If it is
considered for its palatability (Abarzúa et al. 2007), endemic condition (hence,
adapted to the ecosystem), uses and knowledge on the part of the peasants, and
reproductive strategy (Peredo et al. 2015), D. diacanthoides would constitute a
suitable endogenous resource for the establishment of agroforestry systems in
conditions of the Andean sub-mountains of the central-southern zone of Chile.

The Socialization of Knowledge: Do We All Know What You

Know? Do You Know What We All Know?
Regarding the second case that will be treated for the purpose of this chapter
(Peredo and Barrera 2002b), it was highlighted that the community identified more
than 70 species with medicinal attributes, which differed from what was stated
by San Martín in 1983, who reported only 26 species for the same sector of San
Clemente. Besides, the same author mentioned some species which were unknown
to the people who were surveyed, such as quillay (Quillaja saponaria) and maitén
 Agroecology, Local Knowledge and Participatory Research 29

(Maytenus boaria), etc. Moreover, the results of the survey showed the presence
and/or use of species that had not been reported for this area but for other places
within the region studied by San Martín, such as linden (Tilia cf. europeae L.),
medlar (Eriobotrya japonica), culén (Psoralea glandulosa), plantain (Plantago
major), paico (Chenopodium ambrosioides), among others.
Other plants registered in the surveys, which San Martín (1983) mentioned for
medicinal uses but the surveyed population did not tie-in, were concli (Xanthium
spinosum) for stomach pain, the diuretic character of quinchamalí (Quinchamalium
majus), and the aphrodisiac properties of the herb of nail (Geum chiloense Bald),
inter alia. In a like manner, the surveys identified uses that were not reported
by San Martín, such as the properties attributed to cachanlahue (Centaurium
cachanlahuen), plantain (Plantago major) and avocado (Persea americana), to
name a few.
Of the species used by the locality, only 50% are available all through the year.
The remaining 50% are characterized by being seasonal products. Regarding this
particularity and based on the background obtained by the surveys, the community
established three categories: (a) those with permanent availability, (b) those with
marked seasonality and sporadic availability, and (c) those of seasonality and
permanent availability. From the first category (a), some herbs can be mentioned
such as pennyroyal (Mentha pulegium), mint (Mentha piperita), plantain (Plantago
major), and horizon (Tetraglochin alatum). With regard to those species defined as
marked seasonality and sporadic availability [second category (b)], other plants can
be named, e.g., cohile (Lardizabala bitermata), avocado (Persea americana), nalca
(Gunnera chilensis), medlar (Eriobotrya japonica), and prickly pear (Opuntia ficus-
indica), etc. Finally, for those species defined as seasonal and having a permanent
availability (category c), some plants can be included such as walnut (Junglans
regia), linden (Tilia cf. europaea L.), pile-pile (Modiola caroliniana), chamomile
(Matricaria chamomilla) and blackberry (Rubus ulmifolius). The condition of
permanent availability of this last group is due to how different peasant families
have developed multiple strategies that have allowed them to prolong the availability
of those resources that have a marked seasonality. One of these strategies has been
to apply/use various conservation techniques such as drying or the preparation of
preserves in the cases of leaves, and fruits, respectively. Other technique consists,
for example, in the application of some forced cultivation practices in the backyard
of the houses, which represents the prolongation of the forest ecosystem, also
contributing to the conservation of biodiversity. In this way, the products are
obtained out of season, which in no way implies the intensification of production,
since most of them are obtained from the collection and natural reproduction.
On the subject of the socialization of traditional knowledge, Fig. 2.2 clearly
shows that there was little exchange between families regarding the uses of non-
traditional products, since none of the reported species was known by all of the
families surveyed. In general, knowledge about the attributes and properties of
these species is exchanged (socialized) among family groups in which there is
some link or degree of friendship.
30 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

Fig. 2.2. Socialization of traditional knowledge in Armerillo locality.

Grouping the species according to the number of families that knew its use, only
one of them—rue (Ruta graveolens)—turned out to be the species whose attributes
were known by the greatest number of families. On the other hand, a total of 26
species were only known individually by the families, but they were not necessarily
the same species for each family. Some examples of these species were pile-pile
(Modiola caroliniana), bailahuén (Haplopappus baylahuen), donkey tea (Viviania
marifolia), culén (Psoralea glandulosa), perlilla (Margyricarpus pinnatus), etc.
From the results, it was observed that of the all the families surveyed, there was
none who knew the use or properties of all the species registered.
The mechanism of assimilation and transfer of this knowledge is focused on
what is transmitted orally from generation to generation. This clearly shows that
the main socialization agency is the family, where the person from childhood is
able to know the forms of culture in which he/she was born.

Conclusions and Future Perspectives

The purpose of this chapter was to show empirical evidence that it is possible to
obtain concrete quantitative information from an agroecosystem based on joint
work between peasants and technicians. It is noteworthy that the reviewed works
were the result of processes in which the participation and collaboration between
peasants and technicians were performed at the different stages of research,
beginning with the formulation of the problem question from which the research
 Agroecology, Local Knowledge and Participatory Research 31

was designed, including the selection of the relevant indicators, up to the evaluation
of the impact that such projects had on the quality of life and the sustainability of
their territories, among others.
In this way, it was possible to observe, from the developed experiences, the
relevance of the selection of indicators in a participatory mode (Peredo and Barrera
2016) because, fundamentally, these must exactly correspond (or fit) to concrete (or
specific) needs in a precise historical context, that is, the indicators are the “reflection
of the certain interests” of an evaluation in a “particular historical moment”. This
condition acquires greater relevance when the categories and ranges of valuation
have also been established in a participatory manner (Peredo et al. 2016) due to
the valuation exercises which achieve a sense of belonging to the community
through processes of permanent iteration in which the elements of subjectivity are
considered (Peredo and Barrera 2005).
As a final point, a special mention is made of the collective learning process
that was generated during these processes amongst the different actors, promoting a
real dialogue of knowledge. From the academic point of view, the multidisciplinary
integration carried out by professionals and undergraduates of diverse curricular
formations, who participated in research with rural communities, confirmed the
importance of dialogue between different perspectives, the cost of the reductionist
vision when dealing with complex phenomena (in terms of loss of diversity to
address the phenomenon), the inseparable relationship between theory and practice,
and the importance of a critical look at the modern perspective of development
(Peredo and Aedo 2016, Aedo et al. 2017).

Acknowledgements
The authors thank Dr. Amner Muñoz (Universidad del Norte, Colombia) for his
comments and reviews that improved the text, and to Vice Rectory of Research,
Development and Innovation (Universidad de Santiago de Chile) to support a stay
in the Agroecosystems History Lab (Universidad Pablo de Olavide, Sevilla-Spain).

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 CHAPTER 3

The Path of
Ethnopharmacobotany
From Economic Botany to Ethnobotany
Marcelo L. Wagner,* Leonardo M. Anconatani, Rafael A. Ricco,
Beatriz G. Varela and Gustavo C. Giberti †

Introduction
A transformation of knowledge is happening in the scientific field. There is a fresh
look where western science is not the only theoretical-practical model of assuming
reality. Other ways of knowing and perceiving nature are being raised. We started
studying how knowledge is passed on and has been passed on from generation to
generation, millenium to millenium, town to town, person to person. Therefore, other
kind of realities and other truths come together, prevail, are kept, are reproduced
and give rise to new knowledge, new perceptions, and cosmovisions about the
world, life, and nature.
This knowledge or “folk wisdoms” or “traditional knowledge” are the subject
of study of almost all scientific disciplines. Natural science is the most developed
area; fields like Ethnography, Ethnology, Antrophology, and Sociology have been
focusing on the study of the peoples and their associated knowledge. It is thus that
the prefix ethnos makes reference to human aspects and specific knowledge of the
peoples and ethnic groups, i.e., to the knowledge of groups of individuals of the
same culture (Arenas and Martínez 2013).

Cátedra de Framacobotánica, Museo de Farmacobotánica “Juan Aníbal Domínguez”, Facultad de

Farmacia y Bioquímica, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Junín 956, 1113 Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos
Aires, Argentina.
†
In memorial
* Corresponding author: [email protected]
 The Path of Ethnopharmacobotany: From Economic Botany to Ethnobotany 35

Nevertheless, we must bear in mind that human groups neither parcel nor
sectorize their knowledge, but have a general worldview, i.e., they do not have a
unidirectional view “the whole makes the part of the whole”. Therefore, they have
a holistic view of the world, they join past and future, lifeless with life, material
with spiritual, they link norms, values, nature, traditions, health, sickness, and
many other concepts with magic, legends, and myths that are an indissoluble part
of their knowledge and their daily practices (Arenas and Martínez 2013, Rengifo-
Salgado et al. 2017).
Let’s consider as premise that “traditional knowledge” is the practical
knowledge of ethnic groups or local communities which is based upon accumulated
and selected experience throughout thousands of years to obtain the best results in
the utilization of natural resources and their survival (Arenas and Martínez 2013).
As mentioned above, this knowledge must be grasped not only in a utilitarian
view, for example, when Botany investigates these sources of knowledge it
gives shape and sense to many of these concepts in Economic Botany, Medicine,
Agriculture, and Ecology, but we should take into account the worldview of the
community, who provided that knowledge. Thus, new fields of research are created,
such as Ethnobotany, Ethnomedicine, Agroecology, and Ethnoecology (Reyes
García and Martí Sanz 2007, Nolan and Turner 2011, Johnson and Davison-Hunt
2011).
At an early stage, information about medicinal flora, its usefulness, and ways
of usage were collected without considering the cultural setting in which that
knowledge was produced. Then, there was a progress towards a multidisciplinary
study, where humankind and the plants that they use to heal and the different
ways of usage were taken into account according to their worldview. We suggest
a journey through the history of different fields to disentangle the path towards
Ethnopharmacobotany and the importance of herbaria so that we can document
this ride.

Ethnoscience
Ethnoscience (or cognitive anthropology) is relatively young and it is placed on
the border of natural and social sciences. The term ethnoscience first appeared
in 1950, in the book Outline of Cultural Materials, where the author, George
Murdock, intended to make a thorough list of all the elements constituting human
culture. He subdivided this field of science in Ethnometeorology, Ethnophysics,
Ethnogeography, Ethnobotany, Ethnozoology, Ethnoanatomy, Ethnophysiology,
Ethnopsychology, and Ethnosociology (Murdock 1950). In this first stage, western
science is seen as superior with regard to cultures that were called “primitive”
back then. In such manner, he calls “exact sciences” to western knowledge while
he defines traditional knowledge as “non-systematized ideas about nature and
humankind” or “speculative and popular notions” (Beaucage 2000).
Stephen Tyler (1969) considered the ethnosciences as the study of the native
speech, not placing it within a western scientific order but to reinforce the ability that
36 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

communities have to produce knowledge and observations about the environment

where they live. In other words, ethnoscience is the cultural understanding that the
community has of the world, its conceptual models and worldviews.
Most recently, Darrel Posey highlighted the importance of stories (tales, myths)
as being responsible for the transmission of knowledge about the ecosystem where
they live. Therefore, knowledge is an integration of wisdoms and practices (López
Garcés and de Robert 2012).
However, the third and main approach is the utilitarian one, which is the most
predominant. This approach presents the recovery and scientific reassessment of
these systems of knowledge.
“… The rescue and reassessment of traditional practices does not imply
to “scientificize” traditional knowledge to incorporate it to new packets
of knowledge, but to redirect the efforts of research, articulating the
popular knowledge with science, in a process of inclusive investigation
that recreates the knowledge of the own communities and gives back an
enriched knowledge, assimilable, reappropriated by the same communities
to strengthen their ability of self-management of their productive
resources…” (Leff and Carabias 1993)
But it only seeks the possibility of benefiting from what can be used to raise
innovation and solutions to specific problems, and above all, the possibility of
patenting discoveries from the knowledge and biodiversity supported by local
communities.

Ethnobotany
Ethnobotany is the scientific study of the relationship between human groups
and their natural environment, whose name comes from the combination of two
fields of study: Ethnology (the study of culture) and Botany (the study of plants).
Researchers focus on the topic of this field from two perspectives. The first one
pursues a practical or utilitarian ideology and the second one is of philosophical
character. The most quoted definitions of this field are stressed in the research of
the relationship or interaction between humankind and the plant world (Jones 1941,
Ford and Jones 1978, Schultes and Von Reis 1995), in the impact that plants have
on human culture (Balick and Cox 1997), or a full record of the uses and concepts
of the plant kingdom in societies (Berlin 2014, Plotkin and Famolare 1992).
The term “Ethnobotany” was used for the first time in 1895 by John William
Harshberger, during his classes in the University of Pennsylvania (Harshberger
1895). However, the history of this academic field starts long before, since the
interest in Ethnobotany goes from the beginning of civilization, when human
beings perceived plants as a source of survival. Thus, the first men are practically
considered ethnobotanists, since they classified plants in different categories and
were capable of distinguishing those species that are beneficial from those which are
harmful (Choudhary et al. 2008). Teofrasto (c. 370–285 BC), the father of Botany,
 The Path of Ethnopharmacobotany: From Economic Botany to Ethnobotany 37

describes the uses of economically important plants and sets the generic names
(for example: Crataegus, Daucus, and Asparagus) which are still being used. On
the other hand, Caius Plinius Secundus, better known as Plinio el Viejo, collected
information about the growth of medicinal plants in his work “Historia Natural”
(Bennet 2013). In the year 77, the Greek philosopher Dioscorides publishes the
work “De Materia Medica”, a record of around 600 plants of the Mediterranean
watershed that includes information related to the use (specially medicinal),
collection, toxicity, and edibility of such plants. Dioscorides also specifies the
economic potential of plants, anticipating in this way, the creation of Economic
Botany, interested in the use of plants which are useful to human beings and their
economic value (Wickens 2001).
The information of the classical age was repeated for over 1500 years. It was
only in the sixteenth century that European herbalists recorded new observations
about the use of plants. In 1542, a Renaissance artist, Leonhart Fuchs, listed 400
native plants from Germany and Austria in his book “De Historia Stirpium”,
followed by “Historia Plantarum” by John Ray, where the first definition of
“species” was published and subsequently, “Species Plantarum” by Carl Linnee,
which includes related information of about 5900 plants.
The collection of data about the use of plants was not only a European interest.
In the sixteenth century, Martín de la Cruz wrote the Aztec herbarium. His book,
known as “Manuscrito Badianus”, contains a description about the therapeutical
and psychoactive properties of 251 Mexican plants. This manuscript symbolizes
the first herbarium of medicinal plants written in the New World (Pease et al.
2000). Hipólito Ruiz López and José Antonio Pavón y Jiménez, Spanish botanists,
collected plant species in the viceroyalty of Peru and published them in “Flora
Peruviana et chilensis” (1798–1802). It is important to know that Chinese, Arab,
and Indian texts are produced in parallel, generally less known in the western
world, with valuable descriptions of the plant kingdom. However, the study of
this historical material is the subject of analysis of Historical Botany and not that
of Ethnobotany (Bennet 2013).
Linnee, whose latinized name represents the synonym of modern taxonomy,
was famous for the invention of the binomial method of nomenclature, where
the scientific name assigned to a species is made up by the combination of two
words (genus, species) (Loonen 2008). Linnee was also a pioneer of modern
Ethnobotany studies because he published “A tour in Lapland” where he made
detailed observations about the use of plants by the Sami peoples in Laponia
(Wickens 2001). Linnee’s successors did not limit their investigations to taxonomy,
for example, Alphonse de Candolle, wrote “Origen of cultivated plants” in 1885,
a classical work related to the origin of cultivated plants.
The Summit of botanical exploration took place in the eighteenth and nineteenth
century. It is worth mentioning the trips of Alexander von Humboldt and Aimé
Bonpland, and James Cook. On the other hand, the English botanist Richard
Spruce, one of the great Victorian botanist explorers, took 15 years to explore
the Amazon (mainly all Brazil). His collections, indexed in the Royal Botanical
38 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

Fig. 3.1. Cover of the Spanish version of the book “Natural History” of Cayo Plinio (1624).

Gardens, represent an important ethnobotanical resource. In the same way, botanic

samples from North and Central America were collected by the American botanist
and archaelogist Edward Palmer, a field assistant for the Office of American
Ethnology (McVaugh 1956). Palmer provides information related to the life and
use of plants by the natives of North America. Likewise, Henry Throreau spreads
the same content in his essay “Walden” (Thoreau 1906). The field of study called
 The Path of Ethnopharmacobotany: From Economic Botany to Ethnobotany 39

Fig. 3.2. Cover of the Speech by Pierre Andrea Matthioli on the work of Dioscoride (1568).

“native botany” (which is devoted to the research of those types of plants used
by natives aimed, among others, to the obtention of food, medicine, and fabrics)
(Fig. 3.4). The term “native botanical” was used for the first time in 1874 by
Stephen Powers. An essential part of study in this field is called “folk” or popular
taxonomy, referring to the method used to ease the recognition and designation of
plants used by members of a certain linguistic community (Sánchez et al. 2007,
Berlin 2014). Sometimes, native nomenclature tells a lot about the characteristics of
the plant, vegetation, or its effects (if it is toxic or nutritious, or laxative, astringent,
sedative, or without any active ingredient) (Powel 1877). A publication of Leopold
Glueck, a German physician who worked in Sarajevo, which is about traditional
medicine and the plants used by rural population in Bosnia from an emic point of
view (created from phonemes), is considered to be the first modern ethnobotanical
40 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

Fig. 3.3. Cover of Volume I of Genera Plantarum by Carl Linnee (1789).

work (Cunningham 2001). “Emic” and “ethic” are technical terms originally derived
from the suffixes of the words ‘phonemic’ and ‘phonetic’ suggested by the linguist
Kenneth Pike in 1967. The first term relates to any unit of sound in a particular
language and the second, to the system of notations cross-culturally useful which
those “vowel sounds” represent (McCutcheon 1999).
At the beginning of the twentieth century, the neologism by Harsberger
“Ethnobotany” is approved, although it is only about a semantic replacement.
The change of paradigm that gave rise to a more conceptual and methodological
 The Path of Ethnopharmacobotany: From Economic Botany to Ethnobotany 41

Fig. 3.4. Aimé Bonpland (1773–1858).

approach evolved progressively. The beginning of modern Ethnobotany as an

academic discipline is deeply linked to its founder, the biologist Richard Evans
Schultes (Sequeira 2006). At first, the concept of Ethnobotany is more ecological,
centered specifically on the relationship and interaction between humankind and
plants. Such researchers begin to study plants as an integral part of the ecosystem

Fig. 3.5. Ilex paraguariensis St. Hill. (Aquifoliaceae) “yerba mate”.

Yerba mate was utilized by the Guaraní native and in some Tupí communities in southern Brazil, prior
to European colonization. Yerba mate is widely known as the source of the beverage called mate in
both Spanish and Portuguese, also called by various other names in Portuguese like chimarrão, and
tereré. It is traditionally consumed in central and southern regions of South America, primarily in
Paraguay, as well as in Argentina, Uruguay, southern and central-western Brazil, the Chaco region of
Bolivia and southern Chile.
Yerba mate can also be found in various energy drinks in the market today.
42 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

in which they are. Later, the Ethnobotany becomes a cultural topic and currently,
scientists are trying to understand it from this perspective. Lastly, the scope of
this field redefines “humankind” and creates a new concept. At present, the term
“traditional” is used since it is less derogatory than the one used before, that is,
“primitive” (Ford and Jones 1978, Cotton 1996).
An important point is to know if there is a key difference between the traditional
and modern use and handling of plants. This distinction can be artificial, since
etymologically, there is no reason to restrict Ethnobotany from traditional societies.
The prefix “ethno” refers to any people or cultural group, not only traditional
societies (Rodríguez-Echeverry 2010, Bennet 2013).
The current frame of Ethnobotany emphasizes the different skills needed by the
scientists of this field: a necessary botanical background to identify and preserve
plant samples, an anthropological training that helps the researcher understand
cultural concepts, and a linguistic background that allows the researcher to be able
to transcribe terms and understand the morphology, syntax, and native semantics
(Choudhary et al. 2008). The investigation of the practical functions of plants
dominates the research agenda. The Ethnobotany, as discipline, is oriented to the
exploration of new plant resources, the collection of genetic material, the discovery
of drugs or medicines resulting from plants, and the development of new natural
products (Plotkin et al. 1992, Schultes and Von Reis 1995, Balick and Cox 1997).

Ethnopharmacology
The term Ethnopharmacology was used for the first time by Efron et al. (1967).
It was implemented in the title of the book Ethnopharmacological Search for
Psychoactive Drugs, which deals with the ethnopharmacological search of
psychoactive drugs (Efron et al. 1970, Holmstedt 1967).
Ethnopharmacology is, by definition, a scientific approach to the study of the
biological activities of any preparation used by human beings traditionally, which
have in a broad sense, beneficial, toxic or other pharmacological direct effects. As
such, we do not attempt to describe uses (generally local or traditional) but some
characteristics about the large antrophological and pharmaco-toxicological study
of these preparations.
Furthermore, studies that describe the medicinal use of plants are generally
included in this definition, but these studies are performed with the aim of leading
to an experimental investigation of medicinal plants, in other words, validating the
use that one human group gives to plants (Heinrich et al. 2009).
The study of traditional drugs by ethnopharmacologists does not have the
purpose to advocate for a return to the use of these remedies as used by communities,
nor to promote traditional medicine. The objective is, thus, to rescue and document
a cultural heritage before it gets lost to be able to investigate and evaluate it.
Therefore, Ethnopharmacology involves a multidisciplinary work in which
botanists, phytochemists, and pharmacologists are found, and where anthropologists
have an active participation. The first investigation with this multidisciplinary
 The Path of Ethnopharmacobotany: From Economic Botany to Ethnobotany 43

profile was performed by the French naturalist Leschenault de la Tour in 1803 by

investigating the poison of arrows in the island of Java. The botanical part was
performed by Jussie who identified the Strychnos; later, Magendie and Raffenau de
Lille studied the effects of the poison on animals and determined the target organ
in which it acts (spinal marrow). A decade later, Pelletier and Caventou isolated
the responsible alcaloid, strychnine (Holmstedt and Bruhn 1983).
The final objective of Ethnopharmacology is the validation (or non-validation)
of remedies used by traditional communities for the treatment of health. This process
is performed by isolating active substances and characterizing the pharmacological
action of those substances. These achievements allow isolating new targets for the
development of new medicines.
Hence, Ethnopharmacology is not only a science of the past that uses an
outdated approach, but it also constitutes the backbone of the development of
active therapeutics based on traditional medicine of different ethnic groups. On
the other hand, Ethnopharmacology contributes to a better and safer use of such
resource (Heinrich 2014).

Herbaria in the Study of Ethnosciences

An interesting topic to include in this chapter is that of herbaria. Currently,
in the age of genomics, proteomics, and metabolomics, it may seem odd that
herborization is still made and herbaria are still kept as in previous centuries.
However, herborization is an important practice not only for botanical works but it
is key to Ethnopharmacobotany. This is due to the fact that the samples deposited
in herbaria certify the identity of a plant and they act as a document for researchers
(Bebber et al. 2010, Fertig 2016).
Even though the history of plant sciences begins in Ancient Greece with
Teofrasto (3rd century B.C.), the term herbarium is relatively recent. It was
employed by Joseph Pitton of Tournefort and Carl von Linneo in the seventeenth
and eighteenth centuries to design a collection of dead plants (hortus mortus),
dissected and flattened (hortus siccus), more available in any season of the year than
in an outdoor botanical garden (hortus hiemalis), for study purposes (Giberti 1996).
The practice of saving dissected plants started in the times of Luca Ghini
(1490–1556), Italian physician and botanist, founder of the Botanical Gardens
of Florence and Pisa, professor of Botany in Pisa and Pharmaceutical Botany in
Bologna (Staufleu and Cowan 1976–1988, Cristofolini et al. 1993). Apparently,
no samples of Ghini have survived, but there are some of his disciples, such as
Ulises Aldrovani (1522–1605). Aldrovani also taught Botany in Bologna, and his
herbarium, the greatest of the ones preserved from the sixteenth century, is bound
in 17 volumes in foil and it features almost 5,000 plants. The method of binding
the sheets of herbarium was abandoned due to its impracticality, but it is often seen
in some classical collections, such as the herbarium collected in the Middle East
by Leonhard Rauwolf (1535–1596), in Leiden, and the one by Andrea Cesalpino
44 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

(1519–1603), that contains almost 800 samples and it is preserved in Florence

(Staufleu and Cowan 1976–1988, Cristofolini et al. 1993, Giberti 1996).
It is considered that Aldrovani’s collection has been precisely the origin of the
first institutional herbarium that is known: the one of the Museum rerum naturalium
of Bologna. A second modern meaning of herbarium is thus noticed, since not only
it is applied to the collections but also to the institutions that contain them (for
example: botanical gardens, agricultural or forest research facilities, germplasm
banks, museum offices, universities, scientific societies, among others) (Giberti
1998).
A third meaning of the word herbarium refers to ancient botanical texts,
pioneers of the modern Flora and Herbal Pharmacopoeia, some preceding the
press, which Anglo-Saxon authors know as herbals. Examples of herbals, herbaria
or Kraüterbüchen are: the Herbarium by Pseudo-Apuleius (fourth century); the
New Kreüterbuch. Basel: Michael Isingrin (1543) by Leonhard Fuchs; the A New
Herball (1551) by William Turner; the Cruydeboeck (1554) by Rembert Dodoens,
and the Materia Médica Misionera (circa 1700) attributed to the Jesuit brother
Montenegro of the Jesuit Missions in South America (Giberti 1998). These and
many other similar works, while they deal with strictly botanical issues with more
or less rigor, they often share a great interest in the ethnohistory of medical and
pharmaceutical sciences, since most of ancient botanists have been herbalists and
physicians, even up to the beginning of the nineteenth century, for example, Aimé
Bonpland (1773–1858) (Giberti 2008, Bell 2010).
On the other hand, the accumulation of 500 years of plant collections by
botanists and travellers is a rich source and yet, there is not enough explored data
about useful plants (useful in a broad sense) nor of the communities that use them
(Nesbitt 2014). This is because the collectionists used to herborize those plants
that had certain utility. Therefore, it is probable that more than half of the samples

Fig. 3.6. Herbarium of Pharmacobotany Museum “Juan Aníbal Domínguez”, Buenos Aires,
Argentina.
 The Path of Ethnopharmacobotany: From Economic Botany to Ethnobotany 45

housed in great herbaria are plants of useful or symbolic value to human beings. An
interesting work would be an ethnopharmaceutical investigation of the botanical
collections of herbaria placed in museums or academic institutions (Bebber et al.
2010, Nesbitt 2014).
During the twentieth century, herbaria were driven away from their roots since
they went from collections of useful plants to be the material used by taxonomists
for alpha taxonomy, detection, description, and classification of taxa. Researchers
lost their interest in human interaction with plants (Anderson 1952). Perhaps, this
was not by chance. Towards the end of the twentieth century, a crisis in the botanical
collections was recorded which gave rise to a decrease of funding and a lack of
confidence in the value of the collections of the museums (Clifford et al. 1990).
At present, opinion has changed since there is, as mentioned before, an
important source of information which revalues the importance of herbaria (Funk
2003, Suarez and Tsutsui 2004).
It is important to keep in mind that herbarium samples fulfil three vital functions:
they allow the identification of the specimen botanically, they allow identifications
to be controlled by other researchers, and they allow updating the work in the light
of new taxonomical concepts. Why are these functions so important?
Most of the plants that are found in the ethnobiological field of work, certainly,
already have an identification in the form of a local vernacular name. As far as
preservation of traditional knowledge and record of ethnotaxa goes, vernacular
names are essential. However, the identification of a species by botanical name
(latin) is also essential since it allows to have a comprehensive knowledge of the
plant, for example, the uses that it might have in other cultures, phytochemical,
pharmacological, ecological studies, and plant growing (Bennett and Balick 2013).
Botanical names are also, in theory, less bound to ambiguity than vernacular names;
they can often be written in different ways when they are registered and the same
name can be used for more than one species (Bennet and Balick 2013). On the
other hand, the identification of a plant requires that the material contains flowers
or fruits to use the standard botanical tools such as the flora or the comparison with
samples of reference herbaria, that are often missing in the ethnopharmacological
specimens, such as the plant drug formed by some of the vegetative organs of the
plant or exudates (Eisenman et al. 2012). In many cases, the identification is made
in the field, for which handbooks or the botanical expertise of the researcher are
used, but there is a risk of confusing the well-known species with new species
that have a similar aspect. Field identifications are uncertain and it is necessary to
confirm them with morphological studies in the laboratory, and many times it is
necessary to resort to chemical studies or to DNA molecular biology to confirm
them (Eisenman et al. 2012).
In genetics, herbarium samples have allowed the reinterpretation of results
of hybridization experiments decades after they had occurred, in light of new
taxonomical arrangements (Sauer 1953, Barkworth and Jacobs 2001). Likewise,
the new taxonomical work of Schmidt-Lebuhn (2008) about the aromatic gender
46 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

Minthostachys allowed the reinterpretation of many inconsistent records of plant

chemistry, their use, and vernacular naming.
When a sample is herborized, apart from the plant material, a label is
incorporated with standard data, such as the date and place or georeference where
the collection was carried out. Data, such as the ethnobotanical, is included which
enables the use in future investigations (Giberti 1998).
Historical bonds between herbaria and Economic Botany (Ethnobotany,
Ethnopharmacology, and Ethnopharmacobotany) that had weakened in the twentieth
century, have been reinforced at present. Herbarium samples are currently widely
acknowledged as an essential document to validate the ethnopharmacobotanical
investigations. It is important to note that collection techniques of herbarium
samples continue being simple and easy to learn as they were 400 years ago. On
the other hand, herbarium samples are also subject of new questions and research
techniques: they act as records of use through their labels and associated data, and
as biological samples that can be measured and sampled.
It is interesting that while herbaria are being incorporated to databases,
their usefulness increases. This will allow to easily find herbarium samples,
independently of the changes in the botanical name or the herbarium where the
sample is placed and it will enrich ethnopharmacological studies.

Conclusion
Traditional medicine, just like folk medicine, is a system of practices and own
remedies proper of native societies, even if in certain cases and for geographical
reasons it is possible to isolate their components. Traditional medicine as well
as folk medicine contain an indeterminate number of followers and mostly
non-explicitly written rules. In general, the historical information known comes
from secondary testimonies.
The limits among the three medical systems (scientific, traditional, and folk)
are not very clear, though. Clarity is blurred inasmuch as their study is deepened,
contacts and conceptual confluences appearing as a consequence. Adoption and use
of different remedies and medical practices encourage to reflect on the similarities
and not only on differences and contrasts.
It is necessary to keep in mind that the three great medical groups–scientific
medicine, folk medicine, and traditional medicine—share a common characteristic:
rational thinking. This is not a privilege of western societies but it is also observed
in different contexts. Lévi-Strauss expressed that conceptual proliferation is not an
exclusive heritage of the “civilized” but that the “primitive” thinking also introduces
abstract and complex elements, led by an interest in classifying and organizing
the environment. In other words, there is a systematically developed knowledge
among the people we call “primitive”, even without a practical utility, i.e., it is
not related to vital needs, such as food or medicine, but with previous intellectual
requirements. The will to introduce an order, a taxonomy, is a common point with
modern science and it is found in the basis of all human thought (Di Liscia 2003).
 The Path of Ethnopharmacobotany: From Economic Botany to Ethnobotany 47

Lastly, the Ethnosciences allow a more detailed understanding about the

underlying action modes and they provide a better basis for the rescue and evaluation
of knowledge. Therefore, the Ethnosciences contribute as a link between the
different paradigms and create a harmonious relationship among diverse cultures.
It is then, once reviewed the common origins of these Ethnosciences, we can
define Ethnopharmacobotany as the branch of Ethnobotany whose subject of study
is the prevailing relationship between human beings and the plants they use to heal
themselves, their different ways of use, as well as the habits and traditions related
to them under their worldview.

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 CHAPTER 4

Patagonian Berries
An Ethnobotanical Approach to Exploration of
their Nutraceutical Potential
Melina F. Chamorro,1 Ana Ladio1,* and Soledad Molares2

Introduction
Inhabitants of rural communities in Argentine-Chilean Patagonia are mainly
of Mapuche-Tehuelche origin, while others have Creole ancestry and/or are
descendants of different waves of settlers who arrived in the región more than a
century ago (Ladio and Molares 2014). The vast Patagonian territory is characterised
by its great environmental diversity, including mountainous regions, steppe, forests
and ecotones, which have provided inhabitants with subsistence resources since
ancient times (Vignati 1941, Nacuzzi and Perez de Micou 1984, Prattes 2009,
Llano and Barberena 2013). Even today, despite the marked increase experienced
in urbanisation and markets, inhabitants of rural Patagonia continue to make use of
the different ecological environments, and have therefore accumulated extensive
knowledge of their plant surroundings (Ladio and Lozada 2001, 2008, Richeri et
al. 2013). The close relationship they have established with plants is particularly
evident when considering the species used by local families to treat illness and
provide food (Ladio 2001, Ladio and Lozada 2004, Ladio 2005, Molares and Ladio
2009b, Ochoa and Ladio 2015).
Native fruits have been much used by local populations as part of their diet,
according to archaeological and recent records (Martínez-Crovetto 1982, Dillehay

1
INIBIOMA.Quintral 1250-S.C. de Bariloche, Río Negro, Argentina.
2
CIEMEP, CONICET-Universidad Nacional de la Patagonia San Juan Bosco. Roca 780, Esquel (9200),
Chubut, Argentina.
* Corresponding author: [email protected]
 Patagonian Berries 51

1988, Rapoport and Ladio 1999). In this work, we are particularly interested in
the berries which are native to this región. Pochettino (2015) proposed that berries
correspond principally to the fleshy fruits of trees and shrubs of temperate areas,
generally red to violet in colour, and are also called “soft fruits”. In their natural
state they normally contain more than 50% water, which they contribute to the
people’s diet, and are low in calorific value. The sugars they contain are easily
digested and absorbed by the body, and they also enrich the diet with fibre, minerals
and vitamins (Hurrell et al. 2010). Berries can be classified generally into simple
fruits, with pips (pome fruit), stones (drupes and polydrupes) and aggregate fruits
(thickened receptacles containing partial fruits).
Most of the best known species throughout the world were domesticated a
long time ago, and have become valued resources in the international and the local
market for Argentina and Chile: strawberry (Fragaria x ananassa), raspberry (Rubus
idaeus), highbush blueberry (Vaccinium corymbosum) and cherry (Prunus avium),
among others (Hurrell et al. 2010). In Northwestern Patagonia, there is a sizeable
market for food products based on exotic berries, which provides work for the local
population and also migrant workers who come from other localities to work on the
cultivation and harvesting of the soft fruit (Ladio et al. 2013). However, there are
also numerous wild or semi domesticated “berries” which have been little studied,
as in the case of the native Patagonian species.
In addition to their attraction as edible fruits, berries have become recognised
on a global level as conferring health benefits, which has led to research on their
bioactive compounds (Szajdek and Borowska 2008). Epidemiological evidence
demonstrates that certain plant compounds are related to effects that protect against
the development of cancer, cardiovascular disease, diabetes, osteoporosis and
neurodegenerative illnesses (Pandey and Rizvi 2009). New concepts arise from the
perspective that considers there to be a strong link between diet and health, such as
functional foods and nutraceuticals. Functional foods are those which, in addition to
their nutritional properties, also contribute to the prevention of disease. The name
“nutraceutical” is generally given to a product that takes on a pharmaceutical form
(e.g., capsules, pills, granules), whose production is based on a food substance, or
part of one (Mahabir 2014). In this text, we use “nutraceutical potential” to refer
to any foodstuff that may provide the dual benefit of nutrition and health.
On studying the reasons behind many of the beneficial effects of diets rich
in fruit and vegetables, it was found that their antioxidant properties were mainly
responsible for providing these benefits (Szajdek and Borowska 2008). An
antioxidant substance has a high capacity for absorption of free radicals, even at a
low concentration. These are radical oxygen and nitrogen species, highly reactive
molecules which can damage different cell components (Shahidi and Naczk
2004). In our diet we can find natural antioxidants made up mainly of phenolic
and polyphenolic compounds, such as anthocyanins, phenolic acids, flavonoids,
stilbenes and tannins, all from plants (Shahidi and Naczk 2004).
In general, uptil now, the most studied berry species have been from the
northern hemisphere, due to their high levels of natural antioxidant, specifically
52 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

phenolic compounds (Szajdek and Borowska 2008). However, interest is increasing

in exploration of the potential of South American fruits (Schreckinger et al. 2010).
New inroads are therefore being made into this subject in Argentine-Chilean
Patagonia, with very promising results (Arena and Curvetto 2008, Simirgotis and
Schmeda-Hirschmann 2010, Schmeda-Hirschmann and Simirgiotis 2011, Damascos
2011, Arena et al. 2014, Jiménez Aspee et al. 2015, 2016).
An interesting first step in the development of this topic is the articulation
of ethnobotanical studies that describe the history and use patterns of plants in
the different cultures that inhabit Patagonia, and make effective use of the native
berries. These case studies reveal the cultural, symbolic and material value of the
berries, and the use practices that sustain their gathering, supply, processing and
consumption (Ladio 2000, Ladio and Lozada 2009, Ochoa and Ladio 2015).
The INIBIOMA Ethnobiology group has been studying the use of wild and
cultivated plants in the Patagonian región for many years, conducting field work in
different enclaves there, and also drawing up bibliographical databases of sources
relating to different social and biological disciplines. The ethnobotanical approach
seeks to integrate sociocultural, biophysical, and phytochemical criteria, and also
bioactivity, which together explain the selection of species and enable us to reflect
on the plants’ cultural importance.
According to a large number of authors (Davidson-Hunt and Berkes 2003,
Toledo and Barreras Bassols 2008, Capparelli et al. 2011), the study of traditional
management practices of useful plants reveals the local solutions found for their
conservation and sustainable use, and so their inclusion takes on significance for
modern science. In this chapter, therefore, based on an exhaustive bibliographic
review and our own results, we offer a preliminary overview of the 10 native species
of Patagonian berries which hold the most cultural significance, identifying local
practices and their history. In addition, we present phytochemical or pharmacological
information, which give us evidence of the nutraceutical potentiality of these fruits.

Archaeobotanical, Ethnohistorical and Ethnobotanical

Bibliographic Review
Our bibliographic analysis was based on the interpretation of different kinds of
available documents (Medeiros 2009). We worked on information referring to
publications from 1940 up to the present, which includes the first ethnographical/
ethnobotanical studies on native fruits in the region (Molares and Ladio 2009b).
Existing scientific publications were considered, as well as a compilation of
documents and records found in the library and databases of the Ethnobiology
Group. Literature was also examined through search engines such as Scopus,
Science Direct and Scielo, using the following key words in both Spanish and
English: medicinal plants of Patagonia, Patagonian flora and its uses, ethnobotany
in Patagonia, medicinal and alimentary uses, Patagonia, native fruits, berries, and
Patagonia, Mapuche. Publications prior to the year 1940, and those which are
ethnohistorical, i.e., studies revealing posthispanic dietary information (from the
 Patagonian Berries 53

16th century up to 1940), were also reviewed. Existing archaeobotanical sources

were also analysed (prehispanic). This research was performed following the
same procedures as mentioned above, and enriched with the historical texts and
documents of travellers, explorers and colonists. The guidelines and sources of
Ochoa (2015) were followed in carrying out the survey. In this work, the fragmentary
nature of available information on the region was highlighted, but what was also
emphasized was the importance of its systemisation and interpretation in an integral,
coordinated fashion. We also include botanical information to briefly describe
species and their fruits.

Criteria in the Selection of Literature

Analysis of the information began with construction of a database. The following
criteria were followed in the selection of articles and documents: (1) the study should
have been conducted in an Argentine-Chilean Patagonian community or cite species
found in Argentine Patagonia, (2) species lists should ideally be obtained from
ethnobotanical/ethnographic field work, that is, preferably not from a compliation or
review of literature from miscellaneous sources, (3) work carried out by chroniclers,
naturalists and/or expedition members was included, but those which used doubtful
or difficult taxonomy to apply were excluded, (4) scientific archaeobotanical work
on the use of Patagonian berry species was included, (5) summaries and congress,
symposium and conference proceedings, were not included, (6) ethnopharmacological
studies related to antioxidants and other relevant biological properties were included,
if found, for the cited species. A base of 710 entries was constructed, which included
63 studies published between 1917 and 2016. In order to choose the principal
10 species, the use consensus index was used (CU), which considers the number of
publications that cited each species, in relation to the total number of sources [(no.
of sources that cited species i *100)/total no. of sources] (Molares and Ladio 2009a).
This index, according to various authors, gives a direct indication of the cultural
importance of the species (Molares and Ladio 2009a, Silva et al. 2014). We therefore
consider that the current corpus of existing literature on the subject of Patagonian
berries, together with our fieldwork, indirectly reflect the relative importance of these
species. In addition, the ethnographic information examined and the interest shown
by ethnopharmacological research in certain species, highlight the resources which
display the most potential. Nevertheless, it should be pointed out that published
sources remain very scarce for certain species and phytogeographical environments;
consequently, our conclusions are tentative in nature.
Included in this analysis were the species that can be categorised as Patagonian
berries: fleshy fruits, round or oval in shape, either simple or aggregate. These
include berries, drupes, polydrupes, polyachenes, and even false fruits such as the
bracts of the genus Ephedra which are referred to as edible fruits by inhabitants
of Patagonia. We did not include references to the Fabaceae family, although
their pulses are sometimes fleshy or any other type of fruit which does not fit
into the definition of “berry” in the wide sense. The botanical nomenclature and
54 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

geographical distribution of the species were corroborated using Flora del cono
sur (Zuloaga and Morrone 2009), and only species occurring in Argentine-Chilean
Patagonia were included.
Species with records of only edible and/or edible and medicinal uses in their
sources of origin were selected, excluding the records which mentioned only
medicinal use. This criterion was based on the likelihood that the overlapping of
alimentary and medicinal uses would reveal those species with high nutraceutical
potential (Ladio 2011). We recorded a species as edible when the source referred
to the use as food, drink with or without alcohol, sweets, jams, or the consumption
of fresh or dried fruit (Ladio 2005). The use was recorded as medicinal when the
literature indicated that it was considered capable of curing an illness, relieving
pain, or treating or counteracting a symptom of any kind (Estomba et al. 2006,
Molares and Ladio 2009a). Unfortunately, in the records the medicinal property
is often associated with a species, and details as to which part of the plant is used
do not always figure.

Berries Most Cited in the Literature of Patagonia

Table 4.1 and Fig. 4.1 show the 10 most frequently cited species in the literature
examined, in order of use consensus. They are all sub-Antarctic forest species, with
the exception of B. microphylla, whose distribution extends as far as the Patagonian
steppe and monte of Argentina. These species belong mainly to the Myrtaceae and
Berberidaceae families, which are highly representative of the patagonian flora
(Correa 1969–1999).

Berberis microphylla (Calafate, Michay, Box-leaved Barberry,

Magellan Barberry)
Berberis microphylla is a spiny evergreen shrub which can reach 1.5 m in height
and is native to the southwest of South America (Argentina and Chile) (Fig. 4.1.1).
Its berries are subglobose, 7–11 mm in diameter and blackish in colour, as described
by Damascos (2011). The fruit matures in January and can still be found till March.
Berries have a tangy, sweet flavour and when eaten will dye the mouth violet, they
weigh 0.3 g on average, and the seeds account for between 17 and 36% of the total
weight (Rapoport et al. 2005).
According to various sources (Ragonese and Martínez-Crovetto 1947, Muñoz
et al. 1981, Mösbach 1992), the Mapuche people consumed these berries fresh or
used them to make jams and syrups by mixing the fruit with sugar. In parallel with
this, there are records of their consumption by the Alacaluf, Selk-nam and Yaganes
indigenous people (Martínez-Crovetto 1982). Also mentioned in the literature
is ingestion of the fruit to quench thirst or in the preparation of alcoholic drinks
(Ragonese and Martínez-Crovetto 1947, Martínez-Crovetto 1980). One of these
drinks is “chicha”, prepared with the fermented berries and commonly used in
rituals or festivities. According to Martínez-Crovetto (1982), the Tehuelche people
Table 4.1. The ten most cited Patagonian berries in the bibliography which has both alimentary and medicinal uses. Key to gathering environments: f: forest; sc: scrubland;
pb: peat bog; s: steppe; CU: consensus of use (N = 63).
Species Common Names Family Distribution Environment Life Form Fruit CU (%)
Berberis microphylla calafate, michay, Berberidaceae ARG (Chubut, Neuquén, Río Negro, Santa Cruz, f, sc shrub berry 62
G. Forst. box-leaved, barberry, Tierra del Fuego)/CHL (VI, VII, VIII, IX, X, XI, XII)
magellan barberry
Aristotelia chilensis maqui, clon, Elaeocarpaceae ARG (Catamarca, Chubut, La Pampa, La Rioja, f shrub or berry 43
(Mol.) Stuntz queldrón, chilean Mendoza, Neuquén, Río Negro, San Juan, San Luis)/ tree
wineberry CHL (IV, V, VI, VII, VIII, IX, X, XI, metropolitan,
Juan Fernández archipelago)

Potentilla chiloensis frutilla silvestre, Rosaceae ARG (Neuquén, Río Negro)/CHL (VI, VII, VIII, IX, f perennial conocarp 33
(L.) Mabb. llahuén, wild X, XI, IJF) plant
strawberry
Ribes magellanicum parrilla, Grossulariaceae Variety magellanicum ARG (Río Negro, Santa Cruz, f, sc shrub berry 33
Poir. zarzaparrilla, mulul, Tierra Del Fuego)/CHL (VI, VII, VIII, IX, X, XI, XII,
magellanic currant metropolitan)
Berberis darwinii michay, calafate, Berberidaceae ARG (Chubut, Neuquén, Río Negro, Tierra del f, sc shrub berry 29
Hook. darwin’s barberry Fuego)/CHL (VII, VIII, IX, X, XI)
Gaultheria mucronata chaura, prickly heath Ericaceae ARG (Chubut, Neuquén, Río Negro, Santa Cruz, f shrub berry 25
(L.f.) Hook. & Arn. Tierra del Fuego)/CHL (VIII, IX, X, XI, XII)

Empetrum rubrum Vahl mutilla, red Empetraceae ARG (Chubut, Mendoza, Neuquén, Río Negro, Santa f, sc, pb, s shrub drupe 24
ex Willd. crowberry Cruz, Tierra del Fuego)/CHL (V, VII, VIII, IX, X, XI,
XII, metropolitan, Juan Fernández archipelago)
Amomyrtus luma luma, palo madroño Myrtaceae ARG (Chubut, Neuquén, Río Negro)/CHL (VII, VIII, f shrub or berry 22
(Molina) Legrand et IX, X, XI) tree
Kausel
Ugni molinae Turcz. murta, ugni, chilean Myrtaceae ARG (Chubut, Neuquén, Río Negro)/CHL (V, VI, f shrub berry 22
guava, strawberry VII, VIII, IX, X, XI, XII)
myrtle
Luma apiculata (DC.) arrayán, palo Myrtaceae ARG (Chubut, Neuquén, Río Negro)/CHL (IV, V, VI, f shrub or berry 19
Burret colorado, VII, VIII, IX, X, XI, metropolitan) tree
chilean myrtle
56 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

Fig. 4.1. General appearance of the 10 most frequently cited berries’ species in order of use consensus.
1. Berberis microphylla, 2. Aristotelia chilensis, 3. Potentilla chiloensis, 4. Ribes magellanicum var.
magellanicum, 5. Berberis darwinii, 6. Gaultheria mucronata, 7. Empetrum rubrum, 8. Amomyrtus
luma, 9. Ugni molinae, 10. Luma apiculata.
Photographic Credits
1. Melina F. Chamorro; 2. Melina F. Chamorro; 3. Melina F. Chamorro; 4. Ana H. Ladio; 5. Melina
F. Chamorro; 6. Ana H. Ladio; 7. Ana H. Ladio; 8. Melina F. Chamorro; 9. Melina F. Chamorro;
10. Ana H. Ladio

also prepared a drink with the fruit of this species, but in contrast to chicha, it is not
fermented. The use of B. microphylla for medicinal purposes has been described
in the Mapuche medical system as being refreshing for feverishness and useful for
treating indigestion (Gusinde 1917, Mösbach 1992). Mösbach (1992) also refers
to use of the fruit for treating diarrhea.
In modern times, gathering practices still persist in the Mapuche communities
of Neuquén, Río Negro and Chubut (Ladio and Rapoport 1999, Ladio 2001, Ladio
and Lozada 2004, Ladio 2006, Lozada et al. 2006). The fruit is collected despite
the great distances locals have to cover to find the plants, as in the case of the Rams
Mapuche community, from Paraje de la Media Luna (Neuquén province). The
gathering method these communities use is of particular interest, as it helps them
avoid being pricked by the plant’s spines. In their walks into the countryside, the
women and children carry a recipient and a stick or branch with which to hit the
 Patagonian Berries 57

bush so that the mature fruit falls to the ground. Although the small children prefer
to eat the fruit raw, in general it is used to make jellies, jams, and juices (Ladio
2001, Rapoport et al. 2005). For medicinal purposes, the fruit of B. microphylla is
used as a febrifuge, for example, in the Curruhuinca Mapuche community in San
Martin de los Andes (Conticello 1997).
It was also found that they possess a higher content of anthocyanins and a higher
antioxidant capacity than 10 other Chilean berry species (Ruiz et al. 2013). When
comparing calafate berries with five berries (including Ugni molinae and Luma
apiculata), they not only had higher levels of phenolic compounds, but also had
the highest antioxidant capacity (Ramirez et al. 2015). In the same study, calafate
fruits, were also highlighted in one trial in which the inhibition of peroxidation of
human erythrocytes was evaluated (Ramirez et al. 2015).

Aristotelia chilensis (Maqui, Chilean Wineberry)

Aristotelia chilensis is a medium dioecious tree that can reach a height of up to
4 m (Fig. 4.1.2). The leaves are petiolate, with a toothed edge and positioned in the
shape of a cross with respect to the other leaves on the stem (Rapoport et al. 2005).
The fruit is a shiny black berry 4–6 mm in diameter, which has 4–8 seeds inside.
The flavour is tangy-sweet and the berry dyes the mouth and hands a deep violet
colour. The tree flowers in November and December and produces fruit in summer.
Bibliographic records describe its direct consumption when fresh, or in the
form of a drink similar to chicha, called “tecu” by the Mapuche people (Ragonese
and Martínez-Crovetto 1947, Muñoz et al. 1981, Mösbach 1992). According to
Houghton and Manby (1985), the Mapuche have used the leaves and fruit in
infusions to cure diverse ailments of the throat. In addition, it has been used ground
and in paste form as a febrifuge, and the leaves have been used in powder form to
treat wounds (Meza and Villagrán 1991).
More recent studies carried out in Mapuche communities in Neuquén province
have reported its use as a snack, and also in preparations such as jams (Ladio
2006). A. chilensis was and is still recognised for its gastrointestinal properties as
a treatment for diahrrea (Molares and Ladio 2009b), its fruit is ingested directly
(Muñoz et al. 1981) or used to make infusions, for both adults and children (San
Martin 1983). This fruit has become popular in the world market as a superfruit,
mainly due to its antioxidant properties. Chile, the principal exporter of the fruit,
saw a 168% increase in its exports in 2015 compared to the previous year. The
Chilean government’s Agricultural Research and Policies Office (ODEPA) reported
that the main destinations are Japan, South Korea, Italy and the United States,
amongst others. From maqui, powders, extracts, capsules, nectar and antioxidant
drinks are produced commercially, among other nutraceutical products. Similarly,
mainly in Chile but also in Argentina, the number of family businesses dedicated
58 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

to the production of jams, liqueurs, and even maqui coffee are increasing. These
products are all prepared with fruit that comes directly from the gathering practices
of wild populations, and therefore sustainable forms of management and cultivation
are being sought.
The antioxidant capacity of A. chiloensis is principally attributed to its high
content of anthocyanins, and these have been studied in Chile for some time now
(Escribano-Bailón et al. 2006). In order to identify genotypes that will prove suitable
for cultivation, in recent years studies have focused on finding the fruit with the best
anthocyanin profile (Fredes et al. 2014). On the other hand, many pharmacological
properties are being investigated, among which its antidibetogenic and analgesic
effects seems to be outstanding (Romanucci et al. 2016).

Potentilla chiloensis (Frutilla silvestre, Wild strawberry)

Potentilla chiloensis is a perennial plant with silk-like stolons (Fig. 4.1.3). The
leaves are dark green to reddish, and from a distance can be confused with the fruit.
The flowers are white with yellow stamens. The fruit is compound and formed
by a fleshy receptacle which is oval in shape and 2 cm in length, on which the
achenes are positioned. These highly perfumed wild strawberries are an attractive
red colour (although there is also a white variety) with a pleasant, sweet flavour, all
of which make them very appetising. Due to their morphological and organoleptic
qualities, they were taken to Europe to be hybridised in order to obtain the variety
now sold around the world, Fragaria x annanasa (Rapoport et al. 2005). Their
fruiting season is summer.
Several authors (e.g., Martínez-Crovetto 1980, Muñoz et al. 1981) have
recorded the use of P. chiloensis fruit in jams, drinks and syrups in rural Creole,
Chiloen and Mapuche populations. The strawberries were also dried, like raisins,
to be conserved for winter, or ground for production of chicha for the Mapuche
festivals (Ragonese and Martínez-Crovetto 1947). According to Martínez-Crovetto
(1982), in the past the strawberries were collected and eaten raw by most of the
Tehuelche, Gununakene, Alacaluf, Selk-nam, Yaganes and Mapuche groups.
Records describe their medicinal use in the Argentine and Chilean Mapuche groups,
mentioning all parts of the plant. It was used in cases of indigestión, haemorrhage
or diahrrea, due to its emollient and astringent properties, and was prepared as
herbal tea (Mösbach 1992). A decoction of the leaves and roots was also prepared
and was drunk by women following a birth, or to clean the genital tract (Martínez-
Crovetto 1980).
This fruit continues to form a part of the diet of Patagonian inhabitants, whether
through direct ingestion of the fresh fruit or prepared as jams, liqueurs or included
in desserts (Ladio and Rapoport 1999, Ladio 2001, Ladio and Lozada 2004, Lozada
et al. 2006). With regard to its medicinal use, our ethnobotanical work revealed
its persistant use in obstetrics, administered in the same ways as mentioned above
(Lozada et al. 2006, Molares and Ladio 2009b, 2014).
 Patagonian Berries 59

The wild strawberry was studied in terms of its phenolic compounds and
antioxidant activity of the fruit, leaf and rhizomes (Simirgotis and Schmeda-
Hirschmann 2010, Schmeda-Hirschmannn and Simirgiotis 2011), as well as the
different parts of the fruit (Cheel et al. 2007). In addition, Avila et al. (2017) have
verified the protective activity of extracts of Potentilla chiloensis f chiloensis in
gastric cells exposed to free radicals and proposed the prevalent mechanism of
cytoprotection.

Ribes magellanicum (Parrilla, Magellanic Currant)

Ribes magellanicum is a deciduous bush of up to 2 m in height, and is very common
in undergrowth and secondary shrublands (Damascos et al. 2011). The fruit is a
blackish globose berry, 5–8 mm in diameter, which grows in racemes (Fig. 4.1.4).
The plants bear fruit in December and January. This fruit was used in the past in
various ways by the Mapuche people, whether ingested directly, in the form of
jams and also fermented drinks (Ragonese and Martínez Crovetto 1947, Martínez-
Crovetto 1980). According to the literature, these people also used a decoction of
the root to heal the blood (Martínez-Crovetto 1980).
Many of these uses persist nowadays (Ladio et al. 2007). In the rural population
of Arroyo Las Minas (Río Negro) and in the Curruhuinca Mapuche community
in San Martin de los Andes, this species is still used to treat circulatory and blood
complaints (Estomba et al. 2006, Ochoa et al. 2010). Tacón et al. (2006) reported
that the fruit perishes quite rapidly, so it is eaten immediately by the gatherers
themselves or used in traditional fermented drinks.
This species was studied in Argentina by Arena and Coronel (2011) and they
have determined the moment of highest anthocyanin content during the fruiting
period. R. magellanicum also presented a strong antioxidant profile in comparison
with other fruits (Ruiz et al. 2013). The University of Talca, Chemistry of Natural
Products Laboratory and the Ethnobiology group of the INIBIOMA Ecotono
Laboratory, have recently published a joint study which compares the antioxidant
profile of Ribes fruit on both sides of the Cordillera. First results show that the
Argentine fruit contains a higher content of anthocyanins and has a more complex
chemical profile (Jiménez Aspee et al. 2015).

Berberis darwinii (Michay, Darwin’s Barberry)

This is a shrub that can reach 2.5 m in height, with typical coriaceous, dark green
leaves which are rhomboidal in shape, with spines on the edge (Fig. 4.1.5). The
flowers, borne on attractive racemes, are yellow-orange in colour. The fruit of this
species is a bluish globose berry, 6 mm in diameter, on average, with 4 to 6 seeds.
Flowering occurs from October to February and the fruiting period is summer,
between December and January.
Martínez-Crovetto (1982) and Mösbach (1992) reported that B. darwinii fruit
was consumed by communities of the Tehuelche, Gununakene, Mapuche and Selk-
60 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

nam peoples. Its use is well documented in the preparation of drinks, including
chicha, in the Mapuche communities that lived in Argentine-Chilean Patagonia
(Mösbach 1992). Gusinde (1917) recorded the refreshing and febrifuge qualities
of these berries, and the same properties have been cited for the leaves (Houghton
and Manby 1985).
Several more recent studies (Lozada et al. 2006, Eyssartier 2011a,b) reveal
that the fruit is consumed in different rural populations of Argentina. This use
is also referred to on the island of Chiloé by Contreras Vega (2007), who also
mentions the febrifuge properties of its fruit, leaves and roots. B. darwinii has
been studied for its alkaloid content (Srivastava et al. 2015). This species has a
similar antioxidant profile to B. microphylla flavonols, a fact that provides some
suggestions for future research.

Gaultheria mucronata (Chaura, Prickly Heath)

Gaultheria mucronata is a small dioecious shrub with an average height of 1.5 m,
and small coriaceous leaves with a thickened edge and 4 or 5 scallops ending in a
mucro (Correa 1969–1999). The berries, 6–8 mm in diameter, are globose and their
colour varies from white, through pink, to purple (Fig. 4.1.6). The plants flower
between December and March, fruiting from February to July (Rapoport et al. 2005).
The literature shows that this fruit has been consumed in the past, either fresh
or prepared as chicha by different societies: Tehuelche, Gununakene, Selk-nam,
Yaganes and Mapuche (Ragonese and Martínez-Crovetto 1947, Martínez-Crovetto
1982). Although there are not many sites mentioning its medicinal properties,
Gusinde (1917) documented its use for treating sores and ulcers.
The small G. mucronata berries are still consumed today by the Curruhinca
Mapuche community of San Martin de los Andes, Neuquén province (Conticello
et al. 1997), and knowledge of this has been registered among teachers of different
cities in Chubut province (Ladio et al. 2007). Tacón et al. (2006) reported that the
fruit loses its flavour and texture rapidly, so it is eaten immediately by the gatherers
themselves, or in traditional fermented drinks.
On examining anthocyanin content, qualitative and quantitative differences
were found between these and other, better known berries. In particular,
G. mucronata berries have a low concentration of anthocyanins, and these are found
in a higher proportion on the skin of the fruit (Ruiz et al. 2013).

Empetrum rubrum (Murtilla, Red Crowberry)

Empetrum rubrum is a dwarf bush, mainly dieocious, and has small, ericoid leaves
with a longitudinal groove (Fig. 4.1.7). The berries are globose drupes, 4–7 mm in
diameter, of different shades of red, including wine colours (Correa 1969–1999).
Of the three species defined by the genus, E. rubrum is exclusive to South America.
It can be found in Argentine-Chilean Patagonia in the high-Andean forests (Correa
 Patagonian Berries 61

1969–1999). The plants flower at the end of the winter and bear fruit in spring and
early summer.
According to various sources (Ragonese and Martínez-Crovetto 1947,
Martínez-Crovetto 1982, Mösbach 1992), the fruit has an acid flavour and has been
eaten raw in the past by Mapuche, Alacalauf, Selk-nam and Yaganes communities.
The berries were considered refreshing and good for the stomach (Mösbach 1992).
Data obtained from current studies, for example in the Paineo Mapuche
community and the rural Creole community of Cuyín Manzano in Neuquén
province, have shown persistence in its use as a food resource, but not in its
medicinal use (Ladio and Lozada 2004, Lozada et al. 2006).
In this review, phytochemical studies on E. rubrum with regard to antioxidant
substances have not been found.

Amomyrtus luma (Luma)

Amomyrtus luma is a shrub, or sometimes a tree with light brown bark (Fig. 4.1.8).
The leaves are simple, coriaceous and very shiny and aromatic. The fruit is a globose
berry 0.8 cm in diameter. It is violet-black in colour with few seeds, aromatic, and
it maintains the sepals of the flowers (Rapoport et al. 2005). The plants bear fruit
from the end of November till the beginning of April.
According to several authors (Muñoz et al. 1981, Mösbach 1992), in the past
the Mapuche communities prepared fermented drinks, such as chicha, with the fruit.
In some cases, the process consisted in grinding the berries in water and mixing
them with previously fermented fruit (Martínez-Crovetto 1982). The literature cites
the plant as being medicinal, with stimulant and astringent properties (Muñoz et
al. 1981). It is still used today (although rarely) as a food resource in the region
of Bariloche, either eaten as fresh fruit or in non-alcoholic beverages (Ladio and
Rappoport 1999).
So far, there are no records of analyses having been carried out on this species
in relation to its antioxidant properties. Nevertheless, fruits of Amomyrtus meli
were studied, and six anthocyanins were identified (Ramirez et al. 2005). On the
other hand, extracts made from dry material from A. luma, have showed platelet
antiaggregant activity (Falkenberg et al. 2012). Emerging evidence shows the
increasing interest to study the nutraceutical potential of this plant.

Ugni molinae (Murta, Chilean Guava, Strawberry Myrtle)

Ugni molinae is a shrub that can reach 2 m in height, with pubescent branches
and leaves which are dark green on the upper side and lighter green on the
underside, with petioles (Fig. 4.1.9). The fruit is a dark red, globose berry, up to
1.5 cm in diameter. It is characterised by maintaining the flower calyx as five scales
on the apical part of the berry. The berries contain a large number of seeds which
go unnoticed when eaten. The average weight of each fruit is 0.27 g, but they can
62 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

reach 0.5 g, so that a large bush can produce 1 kg of these berries (Rapoport et al.
2003). The fruit is produced mid summer, and is sweet and aromatic.
According to Gusinde (1917), the Mapuche made wine with the fruit, as well
as chicha and jams, or the berries were eaten fresh or dried (Muñoz et al. 1981,
Mösbach 1992). Tonic, stimulant and astringent properties were attributed to the
beverages prepared (Muñoz et al. 1981, Mösbach 1992).
At present, U. molinae stands out as one of the non-woody forest product,
mostly commercialised as a food resource in the IX region of Chile (3278 kg/year in
the Valdivian region) (Tacón et al. 2006). From a medicinal point of view, although
still mentioned in current bibliography (Pardo and Pizarro 2005), its use has not
been confirmed. In craft fairs and/or street markets in the south of Chile, jams,
liqueurs and murta in syrup can be obtained. In Argentina, its commercialisation
as a food resource has not been recorded.
The anthocyanin and antioxidant profile of this species has been studied, and it
was found to have a simple pattern with only six anthocyanins. Nevertheless, this
species has a strong activity in inhibition of lipid peroxidation in human erythrocytes
and scavenging of superoxide anion tests (Ramírez et al. 2016).

Luma apiculata (Arrayán, Chilean Myrtle)

This tree is easily identified due to its brown-orange coloured bark, and the species
is characteristic of Patagonia. Its leaves are dark green, shiny and aromatic, and
the flowers are white with numerous stamens of the same colour (Fig. 4.1.10). The
fruit is a violet, almost black, berry, and is round, approximately 1.5 cm in diameter
and has three seeds. It tends to form groups, and even forests.
Several sources (Ragonese and Martínez-Crovetto 1947, Martínez-Crovetto
1982, Pardo and Pizarro 2005) have reported that this fruit was ingested fresh
or in the form of chicha by the Mapuches of Chile and Argentina. The Mapuche
communities used its stalks, leaves and bark for medicinal purposes, as an antibiotic,
stimulant, astringent, and in the treatment of sores and herpes (Houghton and Manby
1985, Muñoz et al. 1981).
The persistence of its use at present has been registered for both alimentary
and medicinal purposes in the city and surrounding rural zones of San Carlos de
Bariloche (Funes 1999, Ladio and Rapoport 1999). In the case of medicinal use,
in both Chile and Argentina the bark and leaves are used to treat several ailments,
but mainly gastrointestinal complaints (Conticello 1997).
It is also known that the fruit of L. apiculta has very good antioxidant properties,
together with high polyphenol content (Simirgiotis et al. 2013, Ramírez et al. 2016).
Recent studies have also shown that mature arrayán fruit extracts could exert a
protective effect on the vascular endothelium after glucose overload, that is, could
prevent the development of some cardiovascular diseases (Fuentes et al. 2016).
 Patagonian Berries 63

Conclusions and Future Perspectives

The ten species described here constitute part of the cultural heritage of the
region. They have been used as food and medicine from ancient times up to the
present, forming part of both the material and symbolic lives of the different
Patagonian inhabitants (Rapoport et al. 2005, Ladio and Lozada 2000, 2001).
Their importance is reflected in the oral history of both countries, through legends
(e.g., the legend of the calafate), the regional toponymy, and in the everyday lives
of the people. Their biocultural value in the zone can be attributed to diverse
factors that are multifactorial–sociocultural and biological-environmental, each
one enriching the others, which are briefly detailed below:
These species have a broad geographical distribution, mainly in the Argentine-
Chilean Andean-Patagonian forests and in areas of the Andean pre-cordillera
(Zuloaga and Morrone 2009). Various studies have shown that the more widespread
species have tended to be the most used as a food or medicinal resource, since
different cultures are more likely to have experience of them and transmit this
knowledge to other communities living in areas where the same species grow
(Lozada et al. 2006, Molares and Ladio 2014).
Therefore, they are apparent resources for local people. The life forms of the
10 species are mostly perennial shrubs, followed by low bushes and herbs, which
are relatively abundant and visible, can be monitored throughout the whole year,
and the fruit is easily accessible, growing at an easy height for gathering by hand.
Various authors have highlighted the importance of the availability, abundance
and accessibility of the plants in space and time, so that the different societies can
make use of them and experiment with them (Stepp and Moerman 2001, Molares
and Ladio 2012).
In the rural diet, these 10 species basically fulfil the function of buffer and/or
emergency resources. The ethnobotanical studies of this group reveal that the use of
native berries diversifies the diet, offering a variety of minerals and micronutrients,
and are alternative resources in times of scarcity, when the vegetable garden has
not yet produced a crop (in autumn, for example, L. apiculata offers fruit from
March to July, and R. magellanicum in spring, from October to February), when
working on the land means spending many hours away from home, and when the
children go on horseback to the rural schools, among others (Ladio and Lozada
2000, 2001, 2003).
Perhaps for these reasons, the plants are significant elements in the processes
of transmission of plant knowledge. Diverse studies in rural communities have
shown that the acquisition of plant knowledge occurs at an early age (Lozada et
al. 2006). Nevertheless, in many communities the practice of gathering is being
lost, due to numerous factors, both social and ecological (Ladio and Lozada 2004,
Ochoa and Ladio 2011, Molares and Ladio 2015). In these scenarios, for example,
michay and calafate berries seem to fulfil a substantial role in childhood learning
64 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

about plants. Rural children learn to gather them when they are small, especially if
their parents continue to follow the pastoral lifestyle. This is possibly due, in part,
to their visibility compared to the other eight berries highlighted in this review, an
aspect which should be studied in greater detail.
In general, we could say that these berries could be considered prototypical:
they are globose, red-bordeaux, shiny, spineless, turgid, etc., they have everything
that would be expected from an edible fruit—“they are tasty and they are not bad
for you”—according to local inhabitants. In this sense, these species are easy to
identify, to harvest, and they are not confused with toxic plants, which means
that children can easily gather them. In general, their sweet, delicate flavours are
considered inoffensive, suitable for consumption by children according to the
criteria of the rural inhabitants we have worked with (Molares and Ladio 2009b).
“It’s sweet, so we can eat it”, mentioned various informants. If, on the other hand,
the berries were tasteless, or bitter, the people would be in doubt.
Our interpretation is that they are elements with a certain duality, being used
in both alimentary and health contexts. Various case studies show that from a
local perspective, health and diet are intimitely linked (Ladio 2011). For example,
ethnobotanical studies carried out in Mapuche communities reveal a marked overlap
between edible and medicinal species (Ladio 2006, Molares and Ladio 2015).
This duality forms part of a traditional health system based on varied cultural
contributions, the best known and the most widespread in the region being the
Mapuche traditional health system, which has become hybridised with elements
from Creole and other cultural heritages (Citarela et al. 1995, Molares and Ladio
2009b). Significantly, this view of integrality in traditional systems now has its
equivalent in scientific environment within the subject of functional foods.
The long period of time over which sources cite their use reveals the cultural
importance of these ten species that persists in the societies, even though there have
been slight differences and changes over time. Although the original communities
in the region have given new meanings to their alimentary and health systems over
time, mainly due to the imposition of strong measures following the conquest and
national politics, these species continue to be used and appreciated in the lives of
rural workers.
Their use does not appear to have been affected by the drastic introduction of
new foods or the notorious change in landscapes these people underwent (Eyssartier
et al. 2011b, Torrejón and Cisternas 2002). Many traditional practices have
withstood the hybridisation processes of traditional wisdom with new knowledge
that came from European immigrants or from the societies that emerged after the
formation of the Argentine and Chilean states. Furthermore, some species, such
as maqui, are taking on even more importance on a commercial and global scale.
Finally, this list is intended to give an overview of the principal fruits consumed
by the first inhabitants of this part of South America, and up to the present time.
From an ethnobotanical point of view, further research is necessary, in particular
on the subject of traditional managment practices these species are subject to,
the social rules relating to extraction and conservation, and the conservation
 Patagonian Berries 65

guidelines followed by local inhabitants in order to prevent or recover from their

overexploitation.
Preliminary studies carried out in rural communities of Chubut province show
that rural dwellers are selective in the gathering process used for B. microphylla, they
prefer certain individual plants to others, and prefer to pick the larger, darker berries.
The most productive calafate plants are protected in their natural environments by
homemade fences, constructed with sticks and wire. This has also been observed
for maqui and parilla plants. Most of the berry species analysed here already have
propagation protocols (Rovere 2006) and are even sold in plant nurseries in the
region, although principally for ornamental purposes. Therefore, the potential for
encouraging their cultivation and use on a regional scale as multipurpose resources
for ornamental, alimentary and medicinal use should not be underestimated. In
addition, this work may constitute a useful starting point from which to consider
the Patagonian species as a focus of deeper study, in particular their application in
nutrition as functional foods, in phytomedicine, phytotherapies or phytocosmetics
(creams and emulsions). This would provide an answer for the sizeable sectors of
society which seek to improve their health and wellbeing through incorporation
of new plant products.

Acknowledgements
We would like to thank the men and women from the different Argentine Patagonian
communities (especially Cuyín Manzano, and the Mapuche communities of Catán
Lil, Lago Rosario and Nahuelpan) for their friendly conversation and the affection
shown to us during our work. Our thanks also go to CONICET. This investigation
has been financed by PIP 2013-0466 held by Phd. Ana Ladio.

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Zuloaga, F. and Morrone, O. 2009. Flora del Cono Sur. Catálogo de las Plantas Vasculares, Instituto de
Botánica Darwinion, Buenos Aires, Argentina.
 CHAPTER 5

Status of Research on Medicinal

Plants in the Cajamarca’s
Region, Peru
Juan F. Seminario Cunya,* Berardo Escalante Zumaeta and
Alejandro Seminario Cunya

Introduction
Medicinal plants are a subject of concern to researchers, traders, users and states
and, in general terms, the problems facing these species in the world are similar. On
one hand, a greater proportion is located in certain areas of the planet, in developing
countries and its use and conservation is linked to traditional cultures, implying
knowledge, beliefs and spirituality. On the other hand, the fact that most are wild
(40.5%) or naturalized (33.3%) and only 3.3% are cultivated (Singh et al. 2012)
means that their conservation depends mainly on collection pressure.
The most important risk factors for medicinal species in the world would
be competition for land use, which entails the destruction of natural habitats,
excessive collection due to the growth of market demand—a direct consequence
of the growth of the human population—and the increase of industrial products
derived from plants. This last factor implies permanent bio prospecting in searching
new medicinal compounds (Roberson 2008, Castle et al. 2014). Bio prospecting
leads to the risk of bio piracy. This means that large companies patent genetic
resources, remedies and traditional knowledge of local or indigenous populations
and commercialize them with great economic benefits, but with little or no benefit

Programa de Raíces y Tubérculos Andinos, Facultad de Ciencias Agrarias, Universidad Nacional de

Cajamarca.
* Corresponding author: [email protected]
 Status of Research on Medicinal Plants in the Cajamarca’s Region, Peru 71

to the countries or communities of origin (Singh et al. 2014, Barnett cited by

Roberson 2008). The latter generates fear among actors and hinders cooperation for
the sustainable management of wild populations and studies for their incorporation
into agro-ecosystems. However, in each space or geographic area, the intensity of
the effect of the mentioned factors is different and to them can be added others,
whose local importance for the conservation and sustainable use of the species may
have an even greater preponderance.
The Cajamarca Region, located in the north of Peru, is part of the health axis
that includes the territory between Loja (South of Ecuador) and Lambayeque–North
of Peru—covering the departments of Piura, Lambayeque, La Libertad, Cajamarca
and San Martín. The term health axis, established by Camino (1992), is defined as
a geographical space delimited by common concepts regarding health. This region
is located between 4° 36”S and 7° 45’S and 77° 44’E and 79° 27’W, with a total
area of 33317.5 km2 and covers an altitudinal range that, for the purposes of this
presentation and the species we are going to treat, we divide into two parts: high
and lower zones.
The high zone ranges from 3000 masl to the highest peaks (4000 masl). This
territorial strip is called Jalca or Páramo (Weberbauer 1945, Sánchez and Dillon
2006), which includes the geographical regions Quechua alta and Suni, according
to Pulgar Vidal (1966). The Jalca is a biogeographic formation that houses a high
diversity of plants, including an undetermined number of wild medicinal species,
along with several grass species that form the grassland, as the predominant
community (Sánchez 2014). In addition to the landscape value, the Jalca is a
fundamental hydrological source due to the presence of abundant lagoons and
wetlands and because raindrops infiltrate the mountains and provide watersheds
throughout the year.
The lower zone is comprised between 500 masl and 3000 masl. It includes
the geographical regions Yunga and Quechua baja (Pulgar Vidal 1966). Most
of the human populations are located in this territory. Land use is intensive for
agriculture, livestock and urbanization, while the medicinal plants of the Jalca are
wild and numerous. The medicinal plants of the lower zone are few and can be
wild, cultivated, or tolerated into the arable fields.
The Cajamarca’s Region has an ancient tradition in the use of medicinal plants,
whose antecedents are located in the Caxamarca culture itself—1500 BC–1532
AD—(Watanabe 2002), as well as in the different regional cultures which were
extended to this territory like Chavín (1300 BC to 300 BC), Cupisnique (1500 BC
to 200 BC) and Mochica (100 AD to 700 AD) (Towle 1961, Ayasta 2012). These
cultures based their subsistence on the use of cultivated and wild plant species.
Part of this tradition in the use of medicinal plants was documented by Martínez
Compañón (1789, volume V) through 138 aquarelles of a similar number of species,
of the jurisdiction of the bishopric of Trujillo, of which Cajamarca was part. Also,
the evidence is documented by pre and post Colombian ethnobotany (Yacovleff
and Herrera 1934, Towle 1961, Ugent and Ochoa 2006).
72 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

There are five protected natural areas (San Andrés de Cutervo, Tabaconas-
Naballe, Pagaibamba, Udima and Sunchubamba) in the Cajamarca’s Region,
where 908 genera and 2699 plant species are housed (Sagástegui et al. 1999). Like
the Huánuco’s Region, it occupies the first place in endemism in Peru, with 948
species (17%). Of this total, 296 (31%) are rare species. Because of this rich flora,
it is a supplier of various vegetable resources and especially of medicinal plants for
the markets of the Peruvian coast. These medicinal species mainly come from the
Jalca, as demonstrated by the studies of Bussmann and Sharon (2006), Bussmann
et al. (2008), Bussmann and Sharon (2009), Ramírez et al. (2006), Vásquez et al.
(2010) and Sánchez (2011).
Since the 1970s, an aggressive intervention process of the Jalca has been
initiated through new human settlements, intensive grazing, burning of natural
pastures to provoke its regrowth (traditional peasant practice) and agriculture of
cereals and tubers. The disturbance of these ecosystems was accelerated in the
1990s, due to the intensification of open-pit mining (Ramírez et al. 2006, Seminario
and Sánchez 2010, Sánchez 2014). These mountains, in addition to their wealth
of flora and fauna, are rich in minerals such as gold, copper and silver. As a result,
besides the mining Yanacocha, a company operating in one of the largest gold
deposits of Latin America, there are another companies in exploration and operation,
although there are no official data on the total concessions.
In this scenario, the study by Vásquez et al. (2010), which documents in detail
the morphology, distribution and conservation status and uses of 130 medicinal
species of northern Peru, emphasizes that several wild medicinal species that are
harvested for the market are in the disappearing process. Among these, the authors
cited the valeriana (Valeriana pilosa), huamanripa (Senecio tephrosioides), vira vira
(Senecio canescens), azarcito (Isertia krausei), cascarilla (Cinchona pubescens),
añasquero (Dyssodia jelskii) and uña de gato (Uncaria tomentosa). However, some
of the mentioned species are not considered within the categorization of endangered
species of wild flora of Peru (DS-043-2006-AG 2006), so it is necessary to review
and update it.
The objective of this document is to summarize the advances of research in
medicinal plants in the Cajamarca's Region. This state of knowledge should serve
to know how much has been done and what remains to be done. For this purpose,
formal publications on medicinal plants of the region were revised, taking as a
starting point the studies of Luis Iberico at the beginning of the decade of 1980.
Also taken into account is some gray literature that, by the importance of the data,
allows a better vision of what has been done so far on the subject. Another special
consideration was that, in all cases, the determination of the botanical species was
directed or supported by the botanists A. Sagástegui Alva and I. Sánchez Vega and
was carried out in the herbaria of the National University of Cajamarca (Isidoro
Sánchez Vega), National Agrarian University La Molina (A. Weberbauer), National
University of San Marcos (Museum of Natural History) and the Antenor Orrego
Private University. From this review, a matrix with the 15 studies, the families and
the species was generated. This served for the corresponding analysis.
 Status of Research on Medicinal Plants in the Cajamarca’s Region, Peru 73

The information is presented in three blocks. The first block exposes research
on the diversity of medicinal plants in the region. We have included here two
investigations that refer to floristic diversity: the first one was developed in the
province of Contumazá (Sagástegui 1995) with its eight districts and the second
(Marcelo et al. 2006) one was realized in a Páramo of the province of Jaén. In the
first, a Chapter (8, p. 97–118) is dedicated to medicinal plants and in the second,
in the list of species, several species are known as medicinal in the region. The
second block summarizes research related to the market of medicinal species in
Cajamarca and, in the third block, specific studies on the use of medicinal species
in the region are presented.

Studies on the Diversity of Medicinal Species in Cajamarca

Scientific research on the diversity of medicinal plants in Cajamarca began
around the beginning of the 1980s. Luis Iberico, with an anthropological focus on
agrarian folklore (Iberico 1981), collected fables and stories about plants in the
life of peasants, involving medicinal species such as corn, dandelion, orange, rue,
valerian, chamomile, chicory, mallow, oregano, aloe and coca. In medical folklore
(Iberico 1984), he mentions (through the vulgar names) about 130 plants used to
treat or cure 90 psychophysical dysfunctions in the traditional rural environment of
Cajamarca. Plant systematic studies were then initiated with Castañeda and Vargas
(1991). Studies are then carried out for various purposes, but at the same time
they constitute inventories of the diversity of medicinal species (Sagástegui 1995,
La Torre 1998). To date, 15 studies are recorded (Table 5.1), in which a list of the
species, determined according to international norms of botanical nomenclature,
is presented. These studies cover 46 localities in 19 districts (16% of the total)
and six provinces, with a notable predominance in the southern provinces and
especially in the provinces of Cajamarca and Contumazá (Fig. 5.1). They cover
all the ecological floors from the Yunga (500 masl) to the Jalca, 4496 masl, at its
highest peak, Cerro Rumi Rumi–Cajabamba (Montoya and Figueroa 1991), and
there was a clear tendency towards the jalca, above the 3000 masl. These studies
mention between 12 to 155 species each, mostly different, so that the general
inventory shows 457 species, including 105 families (Table 5.2) and 296 genera. The
six best represented families were: Asteraceae, Lamiaceae, Fabaceae, Solanaceae,
Rosaceae and Piperaceae. The number of species allows us to build up an idea about
the richness of the Cajamarca region in medicinal plants, mainly, if we compare
it with the report of Bussman and Sharon (2006). The authors worked between
Trujillo and Chiclayo (Peruvian coast) and collected 510 medicinal species in the
field, in the markets and in the homes of healers.
On the other hand, on an average, 78% of the reported species are wild; this is
consistent with the fact that most studies included areas of this region. Likewise, the
predominance of native species of the Andean region (80% approximately) is clear.
The most frequently mentioned species (up to 10 studies) were Ishpingo verde
(Achyrocline alata) and manzanilla (Matricaria chamomilla). These species were
Table 5.1. Localities and districts where the studies of medicinal plants in the Cajamarca region were made, number of species and % of wild.

No Locality District/Province Altitude Utm Coordinates Species Source

(masl) East North No Wild (%)
1 Contumazá y 7 localidades Ocho distritos/Contumazá 350–4333 742292.23 9185161.54 155 61 Sagástegui 1995
más
2 Yanacancha Chumuch/Celendín 2800–4000 811019.61 9266816.44 82 83 La Torre 1998
3 Chilete Chilete/Contumazá 500–1000 738647.29 9201202.43
Contumazá Contumazá/Contumazá 2300–2800 742127.70 9184837.03
Sorochuco Sorochuco/Celendín 2600 4100 803615.79 9235100.42 57 77 Orozco 2003
Chetilla Chetilla/Cajamarca 2800–4000 756704.60 9209411.55
4 Espino y Palambe Sallique/Jaén 3000–3560 693850.89 9382559.44 12 100 Marcelo et al. 2006
5 Encañada Encañada/Cajamarca 2700–3400 793678.78 9216374.10 65 100 Alvitres et al. 2007
6 Chigden San Juan/Cajamarca 2566–2700 774540.66 9196361.29 76 55 Bussmann et al. 2008
7 Higuerón San Juan/Cajamarca 2240–2600 772346.90 9195085.86
8 Higuerón y 5 localidades San Juan/Cajamarca 2240–2600 772346.90 9195085.86 40 57 Revene et al. 2008
más
9 Combayo y 6 localidades Encañada/Cajamarca 3100–4200 9222334– 781636 a 58 88 Seminario and Sánchez
74 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

más 9239636 786023 2010

10 Llacanora Llacanora/Cajamarca 2600–3000 784491.01 9204345.38 58 90 Castañeda and Condori
2010
11 Capulipampa y 7 Chetilla y Magdalena/ 3400–4000 773156.68– 9214612.53– 65 71 Sánchez 2014
localidades más Cajamarca 721502.41 9196425.97
12 Cutervillo y 4 Huambos/Chota 2100–2300 721847.76 9286330.26 39 72 Ramos 2015
comunidades más
13 Quecherga Encañada/Cajamarca 3600–4100 793195.84 9230296.73 17 100 Seminario and
Escalante 2016
14 Chilincaga Cajamarca/Cajamarca 3200–3500 768646.78 9225563.12 63 72 Ayay 2017
15 Cajabamba Cajabamba/Cajabamba 1200–4496 826175.67 9156185.86 85 61 Castillo-Vera et al. 2017
 Status of Research on Medicinal Plants in the Cajamarca’s Region, Peru 75

N ECUADOR

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Pa
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ico
!18

!17
LAMBAYEQUE

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Fig. 5.1. Map of the Cajamarca´s Region, indicating the districts where the studies on medicinal
plants were carried out.

followed in frequency of mention in nine studies: cola de caballo (Equisetum

bogotense), pie de perro (Desmodium mollicum), chancua (Minthostachys mollis).
In eight studies: hinojo (Foeniculum vulgare). In seven studies: ajenjo (Artemisa
absintium), carqueja (Baccharis genistelloides), escorzonera (Perezia multiflora),
cerraja (Sonchus oleraceus), orégano (Origanum vulgare) and llantén (Plantago
major). The majority of species (54%) included in the 15 studies were mentioned
only once.

Studies on the Market of Medicinal Plants in Cajamarca

Ethnobotany of medicinal plants in the Cajamarca’s market
In the city of Cajamarca, between the years 2000 and 2003, Manuel Aldave carried
out the inventory, recorded collection and gathering centers, uses and their forms,
and exports to the coastal markets of medicinal plants. He found that the population
of this city treated their diseases with 305 medicinal plant species, corresponding
to 246 genera and 94 families. Asteraceae, Fabaceae, Lamiaceae and Solanaceae
were the most representative families. 67% of inventoried species in the markets
76 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

Table 5.2. Medicinal plant families of the Cajamarca’s Region, mentioned in 15 studies.

Family No of % Family No of Species %

Species
Asteraceae 71 15.54 Campanulaceae 2 0.44
Lamiaceae 31 6.78 Dioscoreaceae 2 0.44
Fabaceae 21 4.60 Ephedraceae 2 0.44
Solanaceae 19 4.16 Equisetaceae 2 0.44
Rosaceae 17 3.72 Hypericaceae 2 0.44
Piperaceae 16 3.50 Nyctaginaceae 2 0.44
Amaranthaceae 11 2.41 Proteaceae 2 0.44
Apiaceae 11 2.41 Santalaceae 2 0.44
Euphorbiaceae 11 2.41 Tropaeolaceae 2 0.44
Verbenaceae 9 1.97 Xanthorrhoeaceae 2 0.44
Caprifoliaceae 8 1.75 Acantaceae 1 0.22
Gentianaceae 8 1.75 Alstroemeriaceae 1 0.22
Adiantaceae 7 1.53 Anemiaceae 1 0.22
Brasicaceae 7 1.53 Annonaceae 1 0.22
Malvaceae 7 1.53 Arecaceae 1 0.22
Poaceae 7 1.53 Balanophoraceae 1 0.22
Ericaceae 6 1.31 Bixáceae 1 0.22
Geraniaceae 6 1.31 Burseraceae 1 0.22
Lycopodiaceae 6 1.31 Calceolariaceae 1 0.22
Polygonaceae 6 1.31 Cannaceae 1 0.22
Myrtaceae 5 1.09 Caricaceae 1 0.22
Polypodiaceae 5 1.09 Cletharaceae 1 0.22
Borraginaceae 4 0.88 Clusiaceae 1 0.22
Cucurbitaceae 4 0.88 Columeliaceae 1 0.22
Chenopodiaceae 4 0.88 Commelinaceae 1 0.22
Lauraceae 4 0.88 Convolvulaceae 1 0.22
Loasaceae 4 0.88 Coriaciaceae 1 0.22
Loranthaceae 4 0.88 Cyperaceae 1 0.22
Onagraceae 4 0.88 Dipsacaceae 1 0.22
Orchidaceae 4 0.88 Erytroxylaceae 1 0.22
Oxalidaceae 4 0.88 Gesneriaceae 1 0.22

Table 5.2 contd. …

 Status of Research on Medicinal Plants in the Cajamarca’s Region, Peru 77

Table 5.2 contd. …

Family No of % Family No of Species %

Species
Pasifloraceae 4 0.88 Iridaceae 1 0.22
Plantaginaceae 4 0.88 Juglandaceae 1 0.22
Ranunculaceae 4 0.88 Krameriacae 1 0.22
Rutaceae 4 0.88 Liliaceae 1 0.22
Scrophulariaceae 4 0.88 Linaceae 1 0.22
Urticáceae 4 0.88 Lobeliaceae 1 0.22
Anacardiaceae 3 0.66 Lythraceae 1 0.22
Apocynaceae 3 0.66 Monimiaceae 1 0.22
Bromeliaceae 3 0.66 Muntingiaceae 1 0.22
Cactaceae 3 0.66 Oleaceae 1 0.22
Capparaceae 3 0.66 Papaveraceae 1 0.22
Caryophyllaceae 3 0.66 Phyllanthaceae 1 0.22
Crassulaceae 3 0.66 Phytolaccaceae 1 0.22
Dryopteridaceae 3 0.66 Polygalaceae 1 0.22
Melastomataceae 3 0.66 Punicaceae 1 0.22
Pteridaceae 3 0.66 Salicaceae 1 0.22
Rubiaceae 3 0.66 Sapindaceae 1 0.22
Araliaceae 2 0.44 Smilacaceae 1 0.22
Basellaceae 2 0.44 Vitaceae 1 0.22
Berberidaceae 2 0.44 Zigophylaceae 1 0.22
Bignoniaceae 2 0.44

of Cajamarca were native to the Americas—and mainly from the Andes—and 33%
came from other continents. 45% of registered species were wild (most of them
came from Jalca). The rest were domesticated in different degrees: cultivated,
wild-cultivated, wild-arvense, arvense.
Diseases or conditions that involved a greater number of plant species were
the woman’s diseases, gynecological in general, diseases of the urogenital system
and inflammatory, mainly of the respiratory and gastrointestinal system. The most
used plant part was the leaf. It was followed by the leaf plus reproductive organs,
the whole plant and the reproductive organs alone. The preponderant forms of
preparation were infusion and cooking, and the main form of administration was
as a beverage and to a lesser extent in plaster, poultice and rub.
The most important places for collecting medicinal species were Encañada,
Otuzco, Cumbemayo, Combayo, Llacanora, San Juan and Jesus. The most exported
78 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

plants to the coastal markets were manzanilla (Matricaria chamomilla), valeriana

(Valeriana pilosa), eucalipto (Eucalyptus globulus), San Pedro (Echinopsis
pachanoi), berro (Roripa nasturtium-aquaticum), romero de jalca (Satureja
weberbaueri), papa madre (Dioscorea mitoensis) and andacushma (Geranium
ruizii) (Aldave 2003).
It is necessary to study tendencies of the market of medicinal species in cities
because it is very dynamic and subject to introduction of new species as a response
to new conditions in users and globalization. It is also observed that certain species
leave the market either because the supply fails or by replacement by other species.
It is also convenient to use new tools in studies on medicinal plants in cities (Tinitana
et al. 2016) to improve the reliability and validity of the information.

Commercialization of Plants by Herbalists in the Cajabamba’s

Market
Cajabamba is one of the thirteen provinces of the department of Cajamarca, located
to the south, in the limit with the La Libertad department. Its capital is the district
of Cajabamba. Castillo-Vera et al. (2017) made an inventory of food and medicinal
species, which are sold every Sunday in the market of the capital city of the district.
This market is supplied with plants coming from different ecological floors, from
1200 masl to 4496 masl, which include the Yunga, Quechua and Jalca or Suni
regions. There were 85 medicinal species of 22 families, including Lamiaceae
(15%) and Asteraceae (14%). According to the red book of Peruvian endemic plants
(León et al. 2006), eight species are included in the list of endemic species of Peru
and, according to the categorization of threatened species of wild flora of Peru (DS
043-2006-AG), one species is in danger (EN) and three are in critical danger (CR).

Market of Fresh Medicinal Plants and Cultivation of Medicinal

Plants in Home Gardens of Cajamarca
The commercialization of fresh plants in one of the markets of Cajamarca (Revilla
Perez) was studied by Bussmann et al. (2008). They found 42 species, the majority
(81%) native, which was collected from the wild state. Only five of them were
frequently grown in gardens and 11 were cultivated by vendors. The study shows
that the increase in the demand for medicinal plants in the market does not affect
the increase of their cultivation and, although the observation of two family gardens
(one in Chigden and one in Higueron, San Juan district) showed the presence of 76
species, most of them behaved like spontaneous plants [probably as weeds] with
few plants per species whose volumes were not significant for commercialization.
These researchers base their explanation of little interest in cultivation, despite the
demand, on the following points: (1) certain species grow abundantly in the wild
state up in the highlands, so that harvesting is always efficient; (2) Other species,
because of their narrow or rigid habitat requirement, do not thrive when they are
displaced from their natural habitat. This would be the case of V. pilosa which,
 Status of Research on Medicinal Plants in the Cajamarca’s Region, Peru 79

in its natural habitat, is dependent on ichu—Calamagrostis tarmensis and Stipa

ichu—(Seminario et al. 2016); and (3) the crop demands time, land and other
resources that families are not willing to invest.

Cajamarca as a Supplier of Medicinal Species for the Markets

of the Peruvian Coast
Vásquez et al. (2010) carried out a study on medicinal plants of northern Peru and
recognize that most of them come from the sierra and second from the jungle and that
the contribution of the coast is small. In fact, the Cajamarca's region is an important
center for collecting and exporting medicinal plants to the coastal markets, mainly
for the large Moshoqueque market in the city of Chiclayo. The Aldave study (2003)
showed that 64 of the 305 registered species had commercial demand in the city
markets as well as in the coastal markets. Ten of them stood out for the volumes
of commercialization: Manzanilla (Matricaria chamonilla), valeriana (Valeriana
pilosa), San Pedro (Echinopsis pachanoi), eucalipto (Eucalyptus globulus), berro
(Roripa nasturtium-aquaticum), Laurel (Laurus nobilis), romero de jalca (Satureja
sericea), papa madre (Dioscorea sp.), chinchimalí (Gentianella graminea) and
andacushma (Geranium ruizii). Also, the study by Ramírez et al. (2006) indicated
that more than 100 tons of fresh valeriana (V. pilosa) were collected annually; this
volume would have increased in recent years due to the impulse of biotrade. On
the other hand, Revene et al. (2008) followed a family that gathered—for 16 years
—medicinal plants to take them to the Moshoqueque's market. These medicinal
species came from six localities of Cajamarca (districts of San Juan and Cajamarca)
and 40 of them were commercialized species, of which 23 were wild. Similarly,
two to four families did the same activity, throughout the year.
The town of Combayo (district of Encañada, province of Cajamarca) until a
few years ago was an important center for the gathering of medicinal plants from six
other communities located in Jalca region. Plants collected by specialized merchants
were destined to the local and coastal markets (mainly Chiclayo). Seminario and
Sánchez (2010) showed that 15 species (out of 58) had a greater demand in local and
regional markets (Table 5.3). Another important market of gathering of medicinal
plants—not studied—is located in the capital of the district of San Marcos. In this
regional market, every Sunday, the commercialization and gathering of various
vegetable products and smaller and larger animals are carried out, which are then
transported to coastal markets.

Studies on Particular Uses of Medicinal Species

Emollient and other out-of-home drinks in the city of Cajamarca
In 2004, results of an investigation that revealed a very common phenomenon in
the cities of Peru were published: the sale of hot or cold drinks for nutraceutical
purposes (Seminario 2004). One of them is emollient.
80 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

Table 5.3. Medicinal species of the Jalca of Cajamarca, with greater demand in the market (2010).

Species Common name Importance Order

Valeriana pilosa Valeriana, coche coche 1
Gentianella graminea Chinchimalí 2
Gentianella sp. Amargón amarillo y morado 3
Perezia multiflora Escorzonera 4
Puya fastuosa Carnero, hierba del carnero 5
Senecio canescens Vira vira 6
Huperzia crassum Cóndor 7
Loricaria ferruginea Maqui maqui dorado 8
Bejaria aestuans Purunrosa 9
Satureja sericea Romero de jalca o romero blanco 10
Satureja nubigena Pachachamcua 11
Loricaria leptothamna Maqui maqui chico 12
Clethra sp. Murmum 13
Valeriana sp. Órnamo morado 14
Valeriana sp. Órnamo blanco 15
Source: Seminario and Sánchez (2010), with permission of the authors.

The emollient’s origins are not clear. However, it is known that in 1927, there
was already in Lima the Society of Emollient Makers, which would have been
created with the support of the Japanese colony. Because of this, it was said that
the Japanese people brought emollient to Peru.
Bussman et al. (2015) and Ríos et al. (2017) suggest that the emollient would
be the same as horchata, a drink made from tubers of chufa (Ciperus esculentus)
whose origins would be in ancient Egypt (2400 BC) from where it moved to Europe
and then to America with the conquest. In Latin America, this drink has different
compositions, depending on the country or region, and usually includes a grain or
seed (barley, rice, almonds, more cinnamon and sugar). Ríos et al. (2017) indicate
that in the south of Ecuador, the horchata is an infusion of herbal mixture prepared
with 16 to 32 herbs plus sugar, honey or unrefined sugar cane and some drops of
lemon. However, this drink is different from the Peruvian emollient, which is a drink
formed by a syrup or concentrated juice of a plant—for example lemon, flaxseed,
cat’s claw, chicory, aloe, grade blood–plus a liquid, product of the cooking of several
plants or parts thereof—for example grains of barley, chamomile, horsetail, dog
foot, apple, pineapple, quince—which is drunk for food and therapeutic purposes.
In total, it can involve up to 15 plants at the same time. Also, the purposes are
different since you can approach the three-wheeled carriages and ask the seller for
a preparation for the kidneys, liver or stomach, depending on the condition you
have or to recover after a bad night. In each case, the base liquid is the same, but
the syrup will be different.
 Status of Research on Medicinal Plants in the Cajamarca’s Region, Peru 81

Between the years 1995 and 2001, in the city of Cajamarca, the ambulatory
sale of maca juice, aloe extract, quinoa shampoo and orange juice was established.
Evaluations between the years 2001 and 2003 showed that these five drinks involved
a variable number of plant species and three-wheeled carriages in the city (Table 5.4).
This ambulatory activity employed 126 families and included 58 plant species (38
plant families and 57 genera)—trees, shrubs, grasses and lianas—cultivated and
wild, 60% of them being of American origin.
Substantial changes in the system of these beverages, with respect to production
and collection, preparation and the market, are likely to have occurred to date, and
information needs to be updated. For example, in the last years the sale of sugar
cane juice, pineapple, grapefruit and melon has been observed.
On the other hand, the Municipality of Cajamarca has paid attention to
and trained business drivers on food handling. Moreover, on May 17, 2014, the
Peruvian government promulgated the Emollient maker Law (N° 30198), which
recognizes these ventures as self-productive employment microenterprises and
establishes February 20 as the day of emollient, quinoa, maca, kiwicha and other
traditional natural drinks. Another important issue is that more than 30% of Lima’s
emollient makers are people from Cajamarca (Cajamarquinos) (Bussmann et al.
2015). This confirms the role of Cajamarca’s families in the diffusion of this drink.
Likewise, preliminary observations indicate that people from Cajamarca, mainly
from Bambamarca, have taken this business to Ecuador (e.g., Quito and Cuenca),
where it is sold as an emollient—not as horchata—and has achieved remarkable
development. Undoubtedly, the subject has ethnobotanical, economic, social,
phytochemical, and public health perspectives that must be studied in detail.
Table 5.4. Number of three-wheeled carriages and species involved in the emollient, maca juice, aloe
extract and orange juice, in the city of Cajamarca: 2001 and 2003.

Beberage 2001 2003

No three-wheeled No Species No three-wheeled No Species used
carriages carriages
Emollient 45 20 60 25
Maca juice 98 w.d. 45 14**
Aloe extract 2 2 8 29
Quinoa shampoo* 15 4 15 4
Orange juice 2 2 13 2
w.d.: Without data. *Was sold in some emollient three wheeled carriages. **Six species involved in
the maca’s adulteration (most common).
Source: Seminario (2004), with permission of the author.

Plant Species for Gynecological Use and for Birth Control

A pioneering study in this field was carried out by Castañeda and Vargas (1991).
The research was carried out in the villages of Milpo and Shitabamba in the
province of San Marcos. The use of plants and other resources in the birth control
82 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

was investigated. They found that peasants of these localities used 14 plant species
for this purpose, of which 10 were native—all wild—and four exotic (Table 5.5).
In four communities in the district of Huambos, province of Chota, an
investigation was carried out to identify medicinal plants used for gynecological
purposes in women—menstruation, fertility, delivery, postpartum and gynecological
diseases (Ramos 2015). 39 plant species were used for this purpose, 28 of them
were wild and native at the same time: 11 shrubs, 5 trees, 22 herbs and 1 succulent.
Asteraceae was the most representative family with eight species, followed by
Lamiaceae and Poaceae with three species each. Three species (Gnaphalium dysodes
Spreng, Juglans neotropica Diels, Mauria heterophylla Kunth) are considered
within one of the three IUCN and DS043-2006-AG categories of endangered
species, one is endemic for Cajamarca and another is endemic for Cajamarca and
La Libertad departments. The number of species according to 15 use categories is
presented in Table 5.6.

Table 5.5. Plant species used in birth control in two communities of San Marcos, Cajamarca.

Common Name Botanical Name Common Name Botanical Name

Granado Punica garnatum L. Quincetulpas Paranephilius uniflorus
(Poepp. & Endl.) H. Rob.
Huanga sola Hesperomeles sp. Ratanya Krameria triandra (R. & P.)
Landa cushma Geranium sp. Ruda Ruta graveolens L.
Oregano Origanum vulgare L. Tapa tapa Mimosa pectinata Kunth
Pacharosa Lantana reptans Hayer Cascarilla Cinchona sp.
Paja sola Aa paleacea (HBK) Corcho Quercus suber L.
Papa madre Dioscorea sp. Sangre de Drago Croton sp.
Source: Prepared with data from Castañeda and Vargas (1991).

The Arracacha (Arracacia xanthorrhiza Bancroft) and Its Wild

Relatives in Traditional Medicine
The arracacha’s tuberous root is rich in good quality starch (high in amylopectin)
which is highly digestible, so it is recommended for children, as well as for the
elderly and sedentary people. In addition, because of its richness in beta carotene,
calcium and phosphorus, and because it is cultivated under organic conditions, it
constitutes a food with perspective.
Arracacia xanthorrhiza Bancroft has a high morphological variation. The
morphological characterization of 186 entries from northern Peru (La Libertad–
Piura), through 17 standardized descriptors, indicate the presence of 76 groups or
morphotypes (Seminario and Valderrama 2004). This species has, in Cajamarca, at
least three wild relatives—A. elata, A. equatorialis and A. incisa (Blas et al. 2008)
and both, the cultivated species and their relatives, are used in traditional medicine.
 Status of Research on Medicinal Plants in the Cajamarca’s Region, Peru 83

Table 5.6. Number of species, according to use categories.

Use Categories Species

No %
Vaginal infection * 21 42
Tear 5 10
Menstrual cramps 4 8
Analgesic 3 6
Abundant menstruation 3 6
Contraceptive 2 4
Dilator 2 4
Cleaning** 2 4
Regulation of the cycle 2 4
Cancer 1 2
Compose blood 1 2
Cut umbilical cord 1 2
Placental expulsion 1 2
Vaginal bleeding 1 2
Blow your hips 1 2
* Includes infections with white and yellow descents and
vaginal inflammation.
** Includes vaginal and uterine cleansing.
Source: Ramos (2015, p.87), with permission of the author.

A study conducted in northern Peru registered 21 cases in which the arracacha

and their wild relatives were used in therapeutic treatments, generally combined with
other plants and ingredients. Nine refer to treatment and cure of the evil of fright or
fright in its two forms: evil of dry terror, evil of terror of water. Six cases refer to
the treatment of the woman’s disorders: amenorrhea (suspension of the menstrual
flow), delivery aid, and postpartum recovery, treatment of over part and retention
of the placenta. Other uses are against the cleavage of the grandfather (the diseases
that appear after having contact with places where the gentiles lived), shucaque
or modesty (discomfort due to psychological causes), chirapa (a condition that is
acquired when the person bathes in pools, ponds or dirty marshes) and purging in
men (venereal disease). An interesting conclusion is that most uses of wild and
cultivated arracachas (foliage) refer directly or indirectly to women and children
(Valderrama and Seminario 2002).

Studies on yacon (Smallanthus sonchifolius (Poepp. & Endl.)

H. Rob.)
The yacon until the 1990s was a plant at risk of extinction, grown in family gardens
for consumption as fruit. However, as a result of Japanese studies, which showed that
it contained high levels of phospho-oligosaccharides (FOS), it resurfaced in use and
in the market. Today, it is cultivated throughout the country, it is in the market all
year round and both consumers and researchers consider it as a medicinal plant or
84 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

as a nutraceutical or functional food. The therapeutic uses collected from traditional

knowledge and from initial scientific studies in humans were summarized by Lebeda
et al. (2011), and there are studies—in laboratory animals—on their effects in the
treatment of hyperglycemia, kidney problems, infertility, high cholesterol levels,
immune system, cancer and as an antioxidant (Valentova and Ulrichová 2003,
Foy 2005, Alvarez et al. 2008, Lebeda et al. 2011, Choque et al. 2012, 2013, Satoh
et al. 2013, Sook and Han 2013).
The yacon studies in Cajamarca began in 1993 through the Biodiversity
Program of Roots and Andean Tubers, led by the International Potato Center (CIP),
with funds from Swiss cooperation. They were basically focused on the diversity
and variability of the plant in northern Peru, with an emphasis on Cajamarca.
Products from these studies are a series of formal publications, frequently cited in
the scientific literature (Seminario et al. 2003, Seminario and Valderrama 2004,
Arnao et al. 2011, among others).
In 2002, the First National Course on Cultivation and Utilization of the Yacon
was held in Cajamarca, whose reports were formally published (Seminario and
Valderrama 2003). The theme was ethnobotany, biology, characterization and
evaluation, management, harvesting, postharvest, uses and market.
The germplasm of yacon maintained by the National University of Cajamarca—
Program of Roots and Andean Tubers—consists of 100 accessions. These were
characterized by 20 standardized morphological descriptors and were grouped into
eight morphotypes (Seminario et al. 2004). Agronomic and productivity studies are
carried out with these materials (Seminario et al. 2017, Aguilar 2017).

Poisonous and Medicinal Plants and Their Use in Cajamarca

This study of Orozco (2003) was carried out in four places of Cajamarca
(Contumazá, Chetilla, Sorochuco and Chilete), ranging from the upper limit of the
Chala region (Chilete, 500 masl) to Jalca region (Chetilla, 4000 masl). Initially, it
was focused on poisonous plants; however, the author says that when she raised
the field inquiries, villagers were reluctant to address this issue because, culturally,
this is a very sensitive aspect, poisonous plants are considered as bad plants or
devil's plants. Because of this, the author had to change the focus, first covering the
medicinal plants—good plants—or plants of God (of the amito) and around that
subject, the poisonous plants were treated. For this reason, this work turned out to
be a good inventory of medicinal plants in these areas. 95 species were registered.
57 species of this total were medicinal, 42 poisonous and within these, 22 useful.
Twenty-six species were both medicinal and toxic (for humans, animals, and
insects). Twenty-six were toxic to animals, of which seven were medicinal at the
same time. Eight were toxic to humans, of which six were medicinal at the same
time. The 16 toxic plants to the skin were separated from the rest, of which three
were medicinal at the same time.
 Status of Research on Medicinal Plants in the Cajamarca’s Region, Peru 85

Studies on Valerian (Valeriana pilosa R. & P)

Valeriana pilosa is one of the main medicinal species collected in the Cajamarca's
Jalca for the coastal markets. It is used as somnific, antispasmodic, soft anesthetic,
anti-hysterical, anti-epileptic and sedative. It is also recommended to treat
rheumatism, neurasthenia, insomnia and nervousness (Ramírez et al. 2006, Vásquez
et al. 2010).
In its natural habitat, specifically in its first stage of life, it is dependent on
the accompanying plants of the genera Stipa and Calamagrostis. Because of this,
it does not thrive in the open field, without special care. Another considerable
limitation is probably the excessive acidity of the soils where it grows (pH 3.4 to
3.9), which slows down its growth; hence, by the collectors’ version, a new plant
is able to be harvested for the market, after six to seven years after being seeded
in its natural environment.
Studies on biodiversity and medicinal plants show Valerian as one of the most
depredated species which would be at risk (Ramirez et al. 2006, Vásquez et al.
2010, Seminario et al. 2016), so it is proposed to deepen the studies leading to its
incorporation into cropping systems. Valerian studies in the region date from 2006
and range from ethnobotany, plant biology in its natural environment, agronomic
treatments for purposes of domestication, vegetative propagation and seed
germination (Ramírez et al. 2006, Rojas and Seminario 2014, Rumay and Seminario
2015, Nazar and Alva 2015, Seminario et al. 2016, Valdez 2017). At the moment,
basic knowledge is available to establish trials of response to growing condition.

Conclusions
The studies on medicinal plants in the Cajamarca's region had an ethnobotanical
focus, mainly directed to know the diversity of the species, the market and the uses.
The studies cover the ecological regions of Yunga, Quechua and Jalca, with
predominance towards the species of Jalca. They cover 16% of the districts of the
Cajamarca’s region and were developed mainly in the provinces of Cajamarca
and Contumazá.
In 15 reviewed studies, 457 species in 105 families and 296 genera were
recorded. Most species are wild and native to the Andes. The best represented
families were Asteraceae, Lamiaceae, Fabaceae, Solanaceae, Rosaceae and
Piperaceae.
The most frequently mentioned species in the studies were Ishpingo
verde (Achyrocline alata), manzanilla (Matricaria chamomilla), cola de
caballlo (Equisetum bogotense), pie de perro (Desmodium mollicum), chancua
(Minthostachys mollis), hinojo (Foeniculum vulgare), ajenjo (Artemisa absintium),
carqueja (Baccharis genistelloides), escorzonera (Perezia multiflora), cerraja
(Sonchus oleraceus), orégano (Origanum vulgare) and llantén (Plantago major).
86 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

Studies on the use of medicinal species as nutraceutical or functional foods

and for the treatment of women’s gynecological diseases and birth control are
noteworthy.
There are gaps in information on medicinal plants in the rest of the territory
and, in general, little is known about the state of conservation, species biology,
local risk factors, demand-crop relationship and species response to Agronomic
treatments for domestication purposes. There are also few studies on the content
of the active ingredients and the pharmacological and medicinal effects.

Acknowledgments
To Rosel Orrillo for his support in the data collection and map elaboration.
To Juan Montoya (Herbarium Isidoro Sánchez Vega-UNC) for his collaboration
with important documents.

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Seminario, J. and Valderrama, M. 2004a. Variabilidad morfológica y distribución geográfica de
la colección de arracacha (Arracacia xanthorrhiza Bancroft) de la Universidad Nacional de
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Seminario, J., Valderrama, M. and Romero, J. 2004b. Variabilidad morfológica y distribución geográfica
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Seminario, J. 2004. Etnobotánica del emoliente y otras bebidas de venta ambulatoria en la ciudad de
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Seminario, J., Rumay, L.D. and Seminario, A. 2016. Biología de Valeriana pilosa R. & P. (Valerianaceae):
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Medicinal_plants_sold_at_traditional_markets_in_southern_Ecuador. DOI:10.1186/s13002-
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Bancroft) y su uso en medicina tradicional en el norte peruano. Arnaldoa 9(1): 67–91.
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de Cajamarca. 62 p.
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 CHAPTER 6

Recent Reports on
Ethnopharmacological
and Ethnobotanical Studies
of Valeriana carnosa Sm.
(Valerianaceae)
Soledad Molares,1,* Ana H. Ladio2 and Nicolás Nagahama3

Introduction
In southernmost South America, both in Argentinean and Chilean Patagonia,
subterranean organs of numerous species of plants have long been recognized as
being of great value to Mapuche and Tehuelche regional ethnic groups and rural
Creole (Ladio and Lozada 2009, Molares and Ladio 2009a, Ochoa and Ladio 2011).
These species also constitute an important part of many regional rites and legends
(Ochoa and Ladio 2014).
From the perspectives of economic botany and ethnopharmacology, the main
value of these species is based on the fact that their subterranean organs often
contain starch and other carbohydrates of importance to the human diet, and also
therapeutic compounds derived from plant secondary metabolism (Gurib-Fakim

1
CIEMEP (Centro de Investigación Esquel de Montaña y Estepa Patagónica). Universidad Nacional
de la Patagonia San Juan Bosco-CONICET. Roca 780 Esquel, Chubut. Argentina.
2
Laboratorio Ecotono. INIBIOMA (Instituto de Biodiversidad y Medio Ambiente). Universidad
Nacional del Comahue-CONICET. Quintral 1250-S.C. de Bariloche, Rio Negro. Argentina.
3
Estación Experimental Agroforestal Esquel. Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria-CONICET.
Chacabuco 513. Esquel, Chubut, Argentina.
* Corresponding author: [email protected]
 Ethnopharmacology and Ethnobotany of Valeriana carnosa 91

2006). Amongst these species, some representatives of Valeriana L. genus have been
used as medicinal plants, with high cultural and symbolic value. The underground
organs of many Valeriana species contain numerous compounds and are used
as a sedative and for treating insomnia, allowing the reduction of nervousness
and agitation associated with stress (Thies and Funke 1966, Wagner et al. 1980,
Nahrstedt 1984, Grusla et al. 1986, Upton 1999). This genus is widely studied, with
special focus on anxiolytic properties (Hattesohl et al. 2008, Murphy et al. 2010).
For anxiolytic purposes, since ancestral times, extracts of rhizomes and
roots of the Eurasian species V. officinalis L. have been used worldwide. Roots of
V. officinalis are used for treatment of anxiety and mild sleep disorders. Studies
indicate that flavonoids in this species have sedative activity in the central nervous
system (Marder et al. 2003, Fernández et al. 2004, 2005, 2006, Lacher et al. 2007).
Others authors suggests that biochemical composition and active constituents in
Valeriana are valepotriates (Backlund and Moritz 1998), valeric acid and gamma-
aminobutyric acid (Hallam et al. 2003, Nam et al. 2013). Besides, pre-clinical
studies reported the antidepressant-like activity of V. officinalis (Hattesohl et al.
2008), V. jatamansi Jones (Subhan et al. 2010, Sah et al. 2011), V. glechomifolia
Mey. (Müller et al. 2012) and V. prionophylla (Holzmann et al. 2011).
Currently, alternatives to V. officinalis are being sought in different countries for
replacement by indigenous representatives, for example, in India with V. jatamansi,
in Mexico with V. edulis Nutt. ex Torr. & A. Gray subsp. procera (Kunth) G.F. Mey
and in Brazil with V. glechomifolia (Bos et al. 1999, Oliva et al. 2004).
In Patagonia, there are records of the use of at least five native species of
Valeriana for medicinal purposes (Conticello et al. 1997, Molares and Ladio
2008). Among them, the most used Valeriana species by regional ethnic groups
is V. carnosa Sm. (“Ñamkulawen”, which means the white hawk medicine in
Mapuzungun language, probably in reference to the high sites where the species
grows and where the ñamku-Buteo polyosoma-can be seen in flight) and is
considered a “sacred plant” (Estomba et al. 2005, Molares and Ladio 2008)
(Fig. 6.1). This local name (Ñamkulawen) is shared with V. clarionifolia but this
plant has different reputed attributes. Another local name is “Valeriana”, which is
used by some Creole settlers.
Valeriana carnosa stands out as one of the principal elements in the indigenous
pharmacopoeias of Patagonia, and its roots and rhizomes have been used since
ancient times (Molares and Ladio 2009b). The local perception of this plant is
that it has wide-ranging curative powers: “it’s a cure-all”. This attribute confers
on the species high cultural and symbolic value for the Mapuche people, and its
reputation and use has spread throughout the formal and informal medicinal herb
market of Patagonian cities (Ladio 2006).
92 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

Fig. 6.1. General appearance of V. carnosa in a Patagonian forest-steppe ecotone habitat.

An “Appropriate” Taxonomy for a Cure-All Plant

Ñamkulawen (Valeriana carnosa, synonym: Valeriana magellanica Lam.),
belonging to the Valerianaceae nom. conserv. family (currently considered within
the Caprifoliaceae s.l.; APG III, 2009), has long been thought to represent a natural
group of ca. 350 species distributed throughout much of the world, mainly found in
the Northern Hemisphere and along the Andes mountain range, with the exception
of Australia and New Zealand (Borsini 1966, Backlund 1996, Bell 2004, 2007).
South America is an important diversification center of Valerianaceae with
approximately 250 species (Eriksen 1989, Bell 2004, Hidalgo et al. 2004, Bell
and Donoghue 2005), of which the genus Valeriana is the most numerous with
c.a. 200 species.
It has been suggested that Holartic Valeriana genera have been present on
the South American continent for some time (> 13 MY), and have exploited new
niche opportunities, migrating from a temperate to a more Mediterranean-style
climate (Bell et al. 2012).
Despite Miller (1754) and de Candolle (1815) amendments, Valeriana remains
a heterogeneous genus, especially due to the great diversity in species of South and
Central America. Some authors suggest from phylogenetic studies that Valeriana
is paraphyletic (Hidalgo et al. 2004). However, Bell (2004), based on phylogenetic
analyzes combined with chloroplast and nuclear DNA sequences, observed a
strongly supported clade that includes the South American Valeriana species.
In the southern Andes (Argentina and Chile), there are ~ 40 species of Valeriana
that occur over a wide ecological as well as elevational gradient (Bell et al. 2012)
and in the southernmost region (central Chile and the province of Neuquén in
 Ethnopharmacology and Ethnobotany of Valeriana carnosa 93

Argentina), 25 endemic species have been identified and is considered an important

center of secondary diversification for the genus (Kutschker and Morrone 2012).
The name of the genus stems from the latin valere, “to be healthy”, a reference
to the medicinal uses of its plants, particularly those associated with treating nervous
conditions and hysteria (Borsini et al. in Correa 1999). Their epithet carnosa makes
references to the consistency of the leaves (Ferreyra et al. 2006).

Ethnobotanical Reports About Ñamkulawen in Patagonia

The subterranean organs have been cited as a remedy used for hepatic, respiratory,
circulatory, urinary and digestive disorders as well as having analgesic, anti-
inflammatory, anti-tumoral, anti-depressive and wound-healing properties (e.g.,
Martinez Crovetto 1980, Estomba et al. 2006, Molares and Ladio 2009a,b, 2012,
Richeri et al. 2013). It has also gained great prestige for its usefulness in treating
cultural syndromes like the “susto”, “evil eye” and “frío” (Molares 2010). Valeriana
carnosa can also used in mixtures with other species, like “nalka” (Gunnera
tinctorea (Molina) Mirb.) to strengthen its medicinal attributes (Molares 2010),
or with “carqueja” (Baccharis sagittalis (Less.) DC.) and “palo piche” (Fabiana
imbricata Ruiz et Pav.) to make “body cleansers” (Toledo and Kutschker 2012),
which are used in a process which is both symbolic and practical, where the
wellbeing of the person is sought by eliminating all the elements (physical, social
and spiritual) which may be causing harm (Molares 2010). All these properties,
grouped in seven ethnocategories according to the particular precepts of the
Mapuche culture, have led to the plant also being recognized as “the remedy that
cures the seven diseases” (Molares and Ladio 2012).
The local indigenous communities use the plant through decoction. They boil
a piece of root, approximately 3 cm in length per liter of water, and then drink
a cup each day until the liter is finished. According to our sources, ñamkulawen
is “a powerful plant”. Perception of the strong bitter taste of this decoction is an
indicator of high therapeutic effectiveness, but also of potential danger, and because
of this it is only consumed by adults and the dosages used are highly controlled and
sporadic (Molares and Ladio 2009a). Traditionally, for those reasons its use is not
recommended for children or pregnant women (Kutschker et al. 2002). In addition,
the dosage must be small because it causes sleepiness (Weigandt et al. 2004) and
an excessive dosage can even be fatal (Molares and Ladio 2009a).

Ecological and Sensorial Properties in the Local Criteria of

Searching and Gathering Ñamkulawen
Valeriana carnosa is widely distributed and is common to the whole of Patagonia
(Borsini et al. in Correa 1999). Usually, this plant grows in mid- to low elevation
habitats, with a few occurring at higher elevations. In Chile, it inhabits the southern
mountain range, in the VI, VII, VIII, IX, X, XI and XII regions; in Argentina, it
inhabits the Mendoza, Neuquén, Río Negro, Chubut, Santa Cruz and Tierra del
94 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

Fuego provinces. Its altitudinal range is from 0 m.a.s.l. to 2,700 m.a.s.l. (Zuloaga
et al. 2008). In phytogeographic terms, it is found in the Sub-Antarctic, Patagonian
and High-Andean provinces (Borsini et al. in Correa 1999).
The species flourishes in xeric, open, sunny environments in the rocky soils of
the forest, steppe and the Patagonian-Andean forest-steppe ecotone. It is also found
in sandy sites, on low, sunny slopes or even in rocky sites of the Patagonian Andes.
It flowers from October to December and fruits during the months of January and
February (Borsini et al. in Correa 1999, Kutschker 2011).
In spite of the wide geographic distribution of this species, gathering carried
out by the settlers is characterized by the search for specimens in stony areas with
a high level of light exposure, preferably at the highest altitude possible. The
underground part is collected with the help of simple tools like knives and spades.
In the process of identification and selection of specimens, cultural practices of
sensory perception come into play. These include the recognition of organoleptic
qualities directly associated with this species, such as its bitter and unpleasant smell
(“like dirty feet”) and its strong, bitter, repulsive flavor (“füre”), which is rather
spicy (“trapi”) and astringent (“seco”) (Molares and Ladio 2009a).
Various studies indicate that the collection of this species is associated with
the care of livestock. People take advantage of the time during which their animals
are grazing to look for the plant in places far from their dwellings (Estomba et
al. 2006, Richeri et al. 2013). With regard to the identification and collection of
V. carnosa and V. clarionifolia by Patagonian inhabitants, studies reveal levels of
organoleptic differentiation between the two species, which are of great cultural
and ethnopharmacological value. For example, it was discovered that locals are
capable of differentiating between Valeriana species, and that even though they
recognize them as related (which can be deduced by the fact that both have the
same common name), they can tell them apart by their smell and taste, which
consequently determine their different uses and value (Molares and Ladio 2012).
Unlike V. carnosa, V. clarionifolia is used for a limited number of ailments, mainly
to relieve lower back pain and treat kidney and bladder disorders and cultural
syndromes. In a curiously similar way, by means of laboratory tests with electronic
noses, differences between the aromatic profiles of V. carnosa and V. clarionifolia
have been found, which are determined by the chemical differences between the
species (Baby et al. 2005).
The collected pieces of V. carnosa are usually taken to the dwellings where
they are dried in the open air and in the shade, under cover, to be preserved later
in mesh or paper bags. This practice ensures availability of the dried resource all
year round, and is particularly useful in winter when the search for medicinal herbs
on the mountains can become difficult due to the accumulation of snow (Molares
and Ladio 2012).
Although V. carnosa gathering is very important and its commercialization has
increased rapidly over the last decades (Cuassolo 2009), this species can be regarded
as not threatened. However, settlers say that in some regions it is increasingly
difficult to find plants, and that longer distances must be travelled in the search
 Ethnopharmacology and Ethnobotany of Valeriana carnosa 95

for them (Estomba et al. 2005, 2006). For this reason, the study of this plant’s
cultivation requirements must be encouraged (Cuassolo 2009). Currently, keeping
in view the importance of this species, a simple low cost technique using rooting
hormones for vegetative production of V. carnosa through macro-propagation has
been developed (Fig. 6.2) (Nagahama et al. 2016). Additionally, these authors
identified potential habitats of V. carnosa along the Argentine Patagonian with
predicting models for its cultivation in order to obtain potential marketable font
of phytomedicines and strengthen the non-conventional productive development
in Patagonia (Nagahama et al. 2016).

Fig. 6.2. Vegetative production of V. carnosa through macro-propagation techniques.

What do we Know About V. carnosa Ethnopharmacology?

Research carried out on Valeriana carnosa reveals the presence of active ingredients
similar to those of V. officinalis, which is present in many pharmacopoeias for oral
consumption as a sedative and sleep inducer for humans (Gratti et al. 2010).
Several studies on the Valeriana genus indicate that the main active ingredients
are the valepotriates, lignans, flavonoids, tannins, phenolic acids and essential
oils (Kutschker et al. 2010). In particular, the essential oils have been researched;
they primarily consist of elemol, bornyl-acetate, bornyl-isovalerate, isovalerate,
and valerenone (Baby et al. 2005). Of all the Patagonian species belonging to this
genus, the dry extract of the whole V. carnosa plant has been most studied (Cuadra
and Fajardo 2002). It has been found that its valepotriate composition pattern, and
especially its valtrates, is similar to V. officinalis, which is known for its tranquilizing
and sleep inducing effect (Kutschker et al. 2010). However, according to Castillo and
Martínez (2007), the chemical composition of V. carnosa varies according to time
of collection, preparation and packaging. In addition, Cuadra and Fajardo (2002)
96 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

have isolated caffeoyl methyl ester and two pinoresinol-type lignans. Fajardo et al.
(2010) have also suggested that in terms of its biological activity, it would present
cytotoxic activity and negative toxicological activity. Guajardo et al. (2018) suggests
that phenolic compounds vary quantitatively and qualitatively between populations
as well as among plants’ phenological stages. Regarding the total phenol content,
the values obtained in V. carnosa (from ethanolic root extracts) varied between
3.3–14.3 mg eq GAE/g dry material, being similar to those reported for root
extracts in other species of medicinal use within the family Valerianaceae such
as V. officinalis (14.2 mg eq GAE/g dry material; Surveswaran et al. 2007) and
V. jatamansi (8.7 to 14.6 mg eq GAE/g dry material; Jugran et al. 2013).
Taking account of the above information, the traditional and recommended
method of use, which consists of the decoction of a handful of the material, followed
by ingestion of one cupful, orally, over a variable timeframe (Cuassolo 2009,
Cuassolo et al. 2011), Kutschker et al. (2002) propose uses of the plant in modern
medicine by means of the preparation of tinctures. The crude drug consists of
dried pieces of the roots and rhizomes. Kutschker et al. (2002) describes a dosage
of a daily cupful drunk on an empty stomach for a week. The roots are placed in
a jar with 300 ml of alcohol, left for 15 days and then filtered. The recommended
dosage is 1 to 2 ml as a sedative.

Morphological and Anatomical Description: Very Important

Information in Quality Control of Commercial Samples
Valeriana carnosa is an evergreen herb of up to 80 cm in height, simple or branching
from the base. Fleshy rhizome is up to 50 cm long, with weak branches. Basal leaves
are 6–21 × 3–7 cm, obovate or elliptic, smooth edged or coursely toothed, glabrous
and fleshy; petioles are 3–12 cm long. Upper leaves are sessile or petiolate, 0.6–4.5
cm, obovate, triangular or lanceolate, smooth edged or toothed. Inflorescenses are
axillary or terminal, paniculiform and lax. Bracts are 3–9 mm in length, whole,
oblong-lanceolate, ovate. Bracteoles are 2.5–4 mm in length, entire or auriculate,
oblong-lanceolate, acute, glabrous or have long hairs on the edges, at the base.
Flowers are hermaphrodite, the corollas are 4 mm long, bell-shaped or funnel-
like, gibbous at the base with oblong lobes, and included stamens. The female
flowers are 2–3 mm long, bell-shaped with ovate lobes. The styles are exerted and
thickened at the tip. The fruit measures 5–7 × 2–3.5 mm, and is pyriform, with
thick veins, and is glabrous; pappus is formed by 14–15 feathery setae (Borsini et
al. in Correa 1999) (Fig. 6.3).
Even if Valeriana carnosa is the most used Valeriana in the Patagonian region,
other species, mainly V. clarionifolia, are used in similar ways in traditional and
nontraditional medicine, which has led to the need for comparative anatomical
studies between the two species in order to avoid confusion in relation to the raw
material. Likewise, the quality control works are very important considering that
“Ñamkulawen” is sold in bulk or hand packed in paper or cellophane bags for sale
 Ethnopharmacology and Ethnobotany of Valeriana carnosa 97

Fig. 6.3. Diagram of the aerial parts of the plant (a), floral structures (b and c) and fruit (d) of
V. carnosa Sm. (Taken from Borsini et al. in Correa 1999).

in drugstores and herbalist’s shops, at different degrees of fragmentation and only

under their common name, from which the botanical identification is difficult.
According to diagnostic anatomical data provided by Bach et al. (2014),
V. carnosa showed a primary pentarch aktinostele root, pith in the secondary
structure and a rhizome with anomalous structure. V. clarionifolia, in contrast, has
no rhizome and showed a protostele as a primary root structure and a secondary
structure without pith. During the maceration process, the V. carnosa rhizome
98 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

presented cork with irregular polygonal cells with acute and obtuse angles, while
in V. clarionifolia rectangular cork cells with right angles were observed. Starch
grains are simple, spherical in V. carnosa and polyhedral in V. clarionifolia. In
addition, Molares and Ladio (2012) studied cross sections of V. carnosa primary
root and observed a well-developed periderm consisting of cells with thickened,
birefringent walls, from irregular to polygonal; cells of this tissue and phloem
parenchyma have essential oils in the form of droplets (Sudan IV+); cortex has
large air spaces between oval cells with brown contents.

Conclusions
Valeriana carnosa is one of the most prominent medicinal plants in the Mapuche
tradition, and from an ethnopharmacological viewpoint, one of the most versatile
promising medicinal plants in Patagonia, when taking into account the wide range
of therapeutic alternatives it can offer for the treatment of the different ailments of
the region (Molares and Ladio 2009b, Richeri et al. 2013). However, V. carnosa is
not included in the Argentine Pharmacopoeia (http://www.anmat.gov.ar), nor does
it appear on the list of toxic species not recommended for consumption.
The similarity between the active compounds found in V. carnosa and
V. clarionifolia and those of V. officinalis is promising, since this species is included
worldwide in many pharmacopoeias and consumed orally as a sedative and sleep
inducer in humans. However, little conclusive evidence for the efficacy of the other
local uses can be provided. The key problem of various investigations has been
the emphasis on very few compounds rather than traditional preparations. Much
more research is required to evaluate the actual efficacy of the preparations. The
scientific research and cultural revalorization of the role played by V. carnosa in
local herbal medicines is of considerable ethnopharmacological interest and highly
relevant to the medicinal security of Patagonian communities. However, there is
evidence to indicate that the abundance of this species in natural environments is
decreasing, mainly due to disturbance of the environments (Estomba et al. 2006,
Ladio et al. 2007) and lack of regulation of its commercialization in Patagonian
cities (Cuassolo 2009). Given that the roots are the organs of medical interest in
this valuable species, the establishment of conservation strategies in situ and studies
that provide guidelines for its cultivation and preservation ex situ are of the utmost
importance (Nagahama et al. 2016).

Acknowledgements
We are profoundly grateful to the inhabitants of the rural and urban communities
where we learned about the ethnobotany of V. carnosa. This study was funded by
Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET).
 Ethnopharmacology and Ethnobotany of Valeriana carnosa 99

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 CHAPTER 7

Traditional Knowledge of
Antivenom Plants
Bioactive Compounds and Their Antiophidic
Properties
Carolina Alves dos Santos,1,4 Marco V. Chaud,1,4 Valquíria Miwa
Hanai Yoshida,3 Raksha Pandit,2 Mahendra Rai2,* and
Yoko Oshima-Franco4

Introduction
The medicinal plants and their secondary metabolites are capable of promoting
different pharmacological and biological responses, and hence they are important
source of pharmaceuticals. In Brazil, natural and animal resources favour the study
and discovery of new plant activities, and hence the use of plants with antivenom
property is an interesting area of research. In developing countries, communities
in rural and urban areas are still heavily dependent on herbal medicines as primary
health care (Maroyi 2017). In tropical and subtropical countries, such as Africa,
Latin America, Asia and Oceania, snakebite poisoning is a real public health issue
(Gomes et al. 2016).

1
LaBNUS – Biomaterials and Nanotechnology Laboratory, University of Sorocaba, Sorocaba/SP,
Brazil.
2
Department of Biotechnology, SGB Amravati University, Amravati-444 602, Maharashtra, India.
3
Department of Technology & Environmental Process, University of Sorocaba UNISO, Sorocaba,
SP – Brazil.
4
Post Graduate Program in Pharmaceutical Sciences, Department of Development and Evaluation of
Bioactive Substances, University of Sorocaba, UNISO, Sorocaba, SP, Brazil.
* Corresponding author: [email protected]
104 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

Serum therapy is one of the measure for the treatment of poisoning caused
by snakebites. The main aim of serum therapy is that it can reverse the effects
of the complex and varied composition of substances and proteins present in the
venom. The pathophysiological process of poisoning involves toxins such as
metalloproteins, proteinases, phospholipases, hyaluronidases, pharmacological
enzymes and mediators (Gomes et al. 2016). Poisoning may result in different
degrees of toxicity such as neuroparalysis, multiple organ failure, and death (Naik
and Sadananda 2017). The pathophysiological effects induced by snake venom are
tissue necrosis, inhibition of platelet aggregation, hemorrhage, edema, etc. (Fig. 7.1).
Serum therapy consists of a mixture of antivenom antibodies isolated from
animals that aim to reverse the systemic effects of poisoning such as cardiac changes,
clotting disorders, renal and tissue damage, etc. (Félix-Silva et al. 2014). However,
serum therapy is often not able to reverse tissue damage caused by the venom such
as edema, injury, hemorrhage and necrosis. Such damages are very debilitating and
often generate permanent sequelae. Therefore, the strategies to reduce these toxic
effects are necessary, which can prevent the toxic effects associated with snake
venom. The neutralization of the local effects of venom is a frequent problem and
the use of therapeutic compounds is an alternative, which is capable of reversing
or minimizing tissue damage. In this context, the use of plants with antiophidic
properties is interesting which can be used in the treatment and it may enhance the
benefits obtained from serum therapy. The major disadvantages of serum therapy
is that it is toxic, costly and the accessibility limitations in rural regions and distant
urban centers (Tianyi et al. 2017).
The present chapter discusses about the significance of plants with antivenom
properties. A few therapies are known, which can be used in the treatment of snake

Fig. 7.1. The pathophysiological effects of snake venom.

 Traditional Knowledge of Antivenom Plants 105

bites and the available therapies have many drawbacks. The secondary metabolites
present in traditionally used plants can be used against snake venom.

The Global Scenerio

Globally, there are alarming reports of snake-bite. Naik and Sadananda (2017)
reported that more than 5 million people are bitten by venomous snakes in a year
with fatal case in 100,000 of them and that in India nearly 45,000 people died in
2005 due to snake bites.
According to Chippaux (2017), two families of snakes are responsible for
snake envenomations in the America: The Viperidae and the Elapidae. The other
types represent less than 1% of envenomations. Chippaux (2017) also represent the
statistics for snakebite, about 27,200 per year in Brazil and more than 115 deaths
during the period of 2001–2012. The main genus responsible for the bites in Brazil
is Bothrops with a high incidence of bites in northern Amazon, in male, children
or people older than 40 years. Feitosa et al. (2013) carried out epidemiological
surveillance of annual snakebite count in the State of Amazonas and reported
200 cases/100,000 inhabitants in some areas, which is among the highest annual
snakebite rate in the world.
In US (United States), 4735 native venomous snakebites are reported every
year and approximately half of these are from crotalids. The majority of the victims
are males less than 19 years. Recently, it was reported that the death rate of snake
bitten patients has decreased since the last 5–6 years (Corbett and Clark 2017).
Schiermeier (2015) reported that according to the Médecins Sans Frontiéres
(MSF), health care workers responsible for treating snakebites in Africa and Sudan
report an estimated 30,000 deaths every year with amputations for around 8,000
people due to snakebite.
In Africa, the problem is more critical because the main company responsible
for serum production stopped its production and the other types of antivenom
product around the world are not totally effective for some species of snakes present
in Africa (Schiermeier 2015).

Plants with Antivenom Properties

The main therapeutic strategy to solve snakebite envenoming is the use of antiserum
therapy that is able to avoid the lethal effects of venom. However, this main therapy
is not able to minimize the local effects of venom enzymes (phospholipases,
proteases and hyaluronidases) that are mainly responsible for necrosis and
hemorraghic conditions observed after a snakebite. To minimize the effects of
these enzymes present in the local injury, plants with antivenom properties have
been used with good results since antiquity (Table 7.1).
The list of compounds related with antivenom properties is wide. In fact, the
bioactive compounds responsible for antivenom activity are a combination between
alkaloids, flavonoids, saponins, tanins and others.
 Table 7.1. Plants species, main parts of this plants studied, experimental design and inhibition of snakes’ poison.

Family Plant Part of Plant used/Bioactive Snake Venoms/Isolated Experimental References

Compounds Compounds Design
Acanthaceae/ Andrographis paniculata Polarity-based stem and leaf Naja naja In vivo Gopi et al. 2011
Aristolochiaceae (Burm. f.) Wall. ex Nees extracts
Methanol whole plant extract Daboia russelli In vitro and in vivo Meenatchisundaram et
al. 2009a
Aristolochia indica Roots/Aristolochic acid Vipera russelli In vitro and in vivo Bhattacharjee
and Bhattacharyya
2013
Methanol whole plant extract Daboia russelli In vitro and in vivo Meenatchisundaram et
al. 2009
Aristolochia cymbifera L. Aqueous-isopropanol green- Bothrops alternatus In vitro and in vivo Melo et al. 2007
leaf extract
Amaryllidaceae Crinum jagus L. Methanol bulb extract Echis ocellatus In vitro and in vivo Ode and Asuzu 2006
Bitis arietans
Naja nigricollis
Anacardiaceae Annacardium occidentale L. Methanol bark extract Vipera russelli In vitro and in vivo Ushanandini et al. 2009b
Mangifera indica L. cv. Aqueous stem bark extract Group IA sPLA2 (i.e., In vitro and in vivo Dhananjaya and
106 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

‘Fahlun’ purified NN-XIaPLA2 Shivalingaiah 2016

phospholipase A2
enzyme from Naja naja
venom)
NN-XIb-PLA2 from In vitro and in vivo Dhananjaya et al. 2016
Naja naja
VRV-PL-VIIIa from In vitro and in vivo Dhananjaya and
Daboia russelli Sudarshan 2015
 Ethanol seed kernel extract/ Calloselasma In vitro Pithayanukul et al. 2009
pentagalloyl glucopyranose rhodostoma; Naja naja
kaouthia
Calloselasma In vitro Leanpolchareanchai et
rhodostoma; Naja naja al. 2009
kaouthia
Annonaceae Annona senegalensis Pers Methanol root extract Naja nigricollis In vivo Adzu et al. 2005
nigricollis Wetch
Apiaceae Eryngium yuccifolium aqueous extract of the flowers, In vitro Price 2016
Michx. rootlets, leaves and seeds
Apocynaceae Hemidesmus indicus (L.) HI-RVIF compound from root In vitro and in vivo Alam et al. 1994
R.Br. extract
Daboia russelli

2-hydroxy-4-methoxy benzoic In vitro and in vivo Alam and Gomes 1998a

acid from root extract and 1998b
lupeol acetate from root extract Daboia russellii In vitro and in vivo Chatterjee et al. 2006
Naja kaouthia
Mandevilla velutina K. Aqueous subterranean system Crotalus durissus In vitro and in vivo Biondo et al. 2003
Schum extract terrificus; CB; crotoxin;
Bothrops jararacussu;
BthTX-I; BthTX-II;
BthA-I-PLA2;
B. alternatus;
B. moojeni;
B. pirajai; PrTX-I.
Mandevilla illustris (Vell) Aqueous subterranean system Crotalus durissus In vitro and in vivo Biondo et al. 2004
Woodson extract terrificus snake
venom, isolated basic
Traditional Knowledge of Antivenom Plants

phospholipase A2 (CB)
and crotoxin
107

Table 7.1 contd. …

…Table 7.1 contd.
Family Plant Part of plant used/bioactive Snake venoms/isolated Experimental References
compounds compounds design
Rauwolfia serpentina L. Ethanol whole plant extract Naja naja In vitro and in vivo Rajasree et al. 2013
Tabernae montana Aqueous root barks extract/ Crotalus durissus In vitro and in vivo Batina et al. 2000
catharinensis A. DC. fractions terrificus
Eight fractions, PI to PVIII Crotalus durissus In vitro and in vivo De Almeida et al. 2004
terrificus
Aqueous root barks extract Bothrops jararacussu; In vitro and in vivo Veronese et al. 2005
Bothropstoxin-I
(BthTX-I);
Bothropstoxin-II
(BthTX-II)
Araceae Dracontium croatii Zhu. Ethanol leaf and branches Bothrops asper In vitro and in vivo Nuñez et al. 2004
extract
Asteraceae Bidens pilosa L. Plant extracts Dendroaspis jamesoni In vivo Chippaux et al. 1997
Echis oceliatus
Calendula officinalis L. Ointment containing 10% Bothrops alternatus In vitro and in vivo Melo et al. 2005
extract
108 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

Eclipta prostrata (L.) L. Ethanol aerial parts extract; Crotalus durissus In vitro and in vivo Mors et al. 1989
Wedelolactone; sitosterol; terrificus
stigmasterol
Wedelolactone Crotalus viridis viridis; In vitro and in vivo Melo and Ownby 1999
Agkistrodon contortrix
laticinctus; CVV and
ACL PLA2-myotoxins
Aqueous extract/ Bothrops jararaca, In vitro and in vivo Melo et al. 1994
wedelolactone, stigmasterol, B. jararacussu,
sitosterol Lachesis muta and
myotoxins
 Butanol extract of plant/ Calloselasma In vitro and in vivo Pithayanukul et al. 2004
demethylwedelolactone rhodostoma
Plant extract Gloydius brevicaudus, In vivo Chen et al. 2005
G. shedaoensis,
G. ussuriensis and
Deinagkistrodon acutus
Mikania laevigata Sch. Bip. Ethanol leaf extract Philodryas olfersii In vitro and ex vivo Collaço et al. 2012
ex Baker
Pluchea indica (L.) Less. Root extract/beta-sitosterol, Daboia russelli; In vitro and in vivo Gomes et al. 2007
stigmasterol Naja naja
Balanitaceae/ Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Polarity-based stem barks Echis carinatus In vivo Wufem et al. 2007
Zygophyllaceae Del. extract
Seed oil Vipera russelli In vivo Mishal et al. 2014
Bignoniaceae Tabebuia rosea (Bertold.) Ethanol leaf and branches Bothrops asper In vitro and in vivo Nuñez et al. 2004
DC. extract
Bixaceae Bixa orellana L. Ethanol leaf and branches Bothrops asper In vitro and in vivo Nuñez et al. 2004
extract
Boraginaceae Argusia argentea (L.f.) Methanol extract/Rosmarinic Trimeresurus In vivo Aung et al. 2010
H. Heine acid flavoviridis;
Crotalus atrox,
Gloydius blomhoffii,
Bitis arietans and
mettalloproteinases
HT-b (C. atrox),
bilitoxin 2 (Agkistrodon
bilineatus), HF
(B. arietans), and
Ac1-proteinase
(Deinagkistrodon
Traditional Knowledge of Antivenom Plants

acutus)
Table 7.1 contd. …
109
…Table 7.1 contd.
Family Plant Part of plant used/bioactive Snake venoms/isolated Experimental References
compounds compounds design
Cordia verbanaceae DC. Methanol extract/Rosmarinic B. jararacussu venom In vitro and in vivo Ticli et al. 2005, Soares
acid and its basic PLA2s et al. 2005
Rosmarinic acid PrTX-I (Bothrops In vitro and ex vivo Santos et al. 2011
pirajai)
Burseraceae Boswellia dalzielli Hutch. Aqueous stem barks extract Naja nigricollis In vitro and in vivo Goje et al. 2013
Commiphora africana A. Methanol stem bark extract/ Naja nigricollis In vitro Isa et al. 2015
Rich. fractions
Caesalpiniaceae/ Bauhinia forficata Link. Aqueous aerial parts extract Bothrops jararacussu; In vitro Oliveira et al. 2005
Fabaceae (Fabaceae) B. moojeni; Crotalus
durissus terrificus and
PLA2s
Brownea rosademonte Berg. Ethanol leaf and branches Bothrops asper In vitro and in vivo Nuñez et al. 2004
extract
Combretaceae Combretum leprosum Mart. Root extract; Arjunolic acid Bothrops jararaca; In vitro and in vivo Fernandes et al. 2014
B. jararacussu
Combretum molle R. Br. ex Aqueous extract Bitis arietans; In vitro Molander et al. 2014
110 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

G. Don Naja nigricollis

Guiera senegalensis Leaf extract Echis carinatus; In vitro and in vivo Abubakar et al. 2000
J.F.Gmel. Naja nigricollis
Terminalia fagifolia Mart. Ethanol stem barks extract Bothrops jararacussu In vitro and ex vivo Tribuiani et al. 2017
Clusiaseae Hypericum brasiliense Ethanol whole plant extract Bothrops jararaca In vitro and in vivo Assafim et al. 2011
Choisy Ethanol leaf extract Crotalus durissus In vitro and ex vivo Dal Belo et al. 2013
terrificus; crotamine
and crotoxin
Crassulaceae Kalanchoe brasiliensis Hydroalcoholic leaf extract of Bothrops jararaca In vitro and in vivo Fernandes et al. 2016
Camb.; Kalanchoe K. brasileinsis and flavonoid
pinnata (Lam.) Pers. glycosides derived from
patuletin and eupafolin;
Hydroalcoholic leaf extract
of K. pinnata and flavonoids
glycosides derived from
quercetin and kaempferol.
Crysobalanaceae Parinari curatellifolia Ethanol extract Naja nigricollis In vitro and in vivo Omale et al. 2012
Planch. ex Benth.
Dillenaceae Davilla elliptica St. Hill. Methanol leaf extract Bothrops jararaca In vivo Nishijima et al. 2009
Ebenaceae Diospyros kaki Thunb. Condensed tannins from fruits Laticauda semifasciata In vitro and in vivo Okonogi et al. 1979
Reinwardt; Laticauda
semifasciata;
Trimeresurus
flavoviridis Hallowell
Diospyros kaki L. Fractionation of lyophilized Naja naja atra PLA2 In vitro and in vivo Xu et al. 2012
persimmon tannin/isolated
compounds
Polymeric persimmon In vitro Li et al. 2013
proanthocyanidin fraction
epigallocatechin-3-gallate; In vitro and in vivo Zhang and Li 2017
epigallocatechin-3-gallate
(A-type EGCG dimer)
and epicatechin-3-gallate-
epicatechin-3-gallate (A-type
ECG dimer)
Ehretiacae Cordia macleodii (Griff.) Ethanol bark extract Naja naja In vitro and in vivo Soni and Bodakhe 2014
Hook. f. & Thoms.
Traditional Knowledge of Antivenom Plants

Euphorbiaceae Acalypha indica L. Ethanol leaf extract Vipera russelli russelli In vivo Shirwaikar et al. 2004
Table 7.1 contd. …
111
…Table 7.1 contd.
Family Plant Part of plant used/bioactive Snake venoms/isolated Experimental References
compounds compounds design
Bridelia ferruginea Benth. Ethanol leaf extract Naja nigricollis In vitro and in vivo Momoh et al. 2012.
Croton urucurana Baillon Aqueous extract/ Bothrops jararaca In vitro and in vivo Esmeraldino et al. 2005
proanthocyanidins
Emblica officinalis Linn. Methanol root extract Vipera russelli In vitro and in vivo Alam and Gomes 2003
Gaertn. Naja kaouthia
Root extract/Phtalate Naja Kaouthia; In vitro, ex vivo, in Sarkhel et al. 2011
compound Vipera russellii vivo
Jatropha elliptica (Pohl) Ethanol ryzomes extract Bothrops jararacussu In vitro and in vivo Ferreira-Rodrigues et
Oken. al. 2016
Jatropha gossypiifolia L. Aqueous leaf extract Bothrops jararaca In vitro and in vivo Felix-Silva et al. 2014
Jatropha mollissima (Pohl) Aqueous leaf extract Bothrops erythromelas; In vitro and in vivo Gomes et al. 2016
Bail B. jararaca
Dipteryx alata Vogel Polarity-based barks extracts Bothrops jararacussu; In vitro and ex vivo Nazato et al. 2010
Crotalus durissus
terrificus
Polarity-based barks fractions Bothrops jararacussu In vitro and ex vivo Puebla et al. 2010
112 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

Lupeol; lupenone; 28-OH- Bothrops jararacussu; In vitro and ex vivo Ferraz et al. 2012
lupenone; betulin Crotalus durissus
terrificus
7,8,3’-trihydroxy-4’- Bothrops jararacussu; In vitro and ex vivo Ferraz et al. 2014
methoxyisoflavone Bothropstoxin-I
(BthTX-I)
Betulin Bothrops jararacussu In vivo Ferraz et al. 2015
Protocatechuic acid; Vanillic In vitro and ex vivo Yoshida et al. 2015
acid; Vanillin
 Erythrina senegalensis DC.
Mucuna pruriens (L.) DC Aqueous seed extract Family Elapidae In vitro and in vivo Tan et al. 2009
Ophiophagus hannah;
Naja sputatrix;
Bungarus candidus;
Notechis scutatus;
Pseudechis australis;
Family Viperidae
Trimeresurus
purpureomaculatus;
Naja nigricollis;
Bothrops asper;
Agkistrodon piscivorus;
Vipera russelli russelli .
Echis carinatus Guerranti et al. 2002
Guerranti et al. 2004
Pentaclethra Aqueous extract Bothrops jaracussu; In vitro and in vivo Da Silva et al. 2005
macroloba (Willd.) Kuntze B. atrox;
metalloproteases
Triterpenoid saponin B. neuwiedi; In vitro and in vivo Da Silva et al. 2007
inhibitors, named B. jararacussu;
macrolobin-A and B metlloproteases
Tamarindus indica L. Seed extract Vipera russelli In vitro and in vivo Ushanandini et al. 2006
Flacourtiaceae Casearia gossypiosperma Hexane leaf extract Bothrops jararacussu In vitro and ex vivo Soares-Silva et al. 2014
Briquet Hydroalcoholic leaf extract Camargo et al. 2010
Casearia sylvestris Sw. Aqueous leaf extract Bothrops moojeni; In vitro and in vivo Borges et al. 2000
B. jararacussu;
B. neuwiedi;
Crotalus durissus
Traditional Knowledge of Antivenom Plants

terrificus;
Micrurus frontalis
113

Table 7.1 contd. …

…Table 7.1 contd.
Family Plant Part of plant used/bioactive Snake venoms/isolated Experimental References
compounds compounds design
Bothrops asper; In vitro and in vivo Borges et al. 2001
B. jararacussu;
B. moojeni;
B. neuwiedi;
B. pirajai; and
metalloproteinases.
Aqueous/Hydroalcoholic leaf Bothropstoxin-I In vitro and ex vivo Oshima-Franco et al.
extract (BthTX-I) from 2005
Bothrops jararacussu
Polarity-based leaf extracts Bothrops jararacussu; In vitro and ex vivo Cintra-Francischinelli
Bothropstoxin-I et al. 2008
(BthTX-I)
Heliconiaceae Heliconia curtispatha Ethanol leaf and branches Bothrops asper In vitro and in vivo Nuñez et al. 2004
Petersen extract
Hymenophyllaceae Trichomanes elegans L.C. Ethanol leaf and branches Bothrops asper In vitro and in vivo Nuñez et al. 2004
Rich extract
Icacinaceae Humirianthera ampla Extracts and constituents Bothrops jararacussu, In vitro and in vivo Strauch et al. 2013
114 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

(Miers) Baehni B. atrox; B. jararaca

Lamiaceae Peltodon radicans Pohl. Polarity-based leaf, flowers Bothrops atrox In vitro and in vivo Costa et al. 2008
stem and barks extracts;
phytochemical isolated
Vitex negundo L. Methanol root extract Vipera russelli In vitro and in vivo Alam and Gomes 2003
Naja kaouthia
Leguminosae Brongniartia intermedia Isolated (-)-edunol from roots Bothrops atrox In vivo Reyes-Chilpa et al.
Moric.; B. podalyrioides 1994
Kunth.
 Galactia glauscecens Kunth. Ethanol leaf extract Crotalus durissus In vitro and in vivo Dal Belo et al. 2008
terrificus
Loganiaceae Strychnos nux vomica L. Ethanol seed extract Daboia russelli; In vitro and in vivo Chatterjee et al. 2004
Naja kaouthia
Strychnos pseudoquina St. Methanol leaf extract Bothrops jararaca In vivo Nishijima et al. 2009
Hill.
Strychnos spinosa Lam. Aqueous stem bark extract Echis carinatus In vivo
Loranthaceae Struthanthus orbicularis Ethanol leaf and branches Bothrops asper In vitro and in vivo Nuñez et al. 2004
extract
Malpighiaceae Byrsonima crassa Niendezu Methanol leaf extract; Bothrops jararaca In vivo Nishijima et al. 2009
Amenthoflavone;
Quercetin
Malvaceae Hibiscus aethiopicus L. Aqueous whole plant extract Echis ocellatus; In vitro and in vivo Hasson et al. 2010
Naja n. nigricollis
Ethanol leaf and barks extract Echis carinatus In vivo Hasson et al. 2012
Sochureki
Hibiscus sabdariffa L.

Melastomataceae Bellucia dichotoma Cogn. Aqueous barks extract Bothrops atrox In vitro and in vivo Moura et al. 2014
Mouriri pusa Gardn. Methanol leaf extract; Bothrops jararaca In vivo Nishijima et al. 2009
Quercetin; Myricetin
Meliaceae Azadirachta indica A. Juss. Purified compound (AIPLAI) Naja naja; In vitro Mukherjee et al. 2008
from methanol leaf extract Naja kaouthia;
Daboia russelli
Mimosaceae Abarema cochliacarpos Hydroethanol stem barks Bothrops leucurus In vitro and in vivo Saturnino-Oliveira et
(Gomes) Barneby & extract al. 2014
J.W.Grimes
Traditional Knowledge of Antivenom Plants

Table 7.1 contd. …

115
…Table 7.1 contd.
Family Plant Part of plant used/bioactive Snake venoms/isolated Experimental References
compounds compounds design
Dichorastachys cinerea W. Methanol and etherial root Vipera russelli In vivo Mishal 2002
& A. extracts
Mimosa pudica L. Aqueous and alcoholic roots Naja kaouthia In vitro and in vivo Mahanta and
extracts Mukherjee 2001
Tannin isolate Naja kaouthia In vitro and in vivo Sia et al. 2011
Ambikabothy et al.
2011
Aqueous extract Naja naja kaouthia; In vitro and in vivo Vejayan et al. 2007
Ophiophagus hannah;
Bungarus candidus;
B. fasciatus;
Calloselasma
rhodostoma
Parkia biglobosa Water-methanol stem bark Echis ocellatus; In vitro, ex vivo and Asuzu and Harvey 2003
extract Naja nigricollis in vivo
Mimosoideae Plathymenia reticulata Polarity-based barks extracts Bothrops jararacussu In vitro and ex vivo Farrapo et al. 2011
116 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

Benth
Moraceae Ficus nymphaeifolia Miller Ethanol leaf and branches Bothrops asper In vitro and in vivo Nuñez et al. 2004
extract
Morus alba L. Leaf extract Daboia russelli In vitro and in vivo Chandrashekara et al.
2009
Musaceae Musa paradisíaca L. Exudates or juice from liberian Bothrops jararacussu; In vitro and in vivo Borges et al. 2005
vessels B. neuwiedi
Piperaceae Piper longum L. Ethanolic fruits extract/ Daboia russelli In vitro and in vivo Shenoy et al. 2013,
piperine 2014
Polygalaceae Securidada Aqueous leaf and root bark Naja nigricollis In vitro and in vivo Sanusi et al. 2014
longepedonculata Fresen.
Polypodiaceae Pleopeltis percussa (Cav.) Ethanol leaf and branches Bothrops asper In vitro and in vivo Nuñez et al. 2004
Hook & Grev. extract
Rubiaceae Gonzalagunia panamensis Ethanol leaf and branches Bothrops asper In vitro and in vivo Nuñez et al. 2004
(Cav.) Schumm. extract
Rutaceae Citrus limon L. Ethanol leaf and branches Bothrops asper In vitro and in vivo Nuñez et al. 2004
extract
Salicaceae Salix nigra Marshall Methanol leaf extract Bungarus sindarus In vitro Ahmed et al. 2016
Sapindaceae Sapindus saponaria L. Callus culture extracts Bothrops jararacussu; In vitro and in vivo da Silva et al. 2012
(polarity-based solvents) B. moojeni;
B.alternatus;
Crotalus durissus
terrificus;
Myotoxins and
phospholipases A2
Sapotaceae Manilkara subsericea Polarity-based leaf and stems Lachesis muta In vitro and in vivo De Oliveira et al. 2014
(Mart.) Dubard extracts
Solanaceae Whitania somnifera (L.) NN-XIa-PLA2 Naja naja In vitro, ex vivo, in Machiah and Gowda
Dunal vivo 2006
Theaceae Camellia sinensis Methanol leaf extract Naja naja In vitro and in vivo Pithayanukul et al. 2010
(L.) Kuntze kaouthia Lesson
(Elapidae);
Calloselasma
rhodostoma Kuhl
(Viperidae)
Hydroalcohol leaf extract; Crotalus durissus In vitro and ex vivo de Jesus Reis Rosa et
theaflavin and epigallocatechin terrificus al. 2010
Hydroalcohol leaf extract Bothrops jararacussu; In vitro and ex vivo Oshima-Franco et al.
Bothropstoxin-I 2012
(BthTX-I)
Traditional Knowledge of Antivenom Plants

Table 7.1 contd. …

117
…Table 7.1 contd.
Family Plant Part of plant used/bioactive Snake venoms/isolated Experimental References
compounds compounds design
Thea sinensis Linn Melanin extrated from black Agkistrodon contortrix In vivo Hung et al. 2004
tea laticinctus;
Agkistrodon halys
blomhoffii; Crotalus
atrox
Urticaceae Pouzolzia indica (L.) Polatity-based aerial parts Viper russelli In vitro and in vivo Ahmed et al. 2010
G. Benn. extracts
Velloziaceae Vellozia flavicans Mart. ex Hydroalcohol leaf extract Bothrops jararacussu In vitro and ex vivo Tribuiani et al. 2014
Schult.
Verbenacea Clerodendrum viscosum Alcohol root extract Naja naja In vitro and in vivo Lobo et al. 2006
Vent.
Vitaceae Vitis vinífera L. Methanol extract of seed Duboia/Vipera russelli In vitro and in vivo Mahadeswaraswamy et
grapes al. 2009
Zingiberaceae Curcuma longa L. Ar-turmerone fraction Bothrops jararaca; In vitro and in vivo Ferreira et al. 1992
Crotalus durissus
terrificus
Rhyzomes extracts (polarity- Bothrops alternatus In vitro and in vivo Melo et al. 2005
118 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

based solventes)/
ar-turmerone
Aqueous extract Naja naja sinensis In vitro and ex vivo Daduang et al. 2005
Aqueous-isopropanol green Bothrops alternatus In vitro and in vivo Melo et al. 2007
leaves extract
Curcuma sp. Aqueous extract Naja naja siamensis In vitro Cherdchu and Karlsson
1983
Curcuma parviflora Wall. Aqueous extract Naja naja sianensis In vitro and ex vivo Daduang et al. 2005
Renealmia alpinia (Rottb.) Ethanol leaf and branches Bothrops asper In vitro and in vivo Nuñez et al. 2004
extract
 Traditional Knowledge of Antivenom Plants 119

Another advantage of using these plants in association with serum therapy is

low cost and accessibility of this treatment in distant and poor areas, facilitating the
access of treatment in remote areas, a problem common and frequent in developing
countries.
Plant secondary metabolites or their analogues have proven effective and safe
in the antivenom activity. Plant metabolities can be used indirectly as supplement
to conventional antivenom therapy. It was revealed that bioprospecting of plants
with antiophidic activity can be used in the inhibition of snake venom. Félix-Silva
et al. (2014) reported antiophidic activity in plants of Fabaceae, Euphorbiaceae,
Apocynaceae and Sapindaceae (Félix-Silva et al. 2014). Topical application of plant
based material on the bitten area, by chewing leaves or barks, and decoctions of
plant extract can counteract snake envenomation (Sebastin Santhosh et al. 2013).
Triterpenoids saponin isolated from Pentaclothra macroloba such as
macrolobin A and B can inhibit the hemorrhagic activity of Bothrops venom,
B. neuwiedi and B. jararacussu (Da Silva et al. 2007). Clerodane is a diterpenoid
obtained from Brazilian plant Baccharis trimera. It was found that the obtained
bioactives demonstrated anti-hemorrhagic and anti-proteolytic activity against
bothrops snake venom (Januario et al. 2007).
Gomes et al. (2007) reported isolation of plant metabolites such as β sitosterol,
stigmasterol from the root extract of Plucha indica. The plant extract neutralizes
venom induced lethal defibrinogenation and edema. Stigmasterol neutralizes snake
venom induced pharmacological effect. Wedelolactone, stigmasterol and sitosterol
were isolated from Eclipta prostrata, and their antihemorrhagic and antimytotoxic
effect was studied against Bothrops jararacussu, B. jararica and Lachesis muta
(Melo et al. 1994). Pithayanukul et al. (2009) investigated that phenolic compound
from the seed kernels of Thai mango plants such as pentagallegalloylglucopyranose,
methyl gallate and gallic acid showed proteolytic activity against Naja naja kaouthia
venom and Calloselasma rhodostoma. Bioactive compounds such as quercetin,
myricetin, catechin and gallocatechin were isolated from the extract of Schizolobium
parahyla leaves, and fibrinogenolytic and hemorrhagic activity of bothrops crude
venoms was evaluated (Vale et al. 2011).

Main Bioactive Compounds Present in Plants with Antivenom

Properties
The complexity of the damage resulting from ophidian accidents and the necessity
of alternative and complementary therapeutic sources able to improve serum therapy
for this neglected disease is urgent and necessary to minimize the sequelaes and
damages.
Among the variety of compounds that constitute these plants with antivenom
properties, some seem to play a key role in the antiofidic properties described
(Table 7.2). Torres et al. (2011) reported that for bioactive compounds from the
genus Solanum, three new solanidae steroidal alkaloids were studied with regard to
myotoxicity, hemorrhage and necrosis induced by Bothrops pauloensis venom. In
120 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

Table 7.2. Some examples of plants with antiophidic properties with mechanism of inhibition.

Pharmaceutical form Property Studied Species of Snake/ References

Plant Species Poison
Phytochemical
Aqueous extract Inhibit myotoxic, Bothrops moojeni, Borges et al.
Casearia sylvestris anticoagulant, and B. pirajai, B. neuwiedi, 2000
(Flacourtiaceae) edema and B. jararacussu
venom and its Asp49
and Lys49-PLA2
isolated toxins
Aqueous extract Neutralize hemorrhagic B. pirajai, Borges et al.
Casearia sylvestris activity B. jararacussu, 2001
(Flacourtiaceae) B. asper, B. moojeni,
and B. neuwiedi venom
Aqueous extract Protective effects PrTX-I from B. pirajai Cavalcante et
Casearia sylvestris against muscle damage and BthTX-I from al. 2007
(Flacourtiaceae) induced by two B. jararacussu snake
Lys49-PLA2 toxins venom
and prevented the
neuromuscular blockage
induced by all PLA2
toxins
Eclipta alba (Asteraceae) Reduce the PLA2 Mors et al.
was genetically engineered activities and myotoxic 1989, Diogo et
using Agrobacterium and neurotoxic effects al. 2009
rhizogenes LB9402 to of the C.d. terrificus and
enhance the production of B. jararacussu snake
secondary wedelolactone venom
metabolites
Aqueous extract Inhibitor of PLA2 Bothrops and Crotalus Biondo et al.
Mandevilla velutina activity and some toxic genus 2003
(Apocynaceae) effects
Aqueous extract Inhibit the activity of Crotalus durissus Biondo et al.
Mandevilla velutina the Crotoxin B, the terrificus venom 2004
(Apocynaceae) basic Asp49-PLA2

this study, three alkaloids were isolated and characterized. The results showed that
alkaloids studied could inhibit myotoxicity of B. pauloensis by inhibition of Asp49
activity. For antihemorrhagic and antinecrotizing activity, the hemorrhage provoque
by venom are clearly decreased when alkaloid 1 and 2 are previously administered.
The necrotic effect was also affected by alkaloid 1 and 2 administration. Authors
also emphasized that snake venom metalloproteases (SVMP) is the main toxin
responsible for hemorrhagic and necrosis and the antihemorrhagic and antinecrosis
properties found in alkaloids 1 and 2 are due to the capacity of these compounds
to interact with metals and metalloproteases.
Silva et al. (2007) studied the capacity of plants’ mixture used in indigenous
medicinal practice in Sri Lanka against venom toxins of Naja naja and Daboia
russelii (Russell’s viper). These plants mixture was composed by Sansevieria
 Traditional Knowledge of Antivenom Plants 121

cylindrica, Jatropha podagrica and Citrus aurantiifolia. The study was performed
by evaluation of the potential of herbal mixture which inhibits venom toxicity in
chicken embryo model. The results showed the potential of herbal mixture that
neutralizes action of D. russeli venom. In the presence of herbal mixture, the
activity of phospholipase A2 (PLA2), of Daboia russelii venom was reduced from
9.2 103 mM min–1 to 8.0 103 mM min–1 and from N. naja from 2.92 102 mM min–1 to
0.188 × 10–2 mM min–1. With Naja venom, herbal mixture was also able to reduce
metalloprotease activity. Shabbir et al. (2014) reported that the main components
involved in neutralization properties against venom of snakes (Naja species)
include lupeol acetate, β-sitosterol, stigmasterol, rediocides A and G, quercertin,
aristolochic acid, and curcumin, as well as the broad chemical groups of tannins,
glycoproteins, and flavones. The authors emphazise that the chemical compounds of
plants enhance the survival of snakebite victims by decreasing the severity of toxins,
protect cardiovascular system, and enhance diaphragm contraction and others.
Khrishnan et al. (2013) studied the capacity of Ophiorrhiza mungos root
extact that neutralizes the venom of Daboia russelii snake. The neutralization/
inhibition of venom-induced lethality or hemorrhage was achieved by incubating
venom in chick embryo. The results showed 100% recovery of embryos with
10 mg/mL of extract which was effective in neutralizing the hemorrhage induced by
viper. Extracts of Ophiorrhiza mungos revealed the presence of terpenes, phenols,
flavonoids, alkaloids, quinones, tannins, glycosides and saponins.
Nazato et al. (2010) evaluated the antiophidian properties of Dipteryx alata
Vogel bark extract against Bothrops jararacussu and Crotalus durissus terrificus
snake venom. Authors reported the neurotoxic and myotoxic inhibition of
methanolic extracts against Bothrops jararacussu relating this inhibitory capacity
with the presence of phenolic acids and flavonoids contained in the methanolic
extract plus tannins, terpenoids from dicloromethane extract seems to play an
important role in Bothrops jararacussu and Crotalus durissus terrificus. Important
observations discussed in this study are related with the potential of some extract
that do not inhibit venom from different species or even for the same species, a
fact that makes use of “antiophidic plant” many times premature. Consequently,
the antivenom activity of plants also depend on bioactive compounds and venom
pharmacology.
Main classes of PLA2 inhibitors are the phenolic compounds, which include
flavonoids, coumestans and alkaloids, steroids and terpenoids (mono-, di-, and
triterpenes), and polyphenols (vegetable tannins) (Carvalho et al. 2013).
Identification of bioactive compounds present in plants extracts can be
performed using analytical techniques that allow identifying the profiles and
elucidating molecular characteristics of the main compounds enrolled in antivenom
activity.
Liu et al. (2015) reported the use of high-performance liquid chromatography,
high-resolution mass spectrometry, solid-phase extraction and nuclear magnetic
resonance spectroscopy (HPLC–HRMS–SPE–NMR). These techniques were used
122 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

to measure 88 plants known by antinecrosis properties that are traditionally used

in Chinese medicine against snakebite. These results showed that 61 plant extracts
could inhibit the hyaluronidase against at least one venom while 35 plants exhibited
more than 50% in the PLA2 against at least one venom. After that, the most potent
extract was submitted to high-resolution hyaluronidase inhibition profiling with
three steps: (i) chromatographic separation, (ii) hyaluronidase inhibition assaying
of the material, and (iii) plotting hyaluronidase inhibition for each well against its
respective retention time to construct a biochromatogram that can be compared
with the HPLC chromatogram.
Moura et al. (2016) studied the inhibitory potential of condensed tannin
of Plathymenia reticulata against Bothrops atrox. In this study, the chemical
composition of the aqueous extract was first isolated by TLC chromatography
and afterwards, fractionated using gel filtration sephadex LH-20 chromatography.
After a colorimetric solution containing the differents extracts was obtained, it was
analysed using UV/VIS spectrophotometer at 510 nm.

Conclusion and Future Perspectives

Indigenous populations since antiquity have been using plants with antivenom
properties in therapy against snake bites. The compounds with antisnake venom
properties are related with a mix of molecules as alkaloids, tannins, flavonoids and
others, which are able to promote local effects in affected area. The local effects
promoted by serum therapy are limited, reforcing the necessity to combine different
therapies in a snakebite treatment. However, the use and denomination of a plant as
“antiophidic plant” seems to be premature due to the capacity of some plants unable
to inhibit the venom of all different snakes or even from the same snake species.
This fact brings out the link between the mixed substances present in the plant
extract and its interaction with the pharmacological properties related with the snake
venom composition. In necrosis and hemorrhagic conditions promoted by snakebite
venom inoculation, the presence of enzymes such as phospholipases, proteases and
hyaluronidases play an important role in tissue damage, injury, necrosis, bleeding
and permanent sequels. The study and relation between phytochemistry and snake
venom compound is determinant for the success and achievement of combination
therapy in snake bite treatment. The variety in fauna and flora present in most of
the countries with a high incidence of antiophidic accidents can be a key therapy,
more effective, with less adverse effects and with accessible price.

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 Traditional Knowledge of Antivenom Plants 123

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 CHAPTER 8

Ethnobotanical Study of Dakshin

Dinajpur District of West Bengal
An Overview
Tanmay Chowdhury,1 Subhas Chandra Roy 2 and Dilip De Sarker 3,*

Introduction
The records of conscious use of plants other than food by human races have been
obliterated in remote historical past. When the “Vedas” appeared in written form,
the use of plants appeared to be the first documentary evidence as curative agent.
The subject ethnobotany gained importance at the beginning of 20th century. In
those days, it was thought that the knowledge of plants of different ethnic people
is the major source of ethnobotany. Those people had no written alphabet. It was
further conceived that discourses about the uses of plants by these aborigines and
ethnic people is ethnobotany. But the area of ethnobotany is deeper and wider.
Ethnobotany, as it stands now, is the domain of knowledge which researches
all sorts of plant uses including medicinal, cultural, primitive, agricultural or other
forms of anthropogenic uses.
Plants have been used as medicine from the beginning of civilization to present
day. Perhaps since Stone Age, plants are believed to have healing powers on man.
Ancient Vedas dating back between 3500 BC and 800 BC reveal many references
on medicinal plants. One of the remotest works in traditional herbal medicine is

1
Department of Sericulture, Raiganj University, Raiganj, Uttar Dinajpur, West Bengal-733134, India.
2
Plant Genetics and Molecular Breeding Laboratory, Department of Botany, University of North
Bengal, Raja Rammohunpur, Darjeeling, West Bengal-734013, India.
3
College para, Raiganj, Uttar Dinajpur, West Bengal-733134, India.
* Corresponding author: [email protected]
 Ethnobotanical Study of Dakshin Dinajpur District of West Bengal—An Overview 133

“Virikshayurveda”, compiled even before the beginning of the Christian era. World’s
most ancient literary work, the “Rig Veda” was composed around 2000 BC (Bently
and Trimen 1980). About 200 years ago, Indian pharmacopoeia was dominated by
herbal medicines (Ernst 2005) and almost 25% of the drugs prescribed worldwide
were obtained from plants. Of the 252 drugs considered as basic and essential by
the WHO, 11% are exclusively of plant origin and a significant number are synthetic
drugs obtained from natural precursors (Rates 2001).
Dakshin Dinajpur, consisting of eight developmental blocks, is primarily an
agriculturally sustained district. The principal tribal communities are—Santal,
Munda, Oraon, along with Scheduled Caste communities like Rajbanshis. This
district has an old folk culture of using herbal medicines. However, the importance
and such use of medicinal plants/plant parts are being lost due to rapid urbanization
and deforestation. As a result, many useful medicinal plants are becoming threatened
and precious knowledge is lost. An attempt has been made to accumulate the
previous ethnobotanical data in a nutshell so that the knowledge of various ethnic
people never get lost and the knowledge be used in different pharmaceutical industry
to exploit the active principal constituted of different plants. It may give a scientific
base on the ethnobotanical study.

Ethnobotany in West Bengal

In West Bengal, some of the remarkable studies in the field of ethnobotany were
on lesser known plant food among the tribals of Purulia (Jain and De 1964)
which was the first publication on ethnobotany from West Bengal. Later on, De
(1965, 1969) worked on ethnobotanical study of Purulia district. Subsequently,
Jain and Tarafder (1970) studied the medicinal plant-lore of Santals. Chaudhuri
and Pal (1976) made a preliminary study on ethnobotany of Medinipur district.
Ghosh (1986) studied the ethnobotanical survey of Cooch Behar district, use of
plants by Lodha tribe in Midnapur District (Pal and Jain 1989, Pant et al. 1993),
ethnobotanical study of Purulia district (Sur et al. 1992), etc. Molla et al. (1984,
1985, 1996) studied the ethnobotany of Jalpaiguri district. Mitra and Mukherjee
(2005a,b, 2010, 2013) studied the ethnobotanical works of undivided Dinajpur
district. De Sarker and his associates have made a significant contribution in the
ethnomedicine and ethnobotany of Malda, Uttar and Dakshin Dinajpur district.
De Sarker et al. (2011) have recorded good number of medicinal plants in the
districts of Malda and Uttar and Dakshin dinajpur and published them as a book.
Review work on the plants of Malda district has been done by Saha et al. (2013).
Preparation and use of native drink by Oraon tribe has been worked out by Saha et
al. (2015) and healthcare management of tribal people of Malda district has been
done by Saha et al. (2014a). Interestingly, ethnoveterinary medicine works have
been done by Saha et al. (2014b). Specific use of Acacia nilotica for prevention of
diabetes has been elucidated by Saha et al. (2017).
134 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

Trends in Herbal Medicine

Herbal medicine is still the mainstay of about 75–80% of the whole population,
and the major part of traditional therapy involves the use of plant extract and their
active constituents (Kamboj 2000). All the developing countries put greater value
towards traditional healing treatments. Consequently, there always remains a need
to find an effective and safety drug molecule because of the inefficiency to cure
the disease completely and number of serious adverse effects associated with the
existing synthetic drug (Yamashita et al. 2002, Pagan et al. 2005).
During the last few decades, there has been an increasing interest in the study
of medicinal plants and their traditional use in different parts of India. Survival of
tribals and backward class communities depend upon the use of these useful plants.
Plants are one of the most important sources of medicines and play a significant
role in the survival of the tribal and ethnic communities as well as common Indian
people. Tribal people as well as traditional practitioners widely use the medicinal
plants in their every day practice for safer, low cost, efficient and locally availability.
India has more than 427 tribal communities with rich diversity of indigenous
tradition (Xavier et al. 2014). However, traditional knowledge based practices have
been marginalized due to political and socio-economic reasons. The advantage
of medicinal plants in various treatments is relatively safer than synthetic drugs,
besides being less expensive, having greater efficacy and availability throughout
the world (Sirkar 1989, Siddiqui 1993). Therefore, collection of ethnobotanical
information and documentation of traditional knowledge has gained prominence
from the prospective of drug development (Ragupathy et al. 2008). Since interest
in traditional medicine has been increasing world over, ethnobotanical studies have
gained prominence to explore the traditional knowledge, particularly in developing
countries (Joshi and Joshi 2000). Recently, Schmidt et al. (2009) experimentally
proved that plants offer immense scope for researchers engaged in validation of
traditional claims for the development of novel drugs.

The Study Area

Dakshin Dinajpur of West Bengal is a small agriculturally active district having
eight blocks and two sub-divisions, namely, Balurghat (Hili, Balurghat, Kumarganj
and Tapan) and Gangarampur (Gangarampur, Bangshhari, Harirampur and
Kushmandi). The district Dakshin Dinajpur lies between 26° 35’ 15” N to 25° 10’
55” N latitude and 89° 00’ 30” E - 87° 48’ 37” E longitude, covering an area of
2162 Sq. Km. The district is situated between Bangladesh on the East and South,
Uttar Dinajpur district on the North and West and some southern part lies adjacent
to Malda district (Fig. 8.1). The study site has even topography, old alluvial soil
and a range in altitude from 25 to 40 m. Annual temperature generally ranges from
7.2 to 33.1°C. Annual maximum rainfall received was 445.9 mm during August,
2015 (Data collected from the Office of the Additional Director of Agriculture,
North Bengal Regional Office, Jalpaiguri, Govt. of West Bengal). The main lakes
Ethnobotanical Study of Dakshin Dinajpur District of West Bengal—An Overview 135

Fig. 8.1. Map of the study area.

136 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

(dighi) of the district are Kaldighi, Dhaldighi, Pransagar in Gangarampur block,

Altadighi, Maliandighi, Gourdighi, Hatidobadighi in Banshihari block, Tapandighi
in Tapan block, Mahipaldighi in Kushmandi block, etc. and rivers of the study area
are Jamuna, Atryee, Punarbhava and Tangon, which flows across the blocks of Hili,
Kumarganj and Balurghat, Gangarampur and Tapan, Kushmandi and Banshihari,
respectively.

Culture and People of the Study Area

The major ethnic groups of the district are Santal, Munda, Oraon, Rajbanshi, Lodha,
Sabar, etc. which are about (18.61%) of the total population. Besides their mother
tongues, the tribal communities are very fluent in Bengali language. According to
the census 2011, along with these tribes, the other non-tribal population (30.57%)
belongs to other category such as Rajbanshis (18.4%), Hindus, Muslims and other
minorities. The major ethnic groups of the district have an old tradition to use natural
resources for their day to day life to cure different type of ailments. This district
also has a very old tradition of practicing Kabiraji, Ayurveda and Unani (Fig. 8.2).
The district has various interesting and pleasurable folk culture. ‘Khan’ is a
unique age old folk culture performed mainly by the scheduled caste and scheduled
tribe communities of the district. Some of the notable ‘Khan’ palas are—‘Cyclesari’,

Fig. 8.2. Traditional healers and their medicinal preparations of Dashin Dinajpur district.
 Ethnobotanical Study of Dakshin Dinajpur District of West Bengal—An Overview 137

‘Budhasari’, etc. Besides ‘Khan’, some of the other important folk culture of the
district are Natua, Jang Gan, Mokha dance (Mask Dance), Halua-Haluani, Bislihava,
Saitpir (Satyapir Gan), Jalmanga Gan, Khaja Gan, Chorchunni, etc. In addition
to folk culture, the district has some historical and tourist sports like Dhaldighi,
Dumduma, Bangarh, Mahipaldighi, Bairhatta and Kichaka Kunda, Tapan Dighi,
District Library, College Museum, Pancha Ratna Temple, etc.

Ethnomedicine of Dakshin Dinajpur

Dakshin Dinajpur is a small and diversified ethnic culture district of West Bengal.
The tribal people of this district are still using plants for their medicinal purposes
(Table 8.1). However, few studies have been reported which showed the ethnobotanical
prospects and how the medicinal plants have been incorporated into the cultural
tradition of local ethnic people of Dakshin Dinajpur district. Sur along with his
co-workers (1987) had studied ethno-economic importance of 73 plant species under
67 genera in the district Malda and West Dinajpur. Immediately after completion
of the work again in the year 1990, they documented 52 plants under 48 genera
for ethno-economic importance in the same study area. Both the ethno-economic
works have documented the methods of application of plants in treating certain
diseases and their distribution. Similarly, Banerjee and Ghora (1996) documented
some domestic uses of plants which were not reported from West Dinajpur district.
In this study, a total of 29 common wild plants were documented highlighting
their use as food and as vegetable-ingredients, mostly during drought/flood, by the
common people. The study of Mitra and Mukherjee (2005a) showed that 16 grass
taxa were found to have 27 ethnobotanical uses and Vetiveria zizanioides was the
mostly used taxon. The study demands that the Santals are more ethnomedicinally
sound than the other tribal communities such as the Mundas and Oraons. Mitra
and Mukherjee (2005b) reported 107 lesser known uses of the root and rhizome
drugs of 71 species of angiosperms belongings to 68 genera of 45 families grown
in West Dinajpur district for the treatment of different common human diseases.
Mitra and Mukherjee (2007) had studied the ethnoveterinary medicine in Uttar
and Dakshin Dinajpur districts of West Bengal to treat the ailments of cattle, to
promote better lactation and also to improve the quality of meat, egg, etc., which
are being traditionally used till date. In this study, total 23 different prescriptions
of ethno-veterinary usages of 21 plant species covering 21 genera belonging to
17 angiospermic families were recorded. Out of these, nine are for healing of
wounds, followed by eight preparations for the improvement of lactation and
three for the healing of sores. De Sarker et al. (2011) carried out a documentation
work on medicinal plants, their uses and availability in Uttar Dinajpur, Dakshin
Dinajpur and Malda district. In this study, a total of 610 plant species including
their medicinal importance were well documented. It is found from the study of
Kundu and Bag (2012) that the Rajbanshis of Dakshin Dinajpur district use plants as
preventive and curative health measures. Talukdar and Talukdar (2012) had studied
the floral diversity and its folk uses in the banks of Atreyee River at Balurghat,
 Table 8.1. Ethnomedicinal plants used by the people of Dakshin Dinajpur district.

Scientific Name and Voucher Vernacular Name Family Parts used Medicinal uses and preparation
Specimen Number
Abroma augusta (L.) L.f. DD-12 Ulatkambol Sterculiaceae Petiole Young petiole cut into small pieces and kept in a glass of
water for overnight and infusion is used early morning on
an empty stomach to cure “meho” (a sexual disease) and
physical weakness.
Abrus precatorius L. DD-10 Kanch Papilionaceae Root Roots are used for “Meho” (a sexual disease), jaundice and
also used as abortifacient.
Acacia nilotica (L.) Delile * DD-130 Babla Mimosaceae Stem bark Stem bark decoction used to treat cough, diarrhoea,
dysentery, indigestion, acidity, “Meho” (a sexual disease)
and diabetes.
Achyranthes aspera L. DD-78 Apang/Chatchota Amaranthaceae Root Stem and root (2–3 piece) decoction mixed with “Ada”
(Zingiber officinale) and used in jaundice.
Acmella oleracea (L.) R.K.Jansen* Rasun sag Asteraceae Whole plant Whole plant eaten as vegetables to treat body pain,
DD-25 especially after child birth.
Acorus calamus L. DD-23 Bach Acoraceae Rhizome Fresh rhizome juice clears the vocal cord.
138 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

Aegle marmelos (L.) Corr. DD-58 Bel Rutaceae Fruit One teaspoonful of young dried fruits powder mixed with
water is given early morning on an empty stomach to cure
dysentery and gastric problems.
Alocasia macrorrhizos (L.) G.Don* Man-kachu Araceae Peliole Petiole ash mixed with coconut oil and applied as
DD-39 emollient on carbuncle.
Alstonia scholaris (L.) R. Br.* DD-27 Chatim/Chatan Apocyanaceae Stem bark Stem bark paste applied on breast for better lactation.
Amaranthus spinosus L. DD-16 KantaKhuria Amaranthaceae Root Mature root decoction gives physical strength and used in
indigestion problem, dysentery and diphtheria.
Ampelocissus latifolia (Roxb.) Planch.* Goalilata Vitaceae Root Root paste mixed with 12 “Golmarich” (Piper nigrum) and
DD-11 applied to cure gout and rheumatism.
Andrographis paniculata (Burm. f.) Kalmegh Acanthaceae Leaf Leaf juice used for cold and cough, diabetes and leaf
Wall. Ex Nees DD-24 paste applied on hair before 30 minutes of bath to control
dandruff.
Argemone mexicana L.* DD-01 Siyalkanta Papaveraceae Root Root juice used for piles.
Aristolochia indica L.* DD-26 Iswarmul Aristolochiaceae Root Root and leaf juice is given early morning to cure
stomachache, fever, indigestion problem and diarrhoea.
Artemisia vulgeris L. DD-35 Nagdona Asteraceae Leaf Leaf paste applied externally on the forehead to reduce
headache and sinus problem.
Averrhoa carambola L.* DD-33 Kamranga Oxalidaceae Fruit roasted fruit juice mixed with a pinch of sugar is given
early morning to cure cough and bronchitis.
Azadirachta indica A. Juss. DD-103 Neem Meliaceae Stem bark Stem bark and leaves boiled with water and applied on
carbuncle, boil and skin diseases for quick healing.
Baccharoides anthelmintica (L.) Somraji Asteraceae Seed Seeds are crushed with cream of milk and applied to cure
Moench.* DD-61 carbuncle.
Bambusa tulda L.* DD-21 Bansh Poaceae Stem Juice of roasted young shoot is applied to cure earache.
Basella alba L.* DD-77 Pui Basellaceae Stem Dried stem ash used as tooth paste to cure pyorrhoea.
Bauhinia acuminata L.* DD-59 SwetKancan Caesalpiniaceae Flower Dried flowers crushed and then lightly wormed with
mustered oil are applied externally to cure skin diseases.
Blumea lacera (Burm. f.) DC. DD-22 Kukurmuta Asteraceae Root Root (2–3 pieces) decoction mixed with “Ada” (Zingiber
officinale) is given to cure flatulence and indigestion
problem.
Boerhavia diffusa L. DD-74 Punarnaba Nyctaginaceae Whole plant Whole plant juice is given to cure burning sensation during
urination.
Bombax ceiba L. DD-66 Shimul Bombacaceae Root Fresh root (1–2 years old plant) used in “Meho” (a sexual
disease) and physical weakness.
Ethnobotanical Study of Dakshin Dinajpur District of West Bengal—An Overview

Table 8.1 contd. …

139
…Table 8.1 contd.

Scientific Name and Voucher Vernacular Name Family Parts used Medicinal uses and preparation
Specimen Number
Borassus flabellifer L.* DD-72 Tal Palmae Root Root mixed with Churchuri roots (Achyranthes aspera) are
boiled and used for gargling to cure toothache.
Bryophyllum pinnatum (Lam.) Oken Patharkuchi Crassulaceae Leaf Fresh leaf juice is used for dissolving kidney stones and
DD-41 used to treat cold and cough, flatulence and acidity. Leaf
paste applied also on burns for quick healing from burning
sensation.
Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub. Palash Papilionaceae Leaf Leaf juice used as aphrodisiac and enhances sperm count.
DD-20
Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp. DD-68 Arhar Papilionaceae Leaf Fresh leaf juice is given early morning to treat jaundice.
Calotropis gigantea (L.) Dryand. Akanda Asclepiadaceae Leaf A leaf warm with “Ghee” is applied to get relief from
DD-105 paralysis, rheumatism and body pain.
Canna indica L.* DD-54 Kalabati Cannaceae Root Root paste applied on the upper surface of the cheek to
reduce toothache.
Cassia fistula L. DD-87 Bandarlathi Caesalpiniaceae Leaf Tender leaf juice is given to cure constipation.
Centella asiatica (L.) Urban DD-32 Thankuni/ Umbelliferae Leaf Fresh leaves (5–6) chewed early morning preferably on
140 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

Dholamonia empty stomach to control diabetes, chronic dysentery,

blood stool and diarrhoea.
Cheilocostus speciosus (J. Koenig) Kuttus/Jangliada Costaceae Rhizome Rhizome juice mixed with a pinch of salt and “Ada”
C. D. Specht DD-49 (Zingiber officinale) is given to cure indigestion and
flatulence.
Chromolaena odorata (L.) R. M. King Assam Lata Asteraceae Leaf Leaf paste applied on cuts and wound to stop bleeding.
& H. Rob.* DD-50
Cissus quadrangularis L. DD-108 Harjora Vitaceae Whole plant Stem paste warmed with “Ghee” is applied on the
fractured bones. Whole plant eaten as vegetable to reduce
constipation problem.
Clerodendrum indicum (L.) Kuntze* Bhamot Verbenaceae Stem Fresh young stem used as a garland to cure a special type
DD-83 of boil in children.
Clerodendrum infortunatum L. DD-105 Ghentu/Bhant Verbenaceae Leaf Fresh leaf juice is given on an empty stomach to expel
intestinal worm (tapeworm, guinea worm).
Clitoria ternatea L. DD-126 Aparajita Papilionaceae Root Root paste used to prevent toothache.
Coccinia grandis (L.) Voigt DD-64 Telakucha Cucurbitaceae Leaf Fresh leaf juice is given to control diabetes, cold and
cough. The juice is also applied on head to reduce the
body temperature.
Cocculus hirsutus (L.) W.Theob.* Jaljamani/Faritboti Menispermaceae Leaf Fresh leaf decoction mixed with pinch of sugar is given to
DD-81 cure gonorrhoea, physical weakness and also acts as sex
stimulant and delays ejaculation.
Coix lacryma-jobi L. DD-65 Kanch Poaceae Root Root decoction used for menstrual disorder.
Commelina benghalensis L. DD-106 Kanchire Commelinaceae Leaf Leaves are crushed and applied on skin to reduce irritation
especially in caterpillar strings.
Corchorus olitorius L. DD-37 Tita pat Tiliaceae Leaf Dried leaf infusion mixed with pinch of salt and turmeric
powder is given in morning on an empty stomach to expel
intestinal worms.
Crateva religiosa G. Forst.* DD-82 Barun Capparaceae Stem bark Stem bark paste used for rheumatism and burning
sensation of body.
Croton bonplandianus Baill. DD-38 Churchuri Euphorbiaceae Latex Latex of the plant used for stopping bleeding from cuts
and wounds.
Cryptolepis dubia (Burm.f.) Kalmashna Asclepiadaceae Root Root decoction mixed with sugar (100 g), garlic (50 g) and
M.R.Almeida* DD-80 milk (250 g) is boiled, the preparation is taken twice daily
for curing rheumatic pain.
Curculigo orchioides Gaertn. DD-85 Talmuli Hypoxidaceae Root The root of the plant is used for increasing vitality and acts
as sex stimulant. Root paste is used in arthritis and joint
Ethnobotanical Study of Dakshin Dinajpur District of West Bengal—An Overview

pains (gout). Root mixed with “Pan” (Piper betel) is given

to cure piles.
141

Table 8.1 contd. …

Table 8.1 contd. …

Scientific Name and Voucher Vernacular Name Family Parts used Medicinal uses and preparation
Specimen Number
Curcuma aromatica Salisb.* DD-43 Shut Zingiberaceae Rhizome Fresh rhizome juice mixed with honey is given to children
to cure cough and bronchitis.
Cuscuta reflexa Roxb DD-84 Swarnalata Convolvulaceae Whole plant Whole plant decoction is to be taken on an empty stomach
to cure gonorrhoea.
Cyanthillium cinereum (L.) H.Rob.* Sahadebi Asteraceae Root Fresh root juice used in piles, diarrhoea and stomachic.
DD-02
Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. DD-31 Durba Poaceae Whole plant Whole plant chewed and applied on cuts and wounds for
stopping bleeding. Fresh plant decoction mixed with one
slice of Curcuma longa is given to cure leucorrhoea and
infertility.
Cyperus rotundus L. DD-56 MuthaGhas Cyperaceae Tuber Juice of tuber with a pinch of table salt is given in morning
on an empty stomach to cure chronic dysentery. Paste of
the whole plant mixed with “Ada” (Zingiber officinale) is
applied to cure boils on finger tips (Thosa).
Datura metel L. DD-127 Dhutura Solanaceae Leaf Leaf paste applied as massage balm to get relief from
142 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

rheumatic pain.
Deeringia amaranthoides (Lam.) Atmora/Atmutha Amaranthaceae Stem Young mature stem combining with “Apang”
Merr.* DD-79 (Achyranthes aspera) stem made into a chain and used to
cure jaundice. Leaf also eaten as vegetable.
Desmodium triflorum (L.) DC. DD-122 Tin pata/Tepati Papilionaceae Leaf Fresh leaves’ juice is given on an empty stomach to cure
flatulence.
Dioscorea alata L.* DD-42 Poraalu/Mach alu Dioscoreaceae Rhizome Rhizome eaten as vegetable.
Dregea volubilis (L.f.) Benth. ex Jukti Asclepiadaceae Stem Stem mixed with “Golmarich” (Piper nigram) and made
Hook.f.* DD-52 into paste and externally applied for bone fracture.
Drynaria quercifolia (L.) J. Smith* Pokhiraj Polypodiaceae Leaf Dry leaf powder mixed with 12–18 “Golmarich” (Piper
DD-90 nigrum) and warmed in mustard oil and is applied locally
to reduce muscular pain.
Eclipta prostrata (L.) L. DD-08 Kesut Asteraceae Whole plant Whole plant juice is given to get relief from irritation and
inflammation during urination. The whole plant paste is
also applied on hair before 30 minutes of bath to reduce
hair fall and promote hair growth.
Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn DD-120 KanChulkani Poaceae Root Fresh root decoction mixed with sugar is given in morning
on an empty stomach to cure “Meho” (a sexual disease).
Euphorbia hirta L. DD-48 Dudhkushi Euphorbiaceae Whole plant Whole plant paste used to treat rheumatism.
Euphorbia nerifolia L.* DD-88 ManasaSij Euphorbiaceae Leaf Fresh leaves are crushed and fried in mustard oil and
gently applied on the chest to cure bronchitis.
Flacourtia indica (Burm. f.) Merr. Bainchi/Paniala Flacourtiaceae Stem bark Stem bark mixed with stem bark of “Shimul” (Bombax
DD-45 ceiba) and boiled in water is given twice a day to cure
physical weakness, Leucorrhoea and “Meho” (a sexual
disease).
Geodorum densiflorum (Lam.) Schlt.* Bon-ada Orchidaceae Tuber Tuber paste applied on joint pain and arthritis.
DD-70
Gloriosa superba L.* DD-09 Ulatchandal Liliaceae Root Tuber paste mixed with “Ada” (Zingiber officinale) and
“Tepati” (Desmodium triflorum) applied to cure joint pain.
Glycosmis pentaphylla (Retz.) DC. Atiswar Rutaceae Root Root paste applied for rupturing the boil or carbuncle and
DD-110 getting relief from joint pain. Mature stem used as tooth
brush.
Heliotropium indicum L. DD-55 Hatisur Boraginaceae Root Root paste warm with mustard oil and applied to cure
rheumatism.
Helminthostachys zeylanica (L.) Hook.* Akbir Ophioglossaceae Rhizome Rhizome paste applied to cure arthritis.
Ethnobotanical Study of Dakshin Dinajpur District of West Bengal—An Overview

DD-115

Table 8.1 contd. …

143
…Table 8.1 contd.

Scientific Name and Voucher Vernacular Name Family Parts used Medicinal uses and preparation
Specimen Number
Hemidesmus indicus (L.) R. Br. ex Anantamul Asclepiadaceae Root Root juice is given to promote sexual debilities and
Schult.* DD-73 physical weakness.
Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. DD-71 Jaba Malvaceae Leaf Leaves’ (5–7) juice mixed with “Gur” (Jaggery) taken on
an empty stomach to reduce dysentery.
Holarrhena pubescens Wall. ex G. Don Kurci/Indrajab Apocyanaceae Stem bark Stem bark infusion is given early morning to cure chronic
DD-86 dysentery and seed powder mixed with water is used in
diabetes and guinea worm.
Hygrophila auriculata (Schumach.) Kulekhara Acanthaceae Leaf Fresh leaves’ (5–7) juice is taken twice daily to get relief
Heine DD-114 from allergy.
Ipomoea mauritiana Jacq.* DD-67 BhuiKumra Convolvulaceae Tuber One teaspoonful tuber powder mixed with lukewarm milk
is given during bed time as sexual stimulant.
Jatropha curcus L.* DD-29 Varenda Euphorbiaceae Latex Latex used in toothache.
Jatropha gossypiifolia L. DD-47 LalVarenda Euphorbiaceae Latex Latex used in pyorrhoea and applied on boil.
Justicia adhatoda L. DD-36 Harbashak Acanthaceae Leaf Leaves boiled with water and sugar candy, mixture is
given for better lactation.
144 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

Justicia gendarussa Burm. f.* DD-76 Bishtarak Acanthaceae Whole plant Whole plant paste used in rheumatism.
Lawsonia inermis L.* DD-91 Mehendi Lythraceae Root Root juice is used as sexual stimulant.
Leucas aspera (Willd.) Link.* DD-97 Dandakalash/Dulfi Lamiaceae Root Root juice given on an empty stomach and the smell of the
plant allowed to inhale for treatment of Tuberculosis.
Litsea glutinosa (Lour.) C. B. Rob. Pipulti/Darodmaida Lauraceae Leaf Leaf juice mixed with a pinch of salt and turmeric powder
DD-104 is given to cure dysentery and spermatorrhoea.
Ludwigia adscendens (L.) H. Hara Keshra-dam Onagraceae Whole plant Whole plant paste applied for bone fracture and
DD-93 rheumatism.
Madhuca longifolia (Koen. ex L.) Mahua Sapotaceae Stem bark Stem bark boiled with water and the extract is used to cure
Macbride DD-53 physical weakness.
Mangifera indica L. DD-14 Aam Anacardiaceae Leaf Bark decoction mixed with lime water is given to cure
dysentery and diarrhoea. Tender leaf juice used for
stomachic.
Marsilea quadrifolia L. DD-06 Susni Marsileaceae Leaf Leaf juice mixed with a cup of lukewarm milk given at
bed time to cure insomnia.
Meyna spinosa Roxb. ex Link.* DD-18 Moyenakanta Rubiaceae Spine Spine fried with mustard oil is applied to cure piles.
Mimosa pudica L. DD-94 Lajjabati Mimosaceae Root Fresh root boiled with water is used as gargle to cure
toothache. Root decoction also used for leucorrhoea and
blood dysentery.
Molineria capitulata (Lour.) Herb.* Bansmora Liliaceae Root Root juice is given early morning to cure piles.
DD-17
Momordica charantia L. DD-19 Karola Cucurbitaceae Leaf Leaf decoction and fruit juice is used to treat diabetes,
allergy and guinea worms.
Momordica dioica Roxb. ex Willd. Bhat-kalla Cucurbitaceae Fruit Fruit eaten as vegetable to control blood sugar level.
DD-109
Mucuna pruriens (L.) DC.* DD-15 Alkusi Papilionaceae Seed The seeds are fried with “Ghee” and sugar and pills are
made. Each pill taken during bed time as stimulant and for
vitality.
Murraya koenigii (L.) Spreng. DD-28 Curry Pata Rutaceae Leaf Leaf juice is given early morning to control blood sugar.
Nyctanthes arbor-tristis L. DD-30 Shiuly/Sephali Oleaceae Stem bark Stem bark and leaf juice is given to control remittent fever
and blood sugar.
Nymphaea rubra Roxb. ex Andrews* Lalsaluk Nymphaeaceae Flower Dried flowers’ powder mixed with water is given to cure
DD-13 piles. Dried flowers mixed with root of Eleusine indica
and a pinch of sugar is given on an empty stomach to cure
Ethnobotanical Study of Dakshin Dinajpur District of West Bengal—An Overview

leucorrhoea.

Table 8.1 contd. …

145
…Table 8.1 contd.

Scientific Name and Voucher Vernacular Name Family Parts used Medicinal uses and preparation
Specimen Number
Oxalis corniculata L. DD-92 Amrul Oxalidaceae Leaf Leaf decoction used to cure smokers cough.
Ocimum americanum L. NBU-09797 Bon tulsi Lamiaceae Leaf/Seed 1. Infusion and mucilaginous seeds are given on an empty
stomach to cure flatulence.
2. Half teaspoon of seed dust mixed with one cup of
lukewarm milk is given continuously for 7 days during
bed time to increase sexual potentiality.
3. The leaf used as mole repellents.
4. Dried burnt leaf smoke used for mosquito repellent.
Ocimum × africanum Lour.* NBU- Lebu/bon tulsi Lamiaceae Leaf/Seed 1. Fresh leaves are made into paste and applied
09798 consecutively for 7 days before 30 minutes of bath to
cure skin diseases.
2. 10–15 seeds mixed with drop of water and the
mucilaginous seeds are applied on boils for quick
rupture.
3. Leaf paste used on poisonous insect bites.
Ocimum basilicum L. NBU-09799 Babu/babuitulsi Lamiaceae Leaf 1. Fresh leaves’ paste is applied on the forehead to get
146 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

relief from the sinus and headache problem.

2. Leaves/whole plants worshipped during “Manasha puja”
by “Polia tribe/Rajbangshi”.
3. Infusion and mucilaginous seeds are given on an empty
stomach to cure gonorrhoea and act as stimulant.
Ocimum basilicum L. NBU-09800 Maruatulsi Lamiaceae Leaf 1. Leaf juice is given on an empty stomach to reduce
gastric problems.
2. Leaf used as chutney.
Ocimum gratissimum L.* NBU-09801 Ram tulsi Lamiaceae Leaf/Seed 1. Leaf juice mixed with a few drops of honey is given
early morning for dry cough and gastrointestinal
problems of child.
2. Leaf Juice is given to cure cold and cough.
3. Seed paste applied on the boils for suppuration.
Ocimum gratissimum L. NBU-09802 Ajowantulsi Lamiaceae Leaf/Seed 1. Leaf juice mixed with a few drops of honey is given
early morning for dry cough and gastrointestinal
problems of child.
2. Seed paste applied on the boils for suppuration.
3. Leaf paste used on poisonous insect stings.
Ocimum kilimandscharicum Gurke* Karpurtulsi Lamiaceae Leaf 1. Leaf paste applied on forehead to reduce headache and
NBU-09803 sinus problem.
Ocimum tenuiflorum L. (Purple type) Krishna tulsi Lamiaceae Leaf/Root 1. Leaf juice mixed with honey is used to reduce cold and
NBU-09795 cough. Fresh leaf decoction is taken twice a day for
curing tuberculosis.
2. Leaf juice is used as drops for the ear to prevent
earache.
3. One teaspoon of root extract is given with ½ cup of
lukewarm milk during bed time for stimulant.
Ocimum tenuiflorum L. (Green type) Radhatulsi Lamiaceae Leaf 1. Leaf juice mixed with honey is given for 3–7 days to
NBU-09796 cure cold and cough, bronchitis, whopping cough and
fiver.
2. Leaf (10–15) paste mixed with lemon juice (1/4) is
applied on face after bath for 7 consecutive days to cure
fungal infection.
3. 5–6 leaves mixed with a pinch of salt and made into
paste applied as poultice to cure rheumatic and gout
pain.
4. Leaf paste used on poisonous insect bites.
Ethnobotanical Study of Dakshin Dinajpur District of West Bengal—An Overview

Phyla nodiflora (L.) Greene DD-98 Koi Okhra Verbenaceae Whole plant Whole plant paste used in bone fracture.
147

Table 8.1 contd. …

…Table 8.1 contd.

Scientific Name and Voucher Vernacular Name Family Parts used Medicinal uses and preparation
Specimen Number
Phyllanthus emblica L. DD-03 Amlaki Phyllanthaceae Fruit Infusion of fruit is useful in acidity, constipation, insomnia
and also in diabetes.
Physalis peruviana L.* DD-116 Fatki Solanaceae Root Fresh root juice mixed with a few drops of honey is given
to cure whooping cough.
Piper betel L.* DD-111 Pan Piperaceae Leaf Leaf juice is given to cure indigestion and killing lice.
Piper longum L. DD-44 Pipul Piperaceae Whole plant Whole plant cooked as vegetable is given after child birth
for better lactation and relief from birth pain.
Plumbago zeylanica L. DD-113 Sadachita Plumbaginaceae Root The root paste is used as emollient for gout.
Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre* DD-04 Karanja/Gokaranja Papilionaceae Seed Seed oil is useful for hair growth and gout. Stem helpful in
reducing toothache when used as tooth brush.
Portulaca oleracea L.* DD-75 Nunia sag Portulacaceae Whole plant Whole plant cooked as vegetable to reduce constipation.
Premna serratifolia L.* DD-07 Ganiari Verbenaceae Leaf Dry leaf infusion is given on an empty stomach to cure
indigestion problem.
Psidium guajava L.* DD-100 Peyara Myrtaceae Leaf Tender leaves (2–3) chewed to cure mouth ulcer,
148 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

pyorrhoea, bad breath and sluggish fever. Bark infusion

mixed with lime water used to cure diarrhoea and
dysentery.
Pterospermum acerifolium (L.) Willd. Muchkunda Chapa Sterculiaceae Flower The dried flower’s powder is mixed with jaggery and
DD-102 tablets are made. One tablet is given once in a day on an
empty stomach to improve liver functions.
Rauvolfia serpentina (L.) Benth. ex Sapagandha/ Apocyanaceae Leaf Leaves (2–3) kept under the pillow to reduce insomnia.
Kurz DD-118 Chandovado
Ricinus communis L. DD-128 Reri/Varenda Euphorbiaceae Seed The leaves are warmed with coconut oil and applied to a
woman’s breast for improved lactation. Seed oil applied to
cure chronic arthritis and gout.
Salvinia auriculata Aubl* DD-40 Khudipana/ Salviniaceae Whole plant Whole plant mixed with 8–21 “Golmarich” (Piper nigram)
Muakarni and applied to cure bone fracture.
Scoparia dulcis L. DD-105 Chinimichri/ Scrophulariaceae Leaf Leaves and young shoots’ decoction used in dysentery.
Jastimadhu
Senna sophera (L.) Roxb. DD-99 Chekenda/ Caesalpiniaceae Root Root decoction mixed with “Ada” (Zingiber officinale) is
Kalkasunda given to cure stomachic and fever. Leaf paste applied for
gout and body pain.
Sida cordifolia L. DD-123 SwetBerala Malvaceae Root Root juice is given on an empty stomach to cure “Meho”
(a sexual disease).
Smilax ovalifolia Roxb. ex D. Don Bagnocha/ Smilaceae Root The root juice is used for dysentery and rheumatism.
DD-09 Kumarilata Tender leaves act as stimulant.
Solanum viarum Dunal* DD-07 Kantikari Solanaceae Fruit Mature fruit mixed with “Golmarich” (Piper nigrum) and
made into paste, is massaged to reduce pain and swelling
of arthritis and paralysis.
Solena amplexicaulis (Lam.) Gandhi RakhalSasa Cucurbitaceae Fruit Fruit eaten as vegetable to control blood sugar level.
DD-89
Sphagneticola calendulacea (L.) Bhringaraj Asteraceae Leaf Leaves’ paste applied on hair before 30 minutes of bath for
Pruskir* DD-51 promoting hair growth.
Spondias pinnata (L.f.) Kurz.* DD-24 Amra Anacardiaceae Leaf Fresh leaves decoction mixed with a pinch of salt is given
to cure dysentery.
Stephania japonica (Thunb.) Miers Aknadi/Takalati Menispermaceae Leaf Fresh leaf applied on carbuncle or boil for rupture and
DD-124 relief from pain.
Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels DD-27 Jam Myrtaceae Leaf Fresh leaf juice mixed with a pinch of table salt is given on
an empty stomach to control dysentery.
Terminalia arjuna (Roxb.ex DC.) Wt. Arjun Combretaceae Stem bark Stem bark infusion is given in morning on an empty
&Arn. DD-46 stomach to cure gastrointestinal troubles and heart
Ethnobotanical Study of Dakshin Dinajpur District of West Bengal—An Overview

problems.
Table 8.1 contd. …
149
…Table 8.1 contd.

Scientific name and voucher specimen Vernacular name Family Parts used Medicinal uses and preparation
number
Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb. Bahera Combretaceae Fruit Infusion of fruit is given in morning on an empty stomach
DD-119 to cure chronic dysentery, piles and constipation.
Terminalia chebula Retz. DD-121 Haritaki Combretaceae Fruit Fruit infusion is given early morning on an empty stomach
to promote liver functions and digestion.
Thunbergia laurifolia Lindl.* DD-60 SwetMahakal Acanthaceae Leaf Leaf mixed with “Durba” (Cynodon dactylon) is given to
cure leucorrhoea.

Tinospora sinensis (Lour.) Merr. DD-47 Gulancha Menispermaceae Stem Stem (1.5 kg) boiled with water (3 lit) and made into 1 lit;
from there half cup of mixture is given daily on an empty
stomach to control blood sugar, cholesterol and physical
weakness.
Trichosanthes dioica Roxb.* DD-96 Patol Cucurbitaceae Root Fresh root juice is given early morning on an empty
stomach to expel the intestinal worm of children.
Tylophora indica (Burm.f.) Merr.* Antamul Asclepiadaceae Leaf Leaf decoction is given to cure “Meho” (a sexual disease).
DD-69
150 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

Vanda tessellata (Roxb.) G. Don DD-63 Rasna/Pargacha Orchidaceae Root Root juice is given to cure physical weakness and promote
sexual performances.
Vitex negundo L. DD-25 Nishinda Verbenaceae Leaf Dry leaves boiled with mustard oil are applied to cure
rheumatism. Leaf decoction used also in fever and
diabetes.
Zingiber montanum (J. Koenig) Link ex Bon Ada/Taraj Zingiberaceae Rhizome Infusion of the fresh rhizome is given to cure leucorrhoea
A. Dietr.* DD-34 and physical weakness.
Zingiber zerumbet (L.) Roscoe ex Sm.* Jabakusum Zingiberaceae Rhizome Fresh rhizome juice mixed with “Aswagandha” (Withania
DD-62 somnifera) is given to cure leucorrhoea and physical
weakness.
* New records/claims.
 Ethnobotanical Study of Dakshin Dinajpur District of West Bengal—An Overview 151

Dakshin Dinajpur. The study revealed that 39 plants were used as herbal medicine
by different ethnic communities, namely Santhals and Mundas residing along the
basin of the River Atreyee. Santhals are the dominant tribe in the study area, using
the maximum number (67) of plants as indigenous health care system, and it was
followed by Munda tribe (29). Further, they identified 62 plant species belonging
to 34 families used by Santal, Oraon, Munda and other communities (Polia, Sabar,
Lodha) for medicinal purposes in Hili Block of Dakshin Dinajpur district, West
Bengal (Talukdar and Talukdar 2013). The study revealed that leaves of the plant
species are frequently used by ethnic people for medicinal purposes. Among
the tribals, Santals are the best in acquiring, maintaining and using traditional
knowledge of herbal plants. Recently, Chowdhury et al. (2014a) documented some
traditional uses of plants by the different communities of Dakshin Dinajpur district.
Results revealed that the maximum number of plants was used in gastrointestinal
problems followed by gynaecological problems. The study showed that among the
various plant parts used, leaf was mostly used for medicinal preparation followed by
root, whole plant, stem bark, etc. Total 132 plant species belonging to 65 families
under 120 genera were recorded in the aforementioned study. Though all the 132
plants have their medicinal values, but these were unveiled before the study, and
most importantly 56 plants are found to have medicinal importance, which was
not known before the study (Table 8.1).

Ethnomedicines in Specific Ailments

To induce early stage pregnancy termination, some plants have been used by the
various tribal communities from the different parts of West Bengal. Mitra and
Mukherjee (2009) had documented the abortifacient plants used by the tribal
communities of West Bengal. They documented total 22 Angiospermic plant
species belonging to 21 genera under 18 families for abortifacient among the seven
(Lodha, Lohar, Munda, Oraon, Polia, Sabar and Santal) native tribal communities
of West Bengal. Gastro-intestinal problems like constipation, diarrhoea, dysentery,
dyspepsia, indigestion and flatulence, inflammation of liver, stomachache,
abdominal pain and intestinal worm mostly prevailed in the North Bengal area.
Mitra and Mukherjee (2010) had identified 62 local plant species belonging to 60
genera under 36 families (33 dicots and 3 monocots) having medicinal importance
to cure gastrointestinal problems. Leaf was the most commonly plant parts used for
preparation of drug and it was also observed that diarrhoea and dysentery were the
two commonest diseases which have been documented by 11 and 21 prescriptions,
respectively. Diabetes is a very important disease because of its wide occurrence
and severity. Chowdhury et al. (2011) documented the plants which were being used
to treat diabetes by the ethnic tribal communities of Dinajpur (Uttar and Dakshin)
and Malda District of West Bengal. The study recorded 31 plant species belonging
to 21 families which were commonly used for the remedial of diabetes. Mitra and
Mukherjee (2011) had listed 29 plant species, which have been used in 32 different
ways for the treatment of diabetes by the 9 different tribal communities of the
152 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

North Bengal plains (Terai region of Darjeeling district, the districts of Jalpaiguri,
Koch bihar, Uttar Dianjpur, Dakshin Dinajpur, and Malda) of West Bengal, India.

Ethnobotany of the Genus Ocimum

Ocimum tenuiflorum (“Tulsi”) is considered as the most sacred and auspicious plant
in India. The name ‘Tulsi’ is derived from the Sanskrit word which means “the
matchless one” (Ghosh 1995). In Ayurveda, ‘Tulsi’ is known as the incomparable
one, mother medicine of nature, the queen of herbs and elixir of life (Singh et al.
2002). Hindus worship this plant in the morning as well as in the evening by giving
some “Prasad/Vog” with wet rice, flowers, vermillion and sweets. Many “Sadhus”,
particularly those belonging to the Bairagi/Baishnab sector, put on a garland of
tulsi around their necks. They use ‘Japmala’ (Chanting beads) to count or chant the
names of Ram from tulsi. The Baishnab devotee offers his daily meals to Vishnu by
putting a leaf of tulsi in his food (Upadhyaya 1964). According to Hindu tradition,
‘Tulsi’ leaves are placed on the eyes of the dead body and planted at the funeral
place and this plant is never burnt by Hindus (Kumar et al. 2006).
The traditional uses of Ocimum species are well documented in some Indian
texts by different authors (Chopra 1953, Chopra et al. 1956, CSIR 1966, Kirtikar
and Basu 1975, Nadkararni and Nadkarni 1976, Satyavati et al. 1976, Warrier et
al. 1995). Tulsi is also a good home remedy for various diseases such as common
cold and cough, asthma, headaches, bronchitis, liver diseases, fever, lumbago,
hiccups, eye infections, ringworm, gastric disorders, diarrhoea, insomnia, arthritis,
urinary disorders, skin diseases, sore throat, vomiting, antidote for snake bite and
scorpion sting (Singh et al. 2002, Prajapati et al. 2003, Das and Vasudevan 2006,
Ulbricht 2010, Cohen 2014). Another report showed the ethnoveterinary use of
Lamiaceae Ocimum (Galav et al. 2013). Naghibi et al. (2005) documented the folk
medicinal uses of Labiatae family from Iran. They documented total 410 species
and subspecies of 46 genera. The 18% species of the family Lamiaceae were used
as medicine. In this review, four Ocimum species and their ethnobotanical uses
are well documented.
Prabhu et al. (2009) reviewed the chemical, pharmacological and
ethnomedicinal properties of O. gratissimum. Folklore medicine claims its use
in headache, fever, diarrhoea, pneumonia, etc. This review nicely represented
the ethno-botanical, natural product chemistry, pharmacological, clinical and
toxicological data of the plant. Kashyap et al. (2011) reviewed the ethnomedicinal,
phytochemical and pharmacological survey of O. kilimandscharicum. It has been
used generally in Kenya against cold and cough, measles, diarrhoea, abdominal
pain and as a mosquito repellent. Singh and his associates (2011) reviewed the folk
uses of Ocimum sanctum. The study clearly describes the symptoms of different
ailments and various modes of administration of Ocimum for the management of
healthcare system. Agarwal et al. (2013) studied the ethnomedicinal uses of Ocimum
species from Rajasthan. The study showed that traditional healers of Rajasthan have
commendable knowledge of the medicinal values of plants growing around them.
 Ethnobotanical Study of Dakshin Dinajpur District of West Bengal—An Overview 153

Mamun-Or-Rashid and his associates (2013) reviewed the ethno-medicobotanical

study on Ocimum sanctum. This study revealed the enormous diversity of its
medicinal uses and curing a wide range of common ailments like fever, malaria
fever, asthma, bronchitis, colic pain, sore throat and hepatic diseases. Besides the
ethnobotanical uses, they also listed the phytochemicals and various other important
medicinal properties. Similar study has been conducted by Tiwari et al. (2014).
“Tulsi” (Ocimum sp.) is one of the most commonly used plant for curing
ailments. During the period of ethnomedicinal study, it was found that nine different
Ocimum species/varieties are present naturally in Dakshin Dinajpur district which
were traditionally used by the different tribal people of this district (Chowdhury
et al. 2016, 2017).

Uses Other Than Medicinal

Edible wild plants
In addition to medicinal uses, plant resources were also utilized as forage, manure,
fishing, sheltering, vegetable and religious purposes. Talukdar and Talukdar (2012)
nicely documented 19 plants used as vegetable by different ethnic communities,
namely Santhals and Mundas, residing along the basin of the River Atreyee.
Besides food value, some plants like Hydrilla verticillata, Bambusa arundinacea,
Coix lacryma-jobi were used for fishing and Echinochloa crus-galli and Hydrilla
verticillata were used as fish feed. Chowdhury et al. (2014b) documented a total
of 91 plant species belonging to 51 families and 78 genera that have been used as
wild edibles by the local communities as well as common people of Uttar Dinajpur
district. Out of 91 species of wild edibles collected from this area, 89 species belong
to angiosperms and 2 species are ferns. Of the angiosperms, 18 species belong
to monocots and 71 species are dicotyledonous. Out of the 18 monocot species,
herbs are predominant, followed by trees and climbers. On the other hand, out of
71 dicotyledonous species, herbs are predominant followed by trees, shrubs and
climbers. The study also documented some interesting preparations of wild food
plants, for example, rhizomes of Alocasia macrorrhiza are used as vegetable after
cooking and are also cut into small juliennes and dried for future use as chips. Tubers
of Typhonium trilobatum are consumed by the Santals after boiling. Rajbangsi
people consume the spongy part of the petiole of Musa balbisiana, locally called
“Kakna”, after cooking with stem and leaf of Piper longum, especially after child
birth for alleviating pain. Young sprouting shoot of Bambusa tulda is covered with
earthen pot which makes the shoot grow into a cabbage like form. This cabbage
shaped shoot is consumed as vegetable. Flowers of Madhuca indica are consumed
raw and are also used as a flavoring agent of “Payasham”—a milk and rice
containing dessert. Seeds of Tamarindus indica are fried in hot sand and consumed.
Similar kind of uses has been observed by the author while doing ethnobotanical
survey of Dakshin Dinajpur district.
154 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

Conclusion
The value of medicinal plants, herbs and spices as herbal remedies is getting lost
due to lack of awareness, urbanization, deforestation and modernization. On the
other hand, some traditional practitioners had a false apprehension that propagating
the knowledge of medicinal plants by common people may reduce their efficacy
and thus they kept it a secret. However, newer generations are not very keen to
retain this tradition based knowledge from their predecessors. As a result, important
knowledge based tradition is fading away. Therefore, in the present chapter, efforts
have been made to accumulate traditional knowledge of the different tribal and
non-tribal communities of Dakshin Dinajpur district before this huge wealth of
traditional knowledge is lost forever and hence it must be documented properly. In
conclusion, on the basis of the ethnobotanical review of Dakshin Dinajpur district,
further phytochemical investigation is needed for clinical trials to test their efficacy
and to develop a new herbal drug. Hopefully this documentation will serve for the
future generations, researchers and common people as a whole.

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 CHAPTER 9

Antipsoriatic Medicinal Plants

From Traditional Use to Clinic
José Luis Ríos,1,* Guillermo R. Schinella2 and Isabel Andújar1,3,4

Introduction
Psoriasis is a chronic autoimmune inflammatory disease of the skin with a
worldwide prevalence of 2–3% (Nickoloff and Nestle 2004, Takeshita et al.
2017). The pathology is easy to recognize for the characteristic erythema, severe
inflammation, excessive proliferation of keratinocytes, and scaly plaques (Lowes
et al. 2007). In addition to the skin lesions, other associated pathologies could be
present, mainly nail dystrophy accompanied by psoriatic arthritis (20–25%), which
is similar to rheumatoid arthritis (Nickoloff and Nestle 2004). The pathogenesis of
these comorbid diseases remains unknown, but common inflammatory pathways,
cellular mediators, genetic susceptibility, and risk factors have been described as
contributing elements (Takeshita et al. 2017).
Nickoloff (1991) proposed a hypothesis for the pathophysiology of psoriasis,
in which a stimulus triggers a series of cellular events generating a cascade of
cytokines, such as tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α derived from dendritic antigen-
presenting cells and keratinocytes, and interferon (IFN)-γ produced by activated
Th1 lymphocytes (Nickoloff 1991, Boehncke 2007). The evolution of psoriasis
treatment reflects the limitations in the knowledge of its pathogenesis. In the past,
treatments were based on serendipity and chance because neither the specific target
nor the mechanism of action for the treatment was known (Nickoloff and Nestle
2004). In this sense, arsenic (Fowler’s solution), ammoniated mercury, crude
1
Departament de Farmacologia, Facultat de Farmàcia, Universitat de València, Spain.
2
Facultad de Ciencias Médicas, Universidad Nacional de La Plata, CIC-PBA, Argentina.
3
FISABIO-Fundación Hospital Universitario Dr. Peset, Valencia, Spain.
4
Departamento de Ciencias Biomédicas, Universidad Europea de Valencia, Valencia, Spain.
* Corresponding author: [email protected]
 Antipsoriatic Medicinal Plants: From Traditional Use to Clinic 159

coal tar, anthralin, corticosteroids and ultraviolet (UV)-B radiation have been
systematically used. The knowledge of the immunological components and some
relevant mediators implicated allowed the use of selective immunosuppressors
such as methotrexate, cyclosporine A, tacrolimus, psoralen + UV-A light therapy
(PUBA), fumaric acid esters, 5-aminolevulinic acid, 6-thioguanine, salicilates,
hydroxyurea and analogues of vitamins A (retinoids) and D. Advanced therapeutic
options include the use of biologic drugs which specifically target cytokines that
directly mediate the development of psoriasis, such as TNF-α inhibitors (etanercept,
infliximab, and adalimumab), anti-interleukin (IL)-12/IL-23 (ustekinumab) or
anti-IL-23 (secukinumab, ixekizumab) (Nickoloff and Nestle 2004, Herman and
Herman 2016).
Due to the side effects and elevated cost of the treatment of psoriasis with
these new biological drugs, patients often seek treatments outside the allopathic
paradigm (Shawahna and Jarada 2017). In different parts of the world, patients with
psoriasis employ medicinal plants and complementary and alternative medicine
(CAM) as a potential solution. Some medicinal plants are used topically but others
are administered orally for a systematic effect. Although the use of medicinal plants
is based on the traditional employ and, consequently, is not an evidence-based
practice, today different randomized clinical trials have been developed (Shawahna
and Jarada 2017). The use of CAM among patients with psoriasis is quite common
(43–69% prevalence), and the use of 1–6 herbs, special diets, or dietary supplements
are the most common processes (Smith et al. 2009, Tirant et al. 2018). The number
of randomized controlled clinical trials using different medicinal plants to treat
signs/symptoms of psoriasis are considerable, and the results are varied due to
cultural factors (Shawahna and Jarada 2017, Tirant et al. 2018).
The use of plant extracts or products as inhibitors of leukotriene synthesis is
based on the previous reports on the increase of lipoxygenase activity, leukotrienes
and other lipoxygenase products in the pathogenesis of psoriasis (Voorhees 1983).
Consequently, 5- and 12-lipoxygenase inhibitors could have beneficial effect
in this disease. Different pathologic events can be explained by the action of
12-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid (12-HETE): the normal epidermis synthesizes
predominantly 12(S)-HETE, whereas the product derived from psoriatic skin is its
enantiomer 12(R)-HETE (Schneider and Bucar 2005). However, Ford-Hutchinson
(1993) had previously described doubts on the case of 5-lipoxygenase because
there is no clear evidence of its presence in human skin, and selective leukotriene
biosynthesis inhibitors have no therapeutic utility in psoriasis. Based on these
features, many of the studied plants with potential as antipsoriatic agents are found
in the arachidonate metabolism via lipoxygenase and in their antioxidant properties.

Traditional Use of Medicinal Plants as Antipsoriatic Agents

The treatment of skin diseases with plant extracts and natural products has been
reported since ancient civilizations. Photochemotherapy was used in Egypt and
India since 1200–2000 BC, as well as boiled extracts of seeds or leaves, which were
160 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

applied to the skin or ingested before the patient was exposed to intense sunlight
(Seyger et al. 1998), but also other complementary and alternative medicines have
been used (Capella and Finzi 2003).
The first scientific report on the use of CAM in psoriatic patients was published
by Jensen in 1990, who compiled data on 215 patients with psoriasis based on a
questionnaire in Norway, which included different questions on the use of CAM.
The conclusion drawn from the questionnaire was that the absence of a satisfactory
effect of the standard therapy was the most decisive factor in using CAM, although,
as he reported, patient showed no improvement, or psoriasis was even aggravated
as a result of these alternative treatments (Jensen 1990a,b).
Amenta et al. (2000) compiled a series of 48 medicinal plants used around
the world for treating psoriasis, and 9 used specifically in Sicily (Italy). These
same authors indicated the extractive solvent and system for their application
(Table 9.1). More recently, Talbott and Duffy (2015) reviewed the efficacy of
herbal therapies against psoriasis and they observed the best efficacy in the case of
Berberis aquifolium (syn.: Mahonia aquifolium) and indigo naturalis, while it was
smaller for aloe (Aloe vera, syn: Aloe barbadensis), neem (Azadirachta indica),
and extracts of sweet whey. Indigo naturalis is a blue powder obtained from the
leaves of different plants, such as Strobilanthes cusia (syn.: Baphicacanthus cusia),
Persicaria tinctoria (syn.: Polygonum tinctorium), Isatis tinctoria (syn.: Isatis
indigotica) and Strobilanthes formosanus (McDermott et al. 2016). Herman and
Herman (2016) also compiled a series of studies of plants used against psoriasis.
All of them are included in Table 9.1. Some plant names have been modified and
the present name was introduced.

Studies on Medicinal Plants as Potential Antipsoriatic Agents

Many of the cited plants in Table 9.1 have been studied in different experimental
models of psoriasis. One of the hallmarks in the study of psoriasis is the lack of a
model that reproduces appropriately the characteristic features of the disease. For
that reason, the experimental models are not easily useful as antipsoriatic models
and some of them are focused to evaluate concrete aspects of this disease, such as
inflammation or cell proliferation. Of these potential protocols, different in vitro and
in vivo experimental models have been developed, such as the in vitro effects on the
proliferation of SVK-14 keratinocytes (Sampson et al. 2001), the anti-inflammatory
and antiproliferative effects (Carrenho et al. 2015), the inhibition of mediators
implicated in psoriasis, such as TNF-α (Sethi et al. 2009), the expression of relevant
molecules in human psoriatic skin by immunohistochemistry (Augustin et al. 1999),
and the in vivo orthokeratosis mouse-tail test (Herman and Herman 2016).
Epidermal keratinocytes provide a protective role against external stimuli
forming a physical barrier, and its excessive proliferation is one of the most
characteristic symptoms of psoriasis. Inhibiting its excessive proliferation could
be a good target for the study of new antipsoriatic agents. In this sense, Sampson
et al. (2001) carried out a rapid-throughput in vitro bioassay to look for plants
Table 9.1. Medicinal plants and fungi used in traditional medicine in treatment of psoriasis. All botanical names were updated using the recent taxonomical revision
of ‘The plant list. A working list of all plant species’.

Plant Name (updated)* Family Reference

Acanthus mollis L. Acanthaceae Amenta et al. 2000
Bader et al. 2015
Achillea ligustica All. Compositae Bader et al. 2015
Agave americana L. Asparagaceae Amenta et al. 2000
Aleurites moluccanus (L.) Willd. Euphorbiaceae Brown et al. 2005
Allium sativum L. Amaryllidaceae Shawahna and Jarada 2017
1
Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f. Xanthorrhoeaceae Amenta et al. 2000
Smith et al. 2009
Singh and Tripathy 2014
Arora et al. 2016
Shawahna and Jarada 2017
Alpinia galanga (L.) Willd. Zingiberaceae Saelee et al. 2011
Singh and Tripathy 2014
Ammi visnaga (L.) Lam. Apiaceae Shawahna and Jarada 2017
Angelica dahurica (Hoffm.) Benth. & Hook.f. ex Franch. & Sav. Apiaceae Amenta et al. 2000
Prieto et al. 2003
Angelica dahurica var. formosana (Boissieu) Yen Apiaceae Shan et al. 2006
Angelica pubescens Maxim. Apiaceae Prieto et al. 2003
Angelica sinensis (Oliv.) Diels Apiaceae Amenta et al. 2000
Singh and Tripathy 2014
Annona squamosa L. Annonaceae Saelee et al. 2011
Singh and Tripathy 2014
Antipsoriatic Medicinal Plants: From Traditional Use to Clinic

Table 9.1 contd. …

161
…Table 9.1 contd.

Plant Name (updated)* Family Reference

Anthemis cotula L. Compositae Shawahna and Jarada 2017
Arctium lappa L. Compositae Amenta et al. 2000
Arnebia euchroma (Royle) I.M.Johnst. Boraginaceae Yao et al. 2016
Dai et al. 2014
Arnebia guttata Bunge Boraginaceae Yao et al. 2016
Dai et al. 2014
Artemisia arborescens (Vaill.) L. Compositae Amenta et al. 2000
Bader et al. 2015
Artemisia capillaris Thunb. Compositae Lee et al. 2018
Astragalus propinquus Schischkin 2 Leguminosae Prieto et al. 2003
Avena barbata Pott ex Link Poaceae Shawahna and Jarada 2017
Azadirachta indica A. Juss Meliaceae Amenta et al. 2000
Smith et al. 2009
Berberis aquifolium Pursh 3 Berberidaceae Amenta et al. 2000
Singh and Tripathy 2014
162 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

Smith et al. 2009

Betula alleghaniensis Britton Betulaceae Kaur and Kumar 2012
Borago officinalis L. Boraginaceae Amenta et al. 2000
Caesalpinia bonduc (L.) Roxb. Leguminosae Muruganantham et al. 2011
Kaur and Kumar 2012
Camptotheca accuminata Decne. Cornaceae Singh and Tripathy 2014
Capsicum annuum L. 4 Solanaceae Shawahna and Jarada 2017
Singh and Tripathy 2014
Carica papaya L. Caricaceae Amenta et al. 2000
Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don Apocynaceae Shawahna and Jarada 2017
Celastrus paniculatus Willd. Celastraceae Arora et al. 2016
Celastrus orbiculatus Thunb. Celastraceae Kaur and Kumar 2012
Centella asiatica (L.) Urb. Apiaceae Kaur and Kumar 2012
Sampson et al. 2001
Celastrus paniculatus Willd. Celastraceae Arora et al. 2016
Chelidonium majus L. Papaveraceae Amenta et al. 2000
Citrus limon (L.) Osbeck Rutaceae Shawahna and Jarada 2017
Coptis chinensis Franch. Ranunculaceae Kaur and Kumar 2012
Crotalaria juncea L. Leguminosae Amenta et al. 2000
Singh et al. 2015
Cryptostegia grandifolia Roxb. ex R.Br. Apocynaceae Amenta et al. 2000
5
Cullen corylifolium (L.) Medik Leguminosae Amenta et al. 2000
Sampson et al. 2001
Curcuma aromatica Salisb. 6 Zingiberaceae Dai et al. 2014
Curcuma kwangsiensis S.G.Lee & C.F.Liang Zingiberaceae Dai et al. 2014
Curcuma longa L. 7 Zingiberaceae Saelee et al. 2011
Singh and Tripathy 2014
Arora et al. 2016
Shawahna and Jarada 2017
Curcuma phaeocaulis Valeton Zingiberaceae Dai et al. 2014
Dictamnus albus L. Rutaceae Amenta et al. 2000
Dioscorea composita Hemsl. Dioscoreaceae Amenta et al. 2000
Antipsoriatic Medicinal Plants: From Traditional Use to Clinic

Table 9.1 contd. …

163
…Table 9.1 contd.

Plant Name (updated)* Family Reference

Dittrichia viscosa (L.) Greuter 8 Compositae Amenta et al. 2000
Bader et al. 2015
Shawahna and Jarada 2017
Dodonaea polyandra Merr. & L.M.Perry Sapindaceae Simpson et al. 2014
Duchesnea indica (Jacks.) Focke Rosaceae Song et al. 2010
Ecballium elaterium (L.) A.Rich. Cucurbitaceae Amenta et al. 2000
Echinacea sp. Compositae Amenta et al. 2000
9
Eruca vesicaria (L.) Cav. Brassicaceae Kaur and Kumar 2012
Eupatorium cannabinum L. Compositae Amenta et al. 2000
Falconeria insignis Royle 10 Euphorbiaceae Amenta et al. 2000
Ficus carica L. Moraceae Shawahna and Jarada 2017
Forsythia suspensa (Thunb.) Vahl Oleaceae Prieto et al. 2003
Fucus vesiculosus L. Fucaceae Amenta et al. 2000
Fumaria officinalis L. Papaveraceae Amenta et al. 2000
164 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

Gardenia gummifera L.f. Rubiaceae Nagar et al. 2016

Gaultheria procumbens L. Ericaceae Singh and Tripathy 2014
Givotia moluccana (L.) Sreem 11 Euphorbiaceae Amenta et al. 2000
Glycyrrhiza glabra L. Leguminosae Amenta et al. 2000
Shawahna and Jarada 2017
Glycyrrhiza inflata Batalin Leguminosae Yao et al. 2016
Glycyrrhiza uralensis Fisch. Leguminosae Yao et al. 2016
12
Handroanthus impetiginosus (Mart. ex DC.) Mattos Bignoniaceae Kaur and Kumar 2012
Helichrysum italicum (Roth) G.Don Compositae Amenta et al. 2000
Helicteres isora L. Malvaceae Amenta et al. 2000
Hydnocarpus anthelmintica Pierre ex Laness. Achariaceae Amenta et al. 2000
Hydrastis canadensis L. Ranunculaceae Amenta et al. 2000
Hypericum perforatum L. Hypericaceae Amenta et al. 2000
Iris versicolor L. Iridaceae Amenta et al. 2000
Isatis tinctoria L. 13 Brassicaceae McDermott et al. 2016
Juglans regia L. Juglandaceae Shawahna and Jarada 2017
Kigelia africana (Lam.) Benth. Bignoniaceae Herman and Herman 2016
Lawsonia inermis L. Lythraceae Shawahna and Jarada 2017
Leucas aspera (Willd.) Link Lamiaceae Amenta et al. 2000
Singh et al. 2015
Ligusticum striatum DC. 14 Apiaceae Liu et al. 2001
Linum usitatissimum L. Linaceae Shawahna and Jarada 2017
Lithospermum erythrorhizon Siebold & Zucc. Boraginaceae Yao et al. 2016
Dai et al. 2014
Malva sylvestris L. Malvaceae Shawahna and Jarada 2017
Matricaria chamomilla L. 15 Compositae Singh and Tripathy 2014
Melaleuca alternifolia (Maiden & Betche) Cheel Myrtaceae Amenta et al. 2000
Singh and Tripathy 2014
Melaleuca leucadendra (L.) L. Myrtaceae Amenta et al. 2000
Menispermum dauricum DC. Menispermaceae Song et al. 2010
Musa × paradisiaca L. Musaceae Shawahna and Jarada 2017
Antipsoriatic Medicinal Plants: From Traditional Use to Clinic

Nerium oleander L. Apocynaceae Amenta et al. 2000

165

Table 9.1 contd. …

…Table 9.1 contd.

Plant Name (updated)* Family Reference

Nepeta tenuifolia Benth. 16 Lamiaceae Amenta et al. 2000
Nigella arvensis L. Ranunculaceae Shawahna and Jarada 2017
Nigella sativa L. Ranunculaceae Herman and Herman 2016
Singh and Tripathy 2014
Oenothera biennis Scop. Onagraceae Amenta et al. 2000
Olax scandens Roxb. Olacaceae Singh and Tripathy 2014
Oldenlandia diffusa (Willd.) Roxb. Rubiaceae Song et al. 2010
Olea europaea L. Oleaceae Shawahna and Jarada 2017
Origanum jordanicum Danin & Kunne Lamiaceae Shawahna and Jarada 2017
Paeonia anomala subsp. veitchii (Lynch) D.Y.Hong & K.Y.Pan 17 Paeoniaceae Yao et al. 2016
Paeonia lactiflora Pallas Paeoniaceae Choi et al. 2015
Panax ginseng C.A. Mey. Aracliaceae Kaur and Kumar 2012
Parietaria officinalis L. Urticaceae Amenta et al. 2000
Paronychia argentea Lam. Caryophyllaceae Shawahna and Jarada 2017
Pedalium murex L. Pedaliaceae Singh and Tripathy 2014
166 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

Persea americana Mill. Lauraceae Shawahna and Jarada 2017

Persicaria tinctoria (Aiton) H. Gross 18 Polygonaceae McDermott et al. 2016
Phellodendron amurense Rupr. Rutaceae Li et al. 2017
Phellodendron chinense C.K.Schneid. Rutaceae Li et al. 2017
Phlebodium decumanum (Willd.) J. Sm. 19 Polypodiaceae Kaur and Kumar 2012
Phyllanthus reticulatus Poir. Phyllanthaceae Singh and Tripathy 2014
Singh et al. 2015
Phyllanthus virgatus G.Forst.20 Phyllanthaceae Singh and Tripathy 2014
Picea mariana (Mill.) Britton, Sterns & Poggenb. Pinaceae Kaur and Kumar 2012
Pilocarpus jaborandi Holmes Rutaceae Amenta et al. 2000
Pinus halepensis Mill. 21 Pinaceae Kaur and Kumar 2012
Shawahna and Jarada 2017
Platycladus orientalis (L.) Franco Cupressaceae Song et al. 2010
Podophyllum peltatum L. Berberidaceae Amenta et al. 2000
Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre Leguminosae Kaur and Kumar 2012
Prunus dulcis (Mill.) D.A.Webb 22 Rosaceae Shawahna and Jarada 2017
Prunus mume (Sieb.) Sieb. et Zucc. Rosaceae Yao et al. 2016
Pseudolarix amabilis (J. Nelson) Rehder Pinaceae Amenta et al. 2000
Rauwolfia vomitoria Afzel. Apocynaceae Amenta et al. 2000
Rehmannia glutinosa (Gaertn.) DC. Plantaginaceae Amenta et al. 2000
Reynoutria japonica Houtt. 23 Polygonaceae Song et al. 2010
Rhagadiolus stellatus (L.) Gaertn. Compositae Amenta et al. 2000
Rhinacanthus nasutus (L.) Kurz Acanthaceae Singh and Tripathy 2014
Rhus chinensis Mill. Anacardiaceae Song et al. 2010
Rhus mysorensis G.Don Anacardiaceae Singh and Tripathy 2014
Ricinus communis L. Euphorbiaceae Shawahna and Jarada 2017
Rubia cordifolia L. Rubiaceae Kaur and Kumar 2012
Herman and Herman 2016
Rumex nepalensis Spreng. Polygonaceae Song et al. 2010
Ruta graveolens L. Rutaceae Amenta et al. 2000
Saccharum officinarum L. Poaceae Kaur and Kumar 2012
Salvia fruticosa Mill. Lamiaceae Shawahna and Jarada 2017
Salvia miltiorriza Bunge Lamiaceae Deng et al. 2014
Sarcandra glabra (Thunb.) Nakai Chloranthaceae Yao et al. 2016
Scrophularia striata Boiss Scrophulariaceae Monsef-Esfahani et al. 2014
Antipsoriatic Medicinal Plants: From Traditional Use to Clinic

Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi Lamiaceae Herman and Herman 2016

Table 9.1 contd. …
167
…Table 9.1 contd.
Plant Name (updated)* Family Reference
Securidaca longipedunculata Fresen. Polygalaceae Amenta et al. 2000
Silybum marianum (L.) Gaertn. Compositae Amenta et al. 2000
Simmondsia chinensis (Link) C.K. Schneid. Simmondsiaceae Shawahna and Jarada 2017
Senna alexandrina Mill. Leguminosae Shawahna and Jarada 2017
Senna tora (L.) Roxb. 24 Leguminosae Herman and Herman 2016
Smilax china L. Smilacaceae Herman and Herman 2016
Singh and Tripathy 2014
Smilax glabra Roxb. Smilacaceae Song et al. 2010
Yao et al. 2016
Smilax officinalis Kunth Smilacaceae Amenta et al. 2000
Solanum dulcamara L. Solanaceae Amenta et al. 2000
Solanum lyratum Thunb. Solanaceae Song et al. 2010
Solanum pubescens Willd. Solanaceae Singh and Tripathy 2014
Sophora tonkinensis Gagnep. 25 Leguminosae Amenta et al. 2000
Stellaria media (L.) Vill. Caryophyllaceae Amenta et al. 2000
168 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

Stellera chamaejasme L. Thymelaeaceae Tian et al. 2005

Strobilanthes cusia (Nees) Kuntze 26 Acanthaceae McDermott et al. 2016
Strobilanthes formosanus S. Moore Acanthaceae McDermott et al. 2016
Silybum marianum (L.) Gaertn. Compositae Singh and Tripathy 2014
Teucrium capitatum L. Lamiaceae Shawahna and Jarada 2017
Thespesia populnea (L.) Sol. ex Corrêa Malvaceae Kaur and Kumar 2012
Herman and Herman 2016
Tinospora sinensis (Lour.) Merr. 27 Menispermaceae Arora et al. 2016
Trigonella arabica Delile Leguminosae Shawahna and Jarada 2017
Ulmus rubra Muhl. Ulmaceae Singh and Tripathy 2014
Urtica urens L. Urticaceae Shawahna and Jarada 2017
Vataireopsis araroba (Aguiar) Ducke 28 Leguminosae Amenta et al. 2000
Verbascum sinuatum L. Scrophulariaceae Amenta et al. 2000
Verbena officinalis L. Verbenaceae Amenta et al. 2000
Viola tricolor L. Violaceae Amenta et al. 2000
Vitis vinifera L. Vitaceae Shawahna and Jarada 2017
Vitex glabrata R.Br. Lamiaceae Singh et al. 2015
29
Wolfiporia extensa (Peck) Ginns Polyporaceae Prieto et al. 2003
Woodfordia fructicosa (L.) Kurz Lythraceae Nagar et al. 2016
Wrightia tinctoria R.Br. Apocynaceae Herman and Herman 2016
Singh and Tripathy 2014
Zea mays L. Poaceae Amenta et al. 2000
Zingiber officinale Roscoe Zingiberaceae Shawahna and Jarada 2017

* All the plant names have been actualized according to the new taxonomic review cited in ‘The plant list. A working list of all plant species’: http://www.the-
plantlist.org/.
1
Aloe barbadensis Miller is a synonym of Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f.
2
Astragalus membranaceus (Fisch.) Bunge is a synonym of Astragalus propinquus Schischkin
3
Mahonia aquifolium (Pursh) Nutt. is a synonym of Berberis aquifolium Pursh.
4
Capsicum frutescens L. is a synonym of Capsicum annuum L.
5
Psoralea corylifolia L. is a synonym of Cullen corylifolium (L.) Medik
6
Curcuma wenyujin Y.H.Chen & C.Ling is a synonym of Curcuma aromatica Salisb.
7
Curcuma domestica Valeton is a synonym of Curcuma longa L.
8
Inula viscosa (L.) Aiton is a synonym of Dittrichia viscosa (L.) Greuter
9
Eruca sativa Mill. is a synonym of Eruca vesicaria (L.) Cav.
10
Sapium insigne (Royle) Trimen is a synonym of Falconeria insignis Royle
11
Givotia rottleriformis Griff. ex Wight is a synonym of Givotia moluccana (L.) Sreem
12
Tabebuia avellanedae Lorentz ex Griseb. is a synonym of Handroanthus impetiginosus (Mart. ex DC.) Mattos
13
Antipsoriatic Medicinal Plants: From Traditional Use to Clinic

Isatis indigotica Fortune ex Lindl. is a synonym of Isatis tinctoria L.

Table 9.1 contd. …
169
…Table 9.1 contd.
14
Ligusticum wallichii Franch. is a synonym of Ligusticum striatum DC.
15
Matricaria recutita L. is a synonym of Matricaria chamomilla L.
16
Schizonepeta tenuifolia (Benth.) Briq. is a synonym of Nepeta tenuifolia Benth
17
Paeonia veitchii Lynch is a synonym of Paeonia anomala subsp. veitchii (Lynch) D.Y.Hong & K.Y.Pan
18
Polygonum tinctorium Aiton. is a synonym of Persicaria tinctoria (Aiton) H. Gross
19
Polypodium decumanum Willd. is a synonym of Phlebodium decumanum (Willd.) J. Sm.
20
Phyllanthus simplex Retz. is a synonym of Phyllanthus virgatus G.Forst.
21
Pinus marítima Mill. is a synonym of Pinus halepensis Mill.
22
Prunus amygdalus var. amara (DC.) Focke is a synonym of Prunus dulcis (Mill.) D.A.Webb
23
Polygonum cuspidatum Siebold & Zucc. is a synonym of Reynoutria japonica Houtt.
24
Cassia tora L. is a synonym of Senna tora (L.) Roxb.
25
Sophora subprostrata Chun & T.Chen is a synonym of Sophora tonkinensis Gagnep.
26
Baphicacanthus cusia (Nees) Bremek is a synonym of Strobilanthes cusia (Nees) Kuntze
27
Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Miers is a synonym of Tinospora sinensis (Lour.) Merr.
28
Andira araroba Aguiar is a synonym of Vataireopsis araroba (Aguiar) Ducke
29
Poria cocos F.A.Wolf is a synonym of Wolfiporia extensa (Peck) Ginns
170 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions
 Antipsoriatic Medicinal Plants: From Traditional Use to Clinic 171

with inhibitory effects on the growth of SVK-14 keratinocytes and established

the effects of Gotu kola (Centella asiatica) and Babchi (Cullen corylifolium, syn:
Psoralea corylifolia) as inhibitors of keratinocyte replication, with IC50 values of
18.4 and 209.9 mg/mL, respectively. The effect produced by gotu kola was due
to madecassoside and asiaticoside (Fig. 9.1), which had IC50 values of 8.6 and 8.4
µM, respectively, similar to the standard dithranol (IC50 5.1 µM). Other extracts
such as of the bark of Berberis aquifolium also inhibited keratinocyte growth (IC50
35 µM), the alkaloids berberine, berbamine and oxyacanthine being the potential
active compounds (Müller et al. 1995). Singh et al. (2015) studied the skin
keratinocyte antiproliferative activity of the petroleum ether and ethanol extracts
obtained from four medicinal plants, of Phyllanthus virgatus (syn: Phyllanthus
simplex), Crotalaria juncea, Leucas aspera and Vitex glabrata. Of them, the
petroleum ether extract from C. juncea and the ethanol extract of L. aspera showed
significant activity, with IC50 values of 45.45 and 55.36 µg/mL, respectively. The
antiproliferative and antipsoriatic activities were correlated with the action against
nitric oxide production and lipid peroxidation.
Other authors focused their studies on mediators and transcription factors from
keratinocytes implicated in psoriasis. It is the case of Paeonia lactiflora, which
reduced the production of crucial psoriatic cytokines on polyinosinic:polycytidylic
acid-stimulated human epidermal keratinocytes (SV-HEKs), such as IL-6, IL-8,
chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 20 (CCL20) and TNFα, via down-regulation of
NF-κB signaling pathway. In addition, the extract also inhibited the induction of
the inflammasome, in terms of IL-1β and caspase-1 secretion. These results justify
the employ of Paeonia lactiflora for the treatment of psoriasis (Choi et al. 2015).
Other studies were focused on the suppression of NF-κB signaling and its
consequences. In this sense, Saelee et al. (2011) studied the effects of Alpinia
galanga (Thai ginger), Curcuma longa (turmeric) and Annona squamosa (sweetsop)

Fig. 9.1. Chemical structures of madecassoside and asiaticoside. Gln = glucose; rha = rhamnose.
172 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

extracts on ten different genes of the NF-κB signaling network in HaCaT cells,
and observed that Thai ginger extract reduced the expression of NF-κB2, turmeric
extract significantly decreased the expression of both NF-κB2 and NF-κB1, while
Annona squamosa extract significantly lowered the expression of NF-κB1. So, this
in vitro study suggested that these medicinal plants might exert their antipsoriatic
activity by controlling the expression of NF-κB signaling biomarkers.
Other relevant mediators in psoriasis are matrix metalloproteinases (MMP),
and its inhibition by Scrophularia striata extract and some isolated compounds
were studied by Monsef-Esfahani et al. (2014). Among these isolated compounds,
the inhibitory effects of nepitrin at 20 µg/mL (56%) and acteoside at 80 µg/mL
(73%) on MMP-2 and MMP-9 were remarkable. Lipoxygenase and elastase could
also be potential therapeutic targets in psoriasis. In this sense, Prieto et al. (2003)
screened 15 extracts from traditional Chinese medicinal plants/fungi used to treat
topical inflammations such as psoriasis. They were screened for their inhibitory
effect on lipoxygenase, cyclooxygenase and elastase activity in intact leukocytes
and platelets. Astragalus propinquus (syn: Astragalus membranaceus), Forsythia
suspensa and Wolfiporia extensa (syn: Poria cocos) inhibited 5-lipoxygenase (IC50
values of 141, 80 and 141 µg/mL, respectively). Angelica dahurica, Angelica
pubescens, F. suspensa and W. extensa also inhibited elastase (IC50 values of 80, 123,
68 and 93 µg/mL, respectively). Previously, Cuéllar et al. (1996) had demonstrated
the inhibitory effect of W. extensa extract and its metabolites dehydrotumulosic and
pachymic acids on phospholipase A2 activity as well as experimental dermatitis
(Cuéllar et al. 1997).
The metabolism of arachidonic acid via lipoxygenase enzymes, 5-, 12- and
15-lipoxygenases has been highlighted as the potential target for antipsoriatic
treatments. The 5-lipoxygenase pathway is considered important since it participates
in pro-inflammatory regulations, but the 12- and 15-lipoxygenase pathway may
also play an important role in the progression of psoriasis (Schneider and Bucar
2005). Bader et al. (2015) tested four species used in Southern Italy for the treatment
of psoriasis against 5-, 12-, 15-lipoxygenase and NF-κB activation: Acanthus
mollis, Achillea ligustica, Artemisia arborescens and Dittrichia viscosa (syn:
Inula viscosa). According to their results, the effect of A. ligustica was the most
relevant as it had the highest anti-5-lipoxygenase activity (IC50 = 49.5 µg/mL) and
also enhanced the biosynthesis of the anti-inflammatory eicosanoid 15(S)-HETE.
These species also reduced the activation of NF-κB, having IC50 values of 16.7,
19.2 and 30.4 μg/mL for A. ligustica, A. arborescens and D. viscosa, respectively.
Nagar et al. (2016) tested the in vivo activity of Woodfordia fructicosa and
Gardenia gummifera on a psoriasis model induced in Wistar rats: 10% of total
body area was exposed to UV radiations after topical (0.1% gel of the extract) and
oral (dose of 100 mg/kg) administration. The antipsoriatic activity (severity index),
histological analysis and biochemical estimation suggest positive antipsoriatic
effects of both plant extracts. Other interesting species against psoriasis could be
Tinospora sinensis, Curcuma longa, Celastrus paniculatus, and Aloe vera, which
were tested in a model of psoriasis-like dermatitis using topical application of 5%
 Antipsoriatic Medicinal Plants: From Traditional Use to Clinic 173

imiquimod in mice, and oral/topical administration to mice. The results suggested

that these plants can act as preventive agents against the disease (Arora et al. 2016).
Calaguala is an extract obtained from the fern Phlebodium decumanum (syn:
Polypodium decumanum). It is used to treat psoriasis in the counties of South
America as well as Spain. Several in vitro studies have tried to shed light on the
mechanism responsible for its antipsoriatic properties (Tuominen et al. 1992,
Vasänge-Tuominen et al. 1994, Vasänge et al. 1997). According to their results,
calaguala extract has a double antipsoriatic mechanism: on the one hand it exerts
an inhibitory effect on the inflammation induced by platelet activating factor (PAF).
This effect is due to the PAF receptor antagonism exerted by sulphoquinovosyl
diacylglycerol 1,2-di-O-palmitoyl-3-O-(6-sulpho-α-D-quinovopyranosyl)-glycerol
(IC50 = 2 µM) (Vasänge et al. 1997), and the presence of adenosine in the extract
(Tuominen et al. 1992). On the other hand, the polyunsaturated fatty acids (linoleic,
linolenic and arachidonic acid) found in the calaguala extract inhibit the LTB4
formation, with IC50 values mostly between 20–60 µM.
The ethanol extract of Artemisia capillaris was tested in human keratinocyte
cells (HaCaT) and imiquimod-induced psoriasis-like mouse models. The extract
had an IC50 of 37.5 μg/mL (72 h) in the antiproliferative test, the percentage of
apoptotic population in the treated group being higher than that of the control. In
the in vivo test, the ‘Psoriasis Area and Severity Index’ (PASI) score in treated
group (50 mg/mL) was significantly lower than that of the negative control group
(day 4). The topical application of the extract on psoriasis-like lesion during
4 days improved the skin damage, with lower values than the negative control
(not treated) in epidermal thickness, expression levels of Ki-67 and intracellular
adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1). After the evaluation of these results, the authors
remark the high interest of this extract as an antipsoriatic agent (Lee et al. 2018).
The HPLC analysis of this extract showed a content with prevalence of flavonoids,
caffeoyl acid-quinic acid derivatives and coumarins, with chlorogenic acid and
3,5-dicaffeoylquinic acid as main compounds (Lee et al. 2018).

Natural Products with Potential Antipsoriatic Properties

The different compounds from natural origin with antipsoriatic properties can be
classified into three different chemical structures: phenolics and terpenoids, which
have been shown to inhibit angiogenesis and psoriasis-associated inflammation
through the inhibition of NF-κB pathway (Simpson et al. 2014, Wen et al. 2014a,
2015, Venkatesha et al. 2016), and alkaloids, which mostly act by inhibiting lipid
peroxidation (Müller and Ziereis 1993, Misik et al. 1995, Bezáková et al. 1996).
Among the phenolics, gambogic acid, the main active compound isolated
from the resin of the Garcinia hanburyi Hook.f. (Clusiaceae) tree, and honokiol,
a biphenolic neolignan isolated from Magnolia officinalis Rehder & E.H.Wilson
(Magnoliaceae), have been reported to have anti-angiogenic and anti-inflammatory
properties through the inhibition of the transcription factor NF-κB (Wen et al. 2014a,
2015). Gambogic acid and honokiol (Fig. 9.2) were tested in vitro and in vivo:
174 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

Fig. 9.2. Chemical structures of gambogic acid and honokiol.

in vitro, gambogic acid inhibited the proliferation of the human keratinocyte cell
line HaCaT (IC50 = 0.09 µM) and it was also demonstrated to be active in human
umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC) by inhibiting TNF-α-induced activation
of NF-κB, both processes being highly active in psoriatic patients. Honokiol also
inhibited TNF-α-induced NF-κB activation in HUVEC and decreased the ratio of
Th1/Th2-expression CD4+ T cells.
Gambogic acid and honokiol were also demonstrated to be effective in vivo.
K14-VEGF transgenic mice with moderate psoriasis treated with gambogic acid
showed a reduction in the erythema, resolution of the epidermal hyperplasia and
acanthosis, decreased parakeratosis with reduced inflammatory infiltrate and
reduced vascular hyperplasia and inflammation (evidenced by reduced expression of
adhesion molecules such as E-selectin and ICAM-1). In the case of honokiol, it also
normalized the psoriatic phenotype in K14-VEGF mice, producing macroscopic and
histologic improvement, and dose-dependently decreased TNF-α and IFN-γ levels,
this reduction being associated with suppression of p65-NF-κB expression in the
ear tissues analyzed. Both gambogic acid and honokiol inhibited angiogenesis and
the expression of vascular endothelial growth factor-2 (VEGF2) and p-VEGFR2
and, in the case of honokiol, this inhibition was accompanied by suppression of
phosphorylation of extracellular signal–regulated kinase1/2 (ERK1/2), protein
kinase B (AKT) and p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (p38 MAPK). Gambogic
acid was tested in a second animal model: a psoriasis-like model of guinea-pig,
where improvements in epidermis and dermic could be detected (Wen et al. 2014a).
Paeoniflorin (Fig. 9.3), a monoterpene glycoside isolated from paeony root
(Paeonia lactiflora), has also been tested in this psoriasis-like model of guinea-
pig, where it relieved the lesions improving parakeratosis and hyperkeratinization.
 Antipsoriatic Medicinal Plants: From Traditional Use to Clinic 175

Fig. 9.3. Chemical structures of paeoniflorin and celastrol.

In vitro, in HaCaT cells, it inhibits the expression of IL-17A, and IL-22 (2.08 µM)
through a mechanism involving p38 MAPK (Yu et al. 2017).
Celastrol (Fig. 9.3) is also a terpenoid isolated from Celastrus orbiculatus.
This herb has been traditionally used in Chinese medicine for anti-inflammatory,
anti-cancer and antioxidant activities, especially in the treatment of rheumatoid
arthritis and skin diseases. Zhou et al. (2011) demonstrated that this triterpene is
able to inhibit HaCaT growth (IC50 = 1.1 µM) and induce their apoptosis through
the inhibition of NF-κB pathway.
Alkaloids with described antipsoriatic properties can be found in Berberis
aquifolium, whose bark has been traditionally used in North America for the
treatment of several skin diseases, including psoriasis, and are mostly active in the
lipoxygenase metabolism (Müller and Ziereis 1993, Misik et al. 1995, Bezáková
et al. 1996). Berberis aquifolium extract inhibits the production of LTB4 and
5-HETE (IC50 = 50 µM) in isolated bovine polymorphonuclear cells (Müller and
Ziereis 1993), although the authors could not explain this effect by the action of the
studied alkaloids berberine, oxyacanthine and berbamine. None of the three were
as effective in inhibiting lipid peroxidation as the whole extract, although these
alkaloids did show some antioxidant effect (much less than the whole extract). In
this sense, protoberberine alkaloids (berberine, oxyberberine, jatrorrhizine, and
176 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

columbamine) and aporphine alkaloids (magnoflorine, and corytuberine) were

tested for lipoxygenase inhibition and lipid antioxidant properties (Misik et al.
1995). Oxyberberine, corytuberine, and columbamine (Fig. 9.4) showed the highest
lipoxygenase inhibition potency, whereas berberine and magnoflorine had lower
effects. The authors suggested that these differences in effects could be, at least
partially, explained by the presence of a free electron pair in the nitrogen atom,
which would play a key role in this activity. Moreover, they established a strong
linear correlation (r = 0.866) between lipid antioxidant properties and inhibition
of lipoxygenase, indicating that the mechanism of action of these alkaloids may be
related to the prevention of the accumulation of lipid hydroperoxide substrate.This
same conclusion was drawn after studying the lipid antioxidant properties of six
bisbenzylisoquinolines alkaloids (oxyacanthine, armoline, baluchistine, berbamine,
obamegine, and aquifoline) also found in B. aquifolium (Bezáková et al. 1996).
In this study, oxyacanthine and berbamine (Fig. 9.5) were among the most active
compounds, which is consistent with the fact that they have a phenolic domain that
can act as free radical scavengers. Also, a linear correlation between lipoxygenase
inhibition and lipid peroxidation was found (r = 0.9533).
Since it was first described in 2009 (van der Fits et al. 2009), the imiquimod
model of psoriasis is being increasingly used due to its convenience and because it
reproduces psoriasis morphologically and immunologically. The most recent studies
dealing with natural products active against psoriasis are being carried out using
this model. In this sense, it has been described that topically applied curcumin or
orally administered resveratrol or quercetin significantly ameliorate psoriasis (Sun
et al. 2013, Kjær et al. 2015, Chen et al. 2017, Di Nardo et al. 2018). Curcumin
(Fig. 9.6) reduces epidermal hyperplasia and cytokine production (TNF-α, IL-1β,

Columbamine
Oxyberberine

Fig. 9.4. Chemical structures of berberine, magnoflorine and columbamine.

 Antipsoriatic Medicinal Plants: From Traditional Use to Clinic 177

Fig. 9.5. Chemical structures of oxyacanthine and berbamine.

IL-6, IL17A, IL-17F, and IL-22) through a mechanism involving NF-κB inhibition
(Sun et al. 2013), whilst resveratrol (Fig. 9.6) inhibits the expression of IL-17A,
IL-19, and IL-23p19 (Kjær et al. 2015). Quercetin (Fig. 9.6) caused a reduction in
the levels of TNF-α, IL-6 and IL-17 in serum, increased the activities of glutathione,
catalase and superoxide dismutase, and decreased the skin accumulation of
malonaldehyde through a mechanism which involved the downregulation of the
NF-κB pathway (Chen et al. 2017).

Fig. 9.6. Chemical structures of curcumin, resveratrol and quercetin.

178 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

Dodonaea polyandra, a medicinal plant containing polyandric acid A and

traditionally used by the Kuuku I’yu (Northern Kaanju) indigenous people of
Cape York Peninsula, Australia (Fig. 9.7), was described as a potent inhibitor of
pro-inflammatory cytokine production (TNF-α, IL-1α, IL-1β, IL-6, and IL-8) and
other inflammatory mediators, such as nitric oxide. Polyandric acid A may be useful
in applications for skin inflammatory conditions including psoriasis and dermatitis
(Simpson et al. 2014).

Fig. 9.7. Chemical structure of polyandric acid A.

Clinical Trials
In traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), the application of medicinal plants has been
used for centuries in the management of psoriasis and is believed to be effective, with
few long-term side-effects (Koo and Arain 1998). Psoriasis is commonly classified
into three main syndromes in TCM: ‘blood heat’, ‘blood dryness’ and ‘blood stasis’,
and different medicinal plants are used to fight these conditions and restore the
balanced state of the body (Tse 2003). However, the number of clinical trial dealing
with medicinal plants in the treatment of psoriasis is quite limited (Table 9.2) and
show big differences in their design, number of participants, parameters evaluated
and form of treatment. It is worth noting that clinical trials evaluating ‘indigo
naturalis’ are the most numerous and results conclude that its topical application
is a safe and effective therapy for plaque-type psoriasis and nail psoriasis.
Regarding the species contained in the clinical trials revised, Paeonia lactiflora
and Smilax glabra are the most commonly studied. Paeoniae radix and smilacis
glabrae rhizoma are two of the most well-known herbs in China and have been
used for over 1200 years. Both species have been tested in different experimental
models of inflammation and immunomodulation with excellent results (Spelman
et al. 2006, He and Dai 2011). Other species of interest for treating psoriasis
are Aloe vera (Miroddi et al. 2015) and Berberis aquifolium (Jong et al. 2013).
The quality of the trials and methodological approaches vary considerably, and
conclusions on the effectiveness of aloe in psoriasis is still uncertain. Cutaneous
application seems to be very safe as serious side effects have not been reported.
 Antipsoriatic Medicinal Plants: From Traditional Use to Clinic 179

Several open-label or placebo-controlled clinical studies have shown beneficial

effects of similar Berberis aquifolium extracts in patients with psoriasis, possibly
explained by its anti-inflammatory and antibacterial properties. The main selected
trials are compiled in Table 9.2.
Regarding Aloe vera, different clinical trials have been performed. For
example, in 1996, Syed et al. tested the clinical efficacy and tolerability of a
0.5% concentrated extract in a hydrophilic cream to treat patients with psoriasis
vulgaris. In this randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled and parallel study,
sixty patients (36 males and 24 females, mean 25.6 years) with slight to moderate
chronic plaque-type psoriasis, Aloe vera cream improved the psoriatic plaques
(82.8%) vs. placebo (7.7%) and decreased PASI score in patients (83.3%) vs.
placebo (6.6%). These results demonstrated that topical application of Aloe vera
extract 0.5% in a hydrophilic cream is more effective than placebo and did not
present relevant side-effects. These effects were confirmed by Vogler and Ernst
(1999), who reviewed all controlled clinical trials until date, and ratified the positive
effect of topical application of Aloe vera for genital herpes and psoriasis, but not
in preventive radiation-induced injuries.
Deng et al. (2013a,b, 2017) reviewed and evaluated the efficacy and safety
of topically used plant extract preparations by psoriasis patients. A total of twelve
studies were investigated, including three with Aloe vera, five with Berberis
aquifolium, two with indigo naturalis, one with kukui nut oil (Aleurites moluccanus)
and one with Camptotheca acuminata nut. Some of these plant extracts have
partial effects on psoriasis symptoms, such as inflammation and cell proliferation.
However, the clinical trials analyzed did not provide clear evidences that would
support their topical use on psoriatic plaques, probably due to the small size of
most studies and methodological weaknesses (Deng et al. 2013a). Similar results
were obtained by the same authors after reviewing the evidence for the efficacy
and safety of herbal medicines used topically in conjunction with antipsoriatic
pharmacotherapy (Deng et al. 2013b). In a third study, they analyzed the efficacy
and safety of oral forms of phytotherapy in psoriasis management and discussed
the pharmacological actions of the plants used in clinical trials. Their results
demonstrated that the most commonly used plants were Oldenlandia diffusa,
Rehmannia glutinosa and Salvia miltiorrhiza, which also have anti-inflammatory,
anti-proliferative and anti-oxidative properties, which are of relevance to psoriasis
management (Deng et al. 2014). In a recent study, these same authors analyzed a
preparation formed by different medicinal plants (PSORI-CM01, a modified form
of Yinxieling) comparing the results with the original Chinese herbal formula for
psoriasis Yinxieling (in tablet) and placebo, and demonstrated in a randomized,
double-blinded and multicentral clinical trial, that this formula improved PASI
scores and relapse rates in psoriasis vulgaris (Deng et al. 2017). The formula was
then modified (PSORI-CM02) eliminating two herbs (liquorice and lithospermum),
keeping the remaining five from PSORI-CM01 (Curcumae rhizoma, Radix paeoniae
rubra, Rhizoma smilacis glabrae, Mume fructus, and Sarcandrae herba). PSORI-
CM02 was tested as a possible suppressor of alloimmunity; results show that it
180 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

Table 9.2. Clinical trials of traditional Chinese medicines used in the treatment of psoriasis.

Chinese Herbal Components Posible Botanical Species Treatment Reference

Rhizoma Smilacis Glabrae Smilax glabra Systemic Song et al. 2010
Folium Isatidis Isatis tinctoria Topical
Rhizoma Menispermi Menispermum dauricum
Oldenlandia Oldenlandia diffusa
(Bai Hua She She Cao)
Rhizoma Curcumae Curcuma longa
Rhizoma Polygoni Cuspidati Polygonum cuspidatum
Herba Solani Lyrati Solanum lyratum
Herba Duchesneae Indicae Duchesnea indica
Cacumen Platycladi Platycladus orientalis
Nepal dock root Rumex nepalensis
Wubeizi Rhus chinensis
Radix Paeoniae Rubra Paeonia lactiflora or Systemic Yao et al. 2016
Paeonia veitchii combined
Rhizoma Curcumae Curcuma longa with topical
(calcipotriol
Sarcandra Sarcandra glabra
betamethasone
Radix Glycyrrhizae Glycyrrhiza uralensis ointment)
Glycyrrhiza inflata
Glycyrrhiza glabra
Fructus Mume Prunus mume
Radix Arnebiae Arnebia euchroma
Lithospermum
erythrorhizon or
Arnebia guttata
Rhizoma Smilacis Glabrae Smilax glabra
Indigo Naturalis Strobilanthes cusia Topical Lin et al. 2015
Persicaria tinctoria Lin et al. 2006
Isatis indigotica Cheng et al. 2017
Lin et al. 2008
Lin et al. 2012
Lin et al. 2014
Cortex Phellodendri Phellodendron amurense Topical Li et al. 2017
or Phellodendron chinense
Radix Scutellariae Scutellaria baicalensis
Radix Rehmanniae Rehmannia glutinosa Systemic Shan et al. 2006
Radix Angelicae Dahuricae Angelica dahurica or
A. dahurica var.
formosana
Radix Paeoniae Rubra Paeonia lactiflora or
Paeonia veitchii
Herba Schizonepetae Schizonepeta tenuifolia
Tenuifoliae
Radix Paeoniae Rubra Paeonia lactiflora or Systemic Parker et al. 2014
Paeonia veitchii Wen et al. 2014b
Sarcandra Sarcandra glabra
Rhizoma Smilacis Glabrae Smilax glabra
Table 9.2 contd. …
 Antipsoriatic Medicinal Plants: From Traditional Use to Clinic 181

Table 9.2 contd. …

Chinese Herbal Components Posible Botanical Species Treatment Reference
Radix Rehmanniae Rehmannia glutinosa Systemic Dai et al. 2014
Radix Angelicae Sinensis Angelica sinensis
Radix Paeoniae Rubra Paeonia lactiflora or
Paeonia veitchii
Rhizoma Chuanxiong Ligusticum wallichii
Radix Lithospermi Arnebia euchroma
Lithospermum
erythrorhizon or
Arnebia guttata
Curcuma Zedoary Curcuma phaeocaulis or
Curcuma kwangsiensis or
Curcuma wenyujin

inhibited murine skin allograft rejection and reduced graft-infiltration of CD3+ T

cells, which led the authors to hypothetize a potential interest of this new formula
against autoimmune psoriasis (Lu et al. 2018).
Finally, Hypericum perforatum has also been reported to have a reasonable
interest in psoriasis treatment as it has both anti-inflammatory and anti-proliferative
properties, and was recently reported to be clinically helpful for the improvement
of psoriatic lesions. For this purpose, Mansouri et al. (2017) performed a double-
blind, placebo-controlled, pilot study with intra-individual comparison on twenty
patients with mild to moderate plaque-type psoriasis. They observed that TNF-α
concentrations in dermis, endothelial cells, and dendrite cells were reduced in the
lesions of the treated patients vs. placebo, and the PASI scores, erythema, scaling
and thickness also decreased vs. placebo. Because high concentrations of TNF-α
are present in the skin lesions and plasma of patients with psoriasis, Hypericum
perforatum could be a promising treatment for this disease.

Conclusions
The majority of medicinal plants used in the treatment of psoriasis are based on
their traditional use and folk medicine, without relevant studies on humans. The
number of clinical trials is limited and, those available, are not clearly defined, the
number of patients is limited and the evaluation of results is variable. Moreover,
some of these trials involve mixtures of plants (Deng et al. 2017, Na Takuathung et
al. 2017) or use them simultaneously with standard drugs, such as calcipotriol and
betamethasone (Wen et al. 2014b), which hinders their evaluation. Nevertheless,
many of these plants still have potential as antipsoriatic drugs. Among these, the
species studied with a high level of interest include Aloe vera, Paeonia lactiflora,
Smilax glabra—which improves the psoriatic plaques by 83% and PASI score by
83% vs. placebo—and Berberis aquifolium. Phlebodium decumanum, Camptotheca
acuminata, Oldenlandia diffusa, Rehmannia glutinosa and Salvia miltiorrhiza
are also remarkable since they have the three pharmacological activities which
182 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

are useful in the treatment of psoriasis: anti-inflammatory, anti-proliferative and

anti-oxidative.

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 CHAPTER 10

Knowledge of the
Ethnomedicinal Plants Used
by Tobas and Mocovíes Tribes in
the Central-North of Argentina
María I. Stegmayer,1 Norma H. Alvarez,1 Melina G. Di Liberto,2
Lucas D. Daurelio1 and Marcos G. Derita1,2,*

Introduction
Among the flora of different regions of the world, Latin America represents one
of the wealthiest sources of material with pharmacological activities due to its
biodiversity (Brandão et al. 2008). It possesses a very high number of vascular
plants (85,000) (Grornbridge 1992) and there is a recent evidence that neotropical
forests located in Latin America possess the highest diversity of plants in the world
(Berry 2002). In addition, some factors critically distinguish the medicinal plants
of Latin America: (1) this region possesses a huge unexplored biodiversity (Cruz et
al. 2007); (2) there is a rich traditional use of medicinal plants (Gupta 1995, 2008);
(3) the ethnopharmacological knowledge has been tightly kept or transmitted by the
many indigenous populations still living in this region (Murillo 1889, Rosenblat
1954, Morton 1981, Correia 1984, Cleaves 2001, Portillo et al. 2001, Coelho de

1
CONICET, Universidad Nacional del Litoral/Facultad de Ciencias Agrarias/Laboratorio de
Investigaciones en Fisiología y Biología Molecular Vegetal, Kreder 2805, Esperanza, Santa Fe,
Argentina.
2
CONICET, Universidad Nacional de Rosario/Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmacéuticas/
Cátedra de Farmacognosia, Suipacha 531, Rosario, Santa Fe, Argentina.
* Corresponding author: [email protected]
188 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

Souza et al. 2004, Scarpa 2004a, Goleniowski et al. 2006, Cruz et al. 2007, Estévez
et al. 2007); and (4) these resources have been poorly studied.
In Argentina, there is a large number of indigenous people living in different
communities that are present in several geographical areas, each one with its
own cultural characteristics. During the 200 years of history of the nation, these
populations were victims of all kinds of physical and symbolic violence by the
ruling classes, overwhelming their customs and lifestyles. They were exiled from
their territories and forced to assume a religion and social norms, which were
completely alien to them. However, some tribes maintained their identity and still
endure, although they had to adapt to new living conditions in large cities.
Many studies on the medical folklore of northwestern Argentina (Di Lullo
1929, 1946, Sosa Verón and Vivante 1951, Daoud 1954, Ávila 1960, Carrizo 1960,
Torres 1975) are of great ethnographical value as they unravel ancient therapeutic
practices, many of which have been lost. However, these studies are incomplete in
their review of plants and the medicinal uses related to them. Later studies carried
out by Sturzenegger (1987, 1989, 1999) focusing on medical anthropology do not
provide enough information on medicinal plants either. Finally, Scarpa (2000)
points out 81 uses of 61 plant species in veterinary medicine by the Hispano-
Quechua community called “Criollo” groups. He also showed that their veterinary
health practices involve different approaches to treatment: the ancient Hippocratic
medicine, magical procedures and Christian religious practices. Healing with
plant remedies is not a specialized activity within this society. As with most folk
knowledge, it is mainly well spread within the population. When Criollos fall ill,
they resort to the experience of an elderly member of the community with a good
knowledge about home remedies. For unknown diseases or when home remedies
fail, they resort to the nearest village hospital for treatment or, alternatively, to
somebody who “cures by secret”. The latter, called “curanderos” (medicine-man),
are endowed with a gift known as “the secret”; they carry out a special therapy
by invoking supernatural forces. These therapies are performed by rituals called
“cura de palabra” (healing by words) and “cura por el rastro” (healing through
traces) which involve magical and/or religious elements such as spells, prayers, or
invocations to God and/or saints.
It is difficult to approach the ethnobotanical knowledge of all the indigenous
communities of Argentina. Many authors studied and compiled data related to the
inhabitants of different geographic regions of our territory (Scarpa 2004a, Svetaz
et al. 2010). In this chapter, we will discuss the survey information of the medicinal
plants that grows in the states of Santa Fe, Chaco and Formosa, mainly inhabited
by the original towns Tobas and Mocovíes. The phytogeographic characteristics of
the region as well as the use and properties of the medicinal plants used by these
tribes will also be presented. Finally, we will analyze statistically the main plant
families reported for medicinal purpose and the more common uses of them.
 Ethnomedicinal Plants Used by Tobas and Mocovíes Tribes 189

Phytogeographic Description of the Region Inhabited by the

Toba and Mocoví Tribes
Nowadays, there are 18 folk communities among the vast Argentinean geographical
land: 3 in the Patagonian region, 3 in the Central region, 1 in Cuyana region, 6 in
the Northwest and 5 in the Northeast (Fig. 10.1). Two of the main communities that
inhabit the last region mentioned above, which includes the provinces of Santa Fe,
Chaco and Formosa, are the Tobas and Mocovíes tribes. Tobas used to be one of the
greatest communities of this Argentine region and they currently maintain one of
the highest numbers of inhabitants, with almost 70,000 people. Its strong cultural
imprint and its ability to adapt made these people (also called “quom”) to keep on
their customs over time and nowadays they have a powerful legal representation.
Mocovíes also used to be one of the majority groups of this zone, but the advance
of the civilized society destroyed its customs and according to the last census, they
are about 15,000 inhabitants of this town.
Regarding phytogeographic zones, both tribes belong to Chaqueño domain.
This is the largest one in the Argentinean national territory, and is presented with

Central region

Northeast region

Northwest region
Cuyana region

Patagonian region

Toba tribes

Mocovi tribes

Fig. 10.1. Map of different Argentinean regions showing the zones inhabited by Tobas and Mocovíes
tribes.
190 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

diverse physiognomies such as savanna, xerophilous forest and bushes, among

others. The clime is subtropical with mild and dry winters but warm and rainy
summers. The boundaries of this domain, in which five phytogeographic provinces
can be distinguished, are generally transitional with broad zones of ecotone.
The Chaqueña phytogeographic province (Fig. 10.2) extends around
Argentinean states of Chaco, Formosa, Santiago del Estero; eastern parts of Jujuy,
Salta, Tucumán, La Rioja and Catamarca; northern regions of San Luis, Córdoba
and Santa Fe; west of Corrientes and the southeast end of San Juan and bordering
sectors of Mendoza around the Desaguadero River. Due to its vast extension, this
province is affected by rainfall gradients from more than 1000 mm per year in the
northeastern sector to around 400 mm per year in the southwest. It is possible to
distinguish four phytogeographic districts in this province: Chaqueño Occidental,
Chaqueño Serrano, Chaqueño Oriental and Savanna district. Tobas tribes
inhabit the last two districts that include north of Santa Fe, Chaco and Formosa
(Fig. 10.1). Chaqueño Oriental district has been characterized mainly by the

Chaquena Province

Del Espinal Province

Fig. 10.2. Argentinean phytogeographic regions according to Cabrera (1976), showing Chaqueña and
the Espinal provinces where Toba and Mocoví tribes live nowadays.
 Ethnomedicinal Plants Used by Tobas and Mocovíes Tribes 191

exploitation throughout the history of the tree “quebracho colorado chaqueño”

(Schinopsis balansae), for the use of its wood and extraction of tannin. Savanna
district is an area dominated by meadows and isolated forests, some of them made
up of palm trees. The main species of this phytogeographic district are: “quebracho
blanco” (Aspidosperma quebracho-blanco), “itin” (Prosopis kuntzei), “lapacho
negro” (Handroanthus heptaphyllus), “mistol” (Ziziphus mistol), “chañar” (Geoffroea
decorticans), and “horco-quebracho” (Schinopsis haenkeana) among others.
The Espinal phytogeographic province (Fig. 10.2), also known as the Pampeano
forest, extends as an arch from the states of Corrientes, the north of Entre Ríos,
and the central regions of Santa Fe, Córdoba and La Pampa; south-central of San
Luis, southeast of Buenos Aires and a small extension of Río Negro. A fraction of
this province is constituted by the xerophytic coastal forests of the rivers Paraná,
de la Plata and the Argentinean Sea. It is worth mentioning that since 1971, the
Argentinean botanic expert Angel Lulio Cabrera stopped representing Espinal
province in the maps, so it usually does not appear in the phytogeographic maps of
Argentina. At present, it is very difficult to observe native vegetation as a result of
the transformation occurred due to the agricultural expansion. This region exhibits
important climatic variations from north to south, such as rainfall that varies from
about 1100 millimeters per year in Corrientes and Entre Ríos to a minimum of 350
millimeters per year in the west of La Pampa. The predominant vegetation of this
province is the open xerophilous deciduous forest and shrub steppes, the carob tree
(Prosopis alba) being the characteristic species. This phytogeographic province
is subdivided into three districts: “Ñandubay”, “del Caldén” and “del Algarrobo”.
Tobas and Mocovíes tribes inhabit the last districts that include the central region of
Santa Fe (Fig. 10.1) (Cabrera 1971, Adámoli et al. 1972, Cabrera and Willink 1980).

The Plants in the Subsistence of the Original Communities

The use of plants is a reflex of the cultural, ideological and technological
peculiarities that have existed at a given time throughout the course of human history
(Bates 1985). For this reason, it is considered that botanical reports devoid of their
cultural context do not constitute what is understood by ethnobotany (Arenas 1987).
Conversely, ethnobotanical data look upon a wide range of information regarding the
ways in which a cultural group or community interacts with its plant environment
(Martin 1995). In most cases, a knowledge or application is associated to a plant
species. It also describes the parts of the species that is used as well as the method
of obtaining, preparing and administration of the plant products.
The vegetation constitutes a direct source of appropriation of vital products
through the collection of foodstuffs, medicines, fuels and materials for construction.
The plant environment of these communities is also an indirect source to access
other types of practices such as animal breeding and wood production. The products
derived from these activities are used, in turn, for self-consumption or they are sold
in the markets through barter or cash, thus allowing the acquisition of manufactured
products. Although at first sight the strategies of appropriation of vegetal resources
192 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

from the surroundings can be varied, in quantitative terms the animal production
destined to self-consumption and commercialization predominates widely and
has accentuated in the last decades. Tobas and Mocovíes reside in the rural area
and are mainly engaged in the extensive grazing of beef and goats cattle on fiscal
lands (Scarpa 2000).

The Idea of Disease and Diagnosis

On another level of connotations, the disease is mostly conceptualized by these
indigenous people, both relationally and ontologically. Within the first group, it is
necessary to distinguish between those representations derived from a disharmony
produced in relation to the person itself, from those derived due to a disharmony
with the social environment. The ontological idea of illness, on the other hand, is
manifested by an intrusion process of an external object (a bad air, a wind, a cold,
a heat, a thing), as well as by a process of loss of a vital component (loss of the
soul). The symptomatology is expressed mainly through the topography of the pain
or the appearance of alterations in the skin surface, the latter interpreted as coming
from the bad state of the blood.
The fresh-warm characterization of diseases, medicines, foods, environments
and actions alludes both to a thermal and metaphorical character. That is, it refers
to a sensation that causes cold or heat in the human body; for example: fatty
foods, fevers, burning, refreshing, sweat, winds, airs, hard work as well as to
an intrinsic nature of the disease, food, remedy or environment, not related to a
thermal character.
The fresh-warm categories also apply to medicinal plants. The plants are the
most important remedies of these communities and their techniques of preparation
and administration are quite varied, although the main one is to prepare a decoction
that is administered orally. It was also found that, in most cases, warm plants are
taken “by tea” and fresh ones “by water”. Finally, the excessive environmental
heat, a prolonged exposure to the sun, the north wind, the hard work and the rough
woods, received the characterization of warm. The south wind, a prolonged exposure
to the dew, the rest and the soft woods, are characterized as fresh (Scarpa 2004b).

Main Ways to Prepare Remedies Using Plants

According to these tribes, each plant has its particular way of preparing. Most of the
times they are drunk in the form of infusion (tea), but in some cases they present
a strange form of preparation such as:
• “Quemadillo” (burnt) is a traditional and popular home remedy used to remove
cough and colds, which is made by burning. This recipe was made in the past,
with charcoal embers, sugar, wine and medicinal plants. Currently, the original
recipe has undergone some modifications but it is still as fast and effective.
In the northwest of Chaco, the “quemadillo” is prepared from toasted leaves
 Ethnomedicinal Plants Used by Tobas and Mocovíes Tribes 193

and sprinkled with sugar, to accompany different remedies, for example, those
presented by the genus Prosopis sp. In this case, its stem embers are used
to prepare the “quemadillo” and this element accompanies many vegetable
remedies referred to as “warm” (Pen 2013).
• “Mate” has its origins in the Guaraní town and is currently consumed mostly
in southern Brazil and northern Argentina. It is a drink that is prepared using
the leaves of the “yerba mate” plant (Ilex paraguariensis), which is filtered
in hot water. Drinking mate is a very important social practice, similar to
coffee or tea. In fact, this infusion is so popular that it is the national drink
of Argentina and Paraguay. The correct preparation and consumption of the
drink is essential and specific utensils are required. The container used to
drink mate is a hollow pumpkin that is left to dry in the sun. In addition to
the pumpkin, a small bulb tube is needed, traditionally made of silver and
includes ornamental decorations although the most modern varieties can be
made of nickel or stainless steel, which are cheaper (Fig. 10.3). The mate is
prepared in the pumpkin, filling it with dried leaves of Ilex paraguariensis.
Then, a strong stir is necessary, so that the dusty residue is separated from
the leaves and hot water is poured into the pumpkin. It is important that the
water temperature oscillates between 70 and 80ºC but not boiling (Burtnik
2006, Dellacassa 2007).
• “Tereré” is a refreshing drink and also originated in the Guarani town. Its
preparation is similar to that of “mate” with the difference that “tereré”
employs water cooled with pieces of ice, and fruit juices such as orange,
grapefruit or lemon may be added (Oberti 1960).

Fig. 10.3. (A) “Yerba mate” plant (Ilex paraguariensis). (B) Hollow pumpkin and small bulb tube
used to prepare the “mate”.

Most Important Plants Used by Toba and Mocoví Communities

Table 10.1 describes the particular uses and knowledge of 156 plant species
belonging to the monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous classes, linked to the
subsistence of Toba and Mocoví communities. In each group, the taxa are arranged
according to the botanical family in alphabetical order. Within each family, species
 Table 10.1. Most important plants used by Toba and Mocoví communities.
Species Vernacular Name Medicinal Uses Utilized Parts
Acanthaceae
Ruellia hygrophila Mart. “Reventador” antidiarreheic, diuretic, antiacid, vulnerary leaves
Amaranthaceae
Alternanthera pungens Kunth Yerba ‘el pollo, yerba febrífuge,digestive, diuretic, against renal diseases, whole plant
‘e pollo preventive, stomach refreshing, depurative of blood,
vulnerary, oral antiseptic
Alternanthera sp. Novalgina, Coramina antiacid, against headache, vulnerary, febrifuge, depurative aerial parts
of blood, hepatic affections
Amaranthus muricatus (Moq.) Hieron. Yerba meona, Cola de intestinal antiinflammatory whole plant
gama
Amaranthus viridis L. Ataco general preventive, diuretic, hematuria roots
Gomphrena tomentosa (Griseb.) Fries var. Yerba meona diuretic, digestive, hepatic affections, depurative whole plant
tomentosa
Anacardiaceae
Schinus lorentzii (Griseb.) Engl. Quebracho colorao, emenagogue, vulnerary, against bronchitis, odontalgic bark and heartwood
194 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

Quebracho
Schinus fasciculata (Griseb.) I.M. Johnst. Molle pispito, Molle curative of cough, antidiarreheic, contraceptive, against flue stems and leaves
fragante, Molle
Apiaceae
Petroselinum crispum (Mill.) Nyman ex Perejil strengthen gums, curative of cough, contraceptive, abortive aerial parts
A.W. Hill
Pimpinella anisum L. Anís anthelmintic, against pains, abortive seeds
Apocynaceae
Asclepias mellodora A.St.-Hil Matatodo antimicrobial leaves
Aspidosperma quebracho-blanco Schltdl Quebracho blanco purgant, expectorant, against cooling and flu, antidysenteric, bark and seeds
abortive, depurative of blood, curative of cough, against
malaria, for ripen pimples, antimicrobial
Funastrum gracile (Decne.) Schltr Tramontana, Enredadera diuretic, against renal affections, antihypertensive, aerial parts
hepatic anti-inflammatory, antiperistaltic, oral antiseptic,
against Chagas disease, depurative of blood, preventive,
antidandruff, antimicrobial, vulnerary
Morrenia odorata (Hook. & Arn.) Lindl. Doca against palpitations, against bronchitis, against snake bites, Stems and flowers
antimicrobial
Vallesia glabra (Cav.) Link Ancoche, Ancochi vulnerary, for ripen pimples, against rheumatic pain, against aerial parts
cooling, childbirth stimulative
Aquifoliaceae
Ilex paraguariensis A.St.-Hil. Yerba purgant, diuretic, to cure warts, childbirth stimulative aerial parts
Asteraceae
Acanthospermum hispidum DC. Guasdrilla, Guarilla, diuretic, against malaria, febrifuge roots and branches
Guasdiya
Ambrosia tenuifolia Spreng. Altamisa, Altamisa de las anthelmintic, hepatic digestive, against sunstroke, febrifuge aerial parts
islas
Artemisia absinthium L. Ajenjo abortive, hepatic digestive, against flu and cooling leaves
Baccharis salicifolia (Ruiz & Pav.) Pers. Suncho against cooling and flu, against bones and kidneys pain, aerial parts
diuretic
Cyclolepis genistoides D.Don Palo azul diuretic, against renal affections, febrifuge, hepatic digestive, aerial parts
depurative of blood, antihypertensive
Eupatorium christieanum Baker Eupatorio against cooling and flu aerial parts
Flaveria bidentis (L.) Kuntze Balda, Balta against sunstroke branches
Parthenium hysterophorus L. Altamisa, Altamisa de anthelmintic, against rheumatic pain, against cooling and flu, aerial parts
Ethnomedicinal Plants Used by Tobas and Mocovíes Tribes

ajuera, Altamisa del bordo depurative of blood

Table 10.1 contd. …
195
…Table 10.1 contd.
Species Vernacular Name Medicinal Uses Utilized Parts
Pectis odorata Griseb. Manzanilla ´el monte against childs gastritis, infant purgant, antidiarrheic, aerial parts
oxytocic, emenagogue, abortive
Pluchea sagittalis Less.; Pluchea Cuatro cantos hepatic digestive, against the “cold stomach”, general leaves
microcephala R.K.Godfrey preventive, antihypertensive, antidisenteric, vulnerary
Tessaria integrifolia Ruiz et Pav Palo bobo, Bobo against insect bites barks
Verbesina encelioides (Cav.) Benth. & Quellusisa, Margarita for infected wounds leaves
Hook.f. ex A.Gray
Xanthium spinosum L. Cepacaballo to cure warts, ophthalmic, stomach refreshing, against whole plant
renal affections, depurative of blood, hepatic digestive, oral
antiseptic
Basellaceae
Anredera cordifolia (Ten.) Steenis Zarzaparrilla depurative of blood, emenagogue aerial parts
Bignonaceae
Amphilophium cynanchoides (DC.) Lengua de vaca antipruritus fruits
Tabebuia nodosa (Griseb.) Griseb Palo cruz emenagogue, abortive branches and leaves
196 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

Bombacaceae
Ceiba chodatii (Hassl.) Ravenna Yuchán, Lluchán against sunstroke, curative of cough, for infected wounds, leaves and flowers
diuretic, sedative, hypocholesterolemic, against snake bites,
hepatic digestive
Borraginaceae
Borago officinalis L. Borraja, Borraja de to treat measles stems and leaves
Castilla
Heliotropium elongatum (Lehm.) Gürke Borraja e´campo, Borraja to treat measles, febrifuge, stomach digestive stems and leaves
Heliotropium procumbens Mill. Cola de gama vulnerary, antiarthritic stems and leaves
Brassicaceae
Lepidium didymum L. Quimpe, Quimpi against gingivitis, curative of cough, expectorant aerial parts
Buddlejaceae
Buddleja sp Salvia against sunstroke aerial parts
Cactaceae
Gymnocalycium mihanovichii (Fric ex against bone pains stems
Gürke) Britton & Rose
Opuntia elata Link & Otto ex Salm-Dyck febrifuge fruits
Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Mill. against rheumatic pain, against kidney stones stems
Opuntia quimilo K. Schum. Quimil against sunstroke, diuretic, for infected wounds, febrifuge, stems
hepatic antiinflammatory, antiinflammatory, for ripen pimples
Quiabentia verticillata (Vaupel) Borg Sacha rosa for infected wounds leaves
Stetsonia coryne (Salm-Dyck) Britton et Cardón against cutaneous eruptions, hepatic digestive fruits
Rose
Capparaceae
Anisocapparis speciosa (Griseb.) Bola verde, Palo verde odontalgic, against the “cold stomach”, antidysenteric aerial parts
X. Cornejo & H.H.Iltis
Capparicordis tweedieana (Eichler) Iltis & Hoja redonda, Sacha antidisenteric, against the “cold stomach”, for ripening aerial parts
Cornejo mamita, Mataburro, pimples
Comida de burro
Capparis salicifolia Griseb. Sacha sandía diuretic fruits
Caricaceae
Carica papaya L. Mamón, Papaya anthelmintic seeds
Ethnomedicinal Plants Used by Tobas and Mocovíes Tribes

Table 10.1 contd. …

197
…Table 10.1 contd.
Species Vernacular Name Medicinal Uses Utilized Parts
Celastraceae
Maytenus spinosa (Griseb.) Lourteig & Abriboca antidiarreic, antiacid aerial parts
O’Donell; Maytenus scutioides (Griseb.)
Lourteig & O’Donell
Maytenus vitis-idaea Griseb. Coike yuyo, Coiki yuyo, febrifuge, oral antiseptic leaves
Con´ko yuyo
Celtidaceae
Celtis chischape (Wedd.) Miq. Tala pispita, Tala against the “cold stomach”, against child gastritis, febrifuge, aerial parts
curative of cough, antidisenteric
Chenopodiaceae
Dysphania ambrosioides (L.) Mosyakin & Paico against the “cold of the stomach”, against cooling and flu, aerial parts
Clemants antidisenteric, anthelmintic
Convolvulaceae
Ipomoea carnea Jacq. Mandiyona vulnerary leaves
Cucurbitaceae
198 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.) Matsum. & Sándia against measles, against general cooling fruits and seeds
Nakai
Cucumis melo L. Melón emenagogue seeds
Cucurbita maxima Duchesne Zapallo anthelmintic seeds
Cucurbita moschata Duchesne Anco against burns mucilage of the fruit
Cuscutaceae
Cuscuta indecora Choisy Cabello de ángel, Rayo antialopecic stems
de sol
Erythroxylaceae
Erythroxylum coca Lam. Coca against the “side pain”, stomach digestive, oxytocic leaves
Phyllantaceae
Phyllanthus niruri L. Rompepiedras vesicular stones, against renal affections aerial parts
Euphorbiaceae
Croton bonplandianus Baill. Escoba negra, Tinajero, hepatic digestive, antidiarreic, gastric pains aerial parts
Paloma yuyo, Comida de
paloma
Croton hieronymi Griseb. Poleo’el monte, Poleo stomach digestive aerial parts
Euphorbia serpens Kunth Yerba ’e la golondrina, stomach refreshing, oral antiseptic, hepatic digestive, against roots and aerial parts
Yerba golondrina, urinary tract irritations, diuretic, febrifuge
Golondrina
Jatropha hieronymi Kuntze; Jatropha Piñón, Manchador, for infected wounds latex
excisa Griseb. Higuera ’el monte,
Higuerilla
Manihot esculante Crantz Mandioca antidiarrheic, gut depurative, against sunstroke roots
Ricinus communis L. Tártago, Ricino against sunstroke and headache, against the “cold stomach” leaves
Sapium haematospermum Müll. Arg. Lecherón vulnerary, cicatrizant, dermic affections bark and leaves
Tragia hieronymi Pax & K. Hoffm. Yuyo quemador, against insect bites aerial parts
Quemador, Ortiguilla
Fabaceae
Acacia albicorticata Burkart Espinillo vulnerary, against throat pain bark and leaves

Table 10.1 contd. …

Ethnomedicinal Plants Used by Tobas and Mocovíes Tribes
199
…Table 10.1 contd.
Species Vernacular name Medicinal uses Utilized parts
Acacia aroma Hook. & Arn. Tusca curative of cough, against throat pain, hepatic digestive, stems, leaves and bark
conception stimulant, against snake bites, vulnerary,
antihypertensive, febrifuge, for ripen pimples, against
irritation of the urinary tract
Bauhinia argentinensis Burkart Pata´e buey diuretic, hepatic digestive, against kidney pains roots and leaves
Caesalpinia paraguariensis (Parodi) Guayacán stomach and liver digestive, febrifuge, abortive, bark
Burkart antidisenteric, against throat pain, curative of cough
Caesalpinia stuckertii Hassl. Guaycurú diuretic, for kidney pains, intestinal refreshing bark
Cercidium praecox (Ruiz & Pavon) Harmas Brea, Brea ´el bordo vulnerary, antiacid, against the “cold stomach”, curative of bark and roots
cough
Desmanthus virgatus (L.) Willd. Rompepiedras vesicular stones stems and leaves
Enterolobium contortisiliquum (Vell.) Pacará antidandruff fruits
Morong
Geoffroea decorticans (Hook. & Arn.) Chañar oxytocic, curative of cough, abortive, for infected wounds, bark, leaves and
Burkart against snakes bites flowers
Prosopis alba Griseb Árbol, Algarrobo blanco, antiacid, ophthalmic, the embers of the stems are used to leaves and stems
200 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

Algarrobo prepare the “quemadillo”

Prosopis nigra (Griseb.) Hieron the embers of its wood are used to prepare the “quemadillo” stems
Prosopis ruscifolia Griseb; Prosopis Vinal hepatic digestive, for ophthalmic infections, depurative leaves
vinalillo Stuck. of blood, against rheumatic pain, against bone pain,
antihypertensive, diuretic, antiacid, vulnerary
Prosopis sericantha Hook Guaschín, Palo mataco, abortive seeds
Barba ’i tigre
Senna morongii (Britton) Irwin et Barneby Pitacanuto vulnerary, against sunstroke and snakes bites, against aerial parts
rheumatic pain and vesicular stones, febrifuge, for infected
wounds, hepatic digestive, against gastric pains
Senna occidentalis (L.) Link Café del monte anthelmintic, abortive whole plant
Senna pendula (Willd.) Irwin & Barneby Café del agua, Pitacanuto febrifuge, hepatic digestive whole plant
var. paludícola Irwin & Barneby del agua
Lamiaceae
Melissa officinalis L. Torongil anthelmintic leaves
Mentha spicata L. Menta against the "cold stomach", against palpitations, purgant, leaves
ophthalmic, against throat pain, general preventive
Ocimum basilicum L. Albahaca against ophthalmic infections, general preventive stems and seeds
Rosmarinus officinalis L. Romero oxytocic, antimocotic branches
Loranthaceae
Struthanthus uraguensis G. Don Liga del mistol, Liga oxytocic aerial parts
Tripodanthus acutifolius (Ruiz & Pav.) Corpo del palo santo, abortive, against kidney stones, against hypothermia, aerial parts
Tiegh. Corpo, Liga del palo santo oxytocic, emenagogue
Lythraceae
Heimia salicifolia (Kunth) Link Quiebra´arao, Enchullador antidisenteric, against the “cold stomach” whole plant
Malvaceae
Sida cordifolia L. Malva, Malvisco oral antiseptic, gut depurative, general preventive, stomach roots and leaves
refreshing, depurative of blood, against childhood gastritis,
against irritation of the urinary tract, diuretic, infantile
febrifuge
Sphaeralcea bonariensis (Cav.) Griseb Malvavisco, Malva gut depurative, febrifuge, stomach refreshing, oral antiseptic, roots and leaves
antidiarrheic, curative of cough
Byttneria filipes Mart. ex K.Schum. Garabato ´el agua febrifuge stem, leaves
Ethnomedicinal Plants Used by Tobas and Mocovíes Tribes

Table 10.1 contd. …

201
…Table 10.1 contd.
Species Vernacular Name Medicinal Uses Utilized Parts
Meliaceae

Cedrela sp. Cedro for the “internal blows”, against the “side pain” stems
Melia azederach L. Paraíso for cutaneous eruptions, headache, abortive, anthelmintic, leaves and roots
emenagogue
Menispermaceae
Cissampelos pareira L. Mil hombres against the “cold stomach”, depurative of blood, hepatic stems
digestive, diuretic, vulnerary, anti inflammatory, abortive
Menyanthaceae
Nymphoides indica (L.) Kuntze febrifuge leaves
Myrthaceae
Eucalyptus tereticornis Sm. Ucalito expectorant, curative of cough, against throat pain, against leaves and stems
the “air”
Nyctaginaceae
Boerhavia diffusa var. leiocarpa (Heimerl) Batata e´cuchi, Batata de stomach refreshing, diuretic, depurative of blood, febrifuge roots
202 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

C.D. Adams chancho

Pisonia zapallo Griseb. Caspi zapallo, Caspi Against testicle inflammation bark
Olacaceae
Ximenia americana L. var. argentinensis Pata, Pata pata antidisenteric seeds
DeFilipps
Passifloraceae
Passiflora mooreana Hook. Granadilla, Granada antidiarrheic, antidisenteric, against venereal disease, aerial parts
sedative, antihypertensive, purgant, vermifuge
Phytolacaceae
Petiveria alliaceae L. Calaj´ch´n, Calauchín against the “bone pain”, against sunstroke, against malaria, aerial parts
general preventive, against palpitations, febrifuge, vulnerary,
against the “cold stomach”
Plantaginaceae
Plantago myosuros Lam. Llanten diuretic, febrifuge, hepatic antiinflammatory, ophthalmic, leaves
antisyphilitic, depurative
Polygonaceae
Polygonum punctatum Elliot. Vinagrillo, Yuyo picante Anti inflammatory, vulnerary, antimicrobial leaves
Salta triflora Griseb. Duraznillo, Duraznillo antidiarreic, antidisenteric, antihemorrhoidal, abortive, whole plant
del bordo, Duraznillo del vulnerary
monte
Portulacaceae
Portulaca oleraceae L.; Portulaca sp. Verdolaga against sunstroke, febrifuge, anthelmintic aerial parts
Talinum paniculatum (Jacq.) Gaertn. Carne gorda diuretic roots
Ranunculaceae
Clematis campestris A.St.-Hil. Barba’e chivato, Barba’e hemostatic, against venereal diseases, antifungal, vulnerary roots and fruits
chivo
Rhamnaceae
Ziziphus mistol Griseb. Mistol, Mistol cuaresmillo antidandruff, emetic, curative of cough, vulnerary, leaves and bark
antidisenteric
Rutaceae
Citrus limon (L.) Osbeck Limonero, Limón antihypertensive, digestive, febrifuge, against cooling and fruits
flu, sedative
Ethnomedicinal Plants Used by Tobas and Mocovíes Tribes

Table 10.1 contd. …

203
…Table 10.1 contd.
Species Vernacular Name Medicinal Uses Utilized Parts
Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck Naranjo against spider bites, febrifuge, digestive, against rheumatic seeds and leaves
pain, sedative, cardiotonic, antihypertensive
Ruta chapalensis L. Ruda against spider bites, for the “bones pain”, against leaves
palpitations, digestive, carminative, febrifuge, emenagogue,
abortive, anthelmintic
Salicaceae
Salix humboldtiana Willd. Sauce vulnerary, depurative of blood, emenagogue, oxytocic, bark and leaves
preventive, purgant, febrifuge, analgesic, sedative, tonic,
against rheumatic pain, astringent, digestive
Sapotaceae
Sideroxylon obtusifolium (Roem. & Schult.) Molle against throat pain, curative of cough, against rheumatic bark, stems and leaves
T.D.Penn. pain, oxytocic, hypertensive
Scrophulariaceae
Scoparia dulcis L. Flor de casamiento del antidiarreic aerial parts
monte
Simaroubaceae
204 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

Castela coccinea Griseb. Meloncillo, Melonciyo antidisenteric, against hypothermia, against the roots
“astonishment”
Solanaceae
Capsicum chacoense Hunz. Ají del monte, Ají stomach digestive, to wean fruits
Cestrum parqui (Lam.) L’Hér. Hediondilla against headache and sunstroke, for the “Inner fever”, roots and leaves
febrifuge, stomach refreshing, antihemorrhoidal, antipruritus
Datura ferox L. Chamico for odontological pains, vulnerary, against asthma, for ripen leaves
pimples, against headache
Nicotiana glauca Graham Palán, Palancho Anti inflammatory, against headache, for ripening pimples, leaves
febrifuge, against sunstroke, vulnerary
Nicotiana tabacum L. Tabaco against the “air”, against hypothermia leaves
Solanum aridum Morong Pocote, Pocotillo, Pocote antifungal fruits
´e perro
Solanum argentinum Bitter & Lillo Cabrayuyo general preventive, against “bone pain”, against rheumatic aerial parts
pain, against sunstroke, febrifuge, against hypothermia,
against cooling and flu, for ripen pimples
Solanum glaucophyllum Desf Corcho ´el agua, Sunho emetic aerial parts
´el agua
Solanum hieronymi Kuntze Pocote antifungal fruits
Solanum sisymbrifolium Lam. Vila vila intestinal refreshing, hepatic digestive, febrifuge, oral roots
antiseptic, diuretic, against irritation of the urinary tract,
depurative of blood, curative of cough, general preventive,
contraceptive
Solanum tuberosum L. Papa Anti inflammatory tubers
Theaceae
Camellia sinensis (L.) Kuntze Té for ophthalmic infections leaves
Urticaceae
Parietaria debilis G. Forst. Paletaria against irritation of the urinary tract, hepatic and intestinal aerial parts
refreshing, febrifuge
Verbenaceae
Aloysia gratissima (Gillies & Hook.) Tronc. Poleo del campo digestive, carminative, tonic, against palpitations, nervous leaves
diseases, antifungal
Aloysia polystachya (Griseb.) Moldenke Burrito, Poleo, Poleo de la stomach and hepatic digestive, hypertensive, against aerial parts
casa, Cedrón palpitations, for nervous diseases
Glandularia tweedieana (Niven ex Hook.) Margarita, Sangre de febrifuge, for ripen pimples, emenagogue aerial parts
Ethnomedicinal Plants Used by Tobas and Mocovíes Tribes

P. Peralta Cristo
Table 10.1 contd. …
205
…Table 10.1 contd.
Species Vernacular name Medicinal uses Utilized parts
Lantana trifolia L. Salvia ´e monte stomach digestive leaves
Lippia alba (Mill.) N.E.Br. ex Britton & Salvia de castilla, Salvia against cooling and flu, against throat pain, against gastric aerial parts
P.Wilson de la casa, Salvia pains and headache, curative of cough
Phyla reptans (Kunth) Greene Mosko yuyo, Mosko yuyo for infected wounds and gangrene, against skin rashes, aerial parts
del bajo against sunstroke
Viscaceae
Phoradendron liga (Gillies ex. Hook. & Liga, Corpo oxytocic, antihypertensive, against hypothermia aerial parts
Arn.) Eichler; Phoradendron bathyoryctum
Eichler
Vitaceae
Cissus palmata Poir Zarzaparrilla, Zarza, blood depurative, hepatic refreshing leaves
Enredadera, Bejuco´el
agua
Zygophylaceae
Bulnesia sarmientoi Lorentz ex Griseb. Palo santo hepatic digestive, against the “internal blows” and the “side aerial parts
pain”, febrifuge, blood depurative, against hypothermia,
206 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

against bronchitis, cooling and flu, against rheumatic pain,

against cutaneous eruptions
Arecaceae
Copernicia alba Morong Palma, Palma negra, Palma Childbirth stimulator roots
blanca
Bromeliaceae
Tillandsia loliacea Mart. ex Schult. & Chasca against traumatisms leaves
Schult.f.; Tillandsia recurvifolia Hook.
Commelinaceae
Commelina erecta L. Santa lucía against ophthalmic pains and infections leaves
Hydrocharitaceae
Limnobium laevigatum (Humb. & Bonpl. febrifuge aerial parts
ex Willd.) Heine
Lilaceae
Allium cepa L. Cebolla stomach antiacid bulb
Allium sativa L. Ajo against snake bites, antihypertensive, against teeth pains bulb
Aloe vera L. Penca e´sábila, Sábila Vulnerary, for ripen pimples, antifungal, antiinflammatory, leaves
for infected wounds, hemostatic, anticancerigen, against
insect bites, preventive, depurative of blood, vesicular
stones, against the “inner fever”, antidandruff and
antialopecic, against sunstroke, headache, febrifuge, for
stomach ulcers, against snake bites
Orchidaceae
Cyrtopodium punctatum (L.) Lindl. Chacra ´el monte antihypertensive, diuretic, febrifuge, against renal pains leaves and bulbs
Poaceae
Cenchrus myosuroides Kunth Cadillo abortive roots
Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf Cedrón, Cedrón pasto stomachal digestive, antihypertensive, against teeth pains leaves
Elionurus muticus (Spreng.) Kuntze Aibe antialopecic roots
Oryza sativa L. Arroz antidisenteric seeds
Triticum aestivum L. Trigo antidisenteric, emetic seeds
Zea mays L. Chacra, Máiz oxytocic, against flu and cooling, febrifuge, diuretic, seeds
stomach antacid
Typhaceae
Ethnomedicinal Plants Used by Tobas and Mocovíes Tribes

Typha dominguensis Pers. Totora diuretic, purgant, antidisenteric, anti-allergic rhizomes and leaves
207
208 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

are sorted according to the same criteria, by their scientific name including their
vernacular names, medicinal applications and used parts. All the data related to the
uses are briefly presented, since all the information is much broader and is related
to the respective cultural context (Crovetto 1968, Marzocca 1997, Lahitte 1998,
Hurrell 2011, Scarpa 2013).
From the information summarized in Table 10.1, it can be observed that plant
families most used by these communities belong to dicotyledonous class (90%),
while monocots are scarcely used for medicinal purposes, representing only 10% of
the total species reported in this work. Within dicotyledons, the most prominent used
families are: Fabaceae (11%), Asteraceae (9%), Solanaceae (8%), Euphorbiaceae
(6%), Cactaceae (4%), Verbenaceae (4%), Amaranthaceae (4%), Apocynaceae (4%),
Cucurbitaceae (3%), Lamiaceae (3%), Borraginaceae (2%), Capparaceae (2%),
Malvaceae (2%), Rutaceae (2%), Anacardiaceae (2%) and another 34 families that
each one constitutes 1% of the total dicotyledons surveyed (Fig. 10.4).
Regarding the most important medicinal uses of the 156 plants surveyed, they
were grouped into 17 different categories. It should be noted that the description of
the uses of plants by the inhabitants of these communities is much more detailed
and descriptive, but this grouping into categories was carried out in order to shorten
the information and draw some broad conclusions about the use of their plants. It
is important to mention that a plant species can be used for one or several ailments
categories.
The percentages of plants used for the different categories are the following
(Fig. 10.5): odontalgic disease (10%), ophthalmic disease (4%), antiparasitic
(17%), antiinflammatory (4%), kidney dysfunctions (21%), female health problems,
childbirth & abortive (21%), digestive tract ailments (45%), antimicrobials
(11%), febrifuge (24%), respiratory disease (20%), depurative and purgant (15%),
rheumatic and general pains (12%), sunstroke (10%), anti-hypertensive and heart
problem (12%), headache (5%), skin diseases and wounds (35%), others (21%).

100% 40%
90%
90% 35%

80%
30%

70%
25%

60%
20%

50%
15%
40%
10%
30%
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20%

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e e e e e e e e e e e e e e
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rs

ac iace ac ace ac tac rac tac iac bac iac vac tac nac nac
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Fig. 10.4. Plant families most commonly used by these communities.

 Ethnomedicinal Plants Used by Tobas and Mocovíes Tribes 209

50%

45%
40%

35%

30%

25%

20%

15%

10%

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0%
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iti

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as

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ia

ai

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ar

ou
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lp

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at

ct

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br

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ai

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ne

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&
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tim
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ar
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e
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at
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Fig. 10.5. Percentages of medicinal plants used by Tobas and Mocovíes for different ailments
categories.

Botanical Features of the Seven Most Important Medicinal

Species of the “Chaco” and the “Espinal” Regions of
Argentina
Figure 10.6 shows seven most important medicinal species of this Argentinean
region and then a slight botanical description of each one are informed (Lahitte
1998).
• Schinus molle: It is native to the warm, temperate and tropical regions of
South America but it was introduced in some regions of Europe as a shade and
ornamental tree. It is a perennial, aromatic, and fast growing tree commonly
known as “aguaribay” or red pepper tree that usually measures between 6 to
8 m height, although in optimal conditions it reaches 25 m. The leaves are
divided into numerous narrow and lanceolate leaflets of intense green color.
Its flowers are of small size, hermaphrodite or unisexual, grouped in hanging
terminal and axillary panicles, yellowish or yellow-greenish. Its fruit is a
bright pink drupe with the size of a peppercorn.
• Salix humboldtiana: This species is found from Mexico to Argentina. It flowers
in spring and fructifies in summer. They are deciduous trees from 5 to 18 m high
and have alternate, linear or lanceolate leaves from 4 to 15 cm long and 1 cm
wide presenting finely serrated edge. Its flowers are yellowish or greenish, without
210 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

A B C D

E F G

Fig. 10.6. Pictures of the seven most important medicinal species of this Argentinean region: (A)
Schinus molle, (B) Salix humboldtiana, (C) Gomphrena tormentosa, (D) Commelina erecta, (E)
Clematis montevidiensis, (F) Cestrum parqui, (G) Baccharis salicifolia.

perianth, grouped in 3 to 6 cm long amentums. The fruit is an ovoid capsule of

0.5 cm long and its seeds have a large tuft of characteristic white hair.
• Gomphrena tomentosa: It is widely distributed in warm and temperate zones of
Argentina. It is a perennial and decumbent herb with a thick pivoting root. Its
leaves, which are 2 to 3 cm long by 0.3 to 0.5 cm, wide are subsessile, linear
or lanceolate and hairy. The tepals are linear, pink-purple or rarely white and
grouped in long-capped pedunculated inflorescences. Its fruit is usually dry,
monosperm, indehiscent or dehiscent and with floury endosperm.
• Commelina erecta: Species distributed from the United States to Uruguay and
north-center of Argentina. In the region, it grows in sandy soils and flowers
in spring and summer. It is a perennial herb, with erect or decumbent stems.
Its leaves have reddish pods with oval sheets of 3 to 10 cm long by 2 to 3.5
cm wide presenting slightly wavy edge. Its zygomorphic flowers are found in
terminal tops having 3 petals, two of them of 1.8 to 2 cm long and showing
blue or light blue colors; the third one is reduced to a scale. Its fruit is a bivalve
capsule.
• Clematis montevidiensis: This species is found from subtropical and temperate
South America to Patagonia Argentina. It is common in forests, hygrophilous
forests, roadsides and over fences. It flowers in spring and fructifies in summer.
They are rhizomatous lianas with striated and glabrous stems. Its leaves are
 Ethnomedicinal Plants Used by Tobas and Mocovíes Tribes 211

opposite and petiolate, with 3 to 5 whole leaflets, dentate, split or sectarian,

asymmetric, ovate or elliptical from 2 to 8 cm long and 1 to 5 cm wide. Its
flowers have 10 mm long petals grouped in multifloral inflorescences. The
fruit is a polyachene with fluffy stylus of 10 cm long.
• Cestrum parqui: Species distributed in Peru, Bolivia, Chile, Brazil, Paraguay
and Argentina land. It is common in forests near the rivers, modified soils and
disturbed areas. It flowers in spring and fructifies in summer. It is a shrub from
1 to 4 m tall, highly branched and glabrous. Its leaves are alternate, lanceolate,
from 4 to 14 cm long and 1 to 4 cm wide. Its numerous flowers, from 2 to
2.5 cm long and with tubular-infundibuliform corolla, are yellow or green
arranged in glomeruli or axillary and terminal tops. Its fruit is a globose and
black berry from 7 to 10 mm long, with persistent calyx.
• Baccharis salicifolia: It is a common polymorphic species in America
distributed from California to southern Argentina. It grows in humid to
slightly dry soils, in sandy ones or near watercourses, fences and modified
sites. It flowers in summer and autumn and fruits in autumn and winter. They
are shrubs, which grow from 1 to 3 m tall, evergreen, dioecious, erect, with
striated stems. Its leaves are alternate, simple, briefly petiolate and elliptical
to linear from 4 to 9 cm long by 0.7 to 1.5 cm wide, with acute apex and
whole or paucidentate border in the upper half. Its flowers are grouped into
pedunculated segments arranged in composite corimbiform tops and its fruits
are 1 mm long and reddish achenes.

Conclusion
Native peoples of Argentina represent a very important cultural value for the
country. Thermal and climatic amplitudes of the region offer a biodiversity of
plants that constitutes an amazing natural resource. Two of the main communities
that inhabit the “Chaqueña” and the “Espinal” phytogeographic provinces are
the Tobas and Mocovíes tribes. Ethnobotanical data look upon a wide range of
information regarding the ways in which these cultural communities interact
with its plant environment and the knowledge associated to a plant species. It
was possible to compile the ethnobotanical information of 156 vegetal species
existing in different texts and specialized reports, concluding that the main families
used by these tribes are: Fabaceae, Asteraceae, Solanaceae, Euphorbiaceae,
Cactaceae, Verbenaceae, Amaranthaceae, Apocynaceae, Cucurbitaceae, Lamiaceae,
Borraginaceae, Capparaceae, Malvaceae, Rutaceae and Anacardiaceae. The most
important medicinal uses of the 156 plants surveyed correspond to the categories
of: odontalgic disease, ophthalmic disease, antiparasitic, anti-inflammatory, kidney
dysfunctions, female health problems, digestive tract ailments, antimicrobials,
febrifuge, respiratory disease, depurative and purgant, rheumatic and general pains,
sunstroke, anti-hypertensive and heart problem, headache and skin diseases and
wounds. The forms of the remedies’ preparation using medicinal plants is quite
212 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

varied and these tribes use three particular ways such as “quemadillo”, “mate”
and “tereré”. Finally, we can conclude that most important medicinal species
of this Argentinean region are: Schinus molle, Salix humboldtiana, Gomphrena
tormentosa, Commelina erecta, Clematis montevidiensis, Cestrum parqui and
Baccharis salicifolia, among others.

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 CHAPTER 11

Ethnobotany of Teucrium Species

Milan S. Stanković* and Nenad M. Zlatić

Introduction
At the dawn of 20th century, fresh plants were more widely used for medicinal
purposes. Increased investments into cultivation of medicinal plants and their more
organised and effective usage have marked the decades of the century and opened
novel paths in the study of plants and its potentially beneficial properties. Despite
many advantages of modern medicine, traditional medical treatment is of great
importance. Medicinal plants are widely applied in traditional medicine and have
been an irreplaceable aspect of cultural heritage of diverse nations, both in the past
and the present. The knowledge of beneficial active substances of plants has lately
influenced the global increase in the medicinal application of various herbs. Their
popularity may have been due to their status of inexpensive raw materials which
contain products with increased biological activity particularly useful in prevention
of various metabolism disorders (Petrovska 2012).
Medicinal plants are applied either independently or in combination with
synthetic drugs. The efficiency of phytotherapy largely depends on the active
components identified in the herbs used as well as on the appropriately established
diagnosis and dose. Previous extensive studies and technological developments
have contributed to the recognition of significance medicinal plants have in
medicine and pharmacy. Plant origin preparatus has become widely applicable in
various domains. Pharmacies all over the world sell teas, extracts or pills made
of medicinal plants. Plant products in the medicines show multilevel biological
activity and therefore have diuretic, sedative, antiseptic, antioxidant, antidiabetic

Department of Biology and Ecology, Faculty of Science, University of Kragujevac, Radoja Domanovića
12, 34000 Kragujevac, Republic of Serbia.
* Corresponding author: [email protected]
 Ethnobotany of Teucrium Species 215

and anti-inflammatory effects. The research on medicinal effects of plants improves

understanding of both plant toxicity and protection from natural toxins (Petrovska
2012, Hosseinzadeh et al. 2015).
The aim of this chapter is to present the value of certain medicinal plants of
the genus Teucrium, used in both traditional and modern medical studies as natural
bioactive compounds. The species of the genus Teucrium are particularly popular
in folk medicine. The first records of the medicinal properties of these species date
back to Greek mythology from ten centuries BC. The origins of the name of the
genus can be traced to the name of Trojan king Teucer (Τεῦκρος). He is believed to
have been the first to observe the medicinal properties of the species. The species
of this genus have been used in the treatment of tuberculosis, scurvy, jaundice,
rheumatism and disorders of digestive system (Petrović 1883). Therapeutic products
made of above ground parts of these plants are of prominently bitter taste. This
particularity is important in terms of its beneficial effect on digestive organs. High
quantity of aromatic compounds with antimicrobial activity contributes to their
efficiency in the treatment of numerous infectious diseases (Gostuški 1979). As
the species of the genus Teucrium contain bitter aromatic compounds, these are
used as culinary spices, food supplements and beverage flavour enhancers (Keršek
2006, Maccioni et al. 2007).
In order to prepare tinctures and other medicinal preparatus green, above
ground plant parts are picked and subsequently dried in a cool, dark and airy place.
Some species of the genus are important in commercial terms and hence are used
in industry, medicine and pharmacy (Table 11.1).

The Main Characteristics of the Species of the Genus

Teucrium L.
The genus Teucrium belongs to the family Lamiaceae. The species of this genus
are for the most part pernennial, bushy or semi-bushy, rarely annual herbaceous
plants. The leaves are oppositely arranged, with entire or dentate margins and if
existent, rather short petiole. Flowers are zygomorphic, with longer or shorter stalk.
Inflorescence is determinate and realized as dichasium. Bracteoles are practically
underdeveloped. Flower calyx is bent downwards and consists of 10 nerves and
5 triangular dents. Crown tube is of the same length as calyx tube. There are 4
stamens longer than corolla. The pistil with two part stigma is set high. Fruits are
of ovoid shape (Diklić 1974, Stanković 2012a).
The species of the genus Teucrium grow in moderate climate zones, particularly
in the Mediterranean and Central Asia. As these species can be found in southern,
southwestern and southeastern part of Europe, the continent is regarded as one with
the greatest recorded variety of the species. The significant number of the species
have been observed in southwestern Asia, northernmost parts of Africa, southern
North America and southwestern South America. As for Australia, the species
 Table 11.1. General ethnobotanical properties of the selected Teucrium species.

Botanical Common Names Part Used Therapeutic Use Manipulation Biological Activity Notes
Name
Teucrium Wall germander, Aerial parts Skin inflammations, Infusion, decoction, Antioxidant, Large doses
chamaedrys L. podubica, dubačac strengthening of the immune tincture, elixirs, antiproliferative, cause liver
system, anaemia powder antiinflammatory, damage
antimicrobial and
antiseptic
Teucrium Mountain germander, Aerial parts Respiratory inflammations, Infusion, powder, Antioxidant, antiviral, Used in
montanum L. trava iva, dubačac Strengthening of the immune tincture antimicrobial, aromatising
mali system, stress, tiredness, anticancer, wines, liquers,
stimulation of bile secretion, antispasmodic and and rakija
stimulation of digestion, loss of antipyretic Leaves are used
appetite, cleaning wounds to flavour meat
Teucrium Felty germander, Aerial parts Inflammations, diabetes, Infusion, powder Antioxidant, Large doses
polium L. kalpooreh, pepeljuša rheumatism, indigestion, antidiabetic, cause liver
abdominal pain, headache, antiinflammatory, damage
kidney rocks antispasmodic,
antipyretic,
216 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

antimicrobial,
antifungal and antiviral
Teucrium Croatian germander, Aerial parts Scarce data Infusion Antioxidant, No data
arduini L. planinska metvica antimicrobial and
antiviral
Teucrium botrys Cut leaf germander, Aerial parts Strengthening of the immune Infusion Antioxidant, No data
L. dubačac crveni system, cold, enhancing antimicrobial and
digestion, kidney diseases anticancer
Teucrium Water germander, Aerial parts Infectious skin diseases, Infusion Antioxidant, No data
scordium subsp. vodeni dubačac diseases of digestive tract, antiproliferative and
scordium increased temperature and fever, antifungal
respiratory disorders, poisoning,
a cough, intestinal parasites
Teucrium Water germander, Aerial parts Respiratory disorders Infusion Antioxidant, No data
scordium subsp. lukovac antimicrobial,
scordioides anticancer and
proapoptotic
Teucrium Tree germander, Aerial parts Diuretic and depurative effects Infusion Antioxidant and No data
fruticans L. žbunasti dubačac antimicrobial
Teucrium Yellow germander, Aerial parts Diabetes, external treatment Infusion Antiinflammatory, No data
flavum L. žuti dubačac of skin traumas, cleaning of antidiabetic, anticancer,
wounds antioxidant and
antimicrobial
Ethnobotany of Teucrium Species
217
218 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

of the genus Teucrium are distributed in both southern parts of the continent and
certain nearby islands (Fig. 11.1) (Meusel et al. 1978, Hollis and Brummitt 1992).
Out of the total number of 250 species of the genus Teucrium, approximately
200 species are found in the Mediterranean area. The widest distribution has been
recorded on the Iberian peninsula whereas the smallest distribution has been
observed on the Apennine peninsula. The areas of Northern Africa, Asia Minor
and the Balkans are registered as having a significant number and wide variety of
species. About ten species of the genus are found in Australia and America.
In terms of distribution, it is necessary to emphasise that there is a small
number of widely distributed species, i.e., there are more moderately distributed or
even endemic species. Teucrium chamaedrys, Teucrium montanum and Teucrium
scordium are among the most frequently found species on the territory of Europe
(Tutin and Wood 1972, Diklić 1974, Meusel et al. 1978).
The species of the genus Teucrium grow on all types of calcareous soil.
However, seldom are these plants found on serpentine and silicate substrates. Saline
soils are also regarded as unfavourable for the species in question. These species
may be found in mountain, hill and lowland localities such as arid, termophilous
habitats with high level of insolation. A small number of the species grows in
humid lowland areas. Deciduous, mixed, and coniferous forests, communities of
herbaceous vegetation, rocky habitats, meadows, pastures, continental steppes and
sands have been confirmed as established habitats of the species. Ocassionally, the
species may grow in hygrophilous communities along rivers as well as in ruderal
habitats (Horvat et al. 1974, Diklić 1974, Ellenberg and Strutt 2009).

Fig. 11.1. Distribution of the genus Teucrium.

 Ethnobotany of Teucrium Species 219

Secondary Metabolites of the Species of the Genus Teucrium

Analyses of quantitative and qualitative content of flavonoids in greater number
of the species of the genus Teucrium have shown that flavonol glycosides are
characteristic of this taxon whereas neo-clerodane diterpenes are regarded as
taxonomic markers (Harborne et al. 1986, Bedir et al. 2004). When it comes to
flavonoids, the highest concentrations of these compounds were those of luteolin
and apigenin. Among several phenolic acids, the chlorogenic and rosemary acids
are the ones most often observed. As for evaporable components, the species of
this genus contain compounds from the group of monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes
with germacrene, β-caryophyllene and β-pinene (Sundaresan et al. 2006, Monsef-
Esfahani et al. 2010).

The General Characteristics, Ethnobotany and

Phytotherapeutic Effects of the Selected Teucrium Species
Teucrium chamaedrys L.
Teucrium chamaedris (Fig. 11.2.1) is a semi-bushy perennial plant. It has well
developed and partly woody root which serves as the basis for underground stolons.
Plant habitus is upright, branchy and it can grow up to 30 cm. The branches are
covered in grayish or purple hairs. The hairy, densely arranged leaves have rather

1 2 3

5 6 7 9

Fig. 11.2. Described Teucrium species: (1) T. chamaedrys; (2) T. montanum; (3) T. polium; (4)
T. arduini; (5) T. botrys; (6) T. scordium subsp. scordium; (7) T. scordium subsp. scordioides; (8)
T. flavum; (9) T. fruticans.
220 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

short petiole and dentate margins. Flowers are located in the basis of bracts. The
calyx has mild dorsal protuberance and is covered in hairs. Mildly red corolla is
twice or thrice as long as calyx. Stamens, located above flowers, are slightly bent.
Fruits are ovoid nuts (Stanković et al. 2010, Stanković 2012a).
Teucrium chamaedrys is a Mediterranean and Middle European species
distributed in whole Europe, save for the northern part of the continent. It can also
be found in northern Africa and western Asia (Horvat et al. 1974, Diklić 1974,
Stanković 2012а).
The species Teucrium chamaedrys mostly grows in arid rocky localities of
calcareous origin. Rarely can it be found on serpentine and silicate substrate. The
species may inhabit areas whose altitudes range from 200 to 1500 m (Horvat et al.
1974, Diklić 1974). It is widely distributed in deciduous, mixed, and coniferous
forests as well as in communities of broadleaved evergreen and deciduous forests
of bushy vegetation. Meadows, pastures, continental steppes and sands are also
frequent habitats of Teucrium chamaedrys (Horvat et al. 1974, Diklić 1974,
Ellenberg and Strutt 2009).
Teucrium chamaedrys is used for preparing teas, tinctures, wines and other
therapeutic products which havе bitter taste due to the presence of bitter active
substances. These substances positively influence digestive system and may be used
in the treatment of skin inflammation and anaemia as well as for the purpose of
strengthening the immune system. The species is used as an ingredient of different
elixirs, rakijas made with different medicinal herbs, and traditional drink vermouth.
The tea is made out of dried herb and water. It is taken before meal 2 or 3 times
a day. The tincture is made of dried herb and rakija. After 8 days, the mixture is
filtered and 30 drops of the filtered content is used before every meal. Tincture
powder is used to strengthen the organism in quantities of 5 to 10 g a day (Sarić
1988, Kojić et al. 1998, Keršek 2006, Stanković et al. 2012b).
Germander is widely applied as food supplement either in combination with
other herbs or as capsules available in 200 mg dose (Barceloux 2012). Long term
usage of the species Teucrium chamaedrys may cause liver damage as it contains
secondary metabolites from the group of neo-clerodane diterpenes such as Teucrin
А (Savvidou et al. 2007). On average, 100 ml of germander tea contains between
75 and 150 mg of Tеucrin А (Barceloux 2012). Consequently, the usage of teas and
other products made of this species must be moderate and carefully dosed (Khleifat
2002). US FDA has allowed metabolite Teucrin A as flavouring agent in alcoholic
drinks such as aromatic wines, vermouth or bitter drinks (Barceloux 2012).
When it comes to phenolic content of the above ground parts of the species
Teucrium chamaedrys, quantitative and qualitative analyses of flavonoids have
shown high concentrations of luteoline and apigenin. Among other detected
substances are phenylpropanoid glicosides, diterpenes and phenolic acids. The most
important glicosides are teucroside, verbascoside, teucroside-3-O-methyl ether
and teucroside-3,4-O-dimethyl ether. Among detected diterpenes are Teucrin A,
Teucrin G, teuflin and dihydroteugin. With regard to phenolic acids, the presence
of caffeine and rosemary acid has been confirmed (Gafner et al. 2003, Avula et al.
 Ethnobotany of Teucrium Species 221

2003, Bosisio et al. 2004, Bruno et al. 2004, Kadifkova-Panovska et al. 2005, Lin
et al. 2009). By the examination of quantity and content of evaporable components
using GC/MC analysis, it has been established that the principal components of
essential oil are β-caryophyllene and germacrene D (Bežić et al. 2011).
By following the influence of neo-clerodane diterpenes isolated from the
species Teucrium chamaedrys on seed germination and growth and development of
young plants of the species Dactylis hispanica Roth, Petrorhagia velutina (Guss.)
Ball et Heyw., Phleum subulatum (Savi) Asch. et Gr., the allelopathic effect of
secondary metabolites of the species has been observed (Fiorentino et al. 2009).
The extracts of the species Teucrium chamaedrys have antioxidant (Kadifkova-
Panovska et al. 2005), proapoptotic (Stanković et al. 2011a), genotoxic,
antimutagenic (Milošević-Djorđević et al. 2013), antiinflammatory (Pourmotabbed
et al. 2010), antimalarial (Tagarelli et al. 2010), antimicrobial and antiseptic (Vlase
et al. 2014) activity in both in vitro and in vivo conditions. Apart from the previously
stated effects, it has been established that Teucrium chamaedrys has a significant
cytotoxic impact on HCT-116 cells after 24 hour exposure (Stanković et al. 2011a).
The previously conducted analysis showed that the species from serpentine
habitats are important in terms of biological activity as it contains greater
concentrations of phenols and flavonoids and shows high level of antioxidant
activity. Therefore, Teucrium chamaedrys from these habitats is safe for use as it
does not contain heavy metals (Zlatić et al. 2017).

Teucrium montanum L.
Teucrium montanum (Fig. 11.2.2) is a perennial plant with developed semi-woody
root. The well spread branches either rise or cover the ground and may reach the
length between 5 and 25 cm. The leaves are oppositely arranged, lanceolate, with
entire margins, narrowed in the upper parts. Abaxial side is covered in white hair,
whereas adaxial side may be hairless. The flowers form dichasium and their stalks
are short. Corolla is of pale yellow colour. Stamens, reaching over corolla, are
located between upper corolla lobes. The fruits are nuts of ovoid shape (Stanković
et al. 2011b, Stanković 2012a).
Teucrium montanum grows in southern Europe as well as in southern parts
of Western and Eastern Europe, Asia Minor and in northern Africa. It is widely
distributed in Mediterranean areas as mountain species (Horvat et al. 1974, Diklić
1974, Stanković 2012a).
The habitats of Teucrium montanum are calcareous rocks, pine forests on
calcareous soil, pastures and occasionally serpentine substrate. The species may
inhabit areas whose altitudes range from 30 to 2000 m (Horvat et al. 1974, Diklić
1974, Stanković 2012a).
It grows in mixed, coniferous and deciduous forests, in serpentine rocky
habitats, gorges and canyons as well as in the communities in sub-Mediterranean
region, xerophytic and mountainous habitats (Horvat et al. 1974, Diklić 1974,
Ellenberg and Strutt 2009).
222 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

For centuries, peoples of the Balkans have kept to traditional belief that this
herb is medicinal and highly beneficial. Teucrium montanum is used in the treatment
of inflammations of respiratory system and to strengthten the organism in stressful,
tiring and physically demanding conditions. Teas, tinctures and wines stimulate
bile secretion, suppress a cold, relieve digestive problems and enhance digestion.
When it comes to gallbladder disorders, a tincture is used. Tincture is made of
20 g of dried herb and 100 ml of rakija. After 14 days, the compound is macerated
and filtrated. The maximum amount to be taken is 20 drops per dose dissolved in
water or tea of some other herb thrice a day. Tea is prepared in standard manner
and daily intake is limited to less than 3 cups. The powder of plant may be used
for similar purposes and the maximum amount of it is 1 to 3 g per dose thrice a
day before meal (Sarić 1988, Kojić et al. 1998). Teucrium montanum is mixed with
other herbs for purpose of making different elixirs and medicinal types of rakija
(Keršek 2006). The species is widely used as a natural medicine for diseases related
to disorders of bile secretion, liver and lack of appettite. As for external application,
it is predominantly used for treating and cleaning wounds and other skin traumas.
HPLC analysis of phenols of the species Teucrium montanum confirmed that
genistein acid is the predominant phenolic acid. Though quantitatively present to
a lesser degree, it is important to bring up a variety of other detected acids such as
chlorogenic, coumarin, syringic, gallic, vanillin, caffeine and ferulic acid (Tumbas
et al. 2004, Čanadanović-Brunet et al. 2006). Quantitative analysis of etheric
oil by means of GC/MC test showed that the main components are: β-cadinene,
β-selinene, α-calacorene, β-caryophyllene, β-pinene and germacrene (Vuković et
al. 2008, Bežić et al. 2011).
The extracts of the species Teucrium montanum have antioxidant (Čanadanović-
Brunet et al. 2006), antiviral (Bežić et al. 2011), antimicrobial (Stanković et al.
2012b), genotoxic, antimutagenic (Milošević-Djorđević et al. 2013), antirheumatic,
antispasmodic and antipyretic activity (Shah and Shah 2015). In terms of anticancer
effect, Teucrium montanum extracts have shown a significant level of cytotoxic
activity on HeLa and K562 cancer cell lines (Stanković et al. 2015).
The up to date research showed that Teucrium montanum from serpentine
localities show high level of biological activity reflected in the total content of
phenols and flavonoids as well as in intense antioxidant effect. Consequently, due
to the undetected presence of heavy metals, Teucrium montanum from serpentine
habitats is safe for wide application (Zlatić et al. 2017).

Teucrium polium L.
Teucrium polium (Fig. 11.2.3) is a perennial plant with semi-bushy above ground
plant parts and well developed semi-woody root. The branches are upright,
moderately developed and may grow up to 40 cm. Sessile hairy leaves are
oppositely arranged, elongated, slightly oval and dentate at the top. The flowers
 Ethnobotany of Teucrium Species 223

are zygomorphic and form dichasium. The whole surface of calyx is covered in
white hair. Corolla leaves are mostly white in colour. Upper labia make two oval
oppositely arranged lobes. The length of anthers rarely surpasses the length of
corolla. The fruits are ovoid nuts (Stanković 2012a).
The species Teucrium polium is distributed in southern Europe, northern Africa
and Asia Minor. It inhabits localities at an altitude varying from 300 m to 1000
m. It grows mostly on arid and rocky terrains, in gorges and canyons as well as
in sub-Mediterranean regions and xerophile communities (Tutin and Wood 1972,
Horvat et al. 1974, Diklić 1974, Ellenberg and Strutt 2009, Stanković 2012a).
Teucrium polium is used in traditional medicine in the treatment of different
physiological disorders such as inflammation, diabetes, rheumatism or diseases of
gastrointestinal tract. The tea of the species is used to enhance digestion, to alleviate
abdominal pain, to mitigate the symptoms of the most serious type of diabetes as
well as in the treatment of cold, a headache, kidney stones and excessive sweating
(Afifi et al. 2009, Vahidi et al. 2010, Jaradat 2015).
Quantitative and qualitative analyses of secondary metabolites in watery and
alcoholic extract have shown that flavonoids apigenin and luteolin are the most
frequently found secondary metabolites in the above ground plant parts of Teucrium
polium (Safaei and Haghi 2004). Among other important and often detected active
substances are rutin, cirsiliol, diosmetin, cirsimaritin and cirsilineol (Kadifkova
Panovska et al. 2005, Sharififar et al. 2009, Stefkov et al. 2011). Examination of
etheric oil from above ground plant parts demonstrated that the principal evaporable
components of the species Teucrium polium are germacrene, linalool, ρ- cimen,
carvon, β-caryophyllene, α-pinene, β-pinene, carvacrol and caryophyllene oxide
(Afifi et al. 2009, Moghtader 2009, Menichini et al. 2009, Bežić et al. 2011).
The previous studies have shown that the extracts of Teucrium polium
have antioxidant, antidiabetic, antiinflammatory, antispasmodic, antipyretic,
antimicrobial, antifungal and antiviral activity (Jaradat 2015). When it comes to
antioxidant effects of the species, the previously conducted research has shown
that Teucrium polium extracts may be regarded either as equally or even more
efficient than Ginkgo and Green tea extracts (Stanković et al. 2012c). As for the
anticancer effect of Teucrium polium, metabolites from the extract of the species
may be used in the treatment of prostate cancer as these inhibit signaling pathway
which leads to metastasis of cancer (Kanduoza et al. 2010). In treating cell cultures
of glioblastoma, alveolar adenocarcinoma, breast cancer and adrenal gland with
extracts of the species Teucrium polium, it has been established that secondary
metabolites of the plant show significant cytotoxic activity in in vitro conditions
(Eskandary et al. 2007, Nematollahi-Machani et al. 2007). Analysis of the impact of
water extract of Teucrium polium on NSCLS cell line of lung cancer demonstrated
that the extract shows intense antiproliferative activity by inhibiting cell cycle and
causing death of cell (Haidara et al. 2011). Ethanol extract of the species Teucrium
polium enhances the effect of vincristine, vinblastine and doxorubicin which are
widely used in cancer treatment (Rajabalijan 2008).
224 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

Teucrium arduini L.
Teucrium arduini (Fig. 11.2.4) is a perennial plant with moderately branched hairy
and woody older shoots which may grow up to 50 cm in height. The leaves are oval,
petiolated, with well developed leaf nervature, serrated margins and extended base.
Flowers are densely arranged into clusters that look like raceme inflorescence. They
open up from the basis up to the top of spike. Calyx is differentiated into upper
and lower labia. Hairy corolla is mostly white in colour and its size surpasses the
size of calyx. Stamens grow beyond corolla and have reddish anthers. The fruit is
ovoid nut (Stanković 2012a).
Teucrium arduini is an endemic species native to the Balkan Peninsula, that
is, it grows on the territory encompassing the belt from northwestern Albania to
northwestern Croatia (Kremer et al. 2011).
Teucrium arduini grows on calcareous substrate. It inhabits arid, termophile
rocky habitats located at an altitude varying between 50 and 1500 m. Calcareous
rocks, cliffs, canyons and gorges of mountain regions are also well known types
of habitat of the species (Tutin and Wood 1972, Horvat et al. 1974, Diklić 1974,
Ellenberg and Strutt 2009, Stanković 2012a).
There is scarcity of data on quantitative and qualitative content of secondary
metabolites of the species Teucrium arduini. Examination of the quantity and content
of evaporable components in the above-ground plant parts of the species Teucrium
arduini by means of GC/FID and GC/MS tests demonstrated that predominant
components of etheric oil are β-caryophyllene, caryophyllene oxide and germacrene
D. As for flavonoids, the presence of cirsimarin, characteristic of this species of
the genus Teucrium, has been confirmed (Vuković et al. 2011, Dunkić et al. 2011).
The extracts of the species Teucrium arduini show high level of antimicrobial,
antiviral and antioxidant activity (Šamec et al. 2010, Stanković et al. 2012b, Kremer
et al. 2013). The most prominent proapoptotic effect of Teucrium arduini on HCT-
116 cells was observed after a three-day long exposure (Stanković et al. 2011a).

Teucrium botrys L.
Teucrium botrys (Fig. 11.2.5) is an annual, rarely biannual herbaceous plant.
The semi-woody root is well branched. The hairy shoots are upright, moderately
branched, greenish or red in colour and may grow up to 40 cm in height. The
oppositely arranged, hairy leaves are cut into 5 to 7 lobes with well developed stalk.
Zygomorphic flowers are vertically set in comparison with the stem. They form
dense clusters shorter than bracts. Tube-like, hairy calyx has dorsal protuberance
of tubular part. Corolla is purple with dark streaks. Its external surface is hairy.
Stamens and style of gynoecium are longer than corolla. Dark nut fruits are circular
or ovoid in shape (Stanković 2012a).
Teucrium botrys is distributed in Middle Europe and in northwestern Africa.
It grows on calcareous substrate and inhabits open, arid and rocky areas, formerly
cultivated soil, rocky pastures, arid places beside roads and generally, localities at
 Ethnobotany of Teucrium Species 225

up to 1.500 m of altitude (Tutin and Wood 1972, Horvat et al. 1974, Diklić 1974,
Ellenberg and Strutt 2009, Stanković 2012a).
This species, as all others which belong to the genus Teucrium, has medicinal
properties. It is used to strengthen the immune system, to relieve symptoms of cold,
in the treatment of kidney diseases and to enhance digestion (Stanković 2012a).
There is little data on the results of research on quantitative and qualitative
characteristics of secondary metabolites of the species Teucrium botrys. Analyses
of chemical composition of essential oil obtained from the above ground plant
parts of the species have shown the presence of significant concentrations of neo-
clerodane diterpenoids 19-deacetylteuscorodol and teubotrin as well as of diterpenes
such as teucvidin, montanine D, teuchamedryn С and 6β-hydroxyteusoordin.
19-deacetylteuscorodol and teubotrin are significant for the species Teucrium botrys
in chemotaxonomic terms (De La Torre et al. 1986).
Biological activity of extracts of the species Teucrium botrys is reflected in its
antioxidant, antimicrobial and anticancer activity (Stanković et al. 2012b, Fajfarić
2013). With regard to antioxidant efficiency, Teucrium botrys extracts are proved
to be either equally or even more efficient than Ginkgo and Green tea extracts
(Stanković et al. 2014). When it comes to anticancer effects, Teucrium botrys
extracts have shown a significant level of cytotoxic activity on HeLa and K562
cancer cell lines (Stanković et al. 2015).

Teucrium scordium L. subsp. scordium

Teucrium scordium subsp. scordium (Fig. 11.2.6) is a perennial herbaceous plant
with stolons. The stem is upright, well branched or unbranched and it may reach
50 cm of height. It is purple and completely covered in white hair. The hairy,
serrated leaves are densely and oppositely arranged on the stem. The flowers are
arranged in clusters and grow on short petioles. The corolla is covered in rose
hairs. Stamens grow beyond corolla and have reddish anthers. Fruits are dark nuts
(Stanković 2012a).
The subspecies Teucrium scordium subsp. scordium can be found in most of
Europe and in western Asia. Teucrium scordium subsp. scordium grows in forest
communities, in mesophilous and flood meadows, on the edges of pools and swamps
and on the coasts of rivers and channels (Tutin and Wood 1972, Horvat et al. 1974,
Diklić 1974, Ellenberg and Strutt 2009, Lakušić et al. 2010, Stanković 2012a).
Teucrium scordium subsp. scordium is used in the treatment of infectious skin
diseases, increased temperature, fever, breathing difficulties, poisoning, cough and
intestinal parasites. The species is regarded for stimulating functioning of digestive
tract organs. At the time of Hippocrates, the species was known as a highly beneficial
medicine applied in the treatment of necrotic wounds and symptoms of plague
(Petrović 1883, Redžić 2007).
Analysis of quantitative and qualitative content of etheric oil obtained from
the above ground plant parts of Teucrium scordium has shown that principal
evaporable components are β-caryophyllene, caryophyllene oxide, (Е)-β-farnesene,
226 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

1,8-cineole and β-eudesmol (Morteza-Semani 2007). Quantitative and qualitative

chromatographic examination of phenolic compounds has demonstrated that
luteolin, apigenin, diosmetin, luteolin-7-O-glucoside, luteolin-7-О-rutinoside and
diosmetin-7-О-glucoside are the principal secondary metabolites from group of
flavonoids (Jakupović 1985, Kundaković et al. 2011).
The extracts of the subspecies Teucrium scordium subsp. scordium have
antioxidant (Stanković et al. 2012b), antifungal, antiproliferative as well as cytotoxic
effects against both ER+ and ER– cell lines, MDA-MB-361 and MDA-MB-453
(Kundaković et al. 2011).

Teucrium scordium L. subsp. scordioides (Schreber) Meire &

Petimg.
Teucrium scordium subsp. scordioides (Fig. 11.2.7) is a perennial species with
stolons. The branched root is well developed. The stem is upright and may reach
the height of 50 cm. It is moderately branched, has side shoots and is entirely
covered in thick hair. The leaves are ovoid, hairy, elongated, serrated and sessile.
Flowers have stalk and are located at the bottom of leaves. Hairy calyx is wider
in lower part. Corolla is twice as long as calyx and is of reddish colour with dark
blue streaks. Stamens are longer than calyx and its anthers are of red colour. The
fruits are ovoid nuts (Stanković 2012a).
Subspecies Teucrium scordium subsp. scordioides is distributed in southern
and southeastern Europe, Asia Minor and northern parts of Africa. Wet soils, flood-
meadows and swamps are found favourable for the growth and development of
the species (Tutin and Wood 1972, Horvat et al. 1974, Diklić 1974, Ellenberg and
Strutt 2009).
Using HPLC analysis of plant extracts of the species, the presence of both
flavonoid aglycones such as luteolin, diosmetin, apigenin and glycosides of apigenin
and luteolin (apigenin- and luteolin-7-O-glucoside, luteolin-7-Orutinoside and
luteolin-7-sambubioside) was detected (Kundaković et al. 2011).
Extracts of the subspecies Teucrium scordium L. subsp. scordioides have
various effects which point to its biological activity. Among the observed effects are
antioxidant, anticancer and proapoptotic activity (Stanković et al. 2011а, 2012b).
The detected anticancer activity is reflected in cytotoxic impact on HeLa and K562
cancer cell lines (Stanković et al. 2015). Antibacterial activity has been detected on
Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Escherichia coli and Bacillus
subtilis (Kundaković et al. 2011).

Teucrium flavum L.
Teucrium flavum L. (Fig. 11.2.8) is a perennial, evergreen, bushy species with shoots
reaching up to 60 cm. The stem is upright, hairy and branchy, with ovoid, mildly
dentate leaves and small flowers of pale yellow colour. The species mostly inhabits
xerophyll, calcareous and rocky areas located at up to 1000 m of altitude. It can
 Ethnobotany of Teucrium Species 227

be found in communities of maquis and garrigue in the Mediterranean (Menichini

et al. 2009, Stanković and Zlatić 2017).
The majority of other species of the genus Teucrium, Teucrium flavum L. is used
in traditional medicine as infusion made of above ground plant parts (Menichini
et al. 2009). Infusion, obtained of flowers of this species, is traditionally used as
antipyretic and antiseptic. Decoction of leaves is applied directly to the skin as a
cicatrizant (Acquaviva et al. 2017). The species is widely used in the treatment
of diabetes and for cleaning wounds (Menichini et al. 2009). As for the chemical
composition of Teucrium flavum, dominant substances are diterpenoids such
as fruticolone, isofruticolone, 8β-hydroxyfruticolone, 7β-hydroxyfruticolone,
11-hydroxyfruticolone, deacetylfruticolone, and 10-hydroxy-6-acetylteucjaponin
B (Piozzi et al. 2005). Among detected evaporable compounds of this species are
caryophyllene, 4-vinyl guaiacol, caryophyllene oxide and α-humulene (Menichini
et al. 2009). Extracts of the species show antiinflammatory, anticancer (Menichini
et al. 2009), antioxidant and antibacterial activity (Acquaviva et al. 2017).

Teucrium fruticans L.
Teucrium fruticans L. (Fig. 11.2.9) is a perennial, evergreen, bushy species
with shoots reaching up to 2 m. The above ground plant part is branchy. The
oval leaves of grey-green colour on adaxial side and grey-white on abaxial side
have a thick indumentum. Blue flowers are quite small. The species grows in
termophile calcareous habitats in western Mediterranean region. In other parts
of the Mediterranean, the species is successfully cultivated (Frabetti et al. 2009,
Stanković and Zlatić 2017).
Teucrium fruticans L. is appreciated to a great extent in central parts of Italy
due to its pharmacological properties. The leaf of the species is used to prepare
nfusion with diuretic and depurative effects. The extracts of this species contain
neo-clerodane diterpenes germacrene D and β-caryophyllene. High amounts of
β-pinene and β-myrcene as well as flavonoid compounds cirsilineol and cirsimaritin
which show high level of biological activity were also detected (Kisiel et al. 2001,
Frabetti et al. 2009, Acquaviva et al. 2017). The extracts of the species from Spain
have antimicrobial and antioxidant effect and may be used in food, pharmaceutical
and cosmetic industry (Stanković et al. 2017).

Conclusions
Last decades have brought new tendencies in the treatment of numerous disorders
and diseases. The supremacy of pharmacological industry has been challenged
by traditional medicine. Plant species have significant place in contemporary folk
medicine. This chapter is a review of morphological, chemical and medicinal
properties, of geographical distribution as well as of ethnobotanical and commercial
application of 9 selected species of the genus Teucrium. The studies conducted so
far have proved and confirmed the presence of metabolites and other beneficial
228 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

substances of therapeutical importance. Various products made of the species such

as teas, tinctures, rakija and so on have important position in contemporary medicine
as well as in pharmaceutical and food industry. However, cautious and moderate
usage of the species and its products is recommended as greater quantities of its
active substances may have hepatotoxic effect.

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 CHAPTER 12

Ethnobotanical Issues on
Medicinal Plants from Paraguay
Rosa Luisa Degen de Arrúa,1,* Yenny González1 and
Esteban A. Ferro B.2

Introduction
Paraguay is a land-locked country located in the sub-tropical region of South
America. It has a area of 406,760 km2, distributed in two big regions separated
by Paraguay river. The country does not have any relevant heights, but it is gifted
with a rich flora with about 5,500 to 6,000 vascular species. Among those, a
considerable amount has medicinal uses in the country (Mereles 2014). This use
of plants can be traced back to the oldest cultural traditions, and medicinal plants
were established as the base of traditional medicine (Bertoni 1927), practices that
are still present today. The recognition of these plants’ value comprises their use
for health preservation and treatment, becoming valuable sources of raw material
for the extraction of bioactive molecules to be employed alone or following either
chemical or microbial processing, and even more, providing lead structures for
the development of new molecules directed to treat a variety of diseases (Ibarrola
and Degen 2011).
The plants employed for medicinal purposes receive several names, such
as diet supplements, traditional medicine or phytotherapeutic remedies, and the
WHO supports the implementation of these therapeutic resources among the state
members. The utilization of medicinal plants evokes different reactions among

1
National University of Asunción, Faculty of Chemical Sciences, Research Department, Department
of Botany, Paraguay.
2
National University of Asunción, Faculty of Chemical Sciences, Research Department, Department
of Phytochemistry, Paraguay.
* Corresponding author: [email protected], [email protected]
 Ethnobotanical Issues on Medicinal Plants from Paraguay 233

different societies, going from the enthusiasm without any criticism to the extreme
lack of credibility. Yet, their use as alternative and complement treatments is quickly
increasing in developed countries; however, in developing countries, these resources
remain widely applied, strongly enough to be the first therapeutic resource in
several countries. This is a frequent practice in Latin American countries, including
Paraguay. Some countries of the region have established legal frameworks and
standardized criteria in order to fulfill safety, effectiveness and quality requirements
for herbal remedies, in order to make reliable products available for the population,
reducing these risks associated with the consumption of plant-derived medicines
(Ibarrola and Degen 2011). It is considered as a priority for the country to have a
national policy for medicinal plants and phytotherapeutic resources. Such policy
would help to guarantee the safe and rational use of those products as valuable
resources for primary health care by rural and urban populations (Degen et al. 2009).
The aim of this chapter is to review the background of the use of medicinal
plants in Paraguay, their conservation and trading conditions, the advance in research
efforts and their future perpectives.

Ethnobotanical Backgrounds and Studies on Medicinal Plants

The current application of plants in the medicinal practice-either preventive,
therapeutic or palliative—comes from a huge mixture of knowledge, beliefs and
plant-related practices of the native population with those introduced by people from
different places, even continents (Vera 2011). In fact, the Guarani people—to name
just one of the native ethnicities that inhabited this land when European conquerors
arrived in Paraguay—had a deep knowledge about the flora and they made a smart
use of it; they believed that each plant had a therapeutic property, and they also
knew about the affinity and antagonism among them (González Torres 1992).
After the discovery of America, their natural resources—flora, wildlife and
minerals—and their uses and applications were quickly recognized. Spaniards
showed great interest to know and apply the native medical wisdom, and in 1579 they
decided to send naturalists and physicians in order to study the plants for medical
purposes, mainly to collect and deliver to Spain those herbs highly renowned as
medicinal plants. One of the pioneers in this purpose was the Jesuit priest Father
Ventura, or Buenaventura Suárez, who wrote in 1710 the book Missionary Medical
Matters, a valuable summary of the medicinal plants from Brazil and the Missions
area, which was lately attributed to Brother Pedro Montenegro, in 1888. In his work,
he described plants as yerba mate (Fig. 12.1), yvyrá ysy, caña fístula, contrayerba
and santa lucía, among many others. By the middle of 1700, Sigismund Asperger
wrote an original work describing the plants and medicinal herbs from Paraguay;
he is considered the author of several botanical and medical books containing the
recipe for the “elixir or balm of the Missions” employing “aguará yvá”, a species
from Schinus genera; such preparation was traditionally employed for several
physical ailments, mainly as a depurative and to treat wounds and boils. Father
José Sánchez Labrador also wrote several books describing many plants and their
234 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

Fig. 12.1. Ilex paraguariensis var. paraguariensis, “yerba mate”, medicinal plant.
(Photo: Germán González, Department of Botany).

uses. By 1877, Domingo Parodi prepared a list of plants using both Spanish and
Guarani names, specifying botanical families and names, and their medical use.
More recently, Moses Bertoni a naturalist from Switzerland, studied the Paraguayan
flora. He settled in Paraguay by the end of 19th century and described the most used
plants in Paraguay and the neighboring countries, in alphabetical order. Moreover,
he recovered information from the aboriginals, and by the end of 1899 discovered
the species recognized as ‘sweet herb’ or ka’á he’ẽ (Fig. 12.2), Stevia rebaudiana
(González Torres 1992, MAG-DGPE 2008, Scavone 2010). Between centuries 19th
and 20th, two botanists made great collections of the flora from Paraguay. They
were the Swiss Dr. Emil Hassler, and the Paraguayan Teodoro Rojas, considered
as the first botanist from Paraguay, since the previous botanists came from other

Fig. 12.2. Stevia rabaudiana, “ka’á he’ẽ”, medicinal plant.

(Photo: Yenny González, Department of Botany).
 Ethnobotanical Issues on Medicinal Plants from Paraguay 235

countries. Teodoro Rojas worked hardly under the influence of great botanists,
like the previously mentioned E. Hassler and M. Bertoni, among others. Rojas
became an expert technician in systematic botany, collecting thousands of species,
describing new ones and publishing several works (Basualdo 1993). His collections,
performed in Paraguay, Bolivia and Argentina reached 12,837 records, during his
50 years of activity as a botanist collecting about 40,000 samples, counting both
original samples and duplicates (Schinini 2005).
More recently, Prof. Dionisio González Torres published in 1970 the first
edition of his book entitled “Catálogo de plantas medicinales y alimenticias y
útiles usadas en el Paraguay” (Catalogue of medicinal, edible and useful plants
employed in Paraguay). In this book, he presented 1,500 popular names of
plants, alphabetically ordered, their scientific names, properties and attributes,
and preparation procedures. Most of the named species were autochthonous, but
exotic species were also included, following a vast review of the bibliography,
with information collected by naturalists from centuries 16th to 19th, as a result
of interviews performed in different areas of the country along several years. This
book was considered as the only one with enough records on medicinal plants from
Paraguay for a long time, and even at the present time it is considered as a valuable
starting point to perform research and academic works.
Another outstanding researcher of Paraguayan natural environment is Dr.
Carlos Gatti Battilana, who expanded his interests in social problems, focusing his
attention on both Guarani civilization and the Paraguayan population of the 20th
century. Such interest resulted in the publication of a Spanish–Guarani dictionary
for medical use, where is recorded an important content of the medical Guarani
knowledge, obtained from his patients (Benítez 1986). At this point, we must
name pharmacist Rómulo Feliciángeli, who prepared in 1939 the project of the
Paraguayan Pharmacopoeia. This work included an addendum, containing 33 plant
species used at that time for medicinal purposes (Feliciángeli 1939).
In 1978, Prof. Isabel Basualdo and her all female research team from the
Facultad de Química y Farmacia (Chemistry and Pharmacy School), today Facultad
de Ciencias Químicas, FCQ (Chemical Sciences School), started their research
works for the recovery of the popular knowledge on the use of medicinal plants in
Paraguay, backed by the botanical identification of the species and the preservation
of voucher specimens. This activity made possible to set up the Herbarium of the
Chemical Sciences School of the Universidad Nacional de Asunción, which is
internationally recognized as FCQ for its acronym in Spanish.
Between 1982 and 1985, the United Nations Development Program supported
the training of human resources and provided basic equipment required to start
chemical studies on medicinal plants from Paraguay. As a result of this project,
chemical studies on species from Asteraceae and Celastraceae families were
executed. Following these efforts, a joint project between the FCQ and the Medical
and Pharmaceutical University of Toyama, Japan—with the support of the Japan
International Cooperation Agency (JICA)—was executed with two main objectives:
to record with documentary backing the medicinal flora from Paraguay, and to
236 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

evaluate its biological activity in a bioassay panel. These works allowed to publish
in 1987 a document summarizing both chemical and pharmacological findings
from herbs collected in Paraguay. A few years later, following the same research
line, a list of medicinal plants commercialized in popular markets in Asunción and
its metropolitan area was published (Basualdo et al. 2004), and more recently the
Illustrated catalogue with 80 medicinal plants from Paraguay was also published.
This work was awarded with the National Science Award, granted by the National
Congress of Paraguay to the researchers from FCQ in 2012 (Degen and González
2014b).
Several researchers have published lists of medicinal plants that include their
popular and scientific names, and also their descriptions, applications, preparation
mode and habitat, all backed by herbarium reference material. These names are
usually related to some location, village or native community, as observed in the
ethnobotanical works published by Pastor Arenas and Ricardo Moreno Azorero
(1976, 1977). They started their research with a project on the genetic characteristics
of indigenous populations, focusing initially on the Maká community characterized
by its high level of isolation and the preservation of their language and manners.
Later, they followed their studies in other native communities such as Nivakle,
Ayoreo and others, getting relevant results. In Maká community, they found high
inbreeding, high mortality and low fertility rates, which moved them to study how
the natives controlled the fertility to find medicinal plants as natural resources for
birth control. A total of 22 plant species were recorded as abortive, contraceptive,
sterilizing and fecundating from ten different ethnic groups and native communities
from Paraguay.
After that, Mereles and Degen (1994a, 1997) published a list containing 31
trees and bushes from 16 botanical families, growing in the Boreal Chaco region
and employed by native populations. Basualdo et al. (1977) described useful plants
growing at Cerro Corá National Park, at Amambay Department in the Northeastern
region of Paraguay. Mereles (2001) mentioned the useful plants from Tebicuary-
mí and Capiibary basin of Paraguay Eastern region, just to name other studies in
the subject.
Different authors have published books on medicinal plants and related issues.
We can mention Soria and Basualdo (2005), who recorded plants employed in a
community from Caazapá, Pin et al. (2009) who presented a list of medicinal plants
cultivated at the Asunción Botanical Garden, and other authors as Vera (2009, 2011),
Ibarrola and Degen (2011), Scavone (2011), who described traditional application
of medicinal plants in popular environment. Polini et al. (2013) published two
books containing the description of traditional use of medicinal plants by the Enxet
community, located in the western region of Paraguay. The later authors performed
studies that allowed rescuing the traditional knowledge about medicinal plants,
its distribution, conservation status, pharmacological properties and chemical
composition, among other data. Finally, it should be mentioned that the two editions
of the book about medicinal plants from Latin America, edited by Gupta (1995,
2008) include plants used as medicine in Paraguay.
 Ethnobotanical Issues on Medicinal Plants from Paraguay 237

The Ministry of Health and Social Welfare (MSPyBS) from Paraguay started
in 2008 a process directed to include the traditional medical practices as a relevant
component of the primary health services (APS) in order to make health services
accessible to the communities. Within this concept, Soria and Ramos (2015)
published a guide of medicinal plants aimed to ease the recognition of these
species by the primary health practitioners in APS units, linking the traditional
knowledge with the formal health services. Following this initiative, Maidana et al.
(2015) have named the plant species employed by type 2 diabetes mellitus patients
receiving attention within the framework of the Diabetes National Program from
the Paraguayan Ministry for Health and Wellbeing.

The Common Names of the Plants

Plants, like the animals, are usually recognized by their common names, which
result from different components like their appearance or their similarity with some
object, organoleptic characteristics such as color or smell, or the place where the
species grow, among others (Mereles and Degen 1994b). The common names are not
universally recognized in the plant science, and they are usually inaccurate (Degen
1990); however, it is mandatory to recognize them because they are employed by
the people who named the plants, especially those having popular uses. Names are
also closely related to their applications, the medicinal use being the most relevant.
It could be exemplified by Tabebuia aurea, popularly named as “paratodo” (plant for
everything), or plant able to cure any disease (Mereles and Degen 1994a,b, 1997).
A relevant issue about popular names is their use in local trading, which mostly
are expressed in Guaraní language.
Among the 269 plant species commercialized in the markets of Asunción,
several of them have the same common name despite belonging to different
families, examples of this being “kambará”, ascribed to Gochnatia polymorpha,
Asteraceae, and Buddleja madagascariensis, Buddlejaceae (Degen et al. 2005).
This situation can also involve one common name to describe more than one
species belonging to the same genus, as “jaguareté ka’á” (jaguar herb), which
corresponds to several species of Baccharis genus (Fig. 12.3) (Soria 1993), or
one plant species is recognized by more than one common name that could be
exemplified by the names “palo azul” (blue stick) and “matorro negro” (black
bush) for Cyclolepis genistoides (Fig. 12.4), or “palo borracho” (drunken tree)
and “samu’u” for Chorisia insignis (Mereles and Degen 1994b), to name just a
few. González Torres (1992) mentioned 1,500 common names in both Spanish and
Guarani, with their corresponding scientific names, as a countrywide data collection,
but these botanical determinations should be scientifically verified. For instance,
different plants -even belonging to different plant families—with toxic properties
are referred in Guarani as ka’avó pochy (angry herb). Besides that, those epiphytic
or parasite plants are named ka’avo tyre’y, (orphan plant), being several species
of different genii of the Viscaceae family. Another case to mention corresponds to
those lianas and climbing plants, which are popularly referred as ysypo “liana” or
238 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

Fig. 12.3. Baccharis trimera, “jaguareté ka’a” (jaguar herb).

(Photo: German González, Department of Botany).

Fig. 12.4. Cyclolepis genistoides, “palo azul” (blue stick) and “matorro negro” (black bush).
(Photo: Giuseppe Polini, Intercultural Pharmacies Project).

“climbing liana”, with several examples as ysypo he’é “sweet liana” (Rynchosia
senna), ysypo hú “black liana” (Adenocalymma marginatum) and ysypo kamby
“milky liana” (Morrhenia odorata). Trying to identify those species cultivated as
menta (peppermint) and menta’i (peperina) in Paraguay, a project was performed
where two species were recognized, Mentha arvensis and M. spicata, two hybrids
 Ethnobotanical Issues on Medicinal Plants from Paraguay 239

M. × piperita y M. × rotundifolia and the variety M. piperita var. citrata (Resquín

et al. 2011); however, all of them are reported Mentha × piperita.
This background allows us to affirm that common names used for the plants
creates a problem that must be solved though a standardization process based on
taxonomical identification.

Medicinal Plants and Their Applications

Several plant species from Paraguayan flora are useful for humans, especially those
from indigenous communities and rural settlements, where plants are consumed
for medicinal, food, stimulant or building purposes. Industrial processes also took
advantage of plant diversity, such as the extraction of essential oils from Palo Santo
and Bulnesia sarmientoior, etc. and the exploitation of non-volatile oil extracted
from coco or mbokajá, Acrocomia aculeata, just to give a few examples (Mereles
2014).
In Paraguay, medicinal plants are employed to treat several medical conditions
or their symptoms. Generally speaking, medicinal species are applied to prevent
or to treat mostly chronic ailments, diabetes and arterial hypertension (Maidana
et al. 2015) or to regulate fertility (Arenas and Moreno Azorero 1976, 1977). The
most reported species for medical purposes are those employed to treat digestive
problems like stomach ache, overeating, abdominal cramps or to improve digestion,
and some others used for respiratory ailments, both for upper and lower respiratory
tract: colds, cough, stuffy nose, bronchitis or asthma. Another popular use of
medicinal plant species is like components of refreshing beverages; those plants,
known as “refrescante”, are employed as cold water macerates to prepare tereré
(Fig. 12.5), the national beverage made from Ilex paraguariensis, for refreshing
and stimulating purposes, mainly in the hot season.
Several lists of medicinal plants from Paraguay have been prepared as the
result of surveys and periodical visits performed at selling stalls located at public

Fig. 12.5. Tereré, traditional drink of Paraguay.

(Photo: Germán González, Department of Botany).
240 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

markets in different cities (Fig. 12.6). The people trading in such stands, known as
“yuyeros” o “yuyeras” (herb sellers), are also recognized as key informants about
the use of plants. Following this methodology, Basualdo and Soria (1996a) reported
20 species of aromatic plants employed for medicinal use, including whole plants
and plant organs like roots, leaves, rhizomes, aerial parts and flowering tops. In
the same year, these authors published a report on 24 species employed to treat
respiratory tract diseases (Basualdo and Soria 1996b). As a continuous effort in
the same way, Basualdo et al. (2004) published a list containing 266 plant species
regularly commercialized in popular markets from Asuncion metropolitan area.
This list included plants from 82 botanical families, with 85 medical indications
for different plant organs. The list also included plants employed for preparing
refreshing beverages, as Gomphrena decumbens and Euphorbia serpens, among
others. Pin et al. (2009) recorded 510 medicinal species in the markets of Asunción,
San Lorenzo and Luque, belonging to 94 botanical families; 309 out of those
species were included in the book Plantas Medicinales del Jardín Botánico de
Asunción (Medicinal Plants from Asuncion Botanical Garden), which contains
the basic description in order to identify them. Degen and González (2014a),
retrieving information through regular visits to the main markets from Asunción,
San Lorenzo, Luque and Caacupé, reported 37 different species and one variety
among those was employed as anti-inflammatory; they belonged to 27 botanical
families, and included species like Verbena litoralis, Sida cordifolia and Schinus
weinmannifolius.
Discrepancies in the use of medicinal plants were reported when different
communities or country regions were surveyed, as mentioned by Mereles (2001),
who reported 51 species with their applications, among those growing in the basins
of rivers Tebicuary-mí and Capiibary, comprising the departments of Guairá,
Caazapá, Paraguarí and a little area from Caaguazú department. These locations
have experienced heavy deforestation resulting in the disappearance of some

Fig. 12.6. Medicinal plant from Paraguay commercialized in popular markets from Asuncion.
(Photo: Yenny González, Department of Botany).
 Ethnobotanical Issues on Medicinal Plants from Paraguay 241

species, and the concomitant loss of the knowledge about their use. It is relevant
to mention that among such species, two ferns were scarcely mentioned previously
as medicinal like Microgramma vaccinifolia (Polypodiaceae) and Lycopodiella
cernua, (Lycopodiaceae).
Another relevant contribution was provided by Soria and Basualdo (2005),
who mentioned 55 species employed in a rural community from Caazapa
departament. They recorded plant species collected in the surroundings, including
modified soils, such as Chenopodium ambrosioides, Solanum sisymbrifolium, and
Senna occidentalis, while other species were obtained from the wild forests, like
Allophylus edulis (Fig. 12.7), Macfadyena unguis-catis, Sorocea bonplandii, and
Eugenia uniflora. Besides those, other species were grown in gardens and orchards,
like avocado (Persea Americana), wormwood (Artemisia absinthium), anise
(Pimpinela anisum), rye (Hordeum vulgare), lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus)
and Plectranthus barbatus.
Vera (2009) reported 60 species, comprising both autochthonous and exotic
plants among those employed in the buffering zone of the three protected wild
areas, belonging to the private natural reserve “Tapytá”, located within San Rafael
and Caazapá National Parks.
In a recent survey performed in the communities Itá Azul (Fig. 12.8) and
San Gervasio, located in a protected area of Ybyturuzu, Guaira department, the
inhabitants mentioned 68 medicinal plant species, distributed in 35 botanical
families. Most of the named plants belong to the following families: Asteraceae,
Rutaceae, Fabaceae, and Lamiaceae. The named medical conditions related to these
species were grouped into 11 categories, the digestive and respiratory ailments being
the most frequently mentioned. In this study, a quite unusual report was observed:
2 species of Orquidaceae family, Aspidogyne kuczynskii and Miltonia flavescens,

Fig. 12.7. Allophylus edulis, “koku”, medicinal plant.

(Photo: Germán González, Department of Botany).
242 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

Fig. 12.8. Itá Azul Community located in a protected area of Ybyturuzú, Guairá Department.
(Photo: Germán González, Department of Botany).

were mentioned in this area as medicinal, probably collected in the wild (Degen
and González 2014b).
González et al. (2013) reported a list comprising 15 medicinal species belonging
to 15 different botanical families from a survey performed at Pikysyry, Cordillera
department (Fig. 12.9). The ailments for which these species are employed are
diverse: four species were reported to treat respiratory conditions, three for digestive
problems, two for lowering cholesterol, two as hypotensive, two for liver diseases,
and one species for diabetes, diarrhea, cancer, heart ailments, wound cleaning,

Fig. 12.9. Pikysyry, Cordillera Department.

(Photo: Germán González, Department of Botany).
 Ethnobotanical Issues on Medicinal Plants from Paraguay 243

herpes wounds and appendicitis, respectively. Leaves and aerial parts were the
parts most frequently employed.
Mereles (2006) mentioned the use of medicinal plants thriving in wetlands
areas as a current practice in Paraguay. One of the species growing in slow-flowing
surface waters is Victoria cruziana, of which leaves are used to prepare infusions to
treat respiratory tract diseases. Soria et al. (2006) had recorded 25 medicinal species
that grow in wetlands, damped and exposed to flood soils, swamps and flooded
channels. The conservation of these species is at risk due to dramatic modification
of soils, mainly related to the road building and rice plantations.
Concerning those plants growing in the Paraguayan Western region or Chaco,
Mereles and Degen (1994a, 1997) quoted 29 plant species from 16 botanical families
popularly employed for medicinal purposes, as referred by native communities,
rural inhabitants, and even some immigrants living in the surrounding of Mennonite
settlements in Central Chaco. Recently, a research study performed on the Enxet
community from that region identified 165 medicinal species referred by shamans,
chieftains, native leaders, elderly people of both sexes, men and women. Thirty
one out of these species are exclusively employed by shamans to treat ailments,
and 19 plants are used for the reproductive function in women (Polini et al. 2013).
Vera (2011) quoted 30 plant species employed to prepare phytomedicines,
presented as syrups, ointments or capsules. Among many others, it is common
to find Aloe vera, Cecropia pachystachya, Cymbopogon citratus, Eucalyptus sp.,
Piper regnellii and Rosmarinus oficinalis.
To describe a view beyond the informal trading of medicinal plants, Degen
et al. (2004) named 108 different species that are currently commercialized by
local enterprises comprising activities like distribution, fractioning and packaging
of medicinal and aromatic plants, either as powders or coarsely crushed dry
plant material; among such species could be mentioned “koku”, Allophyllus
edulis, Scoparia dulcis, Stevia rebaudiana, Menta x piperita, Maytenus ilicifolia
(Fig. 12.10), and Cecropia pachystachya.
It is remarkable to name one of the foremost published works about the
consumption of medicinal plants by patients. In the present case, Maidana et al.
(2015) reported that 78.1% out of 61 type-2 diabetes mellitus patients used medicinal
plants; 33 species from 25 botanical families were identified, mostly consumed
along with prescription drugs. The most frequently species named in that work are
Moringa oleífera, Artemisia absinthium, Tithonia diversifolia, Baccharis trimera
and Stevia rebaudiana. Besides this, Soria and Ramos (2015) named 23 plant species
that, based on scientific evidence, could be useful in primary health care; mostly
employed for this purpose are Menta x piperita, Artemisia absinthium, Eugenia
uniflora, Lippia alba and Allophylus edulis. The authors also cited some species
considered harmful to humans.
A landmark concerning the use of medicinal plants by humans in Paraguay
was the controlled clinical trial reported by Achucarro et al. (2011), describing the
effect of tablets prepared with Stevia rebaudiana leaf powder on intestinal parasites.
244 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

Fig. 12.10. Maytenus ilicifolia, “cangorosa”, medicinal plant.

(Photo: Germán González, Department of Botany).

Consumption of Medicinal Plants

Medicinal plants are consumed in Paraguay in different ways, either fresh or dried,
the last being as powder or coarsely crushed. Different parts are employed, even
the whole plant too, especially leaves, but parts such as roots, rhizomes, flower
tops and the aerial parts are also widely employed. Fresh plants are preferred,
and even until now they are macerated with water in order to prepare “tereré”,
the traditional refreshing beverage of Paraguay (MAG-DGPE 2008, Vera 2009,
Degen and González 2014b). To prepare tereré, a glass of water is required, or
better, a cone shaped container or “guampa” elaborated with a cow horn or a piece
of wood, with about 150 mL of capacity, where the leaf powder of processed yerba
mate, Ilex paraguariensis (Aquifoliaceae), is placed. The liquid is poured into the
container and drunk through a metal straw, inserted in the leaf powder, and acting
as a filter. It’s brewed with cold water, or more frequently, with a cold macerate
prepared by crushing fresh medicinal plants in a mortar, usually made with wood
of palo santo tree, Bulnesia sarmientoi (Degen and González 2014b). Considering
the popular consumption of “tereré”, it provides more than the phytochemicals
of the macerated medicinal plants, by extracting chemicals from the yerba mate,
mainly saponins, polyphenols and methylxanthines, and also measurable quantities
of vitamins and minerals (Vera García et al. 2005, Heck and De Mejia 2007).
Another way to consume medicinal plants in our country is along with “mate”
(Degen et al. 2004, Vera 2009, Degen and González 2014a), the traditional beverage
from Río de la Plata region, which is very similar to the tereré described above,
but prepared with hot water. Other procedures quite widely employed to prepare
medicinal plants for human consumption are infusions and decoctions (Basualdo
et al. 2003, 2004, Degen et al. 2004), which could also be consumed, either cold
or hot as substitutes of drinking water (Degen and González 2014b). Some species
are also employed in different ways, to perform steam inhalations from boiled
eucalypt leaves, Eucalyptus sp., as macerates to be applied or rubbed on the skin
 Ethnobotanical Issues on Medicinal Plants from Paraguay 245

like rue, Ruta chalepensis; for wound washing like Acanthospermum australe; as
poultices with chamomile, Matricaria chamomilla, or to prepare hot baths with
bitter orange leaves, Citrus aurantium, respectively (Basualdo et al. 2003, Degen
and González 2014a). More recently, the consumption of processed composite
yerba mate, Ilex paraguariensis—a mixture of yerba mate with other plants—and
the “flavored composite yerba mate” which contains one or more essential oils,
became popular. Peppermint, boldo, and lemon are the herbs and flavors most
frequently added (Degen et al. 2011).
Even at the present time, it is quite usual to find in Asuncion downtown
and other Paraguay main cities medicinal plant sellers in street stalls, who also
recommend different medicinal plants to the clients, according to their ailments
or requirements. These plants are offered fresh, usually comprising mixtures of
two or more species, crushed in a mortar and packed in a plastic bag, ready to be
mixed with water for “tereré”. It is remarkable that the clients of such stalls are
either young or elder people, from different social status, which affirms that “tereré”
consumption is a deeply rooted tradition in the Paraguayan population. Along with
the promotion of processed yerba mate and other plant-related products through
mass media, younger generations are acquiring the practice of “tereré” consumption
which is also a relevant way for medicinal plants use. In such a way, two popular
practices like the consumption of both the traditional beverage “tereré” and the
medicinal plants are being consolidated as a part of Paraguayan traditions in the
whole society, instead of being lost over the years (Degen and González 2014a).

Origin, Trading and Conservation Status of Medicinal Plants

Most of the medicinal plants commercialized in Paraguay—both in formal or
informal trading-come from their harvest in the wilderness, without possible
replacements. This fact restricts the effectiveness of their use due to the lack of
control about the harvest time and the post-harvest procedures, and at the same
time threatens their conservation status and limits their mainstream use (Degen
and González 2014a, MAG-DGPE 2008). There is also a demand of plant material
for international trade, which is satisfied with some cultivated species and others
collected in their environment (Vera 2011). The pivotal role of women in the access
to the plant resources is generally recognized, either for collecting firewood, or
the harvest and use of medicinal plants. Moreover, native women from indigenous
populations are the ones who own the best knowledge about the plant’s properties,
which is observed to a less extent in mestizo women (Masulli et al. 1996).
Pin et al. (2009) quoted that medicinal plants in Paraguay come from three
sources: introduced plants, plants existing naturally in the region, and those
autochthonous from Paraguay. As an example, among those plants employed as
anti-inflammatory, Degen and González (2014a) have mentioned 25 native species,
9 exotic and 2 acclimated plants.
At the local level in popular markets, the trade of medicinal plants—either
native or introduced—is performed both as fresh or dried plants. Dealers and
246 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

packing enterprises also trade medicinal plants as crushed material or dried powders.
Besides this, processing industries for both food products and phytomedicines
prepare syrups, ointments and capsules based on medicinal plants.
From the 108 medicinal species named by Degen et al. (2004), 66% were
native, 9% imported and 25% cultivated; out of the 41 cultivated species, 13 were
native and 27 acclimatized. The species with the highest demand were Allophyllus
edulis, Scoparia dulcis, Stevia rebaudiana, Menta x piperita, Maytenus ilicifolia,
Cecropia pachystachya, Cassia angustifolia and Peumus boldus. Some of the
species showed high demand, with seasonal variations; chamomile (Matricaria
chamomilla), and flaxseed (Linum usitatissimun), were sold throughout the whole
year; however, others like borage (Borago officinalis) were just demanded in the
cold weather season. The use of some species has also followed fashion tendencies
like Macfadiena unguis-cati, or Uncaria sp. and Moringa oleifera, just to mention
a few (Degen et al. 2004, Degen and González 2014a).
The medicinal plants business usually gets raw material from collectors who
buy the productions from family groups, for whom it represents an important
source of income. Agroindustrial producers usually claim select species where just
the leaves or another aerial part are employed, but it’s quite common to notice the
trading of underground parts like roots or rhizomes and roots barks, as observed in
Boerhavia diffusa, Cayaponia espelina, Herreria montevidensis, Jatropha isabelli,
among many others, with a high risk of overexploitation. The use of other parts
like the aerial parts or flower tops allows the reproduction of such species (Degen
et al. 2004).
The work performed on Itá Azul and San Gervasio communities revealed
that the medicinal plants employed by the population have several sources, i.e.,
50% and more were autochthonous species mostly consumed as fresh herbs and
collected from the wild; following this group are introduced species which are
cultivated around the houses only for family consumption, and finally are those
imported species locally available as dried herbs in the stores. They also mentioned
a few native species being grown because of their shortage in the wild, like Piper
regnellii, which was included in the list of threatened species elaborated by the
National Environmental Secretary (SEAM) (2006), or Stevia rebaudiana, being
currently absent in its natural habitat, but widely cultivated for industrial purposes.
Another species severely compromised as a consequence of overexploitation is
Maytenus ilicifolia, since its root bark is the most requested part. Collectors harvest
very small plants, which results in very low development, placing the species in
a critical conservation status. Achyroclyne alata can also be mentioned, since this
native species is present only in certain regions of the country, which moves the
inhabitants of rural communities to buy it for personal use (Degen and González
2014b, Degen et al. 2004).
The continuous pressure on medicinal plants in their habitat motivated
research efforts in order to initiate acclimation studies to contribute to their
preservation and to encourage sustainable production. As a result of such efforts,
the successful development in controlled conditions of three medicinal species
 Ethnobotanical Issues on Medicinal Plants from Paraguay 247

considered as endangered species, Cyclolepis genistoides, Equisetum giganteum,

and Herreria montevidensis, was accomplished (Céspedes et al. 2007, Céspedes et
al. 2014). Going in the same direction, Resquín (2011) published a proposal for the
sustainable production of peppermint, Mentha arvensis and M. x piperita, within
the framework of familiar agricultural practices, showing productive technologies
for these species, facing their high demand for the elaboration of mixes with
processed Ilex paraguariensis. The objective of the study was to organize and
disseminate the knowledge and the methodology that could also be applied to
preserve other endangered species. González and Degen (2015) have summarized
different techniques aimed to preserve the soil and to improve its productivity in
order to reduce the negative effects of deforestation. Furthermore, the National
School of Agronomic Science of Asuncion National University (Facultad de
Ciencias Agrarias—Universidad Nacional de Asunción) had developed several
research projects, including one on the production of three medicinal species:
Aloysia polystachya, peppermint and oregano (Vargas 2013), followed by graduate
dissertations on the acclimating processes pursuing the improvement of the
productivity of medicinal species (Armadans 2010).

Morphoanatomy of Plant Drugs Commercialized in Paraguay

as an Identification Tool
Morphoanatomy studies on herbal drugs make a relevant contribution to the
right identification of plant material for trading purposes, regularly available
in popular markets of Paraguay. The propper identification of the commercial
samples is a critical issue, either for those intended for direct consumption, or in
quality assessment protocols aplayed to material directed to the preparation of
phytomedicines. These studies are focused on the recognition of the drugs based
on their micro and macroscopic characteristics, relevant for the identification of
the parts of each plant and for quality evaluation. In Paraguay, pioneer studies
about the anatomy of medicinal plants were performed in the Botany Department
of the FCQ, at the Universidad nacional de Asunción, in 1990. The first work
employing this methodology was published by Ortiz et al. (1993), and it was
directed to analyze the leaf glandular trichomes of Heliotropium procumbens. In
1997, Ortiz and Delmás have published the anatomical study of three medicinal
plants frequently employed in Paraguay: Cecropia pachystachya, Gochnatia
polymorpha and Piper regnellii. Ten years later, these studies were taken up with
the descriptions of the species Killinga brevifolia, K. odorata, K. vaginata and
Scleria distans (Cyperaceae), Lippia alba (Verbenaceae), Jatropha isabelliae
(Euphorbiaceae), Ilex paraguariensis var. paraguariensis (Aquifoliaceae), Genipa
americana (Rubiaceae), Sorocea bonplandii (Moraceae), Acanthospermum
australe, A. hispidum (Asteraceae), Aloysia polystachya (Verbenaceae), Begonia
cucullata (Begoniaceae), and Phyllanthus orbiculatus, published by González and
Degen (2008), González et al. (2008), González et al. (2009a), Riveros et al. (2009),
248 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

González et al. (2009b), González et al. (2011), Degen et al. (2011), Degen et al.
(2012a), Degen et al. (2012b), González et al. (2014) and González et al. (2016).
This kind of research has also been performed in the Biology Department of the
Faculty of Exact and Natural Sciences (Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales,
UNA), resulting in the anatomical description of Stevia rebaudiana, Tagetes
minuta, Pterocaulon polystachyum (Asteraceae), and Laurus nobilis (Lauraceae),
among others (Benítez et al. 2010, Pereira et al. 2011, González and Pereira 2012,
González et al. 2015).
Based on the number of plant species currently employed for medicinal
purposes in Paraguay, it is evident that much work still needs to be done concerning
morphology and anatomy studies of our plants.

An Approach to Medicinal Plants’ Evaluation

In our country, the initial projects on medicinal plants were focused on the recovery
of the knowledge about their use, but they were not accompanied by research on
their chemical composition nor their pharmacological effects, nor toxicological
issues in order to support their safe and effective use. The agronomic issues required
to secure the provision of raw material with uniform quality were not deeply
evaluated yet. Such information is only available for the production of yerba mate,
Ilex paraguariensis, which is under commercial exploitation since colonial times
(17th century). Since 1980, the research staff of the Faculty of Chemical Sciences
(FCQ) has continued strengthening its research staff, steadily contributing to the
best knowledge of our cultural heritage related to medicinal plants in its different
aspects: botanical, phytochemical and pharmacological (Ibarrola and Degen 2011).
These efforts were also aimed to study some toxicological issues with sanitary
impact for both human beings and livestock (Schmeda Hirschmann et al. 1987,
Basualdo et al. 1992).
It is relevant to mention the results from phytochemical studies achieved
in the Phytochemistry Department of FCQ, about species of Celastraceae and
Hippocrataceae families (Alvarenga et al. 1999, 2000) in aromatic plants as the
composition of the essential oil from Aristolochia gibertii (Canela et al. 2004), the
composition and antifungal activity of Piper regnellii (P. fulvescens) essential oil
(Freixa et al. 2001), and from Lippia alba essential oil (Alvarenga et al. 2008). There
were former published results on the in vitro biological activity on enzymes, such
as xanthine oxidase (Theoduloz et al. 1988) and aldose reductase (Ferro and Degen
2011), and the insecticide and feeding deterrent activity of secondary metabolites
from Maytenus (Avilla et al. 2000), just to mention a few of them. The establishment
of the Pharmacology Department at FCQ allowed to expand the knowledge on
the activity of medicinal plants, through studies of cardiovascular activity as the
hypotensive effect of Solanum sisymbriifolium, Syagrus romanzoffiana, Gomphrena
globosa and Bromelia balansae. Soon afterwards, the same research group started
 Ethnobotanical Issues on Medicinal Plants from Paraguay 249

to study the effects of medicinal plants on the central nervous system and the animal
behavior in the search of molecules acting as sedative, anxiolytic, antidepressant,
antipsychotic and anticonvulsant. Such studies started with the analysis of biological
properties of Kyllinga brevifolia and Aloysia polystachya, and more recently, they
kicked off the evaluation of activity on the digestive tract, either gastroprotective
or hepatoprotective in A. polystachya and Sida rhombifolia. Some efforts were also
directed to perform the experimental validation of species traditionally employed
to treat diabetes, like Prosopis ruscifolia and Cyclolepis genistoides (Ibarrola and
Degen 2011).
A very good example of a multidisciplinary evaluation process on medicinal
plants was achieved by the researchers from the FCQ, which have obtained relevant
results from preclinical essays with Solanum sisymbriifolium, demonstrating low
toxicity, little effects on animal behavior and an important decrease of arterial
pressure (Ibarrola et al. 1996, 2006); furthermore, bioassay-guided isolation was
conducted for identification of two closely related spyrostannic monodesmosidic
saponins: isonuatigenoside (Fig. 12.11)—a new chemical structure (Ferro et al.
2005), and nuatigenoside (Fig. 12.12). Recently, these are recognized as the most
active isolated metabolites, allowing to establish a close correlation between the
activity of the metabolites and the popular use of the plant (Ibarrola and Degen
2011).
Facing the required social and productive projection of the knowledge acquired
from medicinal plants, new routes to catch the interest of local pharmaceutical
and nutraceutical enterprises were explored through innovation projects. A good
example was the development of a standardized protocol for the sustainable
production of a phytomedicine based on the experimental evaluation of Aloysia
polystachya as an antidepressant, which included botanical, chemical and
pharmacological evaluations.
At the present time, bioprospective research projects on medicinal plant species
are being conducted, along with their chemical, pharmacological and toxicological
evaluations, comprising species from Euphorbiaceae, Solanaceae, Verbenaceae,
Moraceae and Lorantaceae families, among others.

Fig. 12.11. Isonuatigenoside (Ferro et al. 2005, Structure elaborated by Amner Muñoz Acevedo).
250 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

Fig. 12.12. Nuatigenoside (Mimaki et al. 1995, Structure elaborated by Amner Muñoz Acevedo).

Conclusions
Paraguay is a country that has very rich flora, with a variety of native traditions
from both indigenous and European origin: some are autochthonous and others are
shared with other Latin America countries. Among these traditions, those related to
medicinal plants are remarkable and closely related to the native heritage. Medicinal
plants are employed either as fresh or dried plant material, consumed together
with “mate” or “tereré” as refreshment beverages and to treat different ailments,
especially those from digestive and respiratory tracts, but also to treat chronic health
conditions like diabetes or hypertension. This mode of employment reaches the
whole population, across different social classes, and it is getting stronger rather
than being lost. Medicinal plants are a relevant option to develop innovative drugs,
which could result in safer and more effective treatments compared to synthetic
drugs. However, the challenges concerning medicinal plants go further than
validation of traditional knowledge, and should face their transformation into safe
drugs. These challenges include critical issues, like those related to the sustainable
exploitation of the natural resources preserving the availability of highly demanded
plant material without the risk of extinction. Other issues to be addressed are those
related to the recognition of the intellectual rights of native populations, in order
to return a part of the economic benefits and royalties resulting from the trading
of drug developed from traditional medicinal plants, the tracing of raw material
in the productive processes, and the strengthening of multidisciplinary research
teams, with both the human and material resources required for the production of
new knowledge. Such efforts are required to succeed in the race against the menace
of losing traditional heritage and biodiversity, just to mention some critical issues.

Acknowledgments
The authors thank the institutions that have supported the research on medicinal
plants at the Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, UNA, as the Research Direction
of the Universidad Nacional de Asunción, JICA, CONACYT, Tropical Forest
Conservation Fund-Paraguay, CYTED, FIDA and FUNDAQUIM.
 Ethnobotanical Issues on Medicinal Plants from Paraguay 251

They also thank José Luis Martinez for the invitation to participate in this
project, building up an important platform to disseminate the knowledge related
to medicinal plants, and to Lic. Gabriela Ferro for her kind revision of the English
translation.

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 CHAPTER 13

An Overview of Vetiveria
zizanioides (Linn.) Nash (Poaceae)
Traditional Uses and Products
Shubhangi N. Ingole

Introduction
The world is endowed with a rich wealth of medicinal plants and India is sitting on
a gold mine of well recorded and traditionally well-practiced knowledge of herbal
medicine. More than 1500 herbal preparations are sold as dietary supplements or
ethnic traditional medicines (WHO 2000). India is perhaps the largest producer of
medicinal herbs and is rightly called the botanical garden of the world (Parrotta
2001). India is well known as an emporium of medicinal plants (Rao et al. 2016).
The herbal drugs provide an alternative and effective treatment for chronic disorders
(Astin 1998, Cupp 1999).
Man cannot survive on this earth for a long time without the plant kingdom
because the plant products and their active constituents play an important role. The
herbal medicines as the major remedy in traditional medical systems have been used
in practice for thousands of years. Herbs have always been the principal form of
medicine in India and presently they are becoming popular throughout the world.
These have made a great contribution in maintaining human health. Plants as a
source of medicine have been playing an important role in health services around the
globe and constitute the backbone of the herbal medicine (Shankar and Liao 2004).
But India despite its rich traditional knowledge, heritage of herbal medicines
and large biodiversity has a dismal share in the world market due to export of crude
extracts and drugs (Kamboj 2000, Desmet 2002, Dubey et al. 2004). Hence, today

Department of Botany, Bar. R.D.I.K. and N.K.D. College Badnera-Amravati, Maharashtra, India.
Email: [email protected]
256 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

the physicians, research team and pharmaceutical industries of many countries

have once again turned their attention to the sources of natural raw materials and to
medicinal plants as sources for the isolation and production of irreplaceable drugs.
Drugs are becoming important and highly profitable for industry and agriculture.
Cure without side effects is the key feature of herbal medicine and treatments. For
these reasons, medicinal plants and their active ingredients or phytochemicals are
again claiming the attention of whole world.
Herbal medicines are available as single or poly herbal preparations. Because
of consumption of these herbal preparations by large masses of developed as
well as developing countries. As use of plant materials as raw materials for the
pharmaceutical industry and as it represents a substantial proportional of the world
drug market, there is need to control and assure the quality of such preparations
through systematic scientific studies. The quality of herbal drugs is sum of all
factors which contribute directly or indirectly to the safety, effectiveness and
acceptability of product.
India is inhabited by diverse tribal populations, dwelling in forest surroundings
and depending on its resources. Out of several plants used by tribals, khas grass—
Vetiveria zizanioides (L.) Nash (Poaceae), occupies the leading position, particularly
in North Indian plains.

Habitat and Distribution

Khas grass is found throughout the plains and lower hills of India, particularly
on the riverbanks and in rich marshy soil. It grows wild in almost all plains of all
states in India up to an elevation of 1200 m. Only in some pockets of South India
the grass is systematically cultivated but the yield from the cultivated crops meets
only a small percentage of requirements. The grass grows luxuriantly in areas with
an annual rainfall of 1000–2000 mm and temperature ranging from 22 to 43ºC.
Marshy riverbeds with sandy loam are best suited for this grass. It possesses a
unique rooting pattern. Unlike most grasses which form horizontally spreading
mat-like root systems, Vetiver’s roots grow downward, 2–4 meters in depth.
This typical pattern has made it widely used in erosion control systems. Vetiver
is closely related to other fragrant grasses such as Lemon Grass, Citronella, and
Palmarosa. Because of its aromatic properties, Vetiver is widely cultivated in the
tropical regions of the world (Dashori and Gosavi 2013). It is found in aquatic and
sub-aquatic plains of India.
The plant has unique characteristics of being xerophytic but it survives under
long seasonal flooding, it tolerates extreme temperature and grows over a wide
range of soil pH.

Taxonomy and Ecology

Systematic Position (According to Bentham and Hooker):
Division: Angiosperms
 An Overview of Vetiveria zizanioides (Linn.) Nash (Poaceae) 257

Sub-division: Monocotyledons
Series: Glumaceae
Family: Poaceae
Sub-family: Andropogoneae
Genus: Vetiveria
Spp.: zizanioides

Synonyms
Andropogon muricatus Retz., A. squarrosus Hook. f., non Linn. F., Anatherum
zizanioides (Linn.) Hitchcock and Chase.

Sanskrit Synonyms
• Nalada, Amrnala, Veerana, Virani, Veeratara, Valaka, Balaka Truna Valukam,
Veniga Mulakam Abhaya, Ranapriya, Virataru, Haripriya Jalvasa, Jalaamoda,
grows in moist places.
• Amrunala, Mrunalaka – Appears similar to Lotus stalk.
• Sugandhika, Samagandika, Sugandhamula – Has a pleasant odor.
• Bahumoola – Bushy roots.
• Shishiram, Sheetmoola – root is a coolant.
• Sevya – suitable for consumption.
There are many ecotypes of vetiver. The vetiver called VS-01 (or sunshine) is
a south Indian variety, has robust root system, and has 1% aromatic oils in its roots.
Other varieties like VS-03 have less aromatic oil content (around 0.3%). Research
has shown that the aromatic oil is produced in the roots by certain bacteria from
precursors released by the vetiver. It is just to say that all vetiver roots are not the
same.
Vetiver roots treat the mother earth too. It is perhaps mentioned in Krishi
Shastra. Vetiver roots increase the ground water recharge capability of soils. It
increases the biomass content in the soil up to 3 meters depth. It will be very
difficult to add leaves and manure at that depth. Vetiver roots add the biomass as
roots, and they decay after 18 months. Vetiver root oil is termite-repelling. The
vetiver root system increases the aeration in the soil, it also play ecological role by
helping to stabilize soil, protects it against erosion and prevents nematode (small
worms that attack the roots and other plants) infection. Because of these effects,
vetiver is grown as rows along vegetable farms, and around trees in orchard which
improves the health and yield of the cultivated crops. Thus, growing neem, tulsi
and vetiver in farms and around houses is good for the health of the plants and
animals in the earth.
Two species of Vetiveria are found in India, of which Vetiveria zizanioides is the
common source of the well known oil of Vetiver, which is used in medicine and in
perfumery. Khas grass grows wild in many states, namely Haryana, Uttar Pradesh,
258 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

Table 13.1. Some Vernacular names for Khas Grass in India.

Sr. No. Language Vernacular Name

1 Sanskrit Ushira, Amrnala, Veerana, Virani, Veeratara, Valaka, Balaka
2 Hindi, Bengali Khas, Khas-Khas, Khus-Khus, Khus
3 Gujarati Valo
4 Marathi Vala
5 Telugu Kuruverru, Vettiveellu, Vettiveerum
6 Tamil Vattiver
7 Kannad Vattiveru, Laamancha, Kaddu, Karidappasajj Hullu
8 Malyalam Ramaccham vettiveru
9 Ayurvedic name Ushira
10 Fijian name Mulimuli
11 French name Chiendent odorant, Petiver
12 Portuguese (Brazil) name Patchuli-falso
13 Spanish name Zacate violeta, Pacholi
14 Tongan name Ahisiaina

Rajasthan, Gujarat, Bihar, Orissa and Madhya Pradesh and throughout South India.
It is systematically cultivated in the North Indian states of Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh
and Punjab and in the South Indian states of Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and
Andhra Pradesh. The yield from the cultivated crops, however, meets only a very
small percentage of the requirements of the country. The bulk of the roots used
for cooling purposes and for the extraction of the oil are obtained from the wild.
It is also cultivated for the fragrant essential oil distilled from its roots and
used in high end perfumes. Worldwide production is estimated at about 250 tons
per annum. The oil is amber brown and rather thick.

History
It has been known to India since the ancient times. It has been considered as a high
class perfume. Copper plate inscriptions listing the perfume as one of the articles
used by royalty have been discovered. In Ayurvedic literature, it is called ‘Suganti-
mulaka’ (meaning sweet smelling) and ‘sita-mulaka’ (having cool roots). All over
India, the roots are made into scented mats, fans, ornamental baskets and many
other articles and also burnt as a fumigatory. The aromatic roots are made into
bundle and kept in water vase to impart aroma to water and getting cooling effect.
It is also put into cold beverages like unripe mango juice or Indian cold drinks to
impart its taste and coolness.

Morphological Description
It is densely tufted grass. The culms are arising from an aromatic rhizome. The
grass is stout, up to and over 2 m tall, in dense tufts, with stout spongy aromatic
roots. The leaves are narrow, erect, keeled, glabrous and its margins are scabrid. The
 An Overview of Vetiveria zizanioides (Linn.) Nash (Poaceae) 259

inflorescence is panicle of numerous slender racemes in whorls on a central axis.

The spikelets are grey-green or purplish in color and in pairs. One is sessile and
other is predicelled. Both are alike in form and size, different in sex and 2-flowered.
The lower floret is reduced to lemma, and upper is bisexual in the sessile. Male
is in the pedicelled spikelet, glumes armed with short, tuber debased spines, and
lemmas are without awns, palea minute.

Fig. 13.1. V. zizanioides whole plant.

Fig. 13.2. V. zizanioides roots.

Chemical Constituents
Principal constituents of oil are d and p vetivone, zizanal and epizizizanal,
vetiselimenol, Khisumol, Allokhusiol, Benzoic acid, Cyclocapacamphene,
Epikhusinol, 2-epizizanone, B-eduesmol, Eugenol, Iskhusimol, Isokhusinoloxide,
Isovalencenol, Isovalencic, Khusimyl acetate, Khusinodiol, Khusinol, Khusitoneol,
Laevojujenol, Levojunenol, Vanillin, Vertiselinenol, B-& J. Vetivene, Vetivenic
acid, vetiverol, zizaene, Zizanol, etc. which were isolated from the oil. Due to the
presence of these chemicals, it has its pharmacological properties (Mishra et al.
2013, Pareek and Kumar 2013).
260 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

Pharmacology
Zizanal and epizizanal exhibited insect repellent activity.

Parts Used
Roots, vetiver oil.

Doses
Powder 3–6 gm, decoction 15–100 ml, infusion 25–50 ml.

Medicinal Properties
Rasa (taste) – Tikta (bitter), Madhura (Sweet), Guna (qualities), Rooksha (dryness),
Laghu (Lightness), Vipaka – Katu – undergoes pungent taste conversion after
digestion, Veerya – sheeta – cold potency effect on tridosha – pacifies vata and pitta.

Uses
Khas grass has variety of uses from household to therapeutic.

Ethnomedicinal Uses
About 70% of rural folk depend on medicinal plants for their healthcare. Since
ancient times, ethnobotanical use of plants has been known and use of traditional
medicine and medicinal plants in most developing countries as therapeutic agents
for the maintenance of good health has been widely observed and accepted (Rao
et al. 2016).
Various tribes use the different parts of the grass for many of their ailments such
as mouth ulcer, fever, boil, epilepsy, burn, snakebite, scorpion sting, rheumatism,
fever, headache, etc. The Santhal tribes of Bihar and West Bengal use the paste
of fresh roots for burn, snakebite and scorpion sting, and a decoction of the roots
as a tonic for weakness; in West Bengal, the tribal people use the root paste for
headache, rheumatism and sprain, and a stem decoction for urinary tract infection;
in Madhya Pradesh, the leaf juice is commonly used as anthelmintic; the tribes
of the Varanasi district inhale the root vapor for malarial fever. The root ash is
given to patients for acidity by the Oraon tribe. Likewise, there are many different
applications of the plant for different ailments among different ethnic tribes (Singh
and Maheshwari 1983, Jain 1991).
Decoction of the rhizome is taken internally to treat blood pressure and stomach
ache problems in Kumargiri Hills, Tamil Nadu (Kam and Alagesaboopathi 2009).
A decoction of leaves is recommended as a diaphoretic. When locally applied in
rheumatism, lumbago and sprain, it is good ambrocation and affords relief. In M.P.,
the plant is used as an anthelmintic for children. The oil is reported to be used as a
 An Overview of Vetiveria zizanioides (Linn.) Nash (Poaceae) 261

carminative in flatulence, colic and obstinate vomiting. It is regarded as stimulant,

refrigerant and antibacterial and when applied externally, it removes excess heat
from the body and gives a cooling effect. A decoction of leaves in recommended
as a diaphoretic used in therapy, as blood purifier, for calming effect on nervous
system, in ringworm treatment, for treating many skin disorders, in indigestion
and loss of appetite.

Vetiver Essential Oil Uses

It is widely used in perfumes and for scenting soaps. It blends well with the oils of
sandalwood and rose. Vetiver oil is used for external application in rheumatism,
sprains and arthritis. The health benefits of Vetiver essential oil can be attributed
to its properties like anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, aphrodisiac, cicatrisant, nervine,
sedative, tonic and vulnerary. This Essential Oil is very popular in aroma therapy
and has many medicinal properties, which are described in brief below.

Anti Inflammatory
The very soothing and cooling effect of this essential oil calms and pacifies all sorts
of inflammations. But it is particularly good in giving relief from inflammations in
circulatory system and nervous system. It is found to be an appropriate treatment
for inflammations caused by sun stroke, dehydration and loo (name given to very
hot and dry winds prevalent during summers in the dry regions of India and few
neighboring countries).

Antiseptic
In tropical countries like India and its neighbors, microbes and bacteria grow
very fast due to their favorable hot and humid climate found in this region. Then
it becomes obvious that your wounds are most likely to get septic in these places
since there are plenty of bacteria here. But Mother Nature is very kind and she has
provided the remedies too, right in those places. One such remedy is this Vetiver
and the essential oil extracted from it. This oil efficiently stops the growth of
Staphylococcus aureus, the bacteria responsible for causing septic, and eliminates
them, thereby helping cure septic and giving protection against it. Being totally
safe, this oil can be applied externally on wounds or taken orally, to protect wounds
as well as internal organs from septic.

Aphrodisiac
Mixed in sorbets and beverages as a flavoring agent, this oil has an aphrodisiac
effect. It enhances libido and gives arousals. Since sex has more to do with the
psychology (brain) than the physiology, remedy for most of the sexual disorders
like frigidity, lack of libido, impotence, etc. lays in the brain. Certain components
of this oil stimulate those portions of brain and the problems are over.
262 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

Cicatrisant
Cicatrisant is a property by virtue of which a substance speeds up the eradication
or disappearance of the scars and other marks from the skin. It promotes growth
of new tissues in the affected places which replace the dead and discolored tissues
and helps achieve a uniform look. This is also useful for the post delivery stretch
marks, fat cracks, after spots left by pox, burns, etc.

Nervine
A tonic for the nerves is called a nervine, like our Essential Oil of Vetiver is. It takes
care of the nerves and maintains them in good health. It also heals the damages
done to the nerves by shock, fear, stress, etc. Further, it helps get rid of nervous
disorders, afflictions, epileptic and hysteric attacks, nervous and neurotic disorders
such as Parkinson’s Disease, lack of control over limbs, etc.

Sedative
The Essential Oil of Vetiver is a well known sedative. It sedates nervous irritations,
afflictions, convulsions and emotional outbursts such as anger, anxiety, epileptic
and hysteric attacks, restlessness, nervousness, etc. and even benefits patients of
insomnia.

Tonic
The effect of a tonic on the body is quite similar to that of overhauling and servicing
on a vehicle. A tonic tones up every system functioning in the body, namely the
digestive system, respiratory system, circulatory system, excretory system, immune
system, endocrinal system, nervous system and the neurotic system. Thus, in a
nutshell, it keeps the metabolic system in order, rejuvenates the body, gives strength
and boosts immunity.

Vulnerary
This property of Vetiver Essential Oil helps heal wounds by promoting growth of
new tissues at the wounded place and also by keeping it safe from infections by
inhibiting growth of microbes and promoting crowding of leucocytes and platelets
at the place.

Healing
Vetiver essential oil helps in the formation of new tissue and is also used to accelerate
the healing and recovery of skin wounds as well to remove stains, marks on the skin
and the scars themselves. Also, it is used to repair the cracks and grooves in the skin
caused by different circumstances such as pregnancy, diets, allergies, and burns.
 An Overview of Vetiveria zizanioides (Linn.) Nash (Poaceae) 263

Calming
In addition to various beverages for culinary purposes and aphrodisiacs, vetiver
essential oil is used to make soothing infusion which is used to relax and recover
from severe strain. It helps to overcome situations of shock, fear, high levels of
stress, panic, etc.

Other Benefits
Other benefits that we tend to award to the use of vetiver essential oil are, for
example, the strengthening of bones, the treatment of rheumatism, gout, arthritis,
muscle aches, dryness, cramps and dry skin (Balasankar et al. 2013).

Ayurvedic Uses
• Pachana – Digestive, relieves Ama dosha,
• Stambhana – blocks, dries up channels,
• Dahahara – relieves burning sensation as in gastritis, neuropathy, burning
sensation in eyes, etc.,
• Madahara – relieves intoxication,
• Jwarahara – useful in fever,
• Trushnahara – relieves thirst,
• Asrajit – useful in blood disorders such as abscess,
• Vshahara – antitoxic,
• Daurgandnyahara – relieves bad odor,
• Mutrakrichrahara – relieves dysuria, urinary retention, acts as diuretic,
• Kushtanut – useful in skin disorders,
• Baminut – relieves vomiting,
• Vranahara – heals wounds quickly,
• Klantihara – relieves tiredness, fatigue,
• Vataghna – Useful in treating disorders of vata dosha imbalance such as
neuralgia, paralysis, constipation, bloating, etc.,
• Mchanut – useful in urinary tract disorders and diabetes,
• Vetiver water – Vetiver is used to make potable water. A few grams of vetiver
root powder is added to water and this water is filtered and used after 2–3
hours. Once the vetiver is put into water, the water should be replaced with
fresh ones. Such prepared water will have almost all the qualities of Khas-
usheer, as explained above, but in slightly lesser intensities.
(www.easyayurveda.com)

External Application
To apply externally as paste, to relieve burning sensation, skin disorders and to
relieve excessive sweating, there is nothing better than khas (Charaka Sutrasthana
264 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

25). The root powder is made into paste and applied to relieve burning sensation,
burn wounds, to relieve excessive sweetening, in skin disorders and to improve
skin complexion.

Mode of Administration
• Its water can be used as potable water.
• Its powder or water decoction is also used in medicine. It is administered
along with cow ghee, honey, etc., based on disease.
• Its powder is applied externally.

Commercial Products
• Used, Renalka, anti-wrinkle cream, baby powder, gentle baby shampoo, oil
clear mud face pack, purifying neem foaming face wash.
• Vetiver essential oil is used as ingredient in many Ayurvedic medicines such
as Borototal cream.
• Ayurvedic medicines with Khas (Usheera) as ingredient.
• Usheerasava—a fermented medicine used in skin diseases, intestinal worms,
bleeding disorders, etc.
• Shadanga Paniya—A herbal drink used to treat fever.
• Gopanganadi Kashayam—Used in pitta type of fever.
• Nisosiradi oil—An effective Ayurvedic herbal oil used to treat diabetes, car
buncles and abscesses.
• The annual market allotment of vetiver oil.
Country Percentage
USA 40
France 20
Switzerland 12
England 10
Japan 04
Germany 2.4
The Netherlands 02
Countries of vetiver oil origin 12–16

Bioactive Compounds
Roots and leaves show presence of alkaloid, anthracene glycosides, aucubins,
coumarin, emodin, fatty acid, flavonoid, polyuronoid, starch, tannin, reducing
compounds, saponin, steroids, triterpenoids, volatile oil, and protein indicating
the presence of their respective chemical compounds (Kaikade and Ingole 2014,
Savanur 2017).
The GC-MS analysis of roots of Vetiveria zizanioides, which are medicinal
part, revealed the presence of various compounds (phytochemical constituents) at
 An Overview of Vetiveria zizanioides (Linn.) Nash (Poaceae) 265

different retention time that could contribute to the medicinal quality of the plant.
The identification of the phytochemical compounds was confirmed based on peak
area, retention time and molecular formula. Its root’s GC-MS analysis shows
presence of dibutyl phthalate (C6H22O4), benzene-dicarboxylic acid (C6H22O4),
diisooctyl phthalate (C24H38O4)—all possessing antimicrobial and antifouling
properties; pthalic acid (C16H26O4); bis (2-methyl propyl) ester; and butyl 2-methyl-
propyl ester. Roots also show presence of Cedren-13-ol (C15H24O) possessing
antioxidant property; antimicrobial, immune-modulatory, anti tumor property;
spathylenol (C15H24O), 12-epoxide (C15H22O2) as building blocks for the synthesis
of a number of pharmaceutical compounds; and H-2-Indenol (C13H22O2).
The phytochemicals identified through GC-MS analysis possess many
biological properties (Kaikade and Ingole 2014).
Table 13.2. List of expected compounds at RT – 13.98.

S. N. Component Retention Time Expected Compound Name Molecular

(RT) Formula
1 1 13.98 Naphthalene C12H22
13.98 Decahydro-1,1-dimethyl-cyclohexane C13H24

Table 13.3. List of expected compounds at RT – 16.47.

S. N. Component Retention Time Expected Compound Name Molecular

(RT) Formula
1 2 16.47 2-(3,4-Methylenedioxyphenyl) cyclohe- C13H14O3
xanone
16.47 4-Methoxymethyl-4-phenyl-1-butene C12H16O
16.47 n-Propl cinnamate C12H14O2

Various Known Pharmacological Activities

• Antioxidant Activity
Free radicals induce numerous diseases by lipid peroxidation and DNA
damage. It has been reported that some of the extracts from plants possess
antioxidant properties capable of scavenging free radicals in vivo. Vetiveria
zizanioides is a densely tufted grass which is widely used as a traditional plant
for aromatherapy, to relieve stress, anxiety, nervous tension and insomnia
(Devi et al. 2010, Hewawasam and Jayatilaka 2017).
• Antifungal Activity
The antifungal activity was reported against Aspergillus nigar, Aspergillus
clavatus and Candida albicanus using ethanolic and aqueous extract of Vetiver
(Dev Prakash et al. 2011).
• Antimicrobial Activity
It showed antimicrobial activity, especially vetiverin, and more likely a result
of additive and synergistic effect of several compounds (Nantachit et al. 2010).
266 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

• Research showed that the Vetiver oil possessed a strong free radical
scavenging activity when compared to standard antioxidants such as butylated
hydroxytoluene (BHT) and α-tocopherol (Kim et al. 2005).

• Antiproliferative Activity
Research showed that Vetiver oil exhibited strong antiproliferative activity
in a pre-inflammed human dermal fibroblast model cells and significantly
inhibited the production of collagen, an important molecule for skin and tissue
remodeling processes (Han and Parker 2017).
• Antibacterial Activity
The antibacterial activity is measured by zone of inhibition (mm). Totally
four bacterial strains (two gram positive S. aureus, B. subtilis and two gram
negative bacteria P. aeurogenosa, E. coli). Ethanolic extract of Vetiveria
Zizanioides is known to posses flavonoids, alkaloids, terpenoids, saponins,
tannins and phenols which, either individually or through combination, exert
antimicrobial activity. The study showed that EEVZ inhibited gram negative
bacteria than grampositive bacteria. Flavonoids are found to be effective
antimicrobial substance against a wide range of microorganisms, probably
due to their ability to complex with extra cellular and soluble proteins and
to complex with bacterial cell wall; more lipophilic flavonoids may disrupt
microbial membrane. Antibacterial activity of tannins may be related to their
ability to inactivate microbial adhesion enzymes and cell envelope transport
proteins; they also complex with polysaccharides. The presence of tannins
present in the roots of Vetiveria zizanioides implied that tannin may be the
active compound which may be responsible for in vitro antibacterial activity
in this study. Tannin in the plant extract was found to possess antibacterial
activity (Devi et al. 2010).
• Hepatoprotective Activity
Methanolic extract of Vetiveria zizanioides Linn is hepatoprotective at the
dose 300–500 mg/kg. The damage induced by ethanol 20% at the dose of
3.75 gm/kg (Chaudhary 2010).
• Antitubercular Activity
The ethanolic extract of intact as well as spent root showed potent
antituberculosis activity at a minimum concentration of 500 μg/mL (Saikia
et al. 2012).
• Mosquito Repellent Activity
In the laboratory oviposition deterrent test, the root extract of Vetiveria
zizanioides at each concentration greatly reduced the number of eggs deposited
by the gravid Anapheles stephens (Arthi and Murgan 2011).
 An Overview of Vetiveria zizanioides (Linn.) Nash (Poaceae) 267

• Antihyperglycemic Activity
The effect of root extract of Vetiveria zizanioides in normal fasted rats after
multiple doses showed significant antidiabetic activity at 2nd and 4th hour
after administration compared to diabetic control (Karam et al. 2012).
• Antidepressant Activity
The ethanolic extract of Vetiveria zizanioides possesses antidepressant activity
and the combination of Fluxetine and ethanolic extract of Vetiveria zizanioides
is effective in tail suspension test, and force swim test induced depressive
behavior (Josephine 2012).
• Other Uses
Apart from medicinal uses, there are multiple uses of khas grass in India.
º The culms along with the panicles form a good broom.
º Traditional medicine.
º Roots as water flavoring agents.
º Root mats for door, window screen during summer.
º Socio-economic life of the rural population in India.
º Dried roots for scenting clothes.
º Dried roots for brooms and for thatching.
º Pulp of the plant for paper and straw board.
º Culms and leaves are also extensively used by tribals and villagers for
thatching their huts and mud walls.
º Some Kerala tribes use the mats of the roots and leaves as a bed for a cooling
effect.

Domestic Use
Mats made by weaving Vetiver roots and binding them with ropes/cords are used
in India to cool rooms in a house during summer. The mats are typically hung in
the doorway and kept moist by spraying with water periodically. It acts like an
air-cooler when wind from a fan or outside hits it. It also adds a pleasant aroma in
the house which is commonly described as “cool” and “refreshing”.

Commercial Uses
The commercial applications of the grass mainly pertain to the extraction of Vetiver
oil through distillation of the roots. Vetiver oil is one of the most valuable and
important raw materials in perfumery and finds extensive applications in the soap
and cosmetic industries, for pharmaceutical companies and as antimicrobial and
antifungal agent (Singh et al. 1978, Dikshit and Husain 1984). Over 150 compounds
have been isolated and characterized from Vetiver oil so far. A major portion of oil
consists of sesquiterpene alcohol (Thakur et al. 1989). A major application of the
roots of Vetiver, particularly in North Indian plains, pertains to the preparation and
268 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

sale of mats/screens for windows, doors and desert coolers during summer months
when the temperature goes up to as high as 45ºC.
As there is no systematic cultivation of the grass in North India, several
villagers and rural folk collect the roots of the grass in large quantities from the
wild growth and flock to the cities where they sell the root mats and loose roots for
flavoring water to city dwellers. 3–4 months of livelihood of several rural families
is sustained by the sale of roots of Vetiver grass playing important role in socio-
economic sector of rural life.
It also plays an ecological role by helping to stabilize soil, protects it against
erosion and also fields against pests and weeds.

Multiple Benefits of Vetiver System

Disaster risk management
• Natural defense against hazards.
• Vulnerability reduction.
• Eco-friendly and cost effective mitigation.

Ecosystem management
• Land stabilization.
• Carbon sequestration.
• Pollution control.

Social development
• Employment generation.
• Strengthen coping capacity.
• Community participation (Joseph et al. 2017).

Uses in Variety of Areas

Vetiver’s stunning mass of deep, strong, fibrous roots and thick thatch of stiff leaves
have led to its extensive use in a variety of areas:
• Findings show potential of Vetiveria grass in phytoremediation for heavy
metals’ removal in water, thus providing significant implication for treatment
of metal contaminated water (Ashton et al. 2017).
• As a nurse crop—Vetiver stabilizes and replenishes nutrients in highly
degraded areas. Rehabilitated sites welcome the return of native plants.
• As a privacy barrier—Vetiver forms a dense barrier that defeats pryingeyes and
creates a serene green paradise. It creates a beautiful, economical perimeter
on small, urban lots.
 An Overview of Vetiveria zizanioides (Linn.) Nash (Poaceae) 269

• Private companies and municipalities use Vetiver systems to protect and heal
degraded environments. Vetiver roots absorb pollutants and clarify water.
• As a grass wall and boundary marker, Vetiver hedges are so stable that
surveyors rely on them to establish property lines.
• Between slender rows of Vetiver, farmers can grow crops that benefit from
the accumulation of silt and plant nutrients. Vetiver’s vertical roots nurture
adjacent crops.
• As an excellent batch material—Mature leaves produce long-lasting absorbent
mulch that reduces evaporation and helps mycorrhizae to accumulate.
• As a bios wale—A Vetiver grass channel is an attractive alternative to
traditional concrete drainage ditches, and effectively filters and attenuates
storm water runoff.
• As a constructed wetland- Installed as a leach field, Vetiver absorbs nutrients
generated by cesspools, piggeries, dairy and poultry farms. Vetiver clarifies
effluent and eliminates odors.
• As livestock feed—Vetiver’s nutritional value is similar to Napier grass
(Pennisetum pupureum).
• As a carbon sink—Given the concern regarding global warming and CO2
emissions, 44,500 acres of land protected by Vetiver hedges will provide a
CO2 sink for the carbon produced by 100,000 cars traveling 12,500 miles a
year.
• As biofuels—Leaves can be used as a substrate for ethanol production through
alkali pretreatment followed by enzyme hydrolysis and yeast fermentation,
which generates an ethanol yield of 13% after one-cycle column distillation.
• As a food additive—Vetiver is used domestically in cooking; it’s infused in
tea and also used in baking.
• Handicrafters use Vetiver leaves and roots to create an extensive range of
beautiful woven handicrafts. Like its sister, bamboo, which creates luxurious
textiles, Vetiver would seem suited to produce soft, durable fabric.
• Vetiver is a beautiful ornamental plant for gardens, patios, decks, etc. It forms
a dense, uniform and attractive hedge under tropical and subtropical climates.
It also forms an aesthetically beautiful barrier to unsightly view.
• Agriculture-Related Activities: Used as a Mulch, compost, animal feed,
substrate for mushroom cultivation, botanical pesticides, fungicides, agricides
and weed control (Balasankar et al. 2013).

Contraindications, Interactions and Side Effects

Vetiver has abortifacient, emmenagogue, and uterotonic (induce contraction or
greater tonicity of the uterus; uterotonics are used both to induce labor, and to reduce
postpartum haemorrhage) properties. So its use is contraindicated in pregnancy. It is
not suitable for babies and children under twelve years (http://www.bimbima.com).
270 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

Conclusion and Future Perspectives

Vetiver grass is a versatile grass possessing unique characteristic features and
is a source of several bioactive compounds which are responsible for its wide
array of medicinal and pharmacological activities, proving the wisdom of ethnic
tribes to use it for several of their ailments and keeping it at leading position
among several medicinal plants they use. There lies a great scope for new drugs’
formulations. Owing to its multiple uses, establishment of vetiver industry can
solve various problems like health related, poverty reduction, employment,
ecological management particularly water and soil related. It has a great scope in
pharmacological industries and in agroforestry.
In view of its tremendous use and its declining populations, large scale
systematic cultivation of this grass in the plains of Indian states counting both the
grass and the root system is recommended.
Because of various pharmacological activities, medicinal properties and
presence of bioactive molecules, Vetiveria zizanioides has vast applications in
medicinal sector to find new drugs and there is an increase in interest in the health
and wellness benefits of herbs and botanicals. This is with good reason as they
might offer a natural safeguard against the development of certain conditions and
be a putative treatment for some diseases. Because of many properties of Vetiveria
grass, it has found vast applications making it a green treasure (Mishra et al. 2013).
Considering its environmental implications, socio-economic aspects and
industrial potential, Vetiver grass should be planted on large scale and utilization of
Vetiver as a medicinal plant to produce pharmaceutical products on a commercial
scale has great potential for development. A new concept, that of growing vetiver
as an income generating plant, can be launched and it will prove to provide a very
good income to the farmers if grown specifically for its roots.
Vetiveria zizanioides has wide ecological amplitude and this trait of the species
must be exploited for eco-developments of the region devoid of biodiversity. The
grass with its tuft-forming habit and thick root system greatly helps in checking
soil erosion. It can be recommended for fallow areas and waste places including
sodic soils. This will not only boost the economic conditions of local farmers but
also improve the soil ecology.
Small scale village-level industries based on Khas grass could be established for
extraction of vetiver oil, and for manufacture of straw board and handmade paper
from pulp of the aerial parts of the grass. This can, to some extent, reduce the stress
on bamboo resources, which are also declining. As this grass is invariably used by
most of the tribes, the tribal and other village womenfolk should be encouraged
(with suitable subsidies) to cultivate the species near their huts. Suitable arrangement
can be made to collect the excess harvest left from these tribal pockets for trade
or for local oil industries so that tribal families can also supplement their income.
While this would bring the economy to the poor villagers, it would also help in the
conservation and eco-development of the region.
 An Overview of Vetiveria zizanioides (Linn.) Nash (Poaceae) 271

Vetiver and agroforestry for poverty reduction in third world and natural
resources protection large vetiver nurseries can be developed by farmers for
the sale of planting material to the other farmers and construction agencies for
Vetiver handicraft component industry. Use of vetiver for sustainable environment
particularly in relation to land and water can be recommended.
Vetiver can produce up to 100 tonnes/hectare of biomass (dry weight) within
8 months. The grass is only harvested as a biomass fuel and the perennial vetiver
grass is left in the ground and allowed to grow back year after year lasting forever.
Ecosystem based regional development programs are emerging worldwide
and hence green technologies and systems for the prevention and mitigation of
natural hazards need to be developed. There is a need to highlight the importance
of unique grass like vetiver that has many unique characteristics.

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 CHAPTER 14

Native Medicinal Plants Used for

the Treatment of Nervous System
Ailments in Chile and the Current
State of Its Scientific Studies
Arline Martínez,1 Luisauris Jaimes,2 Raul Vinet,3,4 Tiare Segura,5
Claudio Laurido2,† and José L. Martínez6,*

Introduction
Some plants produce beneficial pharmacologic effects on the human body and have
been used for treating illnesses since the dawn of time. The therapeutic properties
are due to the secondary metabolites that naturally synthesize and accumulate
in these plants like alkaloids, sterols, terpenes, flavonoids, saponins, glycosides,
cyanogenic, tannins, resins, lactones, quiniles, volatile oils, etc. (Motaleb 2011).
These compounds are identified by the rigor of scientific, pharmacological,
toxicological and clinical tests in search of active ingredients that explain the
rational therapeutic use of these plants and promote the validity of its use (Muñoz
et al. 1999).

1
Facultad de Agronomía, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile.
2
Facultad de Química y Biología, Universidad de Santiago de Chile.
3
Centro de MicroBioinnovación, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad de Valparaíso.
4
Centro Regional de Estudios en Alimentos Saludables (CREAS).
5
Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Santiago de Chile.
6
Vicerrectoría de Investigación, Desarrollo e Innovación, Universidad de Santiago de Chile.
† In memoriam
* Corresponding author: [email protected]
276 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

Chile has been characterized by its impressive geographical contrasts. It

extends for 4,337 km along the south-western margin of South America from the
Altiplano highs at 17º35S to Tierra del Fuego, the Islas Diego Ramírez and Cape
Horn at 56ºS (Moreira-Muñoz 2011). The Andes Mountains, the Pacific Ocean
and the Atacama Desert are the natural limits and responsible for the high degree
of endemism (approximately 50%) of Chilean endemic plants. About 300 native
species make up the traditional pharmacopeia of Chile, but not all species have
been studied chemically. Many of the studies carried out have a limited scope and
have not been guided by pharmacological bioassays (Niemeyer 1995).
Due to the variety of vegetation zones, Chile has developed a diverse flora
that includes 184 families (18 Pteridophyta, 4 Gymnospermae, 132 Dicotyledoneae
and 30 Monocotyledoneae), with a total of 5082 species, of which 5012 are native
species, and 2561 endemic (Marticorena 1992 in Niemeyer 1995). According
to Mellado et al. (1996), its catalog of Chilean medicinal plants consists of 464
species. The record shows that 123 species are used in the northern, 164 in the
central and 296 in the southern regions. To treat problems of nervous origin, the
registry shows 8 species in the northern, 8 in the central and 18 in the southern
regions. Among these species, 12 are native species, 4 reported in the north, 1 in
the central and 7 in the southern region. On the other hand, Muñoz et al. (1999)
reported the medicinal use of 38 native plants, of which 9 are used in the treatment
of conditions associated with nervous system diseases.
The aim of this chapter is to report the native medicinal plants used for the
treatment of problems of nervous origin in Chile, as well as the current state of
scientific studies that have been developed for these plants. This investigation
consisted in the revision of data bases including thesis research book articles and
journals. The data presented below were obtained using SciELO, PubMed, Science
Direct, Scopus, and others.

Plants Used in Nervous System Ailments

A total of 30 native plants were determined with reported use for any condition
related to the nervous system: Acaena magellanica, Aristotelia chilensis, Buddleja
globosa, Centaurium cachanlahuen, Chenopodium ambrosioides, Fabiana
imbricata, Parastrephia lepidophylla, Proustia pyrifolia, Quillaja saponaria, Salix
chilensis Molina (it is synonymy of Salix humboldtiana Willd) and Ugni molinae
with analgesic or antinociceptive activities; Artemisia copa, Azara microphylla,
Cryptantha hispida, Fabiana imbricata, Lampayo officinalis, Latua pubiflora,
Oenothera acaulis, Peumus boldus, Salix chilensis, Sophora macnabiana and
Wahlenbergia linarioides for nerve disorders including sedative, anxiolytic,
antidepressant and analgesic activities; Araucaria araucana, Laurelia sempervirens,
 Chilean Medicinal Plants Used for Nervous System Ailments 277

Peumus boldus, Salix chilensis, Solanum ligustrinum and Maytenus boaria to treat
internal, dental, rheumatic or menstrual pain, as well as neuralgia or headache;
Lysimachia serrulana, Salix chilensis and Sphacele salviae to treat paralysis;
Artemisia copa and Baccharis linearis (Ruiz & Pav.) Pers. (it is synonym of Baccharis
rosmarinifolia Hook. & Arn.) to treat convulsions; Chenopodium ambrosioides and
Salix chilensis for intestinal cramps; Latua pubiflora with narcotic activity; Geum
quellyon and Senecio eriophyton to treat impotence or contribute to the erection;
Senecio eriophyton and Chenopodium ambrosioides as stimulant or for fatigue
treatment; Senecio eriophyton as aphrodisiac and to chills (Fig. 14.1, Table 14.1).
Some adverse effects (toxic, carcinogenic and respiratory) were reported for
Chenopodium ambrosioides, Laurelia sempervirens and Solanum ligustrinum
(Muñoz et al. 1999).
On the other hand, 12 of the 30 species were studied for their pharmacological
action (Acaena magellanica, Aristotelia chilensis, Artemisia copa, Buddleja
globosa, Chenopodium ambrosioides, Fabiana imbricata, Haplopappus baylahuen,
Latua pubiflora, Laurelia sempervirens, Peumus boldus, Proustia pyrifolia and
Ugni molinae), and another twelve were studied chemically (Araucaria araucana,
Azara microphylla, Centaurium cachanlahuen, Geum quellyon, Lampayo officinalis,
Maytenus boaria, Parastrephia lepidophylla, Quillaja saponaria, Salix chilensis,
Senecio eriophyton, Solanum ligustrinum and Sphacele alviae). Finally, no scientific
studies were found for 6 of these species (Baccharis rosmarinifolia, Cryptantha
hispida, Lysimachia sertulata, Oenothera acaulis, Sophora macnabiana and
Wahlenbergia linarioides).
Native plants with different
pharmacological effects

Nerve disorders
Analgesic
Sedative
Intemal pain
Paralysis treatment
Anticonvulsant
Intestinal cramps
Narcotic activity
Importence
Fatigue
Aphrodisiac
With adverse effects

Fig. 14.1. Pharmacological uses and effects associated with Chilean medicinal plants. The pie chart
highlights the use in nervous disorders and the analgesic and sedative properties.
Table 14.1. Scientific name, traditional medicinal applications, used parts, mode of administration, experimental scientific studies and reference used and scientific
studies of the medicinal plants with report of use for treatment of diseases of nervous origin.

Scientific Name Traditional Medicinal Used Parts Mode of Experimental Scientific Reference Used And
Applications Administration Studies Scientific Studies
1 Acaena magellanica Analgesic Whole plant Infusion A 20% w/v infusion administered orally at 16 Feresin et al. (2002)
(LAM.) VAHL mL/kg presented analgesic effect in the acetic
acid-induced abdominal constriction test in
mice.
2 Araucaria araucana Headache Resin Patches Five diterpenes were isolated from this plant, Muñoz et al. (1999)
(Molina) K. Koch,* but its biological function is not known enough.
3 Aristotelia chilensis Analgesic activity Leaves Infusion Leaves have alkaloids and tannins which act Muñoz et al. (1999),
(Molina) Stuntz* as analgesics. In several topical analgesia (2011), Misle et al.
models, dichloromethane, methanol, aqueous (2011)
extract and a crude mixture of alkaloids were
active in the formalin assay. In tail flick test,
a crude mixture of alkaloids and methanol
extract were the most active (58.2% and 55.2%,
respectively). In the tail formalin assay, the
methanol extract (74.1%) was the most active.
4 Artemisia copa Phil* Sedative, anxiolytic and Aerial parts Infusion At doses up to 1.5 g/kg, a dose-dependent sleep Miño et al. (2010)
278 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

anticonvulsant induction and potentiation of sub-hypnotic and

hypnotic doses of pentobarbital were produced.
Also, it produced increase and decrease in
the spontaneous motor activity (0.5–1.5 g/kg)
and a significant increase in the latency time
and a decrease in the duration of seizures and
mortality induced in mice (1.5 g/kg).
5 Azara microphylla Antidepressant and Leaves and Infusion The leaves have yielded a new flavonoid Sagareishvili et al.
Hook.f.* analgesic stems glycoside which has been called azamicroside. (1983), Mellado et
al. (1996), Tesauro
Regional Patrimonial
(2016a)
6 Baccharis Anticonvulsant Leaves Infusion No studies found. Houghton and Manby
rosmarinifolia Hook. (1985), Mellado et al.
& Arn. (1996)
7 Buddleja globosa Analgesic Leaves Infusion The hexane extract showed 41.2% of Backhouse et al.
Hope* analgesic effect at 600 mg/kg, inhibited by (2008a), Backhouse et
47.7 and 79.0% of the arachidonic acid and al. (2008b)
12-deoxyphorbol-13-decanoate induced
inflammation at 3 mg/20 L/ear, respectively,
in mice. The fraction obtained from
dichloromethane defatted extract at 300 mg/kg
also showed analgesic activity (38.7%). The
metanol extract at 600 mg/kg per os showed
analgesic activity (38.5%). Extracts showed a
dose-dependent analgesic activity in all assays.
Seasonal influence was observed since autumn
extract resulted to be less active.
8 Centaurium Analgesic Whole plant Macerated or Several xanthones have been isolated from this Muñoz et al. (1999),
cachanlahuen decoction plant. It is likely that when biological studies Estomba et al. (2006)
(Mol) Rob.* will be carried out, it is concluded that the
properties of plant come from xanthones.
Table 14.1 contd. …
Chilean Medicinal Plants Used for Nervous System Ailments
279
…Table 14.1 contd.

Scientific Name Traditional Medicinal Used Parts Mode of Experimental Scientific Reference Used And
Applications Administration Studies Scientific Studies
9 Chenopodium Stimulating, analgesic Root Infusion It contains thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, Muñoz et al. (1999),
ambrosioides L. and antispasmodic vitamin C, ascaridol, geranidol, 1-limonene, Ibironke and Ajiboye
myrcene, p-cymene, d-alcamphor, butactic (2007)
acid, spinasterol, terpinene, long chain alkyls,
methyl salicylate, alkaloids, saponins and various
glycosides. Analgesic effect was observed with
the hotplate device maintained at 55°C as well as
on the early and late phases of formalin-induced
paw licking in rats. The 10% infusion has mild
antispasmodic activity in rats. Infusions may be
toxic (DL50 > 1.0 g/kg in mice).
10 Cryptantha hispida Falling Asleep - - No studies found. Mellado et al. (1996)
(Phil.) Reiche*
11 Fabiana imbricata Sedative and analgesic Bark and logs Infusion Derivatives of anthraquinones, terpene Muñoz et al. (1999)
Ruiz and Pavon* alkaloids, sugars and flavonoids have been
isolated of this plant. The hydroalcoholic
extract showed analgesic effects.
280 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

12 Geum quellyon Impotence Root Decoction It was detected that it contains hydrolyzable Muñoz et al. (1999)
Sweet* tannins, flavonoids, gallic acid and eugenol, but
there is no biological-chemical information that
supports its medicinal use.
13 Haplopappus Aphrodisiac and chills Leaves and Infusion or Anthraquinone glycosides, preniletine and Muñoz et al. (1999)
baylahuen treatment stems decoction flavonoids have been isolated from the aerial
J.Remy* parts and stems. Some animal tests showed that
the infusion of the plant has relaxing effects on
the uterus.
14 Lampayo officinalis it produces sleep Leaves Infusion Extract showed higher concentrations of Mellado et al. (1996),
F. Phil. ex Murillo* phenols and flavonoids. Garrido et al. (2013),
Morales and Paredes
(2014)
15 Latua pubiflora Narcotic, anxiolytic and Leaves and Infusion It contains alkaloids. The anxiolytic effect of an Plowman et al.
(Griseb.) Baill.* sedative activities flowers alkaloid fraction was corroborated. The alkaloid (1971), Rojas (2002),
extract has sedative and anxiolytic properties Muñoz and Casale
involving the GABAA receptor. The non- (2003), Ulloa (2004)
alkaloid extract presents a sedative property not
associated with GABAA.
16 Laurelia Headache Leaves Infusion It contains complex alkaloids of aporphine Muñoz et al. (1999),
sempervirens type and bisbenzylisoquinolyl, and safrole. I.V. Schmeda-Hirschmann
(Ruiz and Pav.) Tul* administration of a hydroalcoholic extract to et al. (1994)
rats elicited a hypotensive response of (–27.0%)
in blood pressure of normotensive animals at a
dose of 5 mg crude extract. Carcinogenic effects
have been detected in experimental animals due
to the use of the essential oil of the leaves (high
safrole 91%).
17 Lysimachia sertulata Paralysis - - No studies found. Mellado et al. (1996)
Baud*
18 Maytenus boaria Dental and internal Leaves and Infusion A variety of sesquiterpenes, triterpenes, Muñoz et al. (1999)
Molina analgesic seeds or decoction polyphenols and flavonoids have been
isolated from the aerial. Sesquiterpenes are
antiinflammatory and polyphenols are effective
antioxidant in association with proteins and
amino acids normalizing the cardiovascular
function.
19 Oenothera acaulis Antidepressant and - - No studies found. Mellado et al. (1996)
Cav* analgesic
Chilean Medicinal Plants Used for Nervous System Ailments

Table 14.1 contd. …

281
…Table 14.1 contd.

Scientific Name Traditional Medicinal Used Parts Mode of Experimental Scientific Reference Used And
Applications Administration Studies Scientific Studies
20 Parastrephia Analgesic Leaves and Infusion Two benzofurans (tremetone 1 and Benites et al. (2012),
lepidophylla (Wedd.) branches methoxytremetone 6) were isolated. Tremetone Hierba medicinal
Cabrera 1 exhibited a morphine-like analgesic property. (2016)
21 Peumus boldus Sedative, antineuralgic Leaves Infusion and The essential oil contains terpene hydrocarbons, Muñoz et al. (1999)
Molina* and antirheumatic cataplasma common flavonol glycosides, aporophinoid
alkaloids and non-aporphinoid alkaloids.
The wood contains laurolitsina and several
unidentified bases. The bark has boldine,
benzylisoquinolinic alkaloids and coclaurine.
Boldine exerts in vitro relaxing effect on
rat musculature, directly interfering with
the cholinergic mechanism involved.
Antiinflammatory activity of ethanolic extracts
has also been demonstrated.
22 Proustia pyrifolia DC Analgesic Leaves and Infusion and The evaluation of the topic antiinflammatory Delporte et al. (2005),
roots showers activities induced by arachidonic acid, and Tesauro Regional
phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate of the different Patrimonial (2016b)
282 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

extracts showed that this species possesses

active constituents that could diminish
cyclooxygenase and lipoxygenases activities,
the enzymes that allow the synthesis of
proinflammatory endogenous substances as
prostaglandin E2 and leukotrienes, respectively.
23 Quillaja saponaria Analgesic Bark Infusion or Bark contains a high percentage of triterpene Muñoz et al. (1999),
Molina* macerated saponins. The topical and systemic analgesic Arrau et al. (2011),
effects of a commercial partially purified Tesauro Regional
saponin extract showed activity in both Patrimonial (2016c)
analgesic tests in a dose-dependent manner.
The saponins, quillaic acid, its methyl ester,
and one of the oxidized derivatives of the latter,
elicit dose-dependent antinociceptive effects
in two murine thermal models. Also, it has anti
inflammatory activity.
24 Salix chilensis Rheumatic and Bark Infusion It contains salicin, of which there is a wide Mellado et al. (1996),
Molina menstrual pain, shavings and range of studies that confirm its analgesic use. MINSAL (2009),
headache, leaves Waizel-Bucay (2011)
antispasmodic, sedative
and Paralysis treatment
25 Senecio eriophyton Fatigue and Aerial parts Infusion Extracts (dichloromethane, methanol, Mellado et al. (1996),
Remy* contribute to the aqueous) of this plant showed in vitro relaxation Rahimi et al. (2009),
erection effect on the guinea pig corpus cavernosum. It Singh et al. (2013),
has phosphodiesterase inhibitors activity. Tesauro Regional
Patrimonial (2016d)
26 Solanum ligustrinum Headache Leaves and Infusion From the leaves and branches have been Muñoz et al. (1999)
Lodd* stems devoid extracted scopoletin, β-sitosterol glycosides
of bark solasodine, solasonine and alkaloids. These
have antiinflammatory properties, smooth
muscle relaxant and hypotensive, among others.
27 Sophora macnabiana Nerves - - No studies found. Mellado et al. (1996)
Graham
Table 14.1 contd. …
Chilean Medicinal Plants Used for Nervous System Ailments
283
…Table 14.1 contd.

Scientific Name Traditional Medicinal Used Parts Mode of Experimental Scientific Reference Used And
Applications Administration Studies Scientific Studies
28 Sphacele salvia Paralysis treatment Leaves Infusion and In this plant were found abetes and ursolic acid Mellado et al. (1996),
(Lindl). Briq.* tonic as main secondary metabolites. Also, camosol Flagg (2000), Escuder
and rosmadial were found. Antitumorigenic et al. (2002)
activity in oncology screens and antioxidant
activity have been documented.
29 Ugni molinae Turcz.* Analgesic Leaves Infusion Dichloromethane (DCM), ethyl acetate Delporte et al. (2007)
(EA) and methanol (ME) leaf extracts were
assessed in mice showing a dose-dependent
antinociceptive activity in all the assays under
different administration routes.
30 Wahlenbergia Sedative Leaves and Infusion No studies found. Mellado et al. (1996),
linarioides Schrad. wood Montes et al. (1974)
ex Roth
*endemic
284 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions
 Chilean Medicinal Plants Used for Nervous System Ailments 285

Conclusions and Future Perspectives

For a long time, there have been no ethnobotanical studies on the use of medicinal
plants in Chile. On this basis, our research group has been collecting bibliographic
information about the medicinal use of Chilean plants against various diseases.
Part of this research is presented here.
We study the medicinal plants that are recommended for the nervous system,
finding two ailments that occupy almost 50% (nervous disorders and analgesic). In
general, 19 endemic species of the 30 found in the literature are used in problems
related to the central nervous system. Of the studies that have been conducted
with medicinal species, it is found that there are 40% that focus on chemical
studies and 40% on biological studies. This is due to the lack of a state policy
that allows a systematic study of the medicinal plants recommended for use by
the population. In addition, there is a lack of studies that demonstrate adequate
use through pharmacological studies, demonstrating that a particular plant has a
beneficial effect for the disease that is recommended. In this way, the appropriate
governmental policies should contribute to increasing the therapeutic arsenal of
new drugs, allowing studies and research based on chemical compounds isolated
from medicinal plants.
Although the Chilean health authority periodically publishes documents
recommending the proper use of medicinal plants, it should also provide
economic resources to research on medicinal plants. These studies should focus on
pharmacological studies (pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics), which allow
knowing the availability of compounds isolated from medicinal plants in different
tissues of the human body, as well as their mechanisms of action. An adequate policy
would help the population to consume medicinal plants with the due security and
scientific basis of their benefits and possible adverse effects. Also, an appropriate
policy would increase the therapeutic arsenal of new drugs that would help not
only the Chilean population but also the world population.

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 CHAPTER 15

Medicinal Plants Used by the

Tharu Communities in Nepal
Shandesh Bhattarai

Introduction
Traditional knowledge on the use of medicinal plants to treat human diseases
still exists in many parts of the globe (Katewa et al. 2004, Mahishi et al. 2005).
Safe, effective and inexpensive indigenous remedies are gaining popularity and
communities in Nepal are still practicing the use of medicinal plants to treat a
variety of ailments (Chaudhary 1998, Bhattarai 2009, Manandhar 2002, Baral
and Kurmi 2006). Tharus are a culturally and linguistically diverse ethnic group
of Nepal Tarai having a long history of knowledge on the use of medicinal plants.
In the rural areas of Tharu communities, even today healthcare among the
Tharus is checked by the local Gurewa (traditional healer), who performs primeval
rites of protection, blessings and healing by using local medicinal herbs (Manandhar
2002). Tharu people mainly settled in Surkhet, Dang, Kailali, Kanchanpur, Banke,
Kapilvastu, Rupandehi, Nawalparasi, Chitwan, Parsa, Bara, Rautahat, Sindhuli,
Udyapur, Morang and Jhapa districts in Nepal (Fig. 15.1).
The fertile land of Tarai is called rice basket of Nepal (Sapkota 2014,
Bhattachan 2016). Tharu people live in villages in houses plastered with mud and
cow dung (Pyakuryal 1982). The houses are large and communal (Meyer and Deuel
1999). The Tharus are recognized as an official nationality by the Government of
Nepal (Lewis et al. 2014), whereas the Government of India recognizes the Tharu
people as a scheduled tribe (Verma 2010).

Nepal Academy of Science and Technology, Khumaltar, Lalitpur.

Email: [email protected]
 Medicinal Plants Used by the Tharu Communities in Nepal 289

0 100 200 400 Kilometers

Fig. 15.1. Districts showing the main settlements by the Tharu communities in Nepal.

The ethnobotanical knowledge of Tharu is scattered in different literatures

(Manandhar 1985, 2002, Dangol and Gurung 1991, Thapa 2001, Chapagain et al.
2004, Ghimire and Bastakoti 2009, Bhattarai et al. 2009, Acharya and Acharya
2009, Muller-Boker 1991, 1993, 1999a,b). Hence, the first attempt to review the
ethnomedicinal usage of Tharu communities of Nepal was undertaken. It is hoped
that this paper will be very much useful for the future ethnobotanical research in
the Tharu communities of Nepal.

History, Tradition and Culture

There are two major groups in Nepal based on origin: Tibeto-Nepali and Indo-
Nepali. The Tarai in the south of Nepal is inhabited by the indo-Nepali, i.e.,
Danuwar, Mooshar and Tharu communities (Manandhar 2002, Gurung 1996). Tharu
people are a native ethnic group who have lived in the lowlands for centuries and
developed a distinct and self-sufficient society with their own language, religion
and culture. Tharu are the largest and oldest ethnic group of Nepal Tarai. There are
different views about their origin (Gurung 1996, Skar 1999, McLean 1999, Bista
2004). The Rana Tharus claim to be of Rajput origin and have migrated from Far
Western Tarai, while farther easterns claim to be the descendants of the Śākya and
Koliya peoples of Kapilvastu (Hagen 1960, Gurung 1996, Muller-Boker 1999a,
b, Manandhar 1985, Lall 1983, Rajaure 1975).
Tharu community has worked under the system of bonded labor known as
Kamaiya since 18th century but Nepal Government banned this practice in 2000
(Muller-Boker 1999a, McDonaugh 1999, Gurung 1996). Tharus from the west
have been practicing the Badghar system. Badghar is the elected chief of a village
290 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

who works for the village welfare and also manages the cultural traditions. Tharus
have Mongoloid features with dark and semi-dark colors, and are believed to have
come to Nepal from India during the Muslim invasion in 12th and 13th century
(Pyakuryal 1982, Gurung 1996). They are rich in culture, traditions, rites and rituals.
In 1854, the Mulkiain categorized Nepal’s legal system and divided society into
a system of castes. Tharus were placed between the touchable and untouchables
social hierarchy (Muller-Boker 1999a,b, McDonaugh 1999, Gurung 1996).
Even when the Tarai was avoided by others communities because of the
influence of malaria, only the Tharus managed to live there (Pyakuryal 1982,
Manandhar 2002, Gurung 1996). Their illiteracy and lack of representation in
government made it difficult for them to struggle against the new landlords
(Pyakuryal 1982). Many fell into debt and were forced to become bonded laborers-
Kamaiyas (men) and Kamlaharis (women) (McDonaugh 1999, Patterson 1982,
Gurung 1996). Tharus also celebrate Hindu festivals. Each of the Tharu family
worships its personal tutelary deity who is represented by a lump of earth mixed
with multi-colour cotton threads, crude sugarcane and a gold coin in the centre
(Pyakuryal 1982, Muller-Boker 1999a,b).

Food, Language and Religion

Tharu’s unique food items are popular throughout the country (Bhattachan 2016).
The special food items are Dhikri and Ghonghi. Dhikri is made of rice flour. The
dough is cooked over steam and eaten together with pickle and or curry. Ghonghi
is an edible snail collected in nearby water bodies and left overnight so that all
the gooey material inside them comes out. Their tail end is cut so that it is easier
to suck out the meat from the shell. They are boiled and later cooked like curry
(Krauskopff 1995). Tharu grow barley, wheat, maize, and rice, as well as raise
animals such as chickens, ducks, pigs, etc. They are also popular in using large
nets (Figs. 15.2 and 15.3) for fishing (Muller-Boker 1999a,b, Manandhar 2002).
Tharus have their indigenous dialect, but speak a mixture of local dialects,
such as Prakriti, Bhojpuri, Mughali and Nepali. Tharu communities in different
parts of Nepal do not share the same language but speak various endemic Tharu
languages. As, for example, in western Nepal, they speak variants of Hindi, Urdu
and Awadhi whereas in and near central Nepal, they speak a variant of Bhojpuri
(Pyakuryal 1982). Likewise, in eastern Nepal, they speak a variant of Maithili.
Tharus already lived in the Terai before Indo-Europeans arrived. Hinduism is the
main religion of the Tharus and includes belief in spirits and devils (Manandhar
2002). Small numbers have converted to Buddhism in the recent years and few
have converted to Christianity.

Festivals, Marriage, Birth and Death

Tharu people are fond of festivals and celebrate jitiya, chhath, maghi, fagu and
dashain. Jitiya is a ten days festival celebrated by Tharu women before dashain (in
 Medicinal Plants Used by the Tharu Communities in Nepal 291

Fig. 15.2. Tharu women carrying fishing nets.

Fig. 15.3. Tharu men knitting fishing net and carrying Bauhinia vahlii leaves.

the aastami-8th days of Dashain). During jitiya, Mothers keep fasting even without
drinking a drop of water with full dedication and faith for the long life and well-
being of her son. The fasting completes after ten days from the sunrise (Pyakuryal
1982). In this day, Tharu women perform their traditional dance in the various
programs. Tharu people also celebrate Dashain wearing new clothes and eating
delicious foods. It is celebrated for ten days which falls after two days of jitiya.
Chhath is another important festival. On this day, people worship the sun and
keep fasting without drinking a drop of water. Maghi is the most important festival
which is considered as the New Year for the Tharu community. People take bath
at the nearest water sources. On this day, delicious foods like sesame laddus, rice
pudding, fish and meat are made and served (Pyakuryal 1982). Fagu is another
important festival known as Holi in Nepal which is celebrated by sprinkling colors
on each other and singing songs (Pyakuryal 1982, Manandhar 2002). The author
has been working with the Tharu communities of Nepal since long time and has
gathered a rich knowledge of the Tharu cultures and traditions (Fig. 15.4).
Monogamous marriage system has been practiced among the Tharu people.
Traditionally, marriages were often arranged during the pregnancies of two women.
292 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

Fig. 15.4. Interaction with the local Tharu people about the medicinal plants in Bardiya.

Most Tharus now practice conventional arranged marriages and also practice love
marriages, inter caste marriage, marriage after courtship and eloping (Muller-Boker
1999a,b). The birth ceremony is celebrated at the age of five months for the girl
child and at the age of six-seven months for boys. On this day, rice pudding is eaten
by the child and the name of the baby is also kept. Most of the Tharu cremate their
deceased; others, however, bury them. There is a strange custom of keeping men
face down and women face up during the burial and the mourning period is about
thirteen days (Pyakuryal 1982).

Medicinal Plants
A total of 324 plant species belonging to 100 families used by the Tharu community
in Nepal were presented in this chapter (Table 15.1). The plant species were arranged
alphabetically according to scientific name, followed by family names, parts used,
Nepali and Tharu names, medicinal usage and reference citations (Table 15.1).
The top ten largest families are: Fabaceae (29 species), followed by Lamiaceae
(21 species), Asteraceae (18 species), Solanaceae (13), Poaceae, Euphorbiaceae
and Moraceae (11 species each), Malvaceae and Apocynaceae (10 species each)
and Cucurbitaceae (9 species) (Fig. 15.5).
Similarly, Amaranthaceae and Rubiaceae are represented by 7 species each
followed by Convolvulaceae and Cucurbitaceae (6 species each). Four families
Anacardiaceae, Boraginaceae, Myrtaceae and Zingiberaceae are represented by
5 species each (Table 15.2). Likewise, Acanthaceae, Combretaceae, Lythraceae,
Polygonaceae and Rutaceae were represented by 4 species each. Eleven families,
Amaryllidaceae, Annonaceae, Apiaceae, Cyperaceae, Dioscoraceae, Phyllanthaceae,
Plantaginaceae, Pteridaceae, Sapotaceae, Urticaceae and Verbenaceae were
represented by 3 species each. Twelve families, Bigioniaceae, Equisetaceae,
Lauraceae, Linaceae, Meliaceae, Nyctaginaceae, Orchidaceae, Oxalidaceae,
 Table 15.1. Medicinal plants of Tharu communities of Nepal.

Plant’s Scientific Name (family name); Nepali and Tharu Medicinal Usage References
Parts Used names
Abelmoschus moschatus Moench. Bankapas Cuts, wounds Dangol and Gurung 1991
(Malvaceae); Rt
Abelmoscus esculentus (L.) Moench. Bhindi (N) Constipation Chapagain et al. 2004
(Malvaceae); Rt
Abrus precatorius L. (Fabaceae); Sd, Rt, Lvs Titihar, Chilahariyak Fever, stomach and eye diseases, asthma, Acharya and Acharya 2009,
thond (T) uterus problem, boils, cough, sore throat, Manandhar 2002, Chapagain et al.
headache, cold, blood purifier, malaria, 2004
paralysis, nerve diseases, skin diseases,
sciatica, rheumatism, asthma, dental caries,
urinary infection
Abutilon indicum (L.) St Sweet (Malvaceae); Baliyari (T) Body swellings, wounds, blisters, boils Dangol and Gurung 1991
Lvs
Acacia catechu (L.f.) Willd. (Fabaceae); St, Khayar (N) Diarrhea, dysentery, bodyache, blood Bhattarai et al. 2009, Chapagain et al.
Lvs, Sap accumulation, bone fracture, cough 2004, Manandhar 1985
Acacia nilotica (L.) Del. (Fabaceae); Br, Fl Babul Dysentery, diarrhea, quench thirst Dangol and Gurung 1991
Achyranthes aspera L. (Amaranthaceae); Rt, Naksirka, Uthaanna, Diarrhea, dysentery, constipation, blisters, Bhattarai et al. 2009, Chapagain et
Lvs, St, WP Ultakur (T) stomachache, headache, toothache, snake al. 2004, Manandhar 1985, 1988,
scorpion sting, delivery problems, vomiting, 1990, 1989a,b, Muller-Boker 1999a,
fever, fatigue, itchy skin, indigestion, dental Dangol and Gurung 1991, Mandar
trouble, bleeding, menstrual disorders and Chaudhary 1993
Achyranthes bidentata Blume Ultakur (T) Wounds, blisters Chapagain et al. 2004
(Amaranthaceae); WP
Acorus calamus L. (Acoraceae); Rt, Rh Bojho (N); Katara, Bajh Roundworm, hookworm cough, cold, sore Bhattarai et al. 2009, Acharya and
(T) throat, tonsillitis, bronchitis, anthelmintic Acharya 2009, Chapagain et al. 2004,
Dangol and Gurung 1991
Medicinal Plants Used by the Tharu Communities in Nepal

Adiantum caudatum L. (Pteridaceae); Sht Ratijari Fever Dangol and Gurung 1991

Table 15.1 contd. …

293
…Table 15.1 contd.
Plant’s Scientific Name (family name); Nepali and Tharu Medicinal Usage References
Parts Used names
Adiantum lunulatum Burm.f. (Pteridaceae); Rh Ratamur (T) Fever, dysentery, glandular swelling Manandhar 1985, 2002
Aegle marmelos (L.) Correa (Rutaceae); Fr, Bel (N); Jogchmuda (T) Diarrhea, dysentery, Bhattarai et al. 2009, Acharya and
Br, Lvs, Rt constipation ringworm, scabies, snake Acharya 2009, Chapagain et al. 2004,
scorpion sting, diabetes, inflammation of sex Taylor et al. 1996, Muller-Boker
organs of child, fever, weakness, wounds, 1999a, Manandhar 1989b, 1990,
headache, fever, bowel complaints, cooling, Mandar and Chaudhary 1993
piles
Agave cantala var. cantala (Asparagaceae); Ketu Bodyache Chapagain et al. 2004
Lvs
Agave sisalana Perrine (Asparagaceae); Br Kedli Paralysis Mandar and Chaudhary 1993
Ageratum conyzoides (L.) L. (Asteraceae); Gandhejhar (N); Raunne Typhoid, cuts Bhattarai et al. 2009, Chapagain et al.
Rt, Lvs (T) 2004, Dangol and Gurung 1991
Allium cepa L. (Amaryllidaceae); Bu Piyaj (N) Vomiting, diarrhea, dysentery Chapagain et al. 2004, Mandar and
Chaudhary 1993
Allium sativum L. (Amaryllidaceae); Bu Lasun (N) Headache Mandar and Chaudhary 1993
Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f. (Xanthorrheaceae); Ghauekumari (N); Cuts, wounds, burns, boils, rheumatic pains, Bhattarai et al. 2009, Chapagain et al.
294 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

Ltx, Lvs Ghyukuwanr (T) skin irritations, fever, constipation, jaundice, 2004, Manandhar 2002
gonorrhea, kidney pains, indigestion, peptic
ulcers, cough, cold, dropsy
Alstonia scholaris (L.) R.Br. (Apocynaceae); Chhativan (N) Diarrhea, dysentery, bodyache, breast pain, Bhattarai et al. 2009, Chapagain et al.
Br, Ltx, WP tonic, fever, great thrist, menstrual disorders 2004, Muller-Boker 1999a, Mandar
and Chaudhary 1993
Alternanthera sessilis (L.) R.Br. ex DC. Saranchi, gantha phula, Fever, cough, cold, scabies, cuts, wounds, Taylor et al. 1996, Manandhar 1985,
(Amaranthaceae); WP, Aep, Rt garri (T) venereal diseases, dysuria, bloody dysentery, 2002, Mandar and Chaudhary 1993,
mental disorder, heat stroke Manandhar 1985
Amaranthus spinosus L. (Amaranthaceae); Setolode; Kattia maattia, Diuretic, cooling agent, constipation, fever, Bhattarai et al. 2009, Chapagain et al.
Rt, Lvs Kantiya, Makhan (N,T) diarrhea, dysentery, indigestion, vomiting, 2004, Manandhar 2002, Dangol and
gonorrhea, menorrhagia, boils, antidote Gurung 1991
Ananas comosus (L.) Merr. (Bromeliaceae); Anar (T) Arthritis/rheumatism Chapagain et al. 2004
Fr, Lvs
Annona reticulata L. (Annonaceae); Lvs, Fr Sarifa (N) Cuts, wounds, diabetes Mandar and Chaudhary 1993
Annona squamosa L. (Annonaceae); Lvs Sarifa (N) Boils Chapagain et al. 2004
Antidesma acidum Retz. (Phyllanthaceae); Dakhi, Dakhee (T) Snake scorpion sting, bone fracture Chapagain et al. 2004
Lvs, Fr, Br
Areca catechu L. (Arecaceae); Br Supari (N) Arthritis Mandar and Chaudhary 1993
Argemone mexicana L. (Papaveraceae); Fl, Bharbanda (T) Boils, eye complaints, itches Chapagain et al. 2004, Mandar and
St, Sd Chaudhary 1993
Artemisia indica Willd. (Asteraceae); Rt, Lvs Titepati (N); Pati (T) Gastritis, paralysis, scabies, anthelmintic, Bhattarai et al. 2009, Manandhar
ringworm 1985, 1994
Artemisia vulgaris L. (Asteraceae); WP Kurza Repellent for bugs, flcas Dangol and Gurung 1991
Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam. (Moraceae); Fr Kathar (N) Swelling part of scrotum Bhattarai et al. 2009
Artocarpus integer (Thunb.) Merr. Rukh katahar (N) Tuberculosis Chapagain et al. 2004
(Moraceae); Sd
Artocarpus lacucha Buch.-Ham. (Moraceae); Barhar Headache, constipation, diarrhea, dysentery Chapagain et al. 2004, Mandar and
WP, St, Br, Rt (N) Chaudhary 1993
Asparagus racemosus Willd. (Asparagaceae); Santapsatauri, Kurela Tonic in lactating a postpartum mother, Bhattarai et al. 2009, Chapagain et al.
Rt (T) anthelmintic, delivery, vomiting, burning 2004, Muller-Boker 1999a, Mandar
sensation in urination and Chaudhary 1993, Manandhar
1985
Asparagus racemosus Willd. var. subacerosus Santawar (T) Acharya and Acharya 2009
Baker (Asparagaceae); Rt
Azadirachta indica A. Juss. (Meliaceae); Lvs, Neem (N) Anthelmentic, fever, gastritis, stomachache, Bhattarai et al. 2009, Acharya and
Br cough, reduce sugar level, cooling agent, Acharya 2009, Chapagain et al. 2004,
diabetes, wounds, blisters, itches, skin Muller-Boker 1999a, Mandar and
diseases, tootache Chaudhary 1993
Bauhinia vahlii Wight and Arn. (Fabaceae); Bhorla (N); Malu, Pulmonary tuberculosis, abrasions, urinary Bhattarai et al. 2009, Chapagain et al.
Medicinal Plants Used by the Tharu Communities in Nepal

Rt, Lvs, Sd Moharain (T) infection, boils 2004, Manandhar 1985

Table 15.1 contd. …

295
…Table 15.1 contd.
Plant’s Scientific Name (family name); Nepali and Tharu Medicinal Usage References
Parts Used names
Bauhinia variegata L. (Fabaceae); Br, St Koilara (T) Antidote in snake bite, dysentery Acharya and Acharya 2009

Berberis asiatica DC. (Berberidaceae); Rt Chutro (N) Boils Chapagain et al. 2004

Biophytum sensitivum (L.) DC. (Oxalidaceae); Lajmohani (T) Insomnia, fever Chapagain et al. 2004, Dangol and
WP Gurung 1991
Boehmeria platyphylla D.Don (Urticaceae); Khasreti (N) Cut, wounds Bhattarai et al. 2009, Manandhar 1985
Rt, Lvs
Boerhavia diffusa L. (Nyctaginaceae); WP Churchuriya (T) Headache Manandhar 1985
Bombax ceiba L. (Malvaceae); Ltx, Fr, Br, Rt, Simal; Simra (N, T) Diarrhea, urinary disorder, vaginal Bhattarai et al. 2009, Acharya and
Sht, Sap and intestinal bleeding, bone fracture, Acharya 2009, Chapagain et al. 2004,
constipation, wounds, cuts, blisters, worms, Muller-Boker 1999a, Manandhar
fever, dysentery, cough 1989a,b, 1990, Mandar and
Chaudhary 1993
Brucea javanica (L.) Merr. (Simaroubaceae); Bhakimlo (N) Diarrhea Chapagain et al. 2004
Fr
296 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub. Kuntz Parasin Appetizer, weakness Chapagain et al. 2004
(Fabaceae); Br (T)
Caesalpinia bonduc (L.) Roxb. (Fabaceae); Kathgarel Fever Mandar and Chaudhary 1993
Lvs, Bd
Caesulia axillaris Roxb. (Asteraceae); WP Gerguj (T) Wounds Muller-Boker 1999a
Calamus tenuis Roxb. (Arecaceae); Rt Bet (N) Delivery problems, menstrual problems, Chapagain et al. 2004
miscarriages
Callicarpa macrophylla Vahl. (Lamiaceae); St, Dahigola, Dahigona (T) Headache, diarrhea, wounds, blisters, Chapagain et al. 2004, Muller-Boker
Rt, Fr, Lvs fever, chickenpox, boils, rash, indigestion, 1999a, Manandhar 1980, 1987a,
rheumatic troubles, ear achc 1989b, 1990, Shrestha 1985, Dangol
and Gurung 1991
Calotropis gigantea (L.) Dryand. Aank (N); Madar, Yank Fractured bone, boils, gingivitis, sinusitis, Bhattarai et al. 2009, Acharya and
(Apocynaceae); (T) swelling of testes, body pain, pimples, Acharya 2009, Chapagain et al. 2004,
Ltx, Twg, Lvs, Fr, St headache, blood accumulation, body Manandhar 1985, 1990, 1986b, 2002,
swelling, cuts, delivery, wounds, alleviate Muller-Boker 1999a, Dangol and
pain, cough, sprain, whitlow, injurious to Gurung 1991
eye, hastening suppuration, arthritis

Calotropis procera (Aiton.) Dryand. Akon Diarrhea, dysentery Mandar and Chaudhary 1993
(Apocynaceae);
Br
Cannabis sativa L. (Cannabaceae); Sd, Fl, Lvs Gajha (N) Diarrhea, dysentery, Bhattarai et al. 2009, Chapagain et al.
constipation, cough, cold, cuts, indigestion 2004, Dangol and Gurung 1991
Careya arborea Roxb. (Lecythidaceae); Br, Fr Kumbhi (T) Wound, diarrhea, fever, snake bite, cuts Acharya and Acharya 2009,
Chapagain et al. 2004
Carica papaya L. (Caricaceae); Sd, Fr Mewa (N) Insecticidal, Jaundice Mandar and Chaudhary 1993
Carissa carandas L. (Apocynaceae); Rt Karaundath, Karonda Diarrhea, dysentery, bloody dysentery Taylor et al. 1996, Manandhar 1985
(T)
Cassia fistula L. (Fabaceae); Sd, Fr, Rt, St Rajbriksha (N), Stomachache, diarrhea, dysentery, diuretic, Bhattarai et al. 2009, Chapagain et al.
Aairogha (T) blisters, extreme thirst, blindness, throat 2004, Manandhar 2002, Dangol and
infection, skin diseases, syphilis, diabetes, Gurung 1991, Mandar and Chaudhary
asthma, laxative, headache, arthritis 1993

Cassia mimosoides L. (Fabaceae); WP Chotaki (T) Leprosy Manandhar 1985

Cautleya spicata (Sm.) Baker (Zingiberaceae); Bayada (T) Hand/leg ache, indigestion Chapagain et al. 2004
Rh
Celosia argentea L. (Amaranthaceae); Fl, Murga kesar (T) Nasal bleeding Chapagain et al. 2004
Lvs, Fr

Table 15.1 contd. …

Medicinal Plants Used by the Tharu Communities in Nepal
297
…Table 15.1 contd.
Plant’s Scientific Name (family name); Nepali and Tharu Medicinal Usage References
Parts Used names
Centella asiatica (L.) Urb. (Apiaceae); WP, Ghod tapre (N); Fever, tonic, enhances memory, skin Bhattarai et al. 2009, Acharya and
Lvs Dhoataiyae, Bhatbhate, diseases, nerve troubles, cooling agent, Acharya 2009, Chapagain et al. 2004,
Barmaruwa (T) cuts, diabetes, dysentery, mental disorders, Muller-Boker 1999a, Dangol and
weakness, heartburn, syphilis Gurung 1991, Mandar and Chaudhary
1993
Chamaerops humilis L. (Arecaceae); Sd Khajuri (T) Itchy skin Muller-Boker 1999a
Cheilocostus speciosus (J. Koenig) C.D. Joghidangha (T) Headache, diuretic, wounds, swollen feet Bhattarai et al. 2009, Muller-Boker
Specht (Costaceae); Rt, St 1999a
Cheitanthes farinosa (Forsk.) Kaulf. Dubai sinki (N) Wounds Manandhar 1985
(Pteridaceae); Rt
Chenopodium album L. (Amaranthaceae); Bethuwa (N) Constipation, clean bronchi, lungs, joint Muller-Boker 1999a, Dangol and
Lvs, St, Rt, WP pain, blood pressure Gurung 1991, Mandar and Chaudhary
1993
Chenopodium murale L. (Amaranthaceae); Pahadia Bethuwa (N); Gastritis, indigestion Dangol and Gurung 1991
WP Bangain (T)
Chlorophytum nepalense (Lindl.) Baker Dhud kutri, Banpyajia Milk secretion, hydroccle, joint pain Chapagain et al. 2004, Dangol and
298 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

(Asparagaceae); Tu (T) Gurung 1991, Manandhar 1985

Chrozophora rottleri (Geisel.) A. Juss ex Chotaki hunkatath (T) Cold Manandhar 1985
Spreng. (Euphorbiaceae); Fr
Chrysopogon aciculatus (Retz.) Trin. Sarauth (T) Boils, wounds Manandhar 1985
(Poaceae); Rt
Cinnamomum camphora (L.) J. Presl Kapur (N) Cough, cold Bhattarai et al. 2009
(Lauraceae); Lvs
Cirsium wallichii DC. (Asteraceae); Rt Markatiya (T) Stomach inflammation Manandhar 1985
Cissampelos pareira L. Gohman, Batulia (T) Chronic diseases of children, headache, Bhattarai et al. 2009, Chapagain et al.
(Menispermaceae); Rt, Aep appetizer, diarrhea, weakness, fever, induce 2004, Dangol and Gurung 1991
abortion in human
Cissus repens Lam. (Vitaceae); Br Rechu (T) Cough, cold, bronchitis Bhattarai et al. 2009
Cissus sp. (Vitaceae); St Charcharia Extreme thirst Chapagain et al. 2004
Citrus medica L. (Rutaceae); Fr, Lvs Nemo Diarrhea, dysentery, insecticidal, itches Mandar and Chaudhary 1993
Cleome viscosa L. (Cleomaceae); Fr, Lvs, Sd, Harhur, Hurhuwa (T) Earache, headache, arthritis/rheumatism, loss Chapagain et al. 2004, Dangol and
Rt of weight, mental disorders, cuts, wounds Gurung 1991, Manandhar 1985
Clerodendrum indicum (L.) Kuntze Chuchure (T) Fever, cuts, wounds Taylor et al. 1996
(Lamiaceae); Aer, WP
Clerodendrum infortunatum L. (Verbenaceae); Bhanthi, Dhus (T) Fever, delivery problems, boils, blood Dangol and Gurung 1991, Chapagain
Lvs, Rt, Sht, Bd purification, eliminate lice et al. 2004, Muller-Boker 1999a,
Mandar and Chaudhary 1993,
Manandhar 1985
Coffea benghalensis B. Heyne ex Schult. Bharemase phul (N) Delivery Chapagain et al. 2004
(Rubiaceae); Bd
Colebrookea oppositifolia Sm. (Lamiaceae); Dhurseli (N); Dhurseta, Eye pain, anthelmintic, Bhattarai et al. 2009, Dangol and
Lvs, Rt, St Bhogate (T) premature ejaculation, rheumatic troubles, Gurung 1991, Manandhar 1994
ear-ache
Crateva unilocularis Buch.-Ham. Sipligan (N) Sinusitis, stomachache, cuts, wounds, boils Bhattarai et al. 2009
(Capparaceae); Sd, Br, Rt
Crinum amoenum Ker Gawl. Ex Roxb. Ban piyaju (T) To swollen testicles Muller-Boker 1999a
(Amaryllidaceae); Bu
Crotalaria prostrata Rottb. ex Willd. Bansan (T) Wounds, blisters Chapagain et al. 2004, Manandhar
(Fabaceae); WP 1985
Crypsinus hastatus (Thunb.) Copel. Harjor (N) Fever Manandhar 1985
(Polypodiaceae); Rt
Cucumis melo L. (Cucurbitaceae); Rt, WP Gurmi, Goima (T) Dysentery, difficulty in urination Dangol and Gurung 1991, Manandhar
Medicinal Plants Used by the Tharu Communities in Nepal

1985

Table 15.1 contd. …

299
…Table 15.1 contd.
Plant’s Scientific Name (family name); Nepali and Tharu Medicinal Usage References
Parts Used names
Cucumis sativus L. (Cucurbitaceae); Sd Khira (T) Heartburn Muller-Boker 1999a
Curculigo orchioides Gaertn. (Hypoxidaceae); Musaleri, Mussar (T) Headache, lactation in postpartum mother, Bhattarai et al. 2009, Chapagain et al.
Rt, Rh snake scorpion sting, diarrhea, dysentery, 2004, Mandar and Chaudhary 1993,
milk secretion, rheumatism Manandhar 1985
Curcuma angustifolia Roxb. (Zingiberaceae); Haldi (N) Cough, cold, fever, fracture and dislocated Mandar and Chaudhary 1993,
Rt bones Manandhar 1985
Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. (Convolvulaceae); WP Amarlathi, Budhbaula, Hookworm, roundworm, jaundice, rabies Bhattarai et al. 2009, Chapagain et
Saraksewal (T) infection, depression, body swelling, bone al. 2004, Dangol and Gurung 1991,
fracture, cuts, indigestion, dislocated parts Manandhar 1985
Cuscuta reflexa var. anguina (Edgew.) C.B. Baora (T) Stomachache, headache, body pain, jaundice Acharya and Acharya 2009
Clarke (Convolvulaceae); WP
Cymbidium madidum Lindl. (Orchidaceae); Rt Harjor (T) Fracture and dislocated bone Manandhar 1988, 1985
Cymbopogon flexuosus (Nees ex Steud.) Cough, cold Chapagain et al. 2004
W.Waston (Poaceae); Lvs
Cymbopogon jwarancusa (Jones) Schult. Jarakus (T) Snake scorpion sting, asthma Chapagain et al. 2004
(Poaceae); Rt
300 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. (Poaceae); WP, Dubho (N) Tonic, vertigo/dizziness, anthelmintic, Bhattarai et al. 2009, Acharya and
Rt, Lvs stomachache, defect in vision, toothache, Acharya 2009, Chapagain et al. 2004
cuts, boils, nasal bleeding, white leprosy
Cynoglossum lanceolatum Forssk. Cataracts Bhattarai et al. 2009
(Boraginaceae); Rt, Fl
Cynoglossum zeylanicum (Vahl.) Brand Chakchira (T) Headache, wounds, blisters Chapagain et al. 2004
(Boraginaceae); Lvs
Cyperus compressus L. (Cyperaceae); WP Jhusuna (T) Cuts, scabies Dangol and Gurung 1991
Cyperus difformis L. (Cyperaceae); WP Ghanaune chhatia (T) Earache Chapagain et al. 2004
Cyperus rotundus L. (Cyperaceae); Rt, Lvs Motha (N); Bhada (T) Stomach diseases, indigestion, diarrhea, Bhattarai et al. 2009, Acharya and
vomiting, cough, bronchitis, fever Acharya 2009
Dalbergia latifolia Roxb. (Fabaceae); Rt, Br Satisal (N) Bodyache Acharya and Acharya 2009
Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. ex DC. (Fabaceae); Sisso (N); Sisawa, Feeling of higher level of heat inside Bhattarai et al. 2009, Chapagain et
Br, Lvs, Sht Sisava (T) the body, impotency, cooling effect, al. 2004, Dangol and Gurung 1991,
anthelmintic, gout, fever Manandhar 1985, 1994
Datura metel L. (Solanaceae); Sd, Fr Dhatur (T) Mental disorders, diarrhea, dysentery, filaria Chapagain et al. 2004, Mandar and
Chaudhary 1993
Datura stramonium L. (Solanaceae); Sd, Lvs Dhaturo (N); Dhatur (T) Premature ejaculation, menstrual disorders, Bhattarai et al. 2009, Muller-Boker
bronchitis, arthritis 1999a, Mandar and Chaudhary 1993
Dendrocalamus hamiltonii Nees and Arn. ex Tama (N) Purgative Dangol and Gurung 1991
Munro (Poaceae); Sht
Desmodium gangeticum (L.) DC. (Fabaceae); Gatkosiya (T) Headache Bhattarai et al. 2009
Lvs, St, Fl
Desmodium laxiflorum DC. (Fabaceae); St Tangari (N) Abortification, fish poison Mandar and Chaudhary 1993
Desmostachya bipinnata (L.) Stapf (Poaceae); Kush (N), Kusli (T) Headache, toothache Chapagain et al. 2004
Rt
Dillenia pentagyana Roxb. (Dilleniaceae); Sd Tetari (N); Agai (T) Headache, to tick bites Chapagain et al. 2004, Muller-Boker
1999a
Dioscorea bulbifera L. (Dioscoreaceae); Tu Gittha tarul (N) Earache Chapagain et al. 2004
Dioscorea deltoidea Wall. ex Griseb. Gittha (Nep) Stomach pain Acharya and Acharya 2009
(Dioscoreaceae); Fr
Dioscorea sp. (Dioscoraceae); Rt Hardgohi (T) Fever Muller-Boker 1999a
Diospyros malabarica (Desr.) Kostel. Tendu (N) Boils Chapagain et al. 2004
(Ebenaceae); Fr
Diplocyclos palmatus (L.) C. Jeffrey Kundru (T) Blindness Chapagain et al. 2004
(Cucurbitaceae); Lvs
Diploknema butyracea (Roxb.) H.J. Lam Chyuri (N) Wounds, muscle pain, astringent Acharya and Acharya 2009,
(Sapotaceae); Fr, Sd Manandhar 1985
Drynaria quercifolia (L.) J. Sm. Hathajori (T) Arheya (a disease killing affected livestock) Muller-Boker 1999a
Medicinal Plants Used by the Tharu Communities in Nepal

(Polypodiaceae); WP
301

Table 15.1 contd. …

…Table 15.1 contd.
Plant’s Scientific Name (family name); Nepali and Tharu Medicinal Usage References
Parts Used names
Dryopteris sp. (Dryopteridaceae); Lvs Damsinki (N) Gastric, ulcer, worms Acharya and Acharya 2009
Eclipta prostrata (L.) L. (Asteraceae); Lvs, Bhangarella, Bhegruna, Infection, to treat white spots in eye, Chapagain et al. 2004, Muller-
WP, Rt, Sd Bhangarail (T) athlete’s foot, cuts, wounds, ulcer, headache Boker 1999a, Dangol and Gurung
1991, Mandar and Chaudhary 1993,
Manandhar 1985
Ehretia laevis Roxb. (Boraginaceae); Br Khatkhajuwa (T) Blisters, diarrhea Chapagain et al. 2004
Elephantopus scaber L. (Asteraceae); Rt, WP Dadri, Khasuriya (T) Headache and sinusitis, tonic, wounds, Bhattarai et al. 2009, Chapagain et al.
blisters, aphrodisiac 2004, Manandhar 1985
Engelhardia spicata Lesch. Ex Blume Mahuwa (N) Cough, cold Chapagain et al. 2004
(Juglandaceae); Fl
Equisetum diffusum D.Don (Equisetaceae); Akchomka, Headache, dysentery, indigestion, chest Chapagain et al. 2004, Manandhar
Lvs, WP, Rt Ankhachiukan (T) complaints, fracture and dislocated bones 1985, 1987b, 1990
Erigeron trilobus (Decne.) Boiss. Undhmunte (T) Wounds, blisters Chapagain et al. 2004
(Asteraceae); Lvs
Erythrina arborescens Roxb. (Fabaceae); Lvs Pharhed (N) Diarrhea, dysentery, constipation, ear pain Bhattarai et al. 2009
Eucalyptus alba Reinw. ex Blume Kalapti (T) Body-ache Chapagain et al. 2004
302 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

(Myrtaceae); Br
Eulaliopsis binata (Retz.) C.E. Hubb. Bankas (T) Blood purifier Chapagain et al. 2004
(Poaceae); WP
Euphorbia fusiformis Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don Banmurai (T) Body swelling, milk secretion Chapagain et al. 2004
(Euphorbiaceae); Tu
Euphorbia hirta L. (Euphorbiaceae); WP, Lvs, Duddhi (N); Dudhiya Constipation, cuts, milk secretion, wounds, Chapagain et al. 2004, Dangol and
Rt jhyang (T) blisters, numb legs Gurung 1991
Euphorbia parviflora L. (Euphorbiaceae); WP Sano duddhi (N) Menstrual problems Chapagain et al. 2004
Euphorbia prostrata Ait. (Euphorbiaceae); WP Dundhi (T) Snake-bite Manandhar 1985
Euphorbia royleana Boiss. (Euphorbiaceae); Sihundisighe, Sihur (T) Cough, cold, blisters, wounds, Bhattarai et al. 2009, Chapagain et al.
Lvs, Rt, St constipation, pneumonia, anthelmintic 2004, Manandhar 1994
Evolvulus nummularius (L.) L. Dinghumni phul (T) Scabies Manandhar 1985
(Convolvulaceae); WP
Ficus benghalensis L. (Moraceae); Br, Lvs Bargat, pipra (T) Diarrhea, dysentery, diabetes Acharya and Acharya 2009,
Chapagain et al. 2004, Mandar and
Chaudhary 1993
Ficus hispida L.f. (Moraceae); Lvs, Rt Kothaiya dumari (T) Diuretic, ear pain, ear wound, weakness of Bhattarai et al. 2009, Muller-Boker
hearing 1999a, Dangol and Gurung 1991
Ficus lacor Buch.-Ham. (Moraceae); Ltx Gular (T) Boils Manandhar 1985
Ficus racemosa L. (Moraceae); Ltx Gullar (T) Wounds, blisters Chapagain et al. 2004
Ficus religiosa L. (Moraceae); St, Lvs Pipal (N); Pipra (T) Cuts, wounds, body swelling, aching ear, Bhattarai et al. 2009, Chapagain et al.
regularize a woman’s monthly period, 2004, Muller-Boker 1999a, Dangol
migraine and Gurung 1991, Mandar and
Chaudhary 1993
Ficus semicordata Buch.-Ham. ex Sm. Khurhuri (T) Headache, fever, aching ear Acharya and Acharya 2009, Muller-
(Moraceae); Rt, Lvs, Twg Boker 1999a
Flemingia chappar Benth. (Fabaceae); Lvs, Rt Bansapti Cuts, diarrhea Chapagain et al. 2004
Flemingia macrophylla (Willd.) Merr. Majilauta (T) Toothbrush Muller-Boker 1999a
(Fabaceae); St
Flemingia strobilifera (L.) W.T.Aiton Banasapti Cuts Chapagain et al. 2004
(Fabaceae); Lvs
Fragaria indica Wall. (Rosaceae); WP Chauranchata (T) Fever, urinary disorders Dangol and Gurung 1991
Gardenia jasminoides J.Ellis (Rubiaceae); Fl Indrakaul Quench thirst Dangol and Gurung 1991
Garuga pinnata Roxb. (Burseraceae); Br, Sht Jhengra (T) Snake scorpion sting, cuts, diarrhea, boils, Chapagain et al. 2004, Manandhar
malaria, wounds 1985
Gaultheria fragrantissima Wall. (Ericaceae); Pakbherni (T) To get relief from par of head, legs and Acharya and Acharya 2009
Lvs hands
Medicinal Plants Used by the Tharu Communities in Nepal

Gmelina arborea Roxb. (Lamiaceae); Lvs Gamhar (T) Swelling Dangol and Gurung 1991
303

Table 15.1 contd. …

…Table 15.1 contd.
Plant’s Scientific Name (family name); Nepali and Tharu Medicinal Usage References
Parts Used names
Grewia sapida Roxb. ex DC. (Malvaceae); WP Farsa (T) Dysentery Dangol and Gurung 1991
Haldina cordifolia (Roxb.) Ridsdale Haldu (N) Wounds, blisters Chapagain et al. 2004, Dangol and
(Rubiaceae); Lvs Gurung 1991
Hedychium spicatum Sm. (Zingiberaceae); Rt Menstrual problems Bhattarai et al. 2009
Helianthus annuus L. (Asteraceae); Fr, Fl, Suryamandal phul (N) Headache, deafness, pneumonia, wounds, Chapagain et al. 2004
Lvs, Sd blisters
Helicteres isora L. (Malvaceae); Rt Patuha, Karatha (T) Worm infestations, Fever Muller-Boker 1999a, Dangol and
Gurung 1991
Heliotropium strigosum Willd. (Boranigaceae); Chiraigoar, Darbahi (T) Appetizer, Infection Chapagain et al. 2004
WP
Helminthostachys zeylanica Hook.(L.) Majurgoda (T) Impotency Chapagain et al. 2004
(Ophioglossaceae); Rh
Hemigraphis hirta (Vahl) T. Anders. Banpan (T) Throat problems Manandhar 1985
(Anacardiaceae); WP
Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. (Malvaceae); Lvs, Fl Barhamase phul (N) Boils, diuretic, wounds, blisters Bhattarai et al. 2009, Chapagain et
al. 2004
304 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

Hippochaete debilis (Roxb. ex Vaucher) Ching Sanohadchure (N) Bone fractures Bhattarai et al. 2009, Chapagain et
(Equisetaceae); WP al. 2004
Hiptage benghalensis (L.) Kurz Madhhulata (T) Toothache Chapagain et al. 2004
(Malpighiaceae); St
Holarrhena pubescens Wall. ex. G.Don. Dudhakoria, Kacheri (T) Bloody dysentery, diarrhea, worms, Bhattarai et al. 2009, Chapagain et al.
(Apocynaceae); Br, Fr, Ltx, Rt, Fl anthelmintic, snake scorpion sting, body 2004, Muller-Boker 1999a, Mandar
swelling, cough, cold, constipation, and Chaudhary 1993
tuberculosis, urinary infection, menstrual
disorders
Hydrocotyle rotundifolia Roxb. (Apiaceae); Tarpurin (T) Fever, urinary disorders Dangol and Gurung 1991
WP
Hygrophila auriculata (Schumach.) Heine Makhana (T) Toothache, body swelling, vomiting, Chapagain et al. 2004, Manandhar
(Acanthaceae); WP, Rt, Lvs wounds, blisters, invigorating 1985
Hymenodictyon orixense (Roxb.) Mabb. Bhudkul, Bhurkun (T) Body swelling, miscarriages Chapagain et al. 2004
(Rubiaceae); Sht, Fr
Ichnocarpus frutescens (L.) W.T.Aiton Chhekar duddhi (T) Diarrhea, milk seceretion Chapagain et al. 2004
(Apocynaceae); Rt, Lvs
Imperata cylindrica (L.) Raeusch. (Poaceae); Siru (N); Churki (T) Anthelmintic, cooling agent, vomiting, Chapagain et al. 2004, Muller-Boker
Rt anthelmintic 1999a, Manandhar 1994
Indigofera linifolia (L.f.) Retz. (Fabaceae); Rt Muscanna (T) Milk seceretion Chapagain et al. 2004
Inula cappa (Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don) Pataya (T) Headache, to reduce disorders arising due to Bhattarai et al. 2009
DC. (Asteraceae); Rt intake of meat
Ipomoea aquatic Forssk (Convolvulaceae); Dhodi (T) Wounds, blisters Chapagain et al. 2004
Lvs
Ipomoea carnea subsp. fistulosa (Mart. ex Besarma, Behaya (T) Cuts, wounds Chapagain et al. 2004, Manandhar
Choisg) D.F. Austin (Convolvulaceae); Ltx 1985
Ipomoea quamoclit L. (Convolvulaceae); WP Chhotaki gurubans (T) Blood vomiting Manandhar 1985
Isodon sp. (Lamiaceae); WP Mutmuhari (T) Infection Chapagain et al. 2004
Jatropha curcas L. (Euphorbiaceae); Ltx, St Sajiwan (N); Nijot, Wounds, blisters, burns, boils, gum Bhattarai et al. 2009, Chapagain et al.
Ramjeevanmam jyoti infection, athlete’s foot, tootache 2004, Muller-Boker 1999a, Dangol
(T) and Gurung 1991, Mandar and
Chaudhary 1993
Justicia adhatoda L. (Acanthaceae); Lvs, Sht, Asuro (N); Rus, Asur Body swelling, cough, cold, bronchitis, Chapagain et al. 2004, Dangol and
Rt (T) fever, asthma, bronchitis, typhoid, stomach Gurung 1991, Bhattarai et al. 2009,
pain Muller-Boker 1999a, Mandar and
Chaudhary 1993, Manandhar 1985
Justicia sp. (Acanthaceae); Lvs, WP Gorkatla, Panchuiya (T) Cooling agent, cuts, delivery Chapagain et al. 2004
Kalanchoe integra (Medik.) Kuntze Ajambari (N) Ear pain, ear wounds Bhattarai et al. 2009
(Crassulaceae); Lvs
Medicinal Plants Used by the Tharu Communities in Nepal

Table 15.1 contd. …

305
…Table 15.1 contd.
Plant’s Scientific Name (family name); Nepali and Tharu Medicinal Usage References
Parts Used names
Lablab purpureus (L.) Sweet (Fabaceae); WP, Simi (N) Headache, bone fracture Chapagain et al. 2004
Rt
Lagenaria siceraria (Molina) Standl. Louka (N) Burns, boils Chapagain et al. 2004
(Cucurbitaceae); Lvs
Lagerstroemia parviflora Roxb. (Lythraceae); Dhayaro (N) Diarrhea, dysentery, typhoid fever Bhattarai et al. 2009
Fl
Lannea coromandelica (Houtt.) Merr. Gingad (T) Nosebleeding Dangol and Gurung 1991
(Anacardiaceae); St
Launaea aspleniifolia (Willd.) Hook.f. Chikini dudhi (T) Skin irritation Manandhar 1985
(Asteraceae); WP
Lawsonia inermis L. (Lythraceae); Lvs, Sd Mehandi (N) Abrasion, backbone pain, menstrual Bhattarai et al. 2009, Chapagain et
problems and disorders, cooling agent, al. 2004
infection
Leucas aspera (Willd.) Link (Lamiaceae); Danefu (T) Ringworm Dangol and Gurung 1991
Lvs, Rt
Leucas cephalotes (Roth) Spreng. Sano gum (N); Makhan Snake scorpion sting, asthma, ringworm, Chapagain et al. 2004, Dangol and
306 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

(Lamiaceae); Rt, WP, Lvs (T) boils, urinary complaints Gurung 1991, Manandhar 1985
Leucas zeylanica (L.) W.T.Aiton (Lamiaceae); Dulphi Jaundice Mandar and Chaudhary 1993
Lvs
Linum usitatissimum L. (Linaceae); WP, Sd Arasi (T) Wounds, boils Manandhar 2002
Lippia nodiflora (L.) Rich. (Verbenaceae); WP Kokan (T) Headache Manandhar 1985
Litchi chinensis Sonn. (Sapindaceae); Ltx Litchi (N) Dysentery Bhattarai et al. 2009
Litsea monopetala (Roxb.) Pers. (Lauraceae); Kutmero (N) Stomachache Bhattarai et al. 2009
Sd
Ludwigia octovalvis (Jack.) Raven Bihi (N) Wounds Manandhar 1985
(Onagraceae); WP
Luffa cylindrica (L.) M. Roem. Ghira (T) Chicken pox Muller-Boker 1999a
(Cucurbitaceae); Sd
Lygodium flexosum (L.) Sw. (Lygodiaceae); Rt Bhalunia Wounds, blisters Chapagain et al. 2004
Macrotyloma uniflorum (Lam.) Verdc. Gahat (T) Arthritis/Rheumatism Chapagain et al. 2004
(Fabaceae); Sd
Madhuca longifolia (J.Koenig ex L.) Mahuwa (N) Tierdness Mandar and Chaudhary 1993
J.F.Macbr. (Sapotaceae); Fl
Mallotus philippensis (Lam.) Mull. Arg. Sindure (N); Rohini (T) Diarrhea, dysentery, asthma, bronchitis, Bhattarai et al. 2009, Chapagain et al.
(Euphorbiaceae); Br, Rt, Fr urinary tract infection, constipation, skin 2004, Dangol and Gurung 1991
diseases, typhoid, gastratis
Mangifera indica L. (Anacardiaceae); Br, Ltx, Aamp (N) Chronic diarrhea, gastritis, dysentery, loss Bhattarai et al. 2009, Chapagain et al.
Rt, Fr of weight, vitamin deficiency, menstrual 2004, Mandar and Chaudhary 1993
disorders
Marsdenia tinctoria R.Br. (Apocynaceae); Fl Dudhe laharo (N) Gout, disorder of thymus, to purify blood Acharya and Acharya 2009
Melia azedarach L. (Meliaceae); Br, Rt, Fr, Bakaino, Nimpata (N); Diarrhea, cholera, constipation, anthelmintic, Bhattarai et al. 2009, Acharya and
Lvs Bakain (T) vomiting, blood impurities, urinary Acharya 2009, Dangol and Gurung
discharges, fever, paralysis 1991, Mandar and Chaudhary 1993
Mentha arvensis L. (Lamiaceae); Lvs Patina (N) Cough, cold, dehydration, gastritis Bhattarai et al. 2009
Mentha longifolia (L.) L. (Lamiaceae); Lvs Pudina (N) Headache, cooling agent, dysentery, skin Chapagain et al. 2004
diseases
Mentha spicata L. (Lamiaceae); Lvs Bawari, Pudina (N) Throat infection, indigestion, boils Acharya and Acharya 2009,
Manandhar 1985
Mimosa pudica L. (Fabaceae); Rt Lajjawati (N); Cuts, wounds, insomnia, fever, paralysis Bhattarai et al. 2009, Chapagain et al.
Lajmohani (T) 2004, Mandar and Chaudhary 1993
Mirabilis jalapa L. (Nyctaginaceae); Rt Malati phul (N); Delivery problems, menstrual problems, Chapagain et al. 2004, Manandhar
Nakesari, Barka milk seceretion, nasal bleeding, scabies 1985
gurubans (T)
Table 15.1 contd. …
Medicinal Plants Used by the Tharu Communities in Nepal
307
…Table 15.1 contd.
Plant’s Scientific Name (family name); Nepali and Tharu Medicinal Usage References
Parts Used names
Momordica charantia L. (Cucurbitaceae); WP, Kareli jhar (N) Body swelling, blindness Chapagain et al. 2004
Lvs
Momordica dioica Roxb. ex Willd Kheksi (T) Diabetes, urinary infection Chapagain et al. 2004
(Cucurbitaceae); Rt
Moringa oleifera Lam. (Moringaceae); Fr, Munga (N) Blood pressure Mandar and Chaudhary 1993
Lvs, Br
Morus serrata Roxb. (Moraceae); Rt, Br Tathimashlari (T) Diarrhea, anthelmintic, typhoid Bhattarai et al. 2009
Murraya koenigii (L.) Spreng. (Rutaceae); Fr, Ban neem, binbinbheria Diarrhea, dysentery Acharya and Acharya 2009,
Lvs, Rt (T) Chapagain et al. 2004
Musa paradisiac L. (Musaceae); Fr, St Kera (N) Loss of weight, diarrhea, dysentery Chapagain et al. 2004, Mandar and
Chaudhary 1993
Myrica esculenta Buch.Ham ex D.Don Kafal (N) Dysentery Chapagain et al. 2004
(Myricaceae); Br
Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. (Nelumbonaceae); Kamalko phul (N) Pneumonia Chapagain et al. 2004
St
Neopicrorhiza scrophulariflora (Pennell) Kutki (N) Cuts Chapagain et al. 2004
308 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

D.Y.Hong (Plantaginaceae); Rt
Nepeta leucophylla Benth. (Lamiaceae); WP Gandheli gharra (T) Boils Manandhar 1985
Nicotiana tabacum L. (Solanaceae); Lvs Surti (N) Swelling of scrotum and testes Bhattarai et al. 2009
Nyctanthes arbortristis L. (Oleaceae); Fl, Lvs Parijat (N) Headache Chapagain et al. 2004
Ocimum americanum L. (Lamiaceae): Rt Bawari (N) Fever Manandhar 1985
Ocimum basilicum L. (Lamiaceae); Sd Gathiwan (T) Cough, cold, feeling of higher level of heat Bhattarai et al. 2009
inside the body
Ocimum tenuiflorum L. (Lamiaceae); Lvs Tulsi (N) Blood pressure, wounds, ear pain, cough, Bhattarai et al. 2009, Chapagain et al.
cold, bronchitis, sinusitis, typhoid, fever 2004, Mandar and Chaudhary 1993
Opuntia monacantha (Willd.) Haw. Pate siundi (N) Burns, boils, wounds, blisters Chapagain et al. 2004
(Cactaceae); St, Sap
Oroxylum indicum (L.) Kurz (Bignoniaceae); Sauna tata (T) Bone fracture, dysentery, pneumonia, Chapagain et al. 2004, Muller-Boker
Rt, Fr, Br vomiting, wounds, menstrual disorders 1999a, Mandar and Chaudhary 1993
Oxalis corniculata L. (Oxalidaceae); WP, Lvs, Chariamilo (N), Fever, diarrhea, boils, dysentery, fever, Bhattarai et al. 2009, Acharya and
St, Rt Chamchama, Amchocha pneumonia, wounds, blisters, nasal bleeding, Acharya 2009, Chapagain et al. 2004,
(T) relieves pains, cold Muller-Boker 1999a, Dangol and
Gurung 1991
Parmelia nepalensis Tayl. (Parmeliaceae); WP Jhyau (N) Diseases of gum, throat, scabies, piles, Acharya and Acharya 2009
leprosy
Pericampylus glaucus (Lam.) Merr. Khuranijhar (N) Diuretic, dysuria Bhattarai et al. 2009
(Menispermaceae); Rt
Peristrophe bicalyculata (Retz.) Nees ChuChure (T) Fever, cuts, wounds Taylor et al. 1996
(Acanthaceae); WP
Persicaria barbata (L.) H.Hara Miriya bikh (T) Swelling Dangol and Gurung 1991
(Polygonaceae); WP
Phyla nodiflora (L.) Greene (Verbenaceae); Jalnim, Jhyangrin (T) Headache, appetizer, cooling agent, Chapagain et al. 2004, Dangol and
Rt, Lvs, WP stomachache, ulcers Gurung 1991
Phyllanthus amarus Schumach. and Thonn. Bhuiamala (N); Asthma, bronchitis, Bhattarai et al. 2009, Manandhar
(Phyllanthaceae); WP, Rt, Lvs Chhotaki dahigola (T) urinary tract infection, diuretic, stomachic, 1985, 2002
febrifuge, pimples, cuts, wounds
Phyllanthus emblica L. Amala(N); Aura, Heart pain, constipation, cough, cold, Bhattarai et al. 2009, Acharya and
(Phyllanthaceae); Fr, Sd, St, Lvs Auraha, Yawara (T) sinusitis, Acharya 2009, Chapagain et al. 2004,
diarrhea, dysentery, gastritis, diuretic, Muller-Boker 1999a, Mandar and
laxative, vitamin, burns, hair tonic Chaudhary 1993
Phyllanthus urinaria L. (Phyllanthaceae); Rt, Sano dahigola (T) Wounds, blisters Chapagain et al. 2004
Lvs
Physalis divaricata D.Don (Solanaceae); WP Galbhomara (T) Body thin and feeble Manandhar 1985
Medicinal Plants Used by the Tharu Communities in Nepal

Table 15.1 contd. …

309
…Table 15.1 contd.
Plant’s Scientific Name (family name); Nepali and Tharu Medicinal Usage References
Parts Used names
Physalis minima L. (Solanaceae); Lvs Budak yadur (T) Menstrual disorders, eye infection Dangol and Gurung 1991
Pinus roxburghii Sarg. (Pinaceae); Oil Sallo (N) Arthritis/rheumatism Chapagain et al. 2004

Piper cubeba L.f. (Piperaceae); Fr Marich (N) Boils, cough, cold, Bhattarai et al. 2009
tonsillitis, bronchitis, wounds
Piper longum L. (Piperaceae); Rt, Fr, St Kharipipar, Pharipipra Menstrual disorders, cough, digestion, Bhattarai et al. 2009, Acharya and
(T) asthma, cold Acharya 2009, Chapagain et al. 2004,
Muller-Boker 1999a, Dangol and
Gurung 1991
Plantago major L. (Plantaginaceae); Sd Bhatbhadwa (T) Fever, diarrhea, dysentery, laxative Acharya and Acharya 2009
demulcent, expectorant, diuretic
Plumbago zeylanica L. Abijale kuro (N); Blister, wart, ringworm, Bhattarai et al. 2009, Manandhar
(Plumbaginaceae); Ltx, WP, Rt Kalamnath (T) diarrhea, dysentery, fever, stomachache, 1985, 1987b, 1990
boils, stomach disorders
Plumeria rubra L. (Apocynaceae); St, Ltx, Br Galaini (N) Stomachache, rabies infection toothache, Bhattarai et al. 2009, Chapagain et
anthelmintic al. 2004
310 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

Pogostemon benghalensis (Burm.f.) Kuntze Rudhilo (Nep); Bhati, Fever, cough, cold, typhoid, bodyache, Bhattarai et al. 2009, Chapagain et al.
(Lamiaceae); WP, Rt, Sd, Lvs Udhara, Kohabar (T) diarrhea, pneumonia, dysentery 2004, Manandhar 1985, 1988
Pogostemon parviflorus Benth. (Lamiaceae); Utajari (T) Fever Dangol and Gurung 1991
Lvs
Polyalthia longifolia (Sonn.) Thw. Ashoka (N) Delivery Chapagain et al. 2004
(Annonaceae); Br
Polygala arillata Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don Thanak (T) Tonsillitis, stomachache, gastritis, cough, Bhattarai et al. 2009
(Polygalaceae); WP cold, wounds
Polygonatum verticillatum (L.) All. Kaituwa (T) Tonic Manandhar 1988
(Asparagaceae); Rt
Polygonum plebejum R.Br. (Polygonaceae); Chiraik gor (T) Wounds Manandhar 1985
WP
Polygonum viscosum (Buch.-Ham ex D.Don) Biria (T) Inflammation of sex organs of child Chapagain et al. 2004
(Polygonaceae); Lvs
Pouzolzia zeylanica (L.) Benn. (Urticaceae); Kakara khopta, Ringworm, wounds Dangol and Gurung 1991
WP Kakarakucha
Premna barbata Wall. ex Schauer Giliyar (T) Fever, quench thirst Dangol and Gurung 1991
(Lamiaceae); St Br
Premna serratifolia L. (Lamiaceae); Rt, Lvs Gineri (N) Body swelling, wounds, blisters Chapagain et al. 2004
Prunus persica (L.) Batsch (Rosaceae); Lvs Aru (N) Wounds Bhattarai et al. 2009, Chapagain et
al. 2004
Psidium guajava L. (Myrtaceae); Br, Fr, St, Amba, Belauti (N); Diarrhea, dysentery, constipation, fever, Bhattarai et al. 2009, Chapagain et al.
Lvs, Rt Runi, amrud (T) cough, cold, anthelmintic, hoarseness 2004, Muller-Boker 1999a, Mandar
of voice, vomiting, tootache, stomach and Chaudhary 1993, Manandhar
complaints 1985
Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb. (Fabaceae); Bijaya sal (N) Neurological problems, pneumonia Acharya and Acharya 2009
St, Br
Pulicaria dysenterica (L.) Gaertn. Gandhaiya (T) Wounds Manandhar 1985
(Asteraceae); WP
Punica granatum L. (Lythraceae); Fr, Br Darim, Anar (Nep) Diarrhea, dysentery, skin abrasions, control Bhattarai et al. 2009, Mandar and
abortion, miscarriage Chaudhary 1993
Ranunculus sceleratus L. (Ranunculaceae); Nakapolba (T) Gastric inflammation Manandhar 1985
WP
Raphanus sativus var. bortensis Backer Mula (N) Indigestion, skin diseases Chapagain et al. 2004
(Brassicaceae); Lvs, Tu
Rauvolfia serpentina (L.) Benth. ex Kurz Sarpagandha Cuts, wounds, boils, fever, stomachache, Bhattarai et al. 2009, Acharya and
(Apocynaceae); Rt, Fr (N); Dhaldhaliya, menstrual disorders, snake bite, blood Acharya 2009, Chapagain et al. 2004,
Dharmarua, pressure, hypotonic, dysentery, indigestion, Manandhar 1985, 1988, Muller-Boker
Medicinal Plants Used by the Tharu Communities in Nepal

Dhambarbiruwa (T) mental disorders, diarrhea 1999a, Dangol and Gurung 1991
Table 15.1 contd. …
311
…Table 15.1 contd.
Plant’s Scientific Name (family name); Nepali and Tharu Medicinal Usage References
Parts Used names
Reinwardtia indica Dumort. (Linaceae); Rt Dauthi Phul (N) Lactation Bhattarai et al. 2009
in postpartum mothers
Remusatia vivipara (Roxb.) Schott (Araceae); Kachchu (N) Boils, blisters Mandar and Chaudhary 1993
St
Ricinus communis L. (Euphorbiaceae); Sd, Andir (N); Reyar, Reru Skin abrasions, to relieve pain on fractured Bhattarai et al. 2009, Chapagain et al.
Lvs, Fr, St, Rt (T) bone, body swelling, deafness, burn, 2004, Muller-Boker 1999a, Mandar
constipation, boils and Chaudhary 1993, Manandhar
1985
Rumex nepalensis Spreng. (Polygonaceae); Sd Dhaldhaliya (T) Chickenpox Manandhar 1985
Sagittaria guayanensis Kunth (Alismataceae); Banarbhega (T) Fever Manandhar 1985
WP
Sapium insigne (Royle) Benth. Khirro (N) Diarrhea Manandhar 1985
(Euphorbiaceae); Ltx
Saraca asoca (Roxb.) Willd. (Fabaceae); Br Aasho Diarrhea, dysentery, pimples, stomachic Mandar and Chaudhary 1993
Schefflera venulosa (Wight & Arn.) Harms Simarlati (T) Irregular menstrual cycle Muller-Boker 1999a
(Araliaceae); Twg
312 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

Schima wallichii Choisy (Theaceae); Br Chilaunee (N) Wounds, diarrhea, dysentery Bhattarai et al. 2009
Schleichera oleosa (Lour.) Mers. Kusum (N) Ulcer Chapagain et al. 2004
(Sapindaceae); Br
Scoparia dulcis L. (Plantaginaceae); Lvs, WP Chiniya jhyang (N); Diabetes, fever, great thirst, cooling, Chapagain et al. 2004, Muller-
Gurikijhani, Bhera diarrhea, dysentery, mental disorders, boils Boker 1999a, Dangol and Gurung
chachura (T) 1991, Mandar and Chaudhary 1993,
Manandhar 1985
Scurrula elata (Edgew.) Danser Aainjeru (N) Joint pain Acharya and Acharya 2009
(Loranthaceae); Lvs
Semecarpus anacardium L.f. (Anacardiaceae); Bhela (T) Dysentery, asthma, acute rheumatism, cuts, Acharya and Acharya 2009,
Fr chapped feet Chapagain et al. 2004, Manandhar
1985
Senna occidentalis (L.) Link (Fabaceae); Rt Bangain (T) Ringworm infection Dangol and Gurung 1991
Senna tora (L.) Roxb. (Fabaceae); Tapra (N), Chakon, Headache, toothache, snake scorpion Bhattarai et al. 2009, Chapagain
Lvs, St, Fr, Rt, Sd Chilbile (T) sting, skin diseases, cough, leprosy, fever, et al. 2004, Manandhar 1985, 1986b,
anthelmintic 1987b, 1990, 1994
Sesamum indicum L. (Pedaliaceae); Sd, Rt Til (N) Arthritis/rheumatism Chapagain et al. 2004
Shorea robusta Gaertn. (Dipterocarpaceae); Sal (N); Sakuwa (T) Diarrhea, bloody dysentery, cuts, appetizer Bhattarai et al. 2009, Chapagain
Ltx, Sd, Res, Lvs et al. 2004, Muller-Boker 1999a,
Manandhar 1985
Sida cordata (Burm.f.) Borss Waalk. Biskhopra, Baliyari (T) Snake scorpion sting, body swellings, Chapagain et al. 2004, Dangol and
(Malvaceae); Lvs, St, Rt wounds, blisters, boils, tonic Gurung 1991, Manandhar 1985

Sida rhombifolia L. (Malvaceae); Lvs, Rt, WP Barchar, Biskhopra, Snake scorpion sting, cuts, loss of weight, Chapagain et al. 2004, Muller-Boker
Balu jhar (T) bruises, wounds, boils 1999a, Manandhar 1985
Smilax ovalifolia Roxb. ex D.Don Bagnucha (T) Dysentery, blindness Chapagain et al. 2004
(Smilacaceae); Rt, St
Solanum aculeatissimum Jacq. (Solanaceae); Ghorhyenta (T) Toothache, fever Dangol and Gurung 1991
Fr
Solanum americanum L. (Solanaceae) Fr, Rt Kanthakari, bihi (N); Headache, asthma, cooling agent, eye Bhattarai et al. 2009, Chapagain et al.
Bhutka complaints 2004, Mandar and Chaudhary 1993
Solanum anguivi Lam. (Solanaceae); Fr, WP Sanobihi (Nep) Headache, insomnia Bhattarai et al. 2009, Manandhar 1985
Solanum erianthum D.Don (Solanaceae); Fr Bhurakath (T) Cough, cold Chapagain et al. 2004
Solanum surattense Brum.f. (Solanaceae); Fr Kacharehata (T) Decaying teeth Manandhar 1985
Solanum torvum Swartz (Solanaceae); Fr Bihi (N) Headache Manandhar 1985
Solanum tuberosum L. (Solanaceae); Tu Alu (N) Snake scorpion sting, boils Chapagain et al. 2004, Mandar and
Chaudhary 1993
Solanum virginianum Dunal (Solanaceae); Khasretha (T) Toothache Chapagain et al. 2004
Lvs, Sd
Medicinal Plants Used by the Tharu Communities in Nepal

Table 15.1 contd. …

313
…Table 15.1 contd.
Plant’s Scientific Name (family name); Nepali and Tharu Medicinal Usage References
Parts Used names
Solena heterophylla Lour. (Cucurbitaceae); Tilkor (N) Asthma Mandar and Chaudhary 1993
WP
Spatholobus parviflorus (DC.) Kuntze Praslati (T) Menstrual disorders, fever Muller-Boker 1999a
(Fabaceae); Rt, Twg
Spermacoce alata Aubl. (Rubiaceae); WP Paundhi (T) Dislocated bone Manandhar 1988
Spilanthes calva DC. (Asteraceae); Fl, Fr Kawakchini, Gorakhpan Cough, cold, gingivitis Bhattarai et al. 2009, Chapagain et
(T) al. 2004
Spondias pinnata (L.f.) Kurz (Anacardiaceae); Amar (T) Cough, cold Chapagain et al. 2004
Fr
Sterospermum cheloniodes DC. Dudh khiri (T) Leprosy Dangol and Gurung 1991
(Bigioniaceae); St Br
Streblus asper Lour. (Moraceae); Br, St Sehor (T) Diarrhea, dysentery Taylor et al. 1996, Muller-Boker
1999a
Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels (Myrtaceae); Br, Jamuna (N) Diarrhea, miscarriages, stomachache Bhattarai et al. 2009, Chapagain et al.
Fr 2004, Muller-Boker 1999a
Syzygium nervosum A.Cunn. ex DC. Kathjamune (T) Sinusitis, headache, cough, cold, sinusitis Bhattarai et al. 2009
314 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

(Myrtaceae); Br
Syzygium operculata (Roxb.) Neid. Bhadra jam (T) Cuts, diarrhea, hoarseness of voice, measles Chapagain et al. 2004
(Myrtaceae); Br, Rt, Sht, Lvs
Tagetes erecta L. (Asteraceae); Lvs Gendaphul Diarrhea, dysentery Mandar and Chaudhary 1993
Tamarindus indica L. (Fabaceae); Lvs Yemili (T) Cuts, wounds, diarrhea, dysentery Dangol and Gurung 1991, Mandar
and Chaudhary 1993
Tectona grandis L.f. (Lamiaceae); Br Sagun (T) Menstrual disorders Chapagain et al. 2004
Terminalia alata Heyne ex Roth Saj (N); Asna (T) Diarrhea, dysentery, stomachache Bhattarai et al. 2009
(Combretaceae); Br
Terminalia arjuna (Roxb. ex DC) W. and A. Arjun Kaath Bodyache Chapagain et al. 2004
(Combretaceae); Ltx
Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb. Barro (N), Asida, Baheri Cough, cold, appetizer, gastritis, diarrhea, Bhattarai et al. 2009, Chapagain et al.
(Combretaceae); Fr (T) dysentery, 2004, Muller-Boker 1999a, Dangol
Stomachache, constipation, eye diseases, and Gurung 1991, Mandar and
bronchitis Chaudhary 1993
Terminalia chebula Retz. (Combretaceae); Fr Harro (N); Harai (T) Cough and cold, gastritis, bronchitis, chest Bhattarai et al. 2009, Chapagain et al.
pain, diarrhea, dysentery 2004, Muller-Boker 1999a, Mandar
and Chaudhary 1993
Tetrastigma serrulatum (Roxb.) Planch. Tinpatiya (T) Wounds, blisters Chapagain et al. 2004
(Vitaceae); Lvs
Thevetia peruviana (Pers.) K. Schum. Karbir (N Ear pain, wounds Bhattarai et al. 2009, Dangol and
(Apocynaceae); Lvs, Fr Gurung 1991
Thysanolaena maxima (Roxb.) Kuntze Bashadi, Bankucho (T) Boils, anthelmintic Bhattarai et al. 2009
(Poaceae); Rt
Tiliacora sp. (Menispermaceae); Rt Karot (T) Anthelmintic Chapagain et al. 2004
Tinospora sinensis (Lour.) Merr. Gurjo (N) Diarrhea, dysentery, stomachache, diuretic Bhattarai et al. 2009
(Menispermaceae); Rt
Torenia sp. (Linderniaceae); WP Sauna phul (T) Wounds, blisters Chapagain et al. 2004
Trachyspermum ammi (L.) Sprague Jawain (T) Colds, sore throat, wounds, pimples, rashes, Muller-Boker 1999a
(Apiaceae); Sd, WP pneumonia, diarrhea
Trianthema protulacastrum L. (Aizoaceae); Rt Gaspurna (T) Body swelling Chapagain et al. 2004
Trichodesma indicum (L.) Lehm. Oonmodia jhyang (T) Headache Dangol and Gurung 1991
(Boraginaceae); WP
Trichosanthes dioica Roxb. (Cucurbitaceae); Parwar (N) Hand/leg ache Chapagain et al. 2004
Rt
Tridax procumbens L. (Asteraceae); Fl, WP Dhusere (N) Cough, cold, boils Manandhar 1985
Triumfetta rhomboids Jacq. (Tiliaceae): WP Bishakhopra (T) Boils, pimples Manandhar 1985

Table 15.1 contd. …

Medicinal Plants Used by the Tharu Communities in Nepal
315
…Table 15.1 contd.
Plant’s Scientific Name (family name); Nepali and Tharu Medicinal Usage References
Parts Used names
Uraria legapodioides (L.) Desv. (Fabaceae); Odarbau (T) Boils Manandhar 1985
WP
Urena Lobata L. (Malvaceae); Rt Bariyar Ringworm infection Mandar and Chaudhary 1993
Urtica dioica L. (Urticaceae); Rt Sisna (T) Wounds Manandhar 1985
Vanda roxburghii R.Br. (Orchidaceae); WP Rukh hadjwar (N) Bone fracture Chapagain et al. 2004
Vernonia cinerea (L.) Less. (Asteraceae); Sd, Marcha jhar (N); Cough, cold, cuts, wounds, skin diseases, Manandhar 2002, Manandhar 1994
Rt, WP, Lvs, Fl Sahadeya (T) fever, anthelmintic, conjunctivitis,
anthelmintic
Vetiveria zizanoides (L.) Nash (Poaceae); Rt Sikuhal (T) Toothache Chapagain et al. 2004
Viscum articulatum Burm.f. (Santalaceae), WP Bhuin hadjwar (N) Bone fracture Chapagain et al. 2004
Vitex negundo L. (Verbenaceae); Lvs, Br Simali (N) Cough, cold, fever, ear pain, wounds, Chapagain et al. 2004, Bhattarai et
headache, toothache, nasal bleeding al. 2009
Woodfordia fruticosa (L.) Kurz (Lythraceae); Dhayaro (N); Dhawatha, Stomachache, diarrhea, dysentery, typhoid, Bhattarai et al. 2009, Acharya and
Fl, Br, Lvs, Rt Dhaira (T) labor pain, control bleeding, maintain Acharya 2009, Chapagain et al. 2004,
healthy condition of new-born child, boils, Manandhar 1985
burns, pneumonia, sprains, pains
316 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

Xanthium strumarium L. (Asteraceae); Fr Kuchakuchiya (T) Conjunctivitis Manandhar 1985

Xeromphis spinosa (Thunb.) Keay Mainkada (N); Piralu Gastritis, stomachache, arthritis/rheumatism, Bhattarai et al. 2009, Chapagain
(Rubiaceae); Br, Fr (T) diarrhea, dysentery, fish poison, leprosy et al. 2004, Muller-Boker 1999a,
Manandhar 1989a, 1990, Dangol and
Gurung 1991
Xeromphis uliginosa (Retz.) Maheshw. Perar (T) Diarrhea Chapagain et al. 2004
(Rubiaceae); Fr
Zanthoxylum armatum DC. (Rutaceae); Fr Timur (N) Skin diseases Chapagain et al. 2004
Zea mays L. (Poaceae); Fl Makai (N) Delivery Chapagain et al. 2004
Zingiber officinale (Willd.) (Zingiberaceae); Aduwa (N); Adrakh (T) Diarrhea, sinusitis, cough, cold Bhattarai et al. 2009, Chapagain et al.
Lvs, Rh 2004, Muller-Boker 1999a, Mandar
and Chaudhary 1993
Zizyphus mauritiana Lam. (Rhamnaceae); Fr, Bayar (N); Bairi (T) Measles, breast pain, diarrhea, chicken pox, Bhattarai et al. 2009, Chapagain
Sht, Sd, Lvs dysentery et al. 2004, Muller-Boker 1999a,
Manandhar 1985
Zizyphus nummularia (Burm.f.) Wight and Jangali bayar (N) Fever, earache Dangol and Gurung 1991
Am. (Rhamnaceae); Fr, Lvs, Rt

Keys: N: Nepali; T: Tharu; Lvs: Leaves; Fr: Fruits; Sd: Seeds; Rt: Roots; Rh: Rhizomes; Br: Barks; WP: Whole plant; Ltx: Latex; Sht: Shoots; Fl: Flowers;
Tu: Tubers; Psb: Pseudobulb; Arp: Aerial parts; Bd: Buds; SP: Spines; Twg: Twigs; Bu: Bulbs.
Medicinal Plants Used by the Tharu Communities in Nepal
317
318 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

35

30

25

Number of species 20

15

10

ae
ae

ae

ae

ae
e
ae

ae
e
ea
ea

ce
ce

ea
ce

ce

ce
ce

ce
ac
ac

ta
ba

ac
ia

va
na
ra

na
bi

bi
m

Po

or
te
Fa

al
la

or

cy

ur
La

M
As

M
So

ph

uc
po
Eu

C
A
Family

Fig. 15.5. Top ten largest families used for medicine by the Tharu communities in Nepal.

Table 15.2. Number of medicinal plants represented by each family.

Name of Family No. of Species
Fabaceae 29
Lamiaceae 21
Asteraceae 18
Solanaceae 13
Euphorbiaceae, Poaceae and Moraceae 11 species each
Apocynaceae and Malvaceae 10 species each
Cucurbitaceae 9
Amaranthaceae and Rubiaceae 7 species each
Convolvulaceae and Cucurbitaceae 6 species each
Anacardiaceae, Boraginaceae, Myrtaceae and Zingiberaceae 5 species each
Acanthaceae, Combretaceae, Lythraceae, Polygonaceae, Rutaceae 4 species each
Amaryllidaceae, Annonaceae, Apiaceae, Cyperaceae, Dioscoraceae, Phyllanthaceae, 3 species each
Plantaginaceae, Pteridaceae, Sapotaceae, Urticaceae and Verbenaceae
Bigioniaceae, Equisetaceae, Lauraceae, Linaceae, Meliaceae, Nyctaginaceae, 2 species each
Orchidaceae, Oxalidaceae, Piperaceae, Rosaceae, Sapindaceae and Vitaceae
Acoraceae, Arecaceae, Aizoaceae, Alismataceae, Araceae, Berberidaceae, 1 species each
Brassicaceae, Bromeliaceae, Burseraceae, Cactaceae, Cannabaceae, Capparaceae,
Caricaceae, Cleomaceae, Costaceae, Crassulaceae, Dilleniaceae, Dipterocarpaceae,
Dryopteridaceae, Ebenaceae, Ericaceae, Hypoxidaceae, Juglandaceae,
Lecythidaceae, Linderniaceae, Loranthaceae, Lygodiaceae, Malphighinaceae,
Moringaceae, Musaceae, Myricaceae, Nelumbonaceae, Oleaceae, Ophioglossaceae,
Papaveraceae, Parmeliaceae, Pedaliaceae, Phyllanthaceae, Pinaceae,
Plumbaginaceae, Rhamnaceae, Santalaceae, Simaroubaceae, Smilaceae, Theaceae,
Tiliaceae and Xanthorrheaceae
 Medicinal Plants Used by the Tharu Communities in Nepal 319

Tubers 1% Twings
Others 2%
Shoots 2% 1%
Latex 3%

Flowers 4%

Seeds 6% Roots/Rhizomes
21%

Stems 7%

Barks 8% Leaves 20%

Fruits 11%

Wholeplant 14%

Fig. 15.6. Plant parts used in medicine by the Tharu communities in Nepal.

Piperaceae, Rosaceae, Sapindaceae and Vitaceae were represented by 2 species

each. The remaining 56 families were represented by one species each (Table 15.2).
The Tharu communities of Nepal have been using different parts of plants as
medicine. Various plant parts used in medicine were roots/rhizomes (114 species),
followed by leaves (108 species), whole plant (78 species), fruits (58 species),
barks (46 species), stems (38 species), seeds (35 species), flowers (20 species),
latex (16 species), shoots (10 species), tubers (5 species), twigs (5 species), bulbs
(3 species), aeriel parts (3 species), buds (3 species), oils/resins (2 species) and
spines (1 species). The percentage of plant parts used was also given (Fig. 15.6).
The listed plants species’ lifeform were herbs, shrubs and trees.

Conclusion
The Guruwas (traditional healers) of the Tharu community have a vast knowledge
of the medicinal value of the plants. Even today medicinal plants are widely used
in the Tharu communities to treat common ailments. But the social survival of
those people is disappearing day by day. Tharu people are highly linked with the
bioresources and the preservation and protection of those resources are essential
to preserve their cultural and ethnobotanical knowledge. Through a Nepalese
perspective, community participation has long been tested and considered successful
for the protection and conservation of bioresources. Hence, the government should
320 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

update such policy which will be helpful to preserve the traditional healing practices
of the several ethnic communities, including the Tharus of Nepal.

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 Index

A D
administration 191, 192 Dakshin Dinajpur 132–134, 137, 138, 151–154
aerial parts 194–207 Dioscorides 37
Agroecology 19, 20 diuretic 194–197, 199–203, 205, 207
Alkaloid 12, 171, 173, 175, 176
ancient therapeutic practices 188 E
angiosperm 137, 151, 153
emenagogue 194, 196, 198, 201, 202, 204, 205
anthelmintic 194, 195, 197, 198, 201–204
Erythroxylum coca 199
antidiarreheic 194
Ethnobotany 1, 34–37, 40–42, 46, 47, 52, 71,
antiophidic 103, 104, 119–122
75, 84, 85, 132, 133, 152, 214, 219
antioxidant 51, 53, 57–62, 265, 266
Ethnography 34
Antipsoriatic Agents 159, 160, 173
Ethnology 34, 36, 38
Antivenom plants 103
ethnomedicinal uses 260
Argentina 187, 188, 191, 193, 209–211
Ethnomedicine 35, 187, 289
Aspidosperma quebracho-blanco 191, 195
Ethnopharmacobotany 34, 35, 43, 46, 47
Asteraceae 195, 208, 211
ethnopharmacological knowledge 187
B Ethnopharmacology 42, 43, 46, 187
Ethnoscience 35, 36, 43, 47
Baccharis salicifolia 195, 210–212
barks 196 F
bio piracy 70
Fabaceae 199, 208, 211
bioactive compounds 103, 105, 106, 108, 110,
febrifuge 194–209, 211
112, 114, 116, 118, 119, 121
flavonoid 264, 266
Biodiversity 20, 23, 29, 187, 211
food 50, 51, 54, 61–63
blood depurative 206
fruits 196–198, 200, 203–205, 211
Brosimum acutifolium Huber 1, 6, 9, 11
Buddlejaceae 197
G
Bufotenine 12
bulb 193, 207 gathering practices 56, 58
Bulnesia sarmientoi 206 GC-MS analysis 264, 265
genetic resources 70
C Genus Teucrium 215, 218, 219, 224, 225, 227
Geoffroea decorticans 191, 200
Chaqueño domain 189
Commelina erecta 206, 210, 212
H
conservation 233, 236, 243, 245, 246, 250
Herbaria 35, 43–46
324 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

I P
Ilex paraguariensis 193, 195 Paraguay 232–240, 243–245, 247, 248, 250
Peasants 19–21, 24, 25, 28–30
J phenolics 173
Phytogeographic 188–191, 211
Jesuits 4, 7, 9
Poaceae 255–257
preparation 192, 193, 211
K
Psoriasis 158–161, 171–176, 178–182
Khas grass 256–258, 260, 267, 270
R
L
Ricinus communis 199
Latin America 187 roots 194, 195, 199–207
leaves 192–207, 209–211 Rural community 19, 20, 31
Leschenault de la Tour 43 Rutaceae 203, 208, 211
Lilaceae 207
S
M
Saponin 12–14
Mapuche Pharmacopoeia 91, 95 Schinus molle 209, 210, 212
Mate 193, 212 Schultes 36, 41, 42
Materia Medica 37, 44 scientific studies 275–278, 280, 282, 284
medicinal plant 70–76, 78, 79, 82–86, 158–161, seeds 194, 195, 197, 198, 200–202, 204, 207, 210
171, 172, 178, 179, 181, 232–237, Socio-ecological management 20
239–251 subterranean organs 90, 93
medicine 63, 65, 191, 192 Syphilis 1–6, 9, 11–14
Mentha spicata 201
Mocoví 189, 190, 193, 194 T
Mocovíes 187, 189, 191, 192, 209, 211
Teofrasto 36, 43
Murure 1–6, 8–14
terpenoids 173
Myrthaceae 202
Tharu communities 288–291, 293, 318, 319
therapeutic effects 219
N
Throreau 38
Ñamkulawen 91–93, 96 Tobas 187–194, 209, 211
native botanical 39 traditional knowledge 34–36, 45, 236, 237, 250
native medicinal plants 275, 276 traditional usage 227
Natural products 1, 3, 9
natural resource 211 V
Nepal 288–293, 318–320
Valerianaceae 90, 92, 96
nervous system 275, 276, 285
Verbenaceae 205, 208, 211
Nicotiana tabacum 205
vetiver oil 260, 261, 264, 266, 267, 270
Vetiveria zizanioides 255–257, 264–267, 270
O
Original Communities 191 Z
Ziziphus mistol 191, 203
 Editors Biography

Professor José Luis Martínez S.

Professor José Luis Martínez S. is a chemical biologist and did his
MSc from the Pontifical Catholic University of Chile. He works
at the Vice-Rectory for Research, Development and Innovation of
the University of Santiago, Chile. He is the author and co-author
of scientific articles in pharmacology and ethnobotany and has a
hundred presentations in conferences at national and international
scientific events. He is the editor and founder of the Latin American
and Caribbean Bulletin of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (BLACPMA) and is also
the Editor of other journals and scientific research books.

Professor Amner Muñoz-Acevedo

Professor Amner is PhD in Chemistry and teaches in the
Department of Chemistry and Biology at Universidad of the North
Colombia, with wide experience in studies of natural products
(plants/microorganisms—volatile/non-volatile secondary
metabolites) based on ethnomedicine, organic synthesis,
in vitro biological assays (antioxidant capacity, cito-toxicity/
anticancer, antimicrobial, repellency/insecticidal, antiviral
activities), functionalized beverages and food, sustainable uses
of agroindustrial wastes, sample preparation techniques (HD, SPME, S-HS, SDE,
SFE, SPE, Soxhlet, US, LLE) and instrumental methods of chemical analysis (TLC,
GC, LC, MS, NMR, IR, UV/Vis). He has authored/co-authored several papers and
delivered lectures at national/international scientific events.
326 ETHNOBOTANY: Local Knowledge and Traditions

Professor Mahendra Rai

Mahendra Rai is a senior professor and Basic Science
Research Faculty (UGC) at the Department of Biotechnology,
Sant Gadge Baba Amravati University, Maharashtra, India.
He has been Visiting Scientist in the University of Geneva,
Debrecen University, Hungary; University of Campinas,
Brazil; Nicolaus Copernicus University, Poland. VSB
Technical University of Ostrava, Czech Republic, and National University of
Rosario, Argentina. He has published more than 380 research papers in national
and international journals. In addition, he has edited/authored more than 45 books
and 6 patents.