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Social Psychology
Tenth Edition

Elliot Aronson

Timothy D. Wilson

Samuel R. Sommers
Portfolio Manager: Kelli Strieby Art/Designer: Blair Brown
Content Producer: Cecilia Turner/Lisa Mafrici Digital Studio Course Producer: Lindsay Verge
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textbook appear on the appropriate page within the text or on pages 545–548.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Aronson, Elliot, author. | Wilson, Timothy D., author. | Sommers, Sam,
author.
Title: Social psychology / Elliot Aronson, Timothy D. Wilson, Samuel R.
Sommers.
Description: Tenth edition. | New York, NY : Pearson, [2019] | Includes
bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017037187 | ISBN 9780134641287 (softcover : alk. paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Social psychology.
Classification: LCC HM1033 .A78 2019 | DDC 302—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017037187

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To my grandchildren: Jacob, Jason, Ruth, Eliana, Natalie, Rachel, and Leo. My hope is that your capacity
for empathy and compassion will help make the world a better place.
—E.A.

To my family, Deirdre Smith, Christopher Wilson, and Leigh Wilson

—T.D.W.

To my students—past, present, and future—for making coming to work each morning fun,
educational, and unpredictable.
—S.R.S.
This page intentionally left blank
Brief Contents
1 Introducing Social Psychology 1 10 Attraction and Relationships:
From Initial Impressions to
2 Methodology: How Social Long-Term Intimacy 296
Psychologists Do Research 23
11 Prosocial Behavior: Why Do
3 Social Cognition: How We Think People Help? 333
About the Social World 51
12 Aggression: Why Do We Hurt
4 Social Perception: How We Come Other People? Can We Prevent It? 365
to Understand Other People 83
13 Prejudice: Causes, Consequences,
5 The Self: Understanding and Cures 402
Ourselves in a Social Context 119
Social Psychology in
6 Cognitive Dissonance and the Action 1 Using Social Psychology
Need to Protect Our Self-Esteem 149 to Achieve a Sustainable
and Happy Future 440
7 Attitudes and Attitude Change:
Influencing Thoughts and Feelings 181 Social Psychology in
Action 2 Social Psychology
8 Conformity and Obedience: and Health 461
Influencing Behavior 216
Social Psychology in
9 Group Processes: Influence in Action 3 Social Psychology
Social Groups 262 and the Law 481

v
This page intentionally left blank
Contents
Preface xiii New Frontiers in Social Psychological Research 43
About the Authors xix Culture and Social Psychology 43
Special Tips for Students xxi Social Neuroscience 44
Ethical Issues in Social Psychology 45
1 Introducing Social Psychology 1 Summary 48 • Test Yourself 49

Defining Social Psychology 3

TRY IT! Conflicting Social Influences 4 3 Social Cognition: How We Think
Social Psychology, Philosophy, Science, About the Social World 51
and Common Sense 4 On Automatic Pilot: Low-Effort Thinking 53
How Social Psychology Differs From Its People as Everyday Theorists: Automatic
Closest Cousins 5 Thinking With Schemas 53
TRY IT! Social Situations and Shyness 7 Which Schemas Do We Use? Accessibility
The Power of the Situation 9 and Priming 55
Underestimating the Power of the Situation 10 Making Our Schemas Come True: The
The Importance of Construal 11 Self-Fulfilling Prophecy 57
#trending What’s in a Name? 14 #trending Do You Believe in Astrology? 59
Where Construals Come From: Basic Human Motives 15 Types of Automatic Thinking 61
The Self-Esteem Motive: The Need to Feel Good Automatic Goal Pursuit 61
About Ourselves 16 Automatic Thinking and Metaphors About the
SUFFERING AND SELF-JUSTIFICATION Body and the Mind 62
The Social Cognition Motive: The Need Mental Strategies and Shortcuts: Judgmental
to Be Accurate 17 Heuristics 63
HOW EASILY DOES IT COME TO MIND? THE AVAILABILITY
Why Study Social Psychology? 19
HEURISTIC • HOW SIMILAR IS A TO B? THE
Summary 20 • Test Yourself 21 REPRESENTATIVENESS HEURISTIC •
PERSONALITY TESTS AND THE REPRESENTATIVENESS HEURISTIC

2 Methodology: How Social TRY IT! Reasoning Quiz 68

Psychologists Do Research 23 Cultural Differences in Social Cognition 69
Cultural Determinants of Schemas 70
Social Psychology: An Empirical Science 24 Holistic Versus Analytic Thinking 70
TRY IT! Social Psychology Quiz: What’s Your Prediction? 25 Controlled Social Cognition: High-Effort Thinking 72
Formulating Hypotheses and Theories 26 Controlled Thinking and Free Will 73
INSPIRATION FROM PREVIOUS THEORIES AND RESEARCH •
HYPOTHESES BASED ON PERSONAL OBSERVATIONS
TRY IT! Can You Predict Your (or Your Friend’s) Future? 74
Mentally Undoing the Past: Counterfactual Reasoning 75
Research Designs 27
Improving Human Thinking 76
The Observational Method: Describing Social Behavior 28
ETHNOGRAPHY • ARCHIVAL ANALYSIS • LIMITS OF TRY IT! How Well Do You Reason? 77
THE OBSERVATIONAL METHOD Watson Revisited 78
The Correlational Method: Predicting Social Behavior 29 Summary 80 • Test Yourself 81
SURVEYS • LIMITS OF THE CORRELATIONAL
METHOD: CORRELATION DOES NOT EQUAL CAUSATION
TRY IT! Correlation and Causation: Knowing the 4 Social Perception: How We Come to
Difference 33 Understand Other People 83
The Experimental Method: Answering
Nonverbal Communication 85
Causal Questions 34
INDEPENDENT AND DEPENDENT VARIABLES •
TRY IT! Using Your Voice as a Nonverbal Cue 86
INTERNAL VALIDITY IN EXPERIMENTS • EXTERNAL VALIDITY Facial Expressions of Emotion 86
IN EXPERIMENTS • FIELD EXPERIMENTS • REPLICATIONS EVOLUTION AND FACIAL EXPRESSIONS • WHY IS
AND META-ANALYSIS DECODING SOMETIMES DIFFICULT?
#trending Correlation Does Not Equal Causation 41 Culture and the Channels of Nonverbal
BASIC VERSUS APPLIED RESEARCH Communication 89
vii
viii Contents

First Impressions: Quick But Long-Lasting 91

6 Cognitive Dissonance and the
#trending First Impressions Formed Online 92
Need to Protect Our Self-Esteem 149
The Lingering Influence of Initial
Impressions 93 The Theory of Cognitive Dissonance: Protecting
Causal Attribution: Answering the “Why” Question 96 Our Self-Esteem 150
The Nature of the Attribution Process 97 Decisions, Decisions, Decisions 153
The Covariation Model: Internal Versus External DISTORTING OUR LIKES AND DISLIKES • THE
Attributions 98 PERMANENCE OF THE DECISION • CREATING THE
ILLUSION OF IRREVOCABILITY
The Fundamental Attribution Error: People
as Personality Psychologists 100 The Justification of Effort 155
THE ROLE OF PERCEPTUAL SALIENCE IN THE Counterattitudinal Behavior 157
FUNDAMENTAL ATTRIBUTION ERROR • THE TWO-STEP COUNTERATTITUDINAL BEHAVIOR TOWARD CONSEQUENTIAL
ATTRIBUTION PROCESS ISSUES • THE BEN FRANKLIN EFFECT: JUSTIFYING ACTS
OF KINDNESS • DEHUMANIZING THE ENEMY: JUSTIFYING
Self-Serving Attributions 106
CRUELTY
The “Bias Blind Spot” 107
TRY IT! The Internal Consequences of Doing Good 161
Culture and Social Perception 110 JUSTIFYING OUR OWN IMMORAL ACTS
Holistic Versus Analytic Thinking 110
Avoiding Temptations 163
SOCIAL NEUROSCIENCE EVIDENCE
The Hypocrisy Paradigm 165
Cultural Differences in the Fundamental
Dissonance Across Cultures 166
Attribution Error 112
Culture and Other Attributional Biases 113 Advances and Extensions of Cognitive Dissonance
Theory 167
Summary 115 • Test Yourself 117
Self-Affirmation Theory 167
5 The Self: Understanding Ourselves TRY IT! Values Affirmation Writing Exercise 169
in a Social Context 119 Dissonance in Close Relationships: Self-Evaluation
Maintenance Theory 169
The Origins and Nature of the Self-Concept 120 Some Concluding Thoughts on Dissonance and
Cultural Influences on the Self-Concept 122 Self-Esteem 172
TRY IT! A Measure of Independence and #trending Politics and Cognitive Dissonance 172
Interdependence 123 Overcoming Dissonance 174
Functions of the Self 124 Narcissism and the Dangers of Too Much
Self-Knowledge 125 Self-Esteem 174
Knowing Ourselves Through Introspection 125 TRY IT! Measuring Your Narcissism 175
FOCUSING ON THE SELF: SELF-AWARENESS THEORY
Summary 178 • Test Yourself 179
TRY IT! Measure Your Private
Self-Consciousness
JUDGING WHY WE FEEL THE WAY WE DO: TELLING
127
7 Attitudes and Attitude Change:
MORE THAN WE CAN KNOW Influencing Thoughts and Feelings 181
Knowing Ourselves by Observing Our The Nature and Origin of Attitudes 183
Own Behavior 128
Where Do Attitudes Come From? 183
SELF-PERCEPTION THEORY • UNDERSTANDING OUR
COGNITIVELY BASED ATTITUDES • AFFECTIVELY BASED
EMOTIONS: THE TWO-FACTOR THEORY OF EMOTION •
ATTITUDES
FINDING THE WRONG CAUSE: MISATTRIBUTION OF
AROUSAL • INTRINSIC VERSUS EXTRINSIC TRY IT! Affective and Cognitive Bases of Attitudes 186
MOTIVATION • MIND-SETS AND MOTIVATION BEHAVIORALLY BASED ATTITUDES
#trending Growth Mindset in the Classroom 137 Explicit Versus Implicit Attitudes 187
Using Other People to Know Ourselves 137 When Do Attitudes Predict Behavior? 188
KNOWING OURSELVES BY COMPARING OURSELVES Predicting Spontaneous Behaviors 189
TO OTHERS • KNOWING OURSELVES BY ADOPTING
Predicting Deliberative Behaviors 189
OTHER PEOPLE’S VIEWS
SPECIFIC ATTITUDES • SUBJECTIVE NORMS •
Self-Control: The Executive Function of the Self 141 PERCEIVED BEHAVIORAL CONTROL
Impression Management: All the World’s #trending Predicting Environmentally Friendly Action 191
a Stage 143 How Do Attitudes Change? 192
Ingratiation and Self-Handicapping 144
Changing Attitudes by Changing Behavior:
Culture, Impression Management, and Cognitive Dissonance Theory Revisited 193
Self-Enhancement 145
Persuasive Communications and Attitude
Summary 146 • Test Yourself 147 Change 193
 Contents ix

THE CENTRAL AND PERIPHERAL ROUTES TO Other Tactics of Social Influence 245
PERSUASION • THE MOTIVATION TO PAY ATTENTION
TO THE ARGUMENTS • THE ABILITY TO PAY ATTENTION
Obedience to Authority 248
TO THE ARGUMENTS • HOW TO ACHIEVE LONG-LASTING The Milgram Study 249
ATTITUDE CHANGE The Role of Normative Social Influence 252
Emotion and Attitude Change 199 The Role of Informational Social Influence 253
FEAR-AROUSING COMMUNICATIONS • EMOTIONS AS Other Reasons Why We Obey 254
A HEURISTIC • EMOTION AND DIFFERENT TYPES
ADHERING TO THE WRONG NORM • SELF-
OF ATTITUDES
JUSTIFICATION • THE LOSS OF PERSONAL
Attitude Change and the Body 201 RESPONSIBILITY
The Power of Advertising 203 The Obedience Studies, Then and Now 256
How Advertising Works 204 Summary 258 • Test Yourself 260
Subliminal Advertising: A Form of Mind Control? 204
DEBUNKING THE CLAIMS ABOUT SUBLIMINAL
ADVERTISING • LABORATORY EVIDENCE FOR
9 Group Processes: Influence in Social
SUBLIMINAL INFLUENCE Groups 262
TRY IT! Consumer Brand Attitudes 206 What Is a Group? 264
Advertising and Culture 207 Why Do People Join Groups? 264
Resisting Persuasive Messages 208 The Composition and Functions of Groups 265
Attitude Inoculation 209 SOCIAL NORMS • SOCIAL ROLES • GROUP
Being Alert to Product Placement 209 COHESIVENESS • GROUP DIVERSITY

Resisting Peer Pressure 210 #trending Diversity Research and the Affirmative
When Persuasion Attempts Backfire: Action Controversy 268
Reactance Theory 211 Individual Behavior in a Group Setting 269
Summary 213 • Test Yourself 214 Social Facilitation: When the Presence of Others
Energizes Us 269
8 Conformity and Obedience: SIMPLE VERSUS DIFFICULT TASKS • AROUSAL AND THE

Influencing Behavior 216 DOMINANT RESPONSE • WHY THE PRESENCE OF OTHERS

CAUSES AROUSAL
Conformity: When and Why 218 Social Loafing: When the Presence of Others
Informational Social Influence: The Need to Know Relaxes Us 272
What’s “Right” 221 Gender and Cultural Differences in Social Loafing:
The Importance of Being Accurate 223 Who Slacks Off the Most? 273
When Informational Conformity Backfires 224 Deindividuation: Getting Lost in the Crowd 274
DEINDIVIDUATION MAKES PEOPLE FEEL LESS
When Will People Conform to Informational
ACCOUNTABLE • DEINDIVIDUATION INCREASES
Social Influence? 226 OBEDIENCE TO GROUP NORMS • DEINDIVIDUATION
WHEN THE SITUATION IS AMBIGUOUS • WHEN THE ONLINE
SITUATION IS A CRISIS • WHEN OTHER PEOPLE ARE EXPERTS
Group Decisions: Are Two (or More) Heads
Normative Social Influence: The Need to Be Accepted 228
Better Than One? 277
Conformity and Social Approval: The Asch
Process Loss: When Group Interactions Inhibit
Line-Judgment Studies 230
Good Problem Solving 277
The Importance of Being Accurate, Revisited 233
FAILURE TO SHARE UNIQUE INFORMATION •
The Consequences of Resisting Normative GROUPTHINK: MANY HEADS, ONE MIND
Social Influence 235 Group Polarization: Going to Extremes 281
TRY IT! Unmasking Normative Social Influence Leadership in Groups 282
by Breaking the Rules 236 LEADERSHIP AND PERSONALITY • LEADERSHIP STYLES •
When Will People Conform to Normative THE RIGHT PERSON IN THE RIGHT SITUATION • GENDER
AND LEADERSHIP • CULTURE AND LEADERSHIP
Social Influence? 236
WHEN THE GROUP IS IMPORTANT • WHEN ONE HAS Conflict and Cooperation 286
NO ALLIES IN THE GROUP • WHEN THE GROUP’S Social Dilemmas 287
CULTURE IS COLLECTIVISTIC
TRY IT! The Prisoner’s Dilemma 288
#trending Social Norms and Bigotry 239 INCREASING COOPERATION IN THE PRISONER’S
Minority Influence: When the Few Influence the Many 240 DILEMMA

Conformity Tactics 241 Using Threats to Resolve Conflict 289

The Role of Injunctive and Descriptive Norms 241 EFFECTS OF COMMUNICATION

Using Norms to Change Behavior: Beware the Negotiation and Bargaining 291
“Boomerang Effect” 244 Summary 293 • Test Yourself 294
x Contents

10 Attraction and Relationships: From Situational Determinants of Prosocial Behavior:

When Will People Help? 349
Initial Impressions to Long-Term Environment: Rural Versus Urban 349
Intimacy 296 Residential Mobility 350
What Predicts Attraction? 298 The Number of Bystanders: The Bystander Effect 351
The Person Next Door: The Propinquity Effect 298 NOTICING AN EVENT • INTERPRETING THE EVENT
Similarity 300 AS AN EMERGENCY • ASSUMING RESPONSIBILITY •
KNOWING HOW TO HELP • DECIDING TO IMPLEMENT
OPINIONS AND PERSONALITY • INTERESTS AND
THE HELP
EXPERIENCES • APPEARANCE • GENETICS • SOME
FINAL COMMENTS ABOUT SIMILARITY Diffusion of Responsibility in Cyberspace 356
#trending “Hook-Up Culture” and Today’s Youth 302 Effects of the Media: Video Games and Music Lyrics 357
Reciprocal Liking 302 How Can Helping Be Increased? 358
Physical Attractiveness 303 Increasing the Likelihood That Bystanders
WHAT IS ATTRACTIVE? • CULTURAL STANDARDS Will Intervene 358
OF BEAUTY • THE POWER OF FAMILIARITY • Increasing Volunteerism 360
ASSUMPTIONS ABOUT ATTRACTIVE PEOPLE
Summary 361 • Test Yourself 363
Evolution and Mate Selection 307
EVOLUTION AND SEX DIFFERENCES • ALTERNATE
PERSPECTIVES ON SEX DIFFERENCES
12 Aggression: Why Do We Hurt Other
People? Can We Prevent It? 365
Making Connections in the Digital World 311
Attraction 2.0: Mate Preference in an Online Era 311 Is Aggression Innate, Learned, or Optional? 366
The Promise and Pitfalls of Meeting People Online 312 The Evolutionary View 367
AGGRESSION IN OTHER ANIMALS
Love and Close Relationships 314
Defining Love: Companionship and Passion 315 Culture and Aggression 369
CHANGES IN AGGRESSION ACROSS TIME AND
TRY IT! Passionate Love Scale 316 CULTURES • CULTURES OF HONOR
Culture and Love 317 Gender and Aggression 371
Attachment Styles in Intimate Relationships 318 PHYSICAL AGGRESSION • RELATIONAL AGGRESSION
Your Body and Brain in Love 320 Learning to Behave Aggressively 373
Assessing Relationships: Satisfaction and Some Physiological Influences 375
Breaking Up 322 THE EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL • THE EFFECTS OF PAIN AND HEAT
Theories of Relationship Satisfaction 322 Social Situations and Aggression 377
SOCIAL EXCHANGE THEORY • EQUITY THEORY
Frustration and Aggression 377
The Process and Experience of Breaking Up 327 Provocation and Reciprocation 379
Summary 330 • Test Yourself 331
TRY IT! Insults and Aggression 380

11 Prosocial Behavior: Why Do

Weapons as Aggressive Cues
Putting the Elements Together: The Case of
380

People Help? 333 Sexual Assault 381

Basic Motives Underlying Prosocial Behavior: MOTIVATIONS FOR RAPE • SEXUAL SCRIPTS AND
THE PROBLEM OF CONSENT
Why Do People Help? 334
Evolutionary Psychology: Instincts and Genes 335 Violence and the Media 383
KIN SELECTION • THE RECIPROCITY NORM Studying the Effects of Media Violence 384
EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES • LONGITUDINAL STUDIES
TRY IT! The Dictator Game 336
GROUP SELECTION
The Problem of Determining Cause and Effect 386
Social Exchange: The Costs and Rewards of Helping 337 How to Decrease Aggression 389
Empathy and Altruism: The Pure Motive for Helping 338 Does Punishing Aggression Reduce Aggression? 389
USING PUNISHMENT ON VIOLENT ADULTS
Personal Qualities and Prosocial Behavior: Why
Can We Release Anger by Indulging It? 390
Do Some People Help More Than Others? 342
THE EFFECTS OF AGGRESSIVE ACTS ON SUBSEQUENT
Individual Differences: The Altruistic Personality 342 AGGRESSION • BLAMING THE VICTIM OF OUR
Gender Differences in Prosocial Behavior 343 AGGRESSION
TRY IT! Empathic Concern 344 What Are We Supposed to Do with Our Anger? 392
Cultural Differences in Prosocial Behavior 345 VENTING VERSUS SELF-AWARENESS
Religion and Prosocial Behavior 346 TRAINING IN COMMUNICATION AND PROBLEM-SOLVING
SKILLS
#trending Helping Across the Political Divide 347
TRY IT! Controlling Your Anger 393
The Effects of Mood on Prosocial Behavior 347
GETTING APOLOGIES RIGHT • COUNTERING
EFFECTS OF POSITIVE MOODS: FEEL GOOD, DO GOOD •
DEHUMANIZATION BY BUILDING EMPATHY
FEEL BAD, DO GOOD
 Contents xi

#trending “Re-accommodation”: The United Inducing Hypocrisy 450

Airlines Debacle 395 Removing Small Barriers to Achieve Big Changes 452
Disrupting the Rejection-Rage Cycle 396 Happiness and a Sustainable Lifestyle 454
Summary 398 • Test Yourself 401 What Makes People Happy? 454
SATISFYING RELATIONSHIPS • FLOW: BECOMING
13 Prejudice: Causes, Consequences, ENGAGED IN SOMETHING YOU ENJOY • ACCUMULATE
EXPERIENCES, NOT THINGS • HELPING OTHERS
and Cures 402
TRY IT! Applying the Research to Your Own Life 456
Defining Prejudice 403
Do People Know What Makes Them Happy? 457
The Cognitive Component: Stereotypes 404
Summary 458 • Test Yourself 459
ARE POSITIVE STEREOTYPES GOOD?

TRY IT! Stereotypes and Aggression 406

The Affective Component: Emotions 408
Social Psychology in Action 2
The Behavioral Component: Discrimination 409 Social Psychology and Health 461
TRY IT! Identifying Your Prejudices 409 Stress and Human Health 462
INSTITUTIONALIZED DISCRIMINATION • EVERYDAY
Resilience 463
DISCRIMINATION • FROM PREJUDICE TO DISCRIMINATION
Effects of Negative Life Events 464
Detecting Hidden Prejudices 414
LIMITS OF STRESS INVENTORIES
Ways of Identifying Suppressed Prejudices 414
TRY IT! The College Life Stress Inventory 465
Ways of Identifying Implicit Prejudices 415
Perceived Stress and Health 466
The Effects of Prejudice on the Victim 417
Feeling in Charge: The Importance of Perceived
The Self-Fulfilling Prophecy 417 Control 467
Social Identity Threat 419 INCREASING PERCEIVED CONTROL IN NURSING HOMES •
Causes of Prejudice 421 DISEASE, CONTROL, AND WELL-BEING

Pressures to Conform: Normative Rules 421 Coping with Stress 472

#trending Everyday Discrimination in Gender Differences in Coping with Stress 472
Professional Sports 423 Social Support: Getting Help from Others 473
Social Identity Theory: Us versus Them 423 TRY IT! Social Support 474
ETHNOCENTRISM • IN-GROUP BIAS • OUT-GROUP Reframing: Finding Meaning in Traumatic Events 475
HOMOGENEITY • BLAMING THE VICTIM • JUSTIFYING
FEELINGS OF ENTITLEMENT AND SUPERIORITY
Prevention: Promoting Healthier Behavior 476
Realistic Conflict Theory 427 Summary 478 • Test Yourself 479

Reducing Prejudice 429

The Contact Hypothesis 430 Social Psychology in Action 3
WHERE CONTACT CAN GO WRONG Social Psychology and the Law 481
Cooperation and Interdependence: The Jigsaw
Eyewitness Testimony 483
Classroom 433
Why Are Eyewitnesses Often Wrong? 483
WHY DOES JIGSAW WORK?
ENCODING • STORAGE • RETRIEVAL
TRY IT! Jigsaw-Type Group Study 435
Judging Whether Eyewitnesses Are Mistaken 488
THE GRADUAL SPREAD OF COOPERATIVE AND
INTERDEPENDENT LEARNING RESPONDING QUICKLY • POST-IDENTIFICATION FEEDBACK

Summary 437 • Test Yourself 439 TRY IT! The Accuracy of Eyewitness Testimony 491
The Recovered Memory Debate 491
Social Psychology in Action 1 Juries: Group Processes in Action 494
Using Social Psychology to Achieve a How Jurors Process Information during the Trial 494
Confessions: Are They Always What They Seem? 495
Sustainable and Happy Future 440
Deliberations in the Jury Room 497
Applied Research in Social Psychology 443
Summary 498 • Test Yourself 499
Capitalizing on the Experimental Method 444
ASSESSING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF INTERVENTIONS • Glossary 501
POTENTIAL RISKS OF SOCIAL INTERVENTIONS
Social Psychology to the Rescue 446 References 507
Using Social Psychology to Achieve a Sustainable Future 447 Credits 545
Conveying and Changing Social Norms 447
Name Index 549
TRY IT! Reducing Littering with Descriptive Norms 448
Keeping Track of Consumption 449 Subject Index 568
Introducing a Little Competitiveness 450
This page intentionally left blank
Preface

W
hen we began writing this book, our overriding one video in Chapter 9 tells the story of how a student
goal was to capture the excitement of social psy- learned to avoid process loss in her study groups. These
chology. We have been pleased to hear, in many videos are in the Revel version of the text, placed along-
kind notes and messages from professors and students, that side the relevant concepts.
we succeeded. One of our favorite responses was from a A second new feature, called #trending, is a brief
student who said that the book was so interesting that she analysis of a current event that illustrates a key princi-
always saved it for last, to reward herself for finishing her ple in each chapter. In Chapter 11 on Prosocial Behavior,
other work. With that one student, at least, we succeeded in for example, we describe an incident in which a White
making our book an enjoyable, fascinating story, not a dry dentist from Texas, in town for Donald Trump’s inaugu-
report of facts and figures. ration, left a $450 tip for an African American waitress.
There is always room for improvement, however, and Students are asked to think about how concepts in the
our goal in this, the tenth edition, is to make the field of chapter might help explain why the man acted so gen-
social psychology an even better read. When we teach the erously, such as Batson’s empathy-altruism hypothesis.
course, there is nothing more gratifying than seeing the Importantly, these examples will be updated frequently
sleepy students in the back row sit up with interest and in the Revel version of the text, such that students will al-
say, “Wow, I didn’t know that! Now that’s interesting.” We ways be able to connect what they are reading to current,
hope that students who read our book will have that same real-world events.
reaction. Third, every chapter now begins with a feature called,
“What do YOU think?” where students answer a survey
question designed to illustrate a concept in that chapter. In

What’s New in This Edition? Chapter 6, for example, students are asked, “Have you ever
joined a group that required you to do something humili-
First a word about what has not changed. As mentioned, ating or dangerous in order to gain membership?” In the
we have done our best to tell the story of social psychol- Revel version of the text, students get immediate feedback
ogy in an engaging way that will resonate with students. on how other students have answered (23% said yes to this
We also have retained features that help students learn question). Then, at the end of the chapter, there is a writing
and retain the material. As before, each chapter begins exercise tied to the survey question that instructors can as-
with learning objectives, which are repeated in the sec- sign if they wish. In Chapter 6, for example, the question
tions of the chapter that are most relevant to them and in is, “How does justification of effort help explain why haz-
the chapter-ending summary. All major sections of every ing and initiation rites are common across so many different
chapter end with review quizzes. Research shows that group types?”
students learn material better when they are tested fre- Lastly, we have expanded a feature that proved to be
quently; thus, these section quizzes, as well as the test very popular with users of the Revel version of the previ-
questions at the end of every chapter, should be helpful ous edition, namely videos that recreate classic experiments
learning aids. In the Revel version of the text, instructors in social psychology. These videos, recorded exclusively for
have the option of assigning these quizzes and giving this book, give students a vivid and contemporary look at
course credit for correct answers. Each chapter also has how an experiment was done and what it found.
our Try It! feature that invites students to apply what And, of course, we have updated the tenth edition sub-
they have learned to their own lives. Several of these Try stantially, with numerous references to new research. Here
It! features have been updated. is a sampling of the new research that is covered:
We are pleased to add several new features to the
tenth edition that we believe will appeal to students • Chapter 1: This chapter contains updated examples,
and make it even easier for them to learn the material. a new Try It!, and a new section on the role of bio-
The first is called #SurvivalTips which are brief videos logical approaches and evolutionary theory in social
recorded by students who have taken a social psychol- psychology.
ogy class. Each one tells a personal story relaying how • Chapter 2: A signature of our book continues to be a
the student applied social psychology to better navigate readable, student-friendly chapter on research methods
or “survive” a real situation in their lives. For example, in social psychology. This chapter has been updated

xiii
xiv Preface

for the tenth edition with new references and examples can vary in predicting outcomes when it comes to
and a discussion of the replication debate in social evaluation of job résumés based on applicant name.
psychology. A new interactive feature is also included to explain
• Chapter 3, “Social Cognition: How We Think About the formula for persuasion according to the Yale
the Social World,” has been updated with more than Attitude Change approach.
40 new references. There is a new section on the plan- • Chapter 8, “Conformity and Obedience: Influencing
ning fallacy and discussions of recent research find- Behavior,” now opens with a more positive focus on
ings, such as a study on counterfactual thinking and social influence, in the form of Pete Frates and the
people’s belief in God. ALS ice bucket challenge. We have added a discus-
• Chapter 4, “Social Perception: How We Come to sion of the proliferation of “fake news” in the section
Understand Other People,” now includes several new on informational social influence. The chapter also
features, including a new opening drawing on the Black features a new interactive video demonstrating stu-
Mirror television series, an interactive photo gallery on dents employing various social influence techniques
using first impressions to your advantage, a discussion and added discussion of contemporary criticism of
of cross-cultural attitudes regarding karma and beliefs Milgram’s research.
in a just world, and a reorganized discussion of Kelley’s • Chapter 9, “Group Processes: Influence in Social Groups,”
covariation model. now opens with an analysis of problematic group deci-
• Chapter 5, “The Self: Understanding Ourselves in a sion making and strategizing in Hilary Clinton’s 2016
Social Context,” has been updated with more than 35 campaign team. We have also added coverage of recent
new references. The chapter headings have also been research on combating the problematic effects on deindi-
reorganized into three major sections, which should viduation online and group polarization via social media
make the material clearer to students. There is a new feeds. The chapter also includes expanded and updated
opening example about children raised by animals and discussion of the prisoner’s dilemma and a new photo
how they might have influenced their sense of self. gallery regarding resource dilemmas.
Lastly, the section on self-esteem has been updated and • Chapter 10, “Attraction and Relationships: From
moved to Chapter 6. Initial Impressions to Long-Term Intimacy,” has
• Chapter 6, “Cognitive Dissonance and the Need to a new title to better reflect the balanced focus be-
Protect Our Self-Esteem,” is one of the most exten- tween initial attraction and relationship trajectory/
sively revised chapters in this edition. This chap- satisfaction. A new interactive photo gallery explores
ter has always been a signature of the book; we are the relationship between mere exposure and liking,
the only text to devote an entire chapter to cogni- and a new interactive video illustrates the matching
tive dissonance theory and self-esteem maintenance. hypothesis in attraction. We have added coverage
We proudly retain this chapter in our tenth edition, (including an interactive figure) of Sternberg’s
continuing to present classic work in cognitive disso- triangular theory of love and have reorganized and
nance in a highly readable manner with compelling updated the concluding section on relationship
examples designed to draw students in. At the same satisfaction and breaking up.
time we have updated the chapter, adding a major • In Chapter 11, “Prosocial Behavior: Why Do People
new section on advances and extensions of dissonance Help?” includes more than 30 new references, expanded
theory that includes discussions of self-affirmation discussions of empathy and altruism and volunteerism,
theory and self-evaluation maintenance theory. There and a revised discussion of religion and prosocial
is also a section on narcissism and self-esteem, which behavior.
previously appeared in Chapter 5. Lastly the chapter • Chapter 12, “Aggression: Why Do We Hurt Other
has two new Try It! exercises that students will enjoy: People? Can We Prevent It?,” has significant content
In one they complete a values affirmation writing ex- updates in addition to covering new research. Our
ercise, and in another they can take a short version of discussion of testosterone and aggression is more nu-
the Narcissistic Personality Inventory and get feed- anced, disentangling some aspects of gender and hor-
back on their score. mones and introducing the other sex hormone related
• Chapter 7, “Attitudes and Attitude Change: to aggression, estradiol. We also introduce and evalu-
Influencing Thoughts and Feelings,” includes a new ate two formal evolutionary theories of aggression:
opening story, new examples from Election 2016 in the challenge hypothesis and dual-hormone theory.
the discussion of affectively based attitudes, and new We also streamlined the section on sexual assault
discussion of how implicit versus explicit attitudes to make this important section clearer. Overall, the
 Preface xv

chapter narrative now emphasizes the convergent fact inspired the creation of Revel: an interactive learning
evidence for the role of impulsivity in aggression environment designed for the way today’s students read,
across biological and psychological evidence. think, and learn. Built in collaboration with educators and
• In Chapter 13, “Prejudice: Causes, Consequences, students nationwide, Revel is the newest, fully digital way
and Cures,” has undergone a major organizational to deliver respected Pearson content. Revel enlivens course
and content update. We generalized the discussion content with media interactives and assessments—icluding
of prejudice from the strong focus on Black-White an interactive figure) of ntegrated directly within the au-
and male-female relations to relate more generally thors’ narrative—that provide opportunities for students
to other ethnic, gender, and stigmatized identities. to read about and practice course material in tandem. This
Nonetheless, we maintain an important dialog on immersive educational technology boosts student engage-
anti-Blackness, including a discussion of police shoot- ment, which leads to better understanding of concepts and
ings and activist groups. We expanded the discussion improved performance throughout the course.
of emotions as a core component of prejudice, through
which we included more physiological research on Learn More about Revel
prejudice into the chapter. Under the ways to reduce http://www.pearsonhighered.com/revel/
prejudice, we have extended the discussion of inter- Rather than simply offering opportunities to read
group contact to teach students about indirect contact, about and study social psychology, Revel facilitates
and we have streamlined the discussion of the jigsaw deep, engaging interactions with the concepts that mat-
classroom. The entire chapter was updated with new ter most. By providing opportunities to improve skills
examples from recent popular culture and interactive in analyzing and interpreting sources of psychological
components in Revel. evidence, for example, Revel engages students directly
• Social Psychology in Action chapters—“Using Social and immediately, which leads to a better understanding
Psychology to Achieve a Sustainable and Happy of course material. A wealth of student and instructor
Future,” “Social Psychology and Health,” and “Social resources and interactive materials can be found within
Psychology and the Law”—have been updated with Revel. Some of our favorites are mentioned in the infor-
many references to new research, but remain shorter mation that follows.
chapters. When we teach the course, we find that stu- For more information about all the tools and resources
dents are excited to learn about these applied areas. in Revel and access to your own Revel account for Social
At the same time, we recognize that some instructors Psychology, go to www.pearsonhighered.com/revel.
have difficulty fitting the chapters into their courses.
As with the previous edition, our approach remains to Instructor Resources
maintain a shortened length for the applied chapters to We know that instructors are “tour guides” for their stu-
make it easy to integrate these chapters into different dents, leading them through the exciting world of social
parts of the course in whatever fashion an instructor psychology in the classroom. As such, we have invested
deems best. SPA1, “Using Social Psychology to Achieve tremendous effort in the creation of a world-class collection
a Sustainable and Happy Future,” includes an updated of instructor resources that will support professors in their
opening example about the effects of climate change mission to teach the best course possible.
and new examples of ways in which students can both Coauthor Sam Sommers guided the creation of this
act in sustainable ways and maximize their well-being. supplements package, which has been reviewed and up-
In SPA2, “Social Psychology and Health,” we updated dated for the tenth edition. Here are the highlights of the
coverage on perceived control interventions among supplements we are pleased to provide:
nursing home residents and included a new interactive
on coping with stress. SPA3, “Social Psychology and PRESENTATION TOOLS AND CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES
Law,” has a new video about attentional blindness and • Social Psychology PowerPoint Collection (0134700732)
an interactive feature on best practices in eyewitness The PowerPoints provide an active format for pre-
identification procedures. senting concepts from each chapter and incorpo-
rating relevant figures and tables. Instructors can
Revel for Social Psychology choose from three PowerPoint presentations: a lec-
ture presentation set that highlights major topics
Revel™ from the chapters, a highly visual lecture presenta-
When students are engaged deeply, they learn more ef- tion set with embedded videos, or a PowerPoint
fectively and perform better in their courses. This simple collection of the complete art files from the text. The
xvi Preface

PowerPoint files can be downloaded from www work starts on the eleventh edition), and for frequently pro-
.pearsonhighered.com. viding excellent real-life examples that illustrate social psy-
• Instructor’s Resource Manual (0134700694) The chological concepts. He also gives special thanks to all of his
Instructor’s Manual includes key terms, lecture ideas, teachers of social psychology, for introducing him to the field,
teaching tips, suggested readings, chapter outlines, for continued support, and for serving as role models as in-
student projects and research assignments, Try It! exer- structors, mentors, researchers, and writers.
cises, critical-thinking topics and discussion questions, No book can be written and published without the
and a media resource guide. It has been updated for help of many people working with the authors behind the
the tenth edition with hyperlinks to ease facilitation of scenes, and our book is no exception. We need to give a
navigation within the Instructor’s Resource Manual. special thanks to Elizabeth Page-Gould for her tremendous
help in revising two of the chapters. Her deep knowledge
ASSESSMENT RESOURCES of social psychology and wonderful writing style contrib-
• Test Bank (0134700740) Each of the more than 2,000 uted greatly to this edition. We would also like to thank the
questions in this test bank is page-referenced to the text many colleagues who read one or more chapters of this edi-
and categorized by topic and skill level. Each question tion and of previous editions of the book.
in the test bank was reviewed by several instructors
to ensure that we are providing you with the best and Reviewers of the Tenth Edition
most accurate content in the industry. Jim Allen, State University of New York, College at Geneseo;
• MyTest Test Bank (0134677897) This Web-based test- Kathryn Anderson, Our Lady of the Lake University; Anila
generating software provides instructors “best in class” Bhagavatula, California State University–Long Beach; Amy
features in an easy-to-use program. Create tests and Bradshaw-Hoppock, Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University;
easily select questions with drag-and-drop or point- Ngoc Bui, University of La Verne; Bernardo Carducci, Indiana
and-click functionality. Add or modify test questions University Southeast; Alex Czopp, Western Washington
using the built-in Question Editor, and print tests in a University; Keith Davis, University of South Carolina;
variety of formats. The program comes with full techni- Michael Dudley, Southern Illinois University Edwardsville;
cal support. Heidi English, College of the Siskiyous; Joe Ferrari, DePaul
University; Christine Floether, Centenary College; Krista
Forrest, University of Nebraska at Kearney; Allen Gorman,
Acknowledgments Radford University; Jerry Green, Tarrant County College;
Dana Greene, University of North Carolina; Donnell Griffin,
Elliot Aronson is delighted to acknowledge the collabora-
Davidson County Community College; Lisa Harrison,
tion of Carol Tavris. He would also like to acknowledge the
California State University, Sacramento; Gina Hoover, Ohio
contributions of his best friend (who also happens to be his
State University; Jeffrey Huntsinger, Loyola University
wife of 60 years), Vera Aronson. Vera, as usual, provided in-
Chicago; Alisha Janowsky, University of Central Florida;
spiration for his ideas and acted as the sounding board for
Bethany Johnson, University of Nebraska–Omaha; Deborah
and supportive critic of many of his semiformed notions,
Jones, Columbia University; Suzanne Kieffer, University of
helping to mold them into more sensible analyses.
Houston; Marvin Lee, Tennessee State University; Alexandra
Tim Wilson would like to thank his graduate mentor,
Luong, University of Minnesota Duluth; Robyn Mallett,
Richard E. Nisbett, who nurtured his interest in the field
Loyola University Chicago; Brian Meier, Gettysburg College;
and showed him the continuity between social psychologi-
Andrea Mercurio, Boston University; Lori Nelson, University
cal research and everyday life. He also thanks the many stu-
of Iowa; Darren Petronella, Nassau Community College;
dents who have taken his course in social psychology over
Jennifer Rivers, Elms College; Kari Terzino, Des Moines Area
the years, for asking fascinating questions and providing
Community College; T. Joel Wade, Bucknell University; Angela
wonderful examples of social psychological phenomena in
Walker, Quinnipiac University; Chrysalis Wright, University
their everyday lives. Lastly, he thanks the many graduate
of Central Florida; Garry Zaslow, Nassau Community College;
students with whom he has had the privilege of working
Jie Zhang, University at Buffalo
for joining him in the ever-fascinating discovery of new so-
cial psychological phenomena.
Sam Sommers would like to acknowledge, first and fore-
Reviewers of Past Editions
most, the Sommers ladies, Marilyn, Abigail, and Sophia, for Jeffrey B. Adams, Saint Michael’s College; Bill Adler,
being patient with round-the-clock revision sessions, for tol- Collin County Community College; John R. Aiello, Rutgers
erating the constantly expanding mass of papers and books University; Charles A. Alexander, Rock Valley College;
on the floor of the study (he promises to clean them up before Sowmya Anand, Ohio State University; Nathan Arbuckle,
 Preface xvii

Ohio State University; Art Aron, State University of New St. John Fisher College; William Rick Fry, Youngstown State
York, Stony Brook; Danny Axsom, Virginia Polytechnic University; Russell Geen, University of Missouri; Glenn
Institute and State University; Joan W. Baily, Jersey City State Geher, State University of New York at New Paltz; David
College; Norma Baker, Belmont University; Austin Baldwin, Gersh, Houston Community College; Frederick X. Gibbons,
University of Iowa; John Bargh, New York University; Iowa State University; Cynthia Gilliland, Louisiana State
William A. Barnard, University of Northern Colorado; Doris University; Genaro Gonzalez, University of Texas; Jessica
G. Bazzini, Appalachian State University; Arthur Beaman, Gonzalez, Ohio State University; Sara Gorchoff, University
University of Kentucky; Gordon Bear, Ramapo College; Susan of California, Berkeley; Beverly Gray, Youngstown State
E. Beers, Sweet Briar College; Kathy L. Bell, University of University; Gordon Hammerle, Adrian College; H. Anna
North Carolina at Greensboro; Leonard Berkowitz, University Han, Ohio State University; Judith Harackiewicz, University
of Wisconsin–Madison; Ellen S. Berscheid, University of of Wisconsin–Madison; Elaine Hatfield, University of Hawaii,
Minnesota; John Bickford, University of Massachusetts, Manoa; Vicki S. Helgeson, Carnegie Mellon University; Joyce
Amherst; Thomas Blass, University of Maryland; C. Hemphill, Cazenovia College; Tracy B. Henley, Mississippi
George Boeree, Shippensburg University; Lisa M. Bohon, State University; Ed Hirt, Indiana University; Harold
California State University, Sacramento; Jennifer Bosson, The Hunziker Jr., Corning Community College; David E. Hyatt,
University of Oklahoma; Chante C. Boyd, Carnegie Mellon University of Wisconsin–Oshkosh; Marita Inglehart, University
University; Peter J. Brady, Clark State Community College; of Michigan; Carl Kallgren, Behrend College, Pennsylvania
Kosha Bramesfeld, Pennsylvania State University; Kelly State University, Erie; Stephen Kilianski, Rutgers University;
A. Brennan, University of Texas, Austin; Richard W. Brislin, Bill Klein, Colby College; James D. Johnson, University of
East-West Center of the University of Hawaii; Jeff Bryson, North Carolina, Wilmington; Lee Jussim, Rutgers University;
San Diego State University; Melissa Burkley, Oklahoma State Stephen Kilianski, Rutgers University; Fredrick Koenig,
University; Amy Bush, University of Houston; Amber Bush Tulane University; Alan Lambert, Washington University,
Amspoker, University of Houston; Brad Bushman, Iowa State St. Louis; Emmett Lampkin, Kirkwook Community College;
University; Thomas P. Cafferty, University of South Carolina, Elizabeth C. Lanthier, Northern Virginia Community
Columbia; Melissa A. Cahoon, Wright State University; College; Patricia Laser, Bucks County Community College; G.
Frank Calabrese, Community College of Philadelphia; Michael Daniel Lassiter, Ohio University; Dianne Leader, Georgia
Caruso, University of Toledo; Nicholas Christenfeld, Institute of Technology; John Lu, Concordia University;
University of California, San Diego; Margaret S. Clark, Stephanie Madon, Iowa State University; John Malarkey,
Carnegie Mellon University; Russell D. Clark, III, University Wilmington College; Andrew Manion, St. Mary’s University
of North Texas; Susan D. Clayton, Allegheny College; of Minnesota; Allen R. McConnell, Michigan State University;
Megan Clegg-Kraynok, West Virginia University; Brian M. Adam Meade, North Carolina State University; Joann M.
Cohen, University of Texas, San Antonio; Florette Cohen, Montepare, Tufts University; Richard Moreland, University
Rutgers University; Jack Cohen, Camden County College; of Pittsburgh; Dave Nalbone, Purdue University–Calumet;
Steven G. Cole, Texas Christian University; Eric J. Cooley, Carrie Nance, Stetson University; Todd D. Nelson, Michigan
Western Oregon State University; Diana Cordova, Yale State University; Elaine Nocks, Furman University; Matylda
University; Traci Craig, University of Idaho; Jack Croxton, Osika, University of Houston; Cheri Parks, Colorado Christian
State University of New York, Fredonia; Keith E. Davis, University; W. Gerrod Parrott, Georgetown University; David
University of South Carolina, Columbia; Mary Ellen Dello Peterson, Mount Senario College; Mary Pritchard, Boise State
Stritto, Ball State University; Dorothee Dietrich, Hamline University; Cynthia K. S. Reed, Tarrant County College; Dan
University; Kate Dockery, University of Florida; Susann Richard, University of North Florida; Neal Roese, University
Doyle, Gainesville College; Steve Duck, University of Iowa; of Illinois; Darrin L. Rogers, Ohio State University; Joan
Michael G. Dudley, Southern Illinois University Edwardsville; Rollins, Rhode Island College; Paul Rose, Southern Illinois
Karen G. Duffy, State University of New York, Geneseo; Valerie University Edwardsville; Lee D. Ross, Stanford University;
Eastman, Drury College; Tami Eggleston, McKendree College; Alex Rothman, University of Minnesota; M. Susan Rowley,
Timothy Elliot, University of Alabama–Birmingham; Steve L. Champlain College; Delia Saenz, Arizona State University;
Ellyson, Youngstown State University; Cindy Elrod, Georgia Brad Sagarin, Northern Illinois University; Fred Sanborn,
State University; Kadimah Elson, University of California, San North Carolina Wesleyan College; Connie Schick, Bloomsburg
Diego/Grossmont College; Rebecca S. Fahrlander, University University; Norbert Schwartz, University of Michigan;
of Nebraska at Omaha; Alan Feingold, Yale University; Gretchen Sechrist, University at Buffalo; Richard C.
Edward Fernandes, East Carolina University; Phil Finney, Sherman, Miami University of Ohio; Paul Silvia, University
Southeast Missouri State University; Susan Fiske, University of North Carolina at Greensboro; Randolph A. Smith, Ouachita
of Massachusetts; Robin Franck, Southwestern College; Denise Baptist University; Linda Solomon, Marymount Manhattan
Frank, Ramapo College of New Jersey; Timothy M. Franz, College; Janice Steil, Adelphi University; Jakob Steinberg,
xviii Preface

Fairleigh Dickinson University; Mark Stewart, American We also thank the wonderful editorial staff of Pearson
River College; Lori Stone, University of Texas at Austin; for their expertise and professionalism, including Dickson
JoNell Strough, West Virginia University; T. Gale Thompson, Musslewhite (Editorial Director), Cecilia Turner (Content
Bethany College; Scott Tindale, Loyola University of Chicago; Producer), Christopher Brown (Executive Product
David M. Tom, Columbus State Community College; David Marketing Manager), Louis Fierro (Editorial Assistant),
Trafimow, New Mexico State University; Ruth Warner, St. and Angel Chavez (Project Manager). We would especially
Louis University; Anne Weiher, Metropolitan State College like to thank Thomas Finn (Developmental Editor), who
of Denver; Gary L. Wells, Iowa State University; Jackie provided expert guidance with constant good cheer and
White, University of North Carolina at Greensboro; Paul L. insight even through barrages of e-mail exchanges and at-
Wienir, Western Michigan University; Kipling D. Williams, tachments, and Amber Chow (Portfolio Manager), whose
University of Toledo; Tamara Williams, Hampton University; smart vision for the book, and commitment to making it as
Paul Windschitl, University of Iowa; Mike Witmer, Skagit good as it can be, have truly made a difference. Finally, we
Valley College; Gwen Wittenbaum, Michigan State University; thank Mary Falcon, but for whom we never would have
William Douglas Woody, University of Northern Colorado; begun this project.
Clare Zaborowski, San Jacinto College; William H. Zachry, Thank you for inviting us into your classroom. We wel-
University of Tennessee–Martin; Leah Zinner, University of come your suggestions, and we would be delighted to hear
Wisconsin–Madison your comments about this book.

Elliot Aronson
[email protected]

Tim Wilson
[email protected]

Sam Sommers
[email protected]
About the Authors

Elliot Aronson real-world problems. Dr. Aronson’s own recent books for general
audiences include Mistakes Were Made (but not by ME), with
When I was a kid, we were the only Jewish family in a vir- Carol Tavris, and a memoir, Not by Chance Alone: My Life as
ulently anti-Semitic neighborhood. I had to go to Hebrew a Social Psychologist.
school every day, late in the afternoon. Being the only
youngster in my neighborhood going to Hebrew school
made me an easy target for some of the older neighborhood Tim Wilson
toughs. On my way home from Hebrew school, after dark, One day when I was 8, a couple of older kids rode up on
I was frequently waylaid and roughed up by roving gangs their bikes to share some big news: They had discovered an
shouting anti-Semitic epithets. abandoned house down a country road. “It’s really neat,”
I have a vivid memory of sitting on a curb after one they said. “We broke a window and nobody cared!” My
of these beatings, nursing a bloody nose or a split lip, feel- friend and I hopped onto our bikes to investigate. We had
ing very sorry for myself and wondering how these kids no trouble finding the house—there it was, sitting off by
could hate me so much when they didn’t even know me. I itself, with a big, jagged hole in a first-floor window. We
thought about whether those kids were taught to hate Jews got off of our bikes and looked around. My friend found a
or whether, somehow, they were born that way. I wondered baseball-sized rock lying on the ground and threw a per-
if their hatred could be changed—if they got to know me fect strike through another first-floor window. There was
better, would they hate me less? I speculated about my own something exhilarating about the smash-and-tingle of shat-
character. What would I have done if the shoe were on the tering glass, especially when we knew there was nothing
other foot—that is, if I were bigger and stronger than they, wrong with what we were doing. After all, the house was
would I be capable of beating them up for no good reason? abandoned, wasn’t it? We broke nearly every window in
I didn’t realize it at the time, of course, but eventually I the house and then climbed through one of the first-floor
discovered that these were profound questions. And some windows to look around.
30 years later, as an experimental social psychologist, I had It was then that we realized something was terribly
the great good fortune to be in a position to answer some of wrong. The house certainly did not look abandoned. There
those questions and to invent techniques to reduce the kind were pictures on the wall, nice furniture, books in shelves.
of prejudice that had claimed me as a victim. We went home feeling frightened and confused. We soon
Elliot Aronson is Professor Emeritus at the University of learned that the house was the home of an elderly couple
California at Santa Cruz and one of the most renowned social psy- who were away on vacation. Eventually, my parents dis-
chologists in the world. In 2002, he was chosen as one of the 100 covered what we had done and paid a substantial sum to
most eminent psychologists of the twentieth century. Dr. Aronson repair the windows. For years, I pondered this incident:
is the only person in the 120-year history of the American Psycho- Why did I do such a terrible thing? Was I a bad kid? I didn’t
logical Association to have received all three of its major awards: think so, and neither did my parents. How, then, could a
for distinguished writing, distinguished teaching, and distin- good kid do such a bad thing? Even though the neighbor-
guished research. Many other professional societies have honored hood kids said the house was abandoned, why couldn’t my
his research and teaching as well. These include the American friend and I see the clear signs that someone lived there?
Association for the Advancement of Science, which gave him its How crucial was it that my friend was there and threw
highest honor, the Distinguished Scientific Research award; the the first rock? Although I didn’t know it at the time, these
American Council for the Advancement and Support of Educa- reflections touched on several classic social psychological
tion, which named him Professor of the Year of 1989; the Society issues, such as whether only bad people do bad things,
for the Psychological Study of Social Issues, which awarded him whether the social situation can be powerful enough to
the Gordon Allport prize for his contributions to the reduction of make good people do bad things, and the way in which
prejudice among racial and ethnic groups; and the William James our expectations about an event can make it difficult to see
Award from the Association for Psychological Science. In 1992, it as it really is. Fortunately, my career as a vandal ended
he was named a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sci- with this one incident. It did, however, mark the beginning
ences. A collection of papers and tributes by his former students of my fascination with basic questions about how people
and colleagues, The Scientist and the Humanist, celebrates his understand themselves and the social world—questions I
contributions to social psychological theory and its application to continue to investigate to this day.

xix
xx About the Authors

Tim Wilson did his undergraduate work at Williams College had watched was of an actor, and in some versions of the
and Hampshire College and received his PhD from the University study he mentioned having a girlfriend. In other versions,
of Michigan. Currently Sherrell J. Aston Professor of Psychology he mentioned a boyfriend. What the researchers were actu-
at the University of Virginia, he has published numerous articles ally studying was how this social category information of
in the areas of introspection, attitude change, self-knowledge, and sexual orientation would influence participants’ attitudes
affective forecasting, as well as a recent book, Redirect: The Sur- about the interaction.
prising New Science of Psychological Change. His research And then she took out a tape measure.
has received the support of the National Science Foundation and The tape measure was to gauge how close to my part-
the National Institute for Mental Health. He has been elected ner’s chair I had placed my own chair, the hypothesis being
twice to the Executive Board of the Society for Experimental So- that discomfort with a gay partner might manifest in terms
cial Psychology and is a Fellow in the American Psychological of participants placing their chairs farther away. Greater
Society and the Society for Personality and Social Psychology. In comfort with or affinity for the partner was predicted to
2009, he was named a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts lead to more desire for proximity.
and Sciences. In 2015 he received the William James Fellows And at that, I was hooked. The little voice in my head
Award from the Association for Psychological Science. Wilson had grown from a whisper to a full-throated yell that this
has taught the Introduction to Social Psychology course at the was a field I could get excited about. First of all, the re-
University of Virginia for more than 30 years. In 2001 he was searchers had tricked me. That, alone, I thought was, for
awarded the University of Virginia All-University Outstand- lack of a better word, cool. But more important, they had
ing Teaching Award, and in 2010 was awarded the University of done so in the effort to get me and my fellow participants
Virginia Distinguished Scientist Award. to reveal something about our attitudes, preferences, and
tendencies that we never would have admitted to (or per-

Sam Sommers haps even would have been aware of) had they just asked
us directly. Here was a fascinatingly creative research de-
I went to college to major in English. I only found myself in sign, being used in the effort to study what struck me as an
an Intro to Psychology course as a second-semester fresh- incredibly important social issue.
man because, well, it just seemed like the kind of thing you Like I said, I was hooked. And I look forward to help-
did as a second-semester freshman. It was when we got to ing to introduce you to this field that caught me by surprise
the social psychology section of the course that a little voice back when I was a student and continues to intrigue and
in my head starting whispering something along the lines inspire me to this day.
of, Hey, you’ve gotta admit this is pretty good stuff. It’s a lot like Sam Sommers earned his BA from Williams College and his
the conversations you have with your friends about daily life, but PhD from the University of Michigan. Since 2003 he has been a
with scientific data. faculty member in the Department of Psychology at Tufts Uni-
As part of the class, we had the opportunity to partici- versity in Medford, Massachusetts. His research examines is-
pate in research studies for course credit. So one day I found sues related to stereotyping, prejudice, and group diversity, with
myself in an interaction study in which I was going to work a particular interest in how these processes play out in the legal
on solving problems with a partner. I walked in and it was domain. He has won multiple teaching awards at Tufts, includ-
clear that the other guy had arrived earlier—his coat and ing the Lerman-Neubauer Prize for Outstanding Teaching and
bag were already hanging on the back of a chair. I was led to Advising and the Gerald R. Gill Professor of the Year Award. He
another, smaller room and shown a video of my soon-to-be was also inducted into the Tufts Hall of Diversity for his efforts
partner. Then I was given a series of written questions about to promote an inclusive climate on campus for all students. He
my perceptions of him, my expectations for our upcoming has testified as an expert witness on issues related to racial bias,
session together, and so forth. Finally, I walked back into the jury decision making, and eyewitness memory in criminal trial
main area. The experimenter handed me a chair and told proceedings in eight states. He has written two general audience
me to put it down anywhere next to my partner’s chair, and books related to social psychology: Situations Matter: Under-
that she would go get him (he, too, was presumably com- standing How Context Transforms Your World (2011) and
pleting written questionnaires in a private room). This Is Your Brain on Sports: The Science of Underdogs,
So I did. I put my chair down, took a seat, and waited. the Value of Rivalry, and What We Can Learn from the
Then the experimenter returned, but she was alone. She T-shirt Cannon (2016). He is also co-author of Invitation to
told me the study was over. There was no other participant; Psychology (7th edition), along with Carole Wade, Carol Tavris,
there would be no problem solving in pairs. The video I and Lisa Shin.
Special Tips for Students

“T
here is then creative reading as well as crea- to other people. Still others are short quizzes that illustrate
tive writing,” said Ralph Waldo Emerson in social psychological concepts.
1837, and that aptly sums up what you need to Watch the videos. Our carefully curated collection of in-
know to be a proficient student: Be an active, creative con- terviews, news clips, and research study reenactments is
sumer of information. How do you accomplish that feat? designed to enhance, and help you better understand, the
Actually, it’s not difficult. Like everything else in life, it just concepts you’re reading. If you can see the concept in ac-
takes some work—some clever, well-planned, purposeful tion, it’s likely to sink in a little deeper.
work. Here are some suggestions about how to do it.

Get to Know the Textbook Just Say No to the Couch

Believe it or not, in writing this book, we thought carefully
about the organization and structure of each chapter. Things
Potato Within
are presented as they are for a reason, and that reason is to Because social psychology is about everyday life, you might
help you learn the material in the best way possible. Here lull yourself into believing that the material is all common
are some tips on what to look for in each chapter. sense. Don’t be fooled. The material presented in this book
is more complicated than it might seem. Therefore, we want
Key terms are in boldface type in the text so that you’ll
to emphasize that the best way to learn it is to work with it
notice them. We define the terms in the text, and that defi-
in an active, not passive, fashion. You can’t just read a chap-
nition appears again in the margin. These marginal defini-
ter once and expect it to stick with you. You have to go over
tions are there to help you out if later in the chapter you
the material, wrestle with it, make your own connections to
forget what something means. The marginal definitions are
it, question it, think about it, interact with it. Actively work-
quick and easy to find. You can also look up key terms in
ing with material makes it memorable and makes it your
the alphabetical Glossary at the end of this textbook.
own. Because it’s a safe bet that someone is going to ask you
Make sure you notice the headings and subheadings. The about this material later and you’re going to have to pull it
headings are the skeleton that holds a chapter together. They out of memory, do what you can to get it into memory now.
link together like vertebrae. If you ever feel lost, look back to Here are some techniques to use:
the previous heading and the headings before it—this will
• Go ahead and highlight lines in the text—you can do
give you the “big picture” of where the chapter is going. It
so in Revel by clicking and dragging the cursor over
should also help you see the connections between sections.
a sentence; you can even choose your own color, and
The summary at the end of each chapter is a succinct short- add a note! If you highlight important points, you will
hand presentation of the chapter information. You should read remember those important points better and can scroll
it and make sure there are no surprises when you do so. If any- back through them later.
thing in the summary doesn’t ring a bell, go back to the chap- • Read the chapter before the applicable class lecture, not
ter and reread that section. Most important, remember that the afterward. This way, you’ll get more out of the lecture,
summary is intentionally brief, whereas your understanding which will likely introduce new material in addition to
of the material should be full and complete. Use the summary what is in the chapter. The chapter will give you the big
as a study aid before your exams. When you read it over, ev- picture, as well as a lot of detail. The lecture will en-
erything should be familiar. When you have that wonderful hance that information and help you put it all together.
feeling of knowing more than is in the summary, you’ll know If you haven’t read the chapter first, you may not un-
that you are ready to take the exam. derstand some of the points made in the lecture or real-
Be sure to do the Try It! exercises. They will make concepts ize which points are most important.
from social psychology concrete and help you see how they • Here’s a good way to study material: Write out a key
can be applied to your own life. Some of the Try It! exercises concept or a study in your own words, without look-
replicate social psychology experiments. Others reproduce ing at the book or your notes. Or say it out loud to
self-report scales so you can see where you stand in relation yourself—again in your own words, with your eyes

xxi
xxii Special Tips for Students

closed. Can you do it? How good was your version? of a social psychologist—and try to apply what you
Did you omit anything important? Did you get stuck are learning to the behavior of friends, acquaintances,
at some point, unable to remember what comes next? If strangers, and, yes, even yourself. In each chapter you
so, you now know that you need to go over that infor- will see how other students have done this in brief
mation in more detail. You can also study with some- videos called #SurvivalTips. Make sure you use the
one else, describing theories and studies to each other Try It! exercises. You will find out how much social
and seeing if you’re making sense. psychology can help us understand our lives. When
• If you have trouble remembering the results of an im- you read the news, think about what social psychol-
portant study, try drawing your own version of a graph ogy has to say about current events and behaviors; we
of the findings (you can use our data graphs for an idea believe you will find that your understanding of daily
of how to proceed). You will probably find that you life is richer. If you notice a news article that you think
remember the research results much better in pictorial is an especially good example of “social psychology
form than in words. Draw the information a few times in action,” please send it to us, with a full reference to
and it will stay with you. where you found it and on what page. If we decide to
use it in the next edition of this book, we’ll list your
• Remember, the more you work with the material, the
name in the Acknowledgments.
better you will learn and remember it. Write it in your
own words, talk about it, explain it to others, or draw We realize that 10 years from now you may not re-
visual representations of it. member all the facts, theories, and names you learn now.
• Last but not least, remember that this material is a Although we hope you will remember some of them, our
lot of fun. You haven’t even started reading the book main goal is for you to take with you into your future a
yet, but we think you’re going to like it. In particu- great many of the broad social psychological concepts pre-
lar, you’ll see how much social psychology has to tell sented herein—and, perhaps more important, a critical and
you about your real, everyday life. As this course pro- scientific way of thinking. If you open yourself to social
gresses, you might want to remind yourself to observe psychology’s magic, we believe it will enrich the way you
the events of your daily life with new eyes—the eyes look at the world and the way you live in it.
Chapter 1
Introducing Social
Psychology

Chapter Outline and Learning Objectives

Defining Social Psychology Where Construals Come From: Basic Human
LO 1.1 Define social psychology and distinguish it from Motives
other disciplines. LO 1.3 Explain what happens when people’s need to feel
Social Psychology, Philosophy, Science, and Common good about themselves conflicts with their need to
Sense be accurate.
How Social Psychology Differs From Its Closest The Self-Esteem Motive: The Need to Feel Good About
Cousins Ourselves
The Social Cognition Motive: The Need to Be Accurate
The Power of the Situation
LO 1.2 Summarize why it matters how people explain and Why Study Social Psychology?
interpret events, as well as their own and others’ LO 1.4 Explain why the study of social psychology is
behavior. important.
Underestimating the Power of the Situation
The Importance of Construal

1
2 Chapter 1

WHAT DO YOU THINK?

Survey What Do You Think?

Revel Interactive
SURVEY RESULTS

Do you consider yourself good at predicting how people around you will behave and
react under different circumstances?

Yes
No

It is a pleasure to be your tour guides as we take you on a journey through the world of
social psychology. As we embark on this journey, our hope is to convey our excitement
about social psychology—what it is and why it matters. Not only do we, the authors,
enjoy teaching this stuff (which we’ve been doing, combined, for more than 100 years),
we also love contributing to the growth and development of this field. In addition to
being teachers, each of us is a scientist who has contributed to the knowledge base that
makes up our discipline. Thus, not only are we leading this tour, we also helped create
some of its attractions. We will travel to fascinating and exotic places like prejudice,
love, propaganda, education, conformity, aggression, compassion… all the rich variety
and surprise of human social life. Ready? OK, let’s go!
Let’s begin with a few examples of the heroic, touching, tragic, and puzzling
things that people do:

• Jorge Munoz is a school bus driver during the day but works a different “job” at
night: Feeding the hungry. When he gets home from his last school bus run, he
and his family cook meals for dozens of people using donated food and their own
money. They then serve the food to people down on their luck who line up at a
street corner in Queens, New York. Over a 4-year period Munoz has fed more than
70,000 people. Why does he do it? “When they smile,” Munoz says, “That’s the
way I get paid.” (http://www.karmatube.org/videos.php?id=1606)
• Kristen has known Martin for 2 months and feels that she is madly in love with
him. “We’re soul mates!” she tells her best friend. “He’s the one!” “What are you
thinking?” says the best friend. “He’s completely wrong for you! He’s as different
from you as can be—different background, religion, politics; you even like differ-
ent movies.” “I’m not worried,” says Kristen. “Opposites attract. I know that’s
true; I read it on Wikipedia!”
• Janine and her brother Oscar are arguing about fraternities. Janine’s college
didn’t have any, but Oscar is at a large state university in the Midwest, where he
has joined Alpha Beta. He went through a severe and scary hazing ritual to join,
and Janine cannot understand why he loves these guys so much. “They make
the pledges do such stupid stuff,” she says. “They humiliate you and force you
to get sick drunk and practically freeze to death in the middle of the night. How
can you possibly be happy living there?” “You don’t get it,” Oscar replies. “Alpha
Beta is the best of all fraternities. My frat brothers just seem more fun than most
other guys.”
• Abraham Biggs Jr., age 19, had been posting to an online discussion board for
2 years. Unhappy about his future and that a relationship had ended, Biggs an-
nounced on camera that he was going to commit suicide. He took an overdose
of drugs and linked to a live video feed from his bedroom. None of his hun-
dreds of observers called the police for more than 10 hours; some egged him on.
Paramedics reached him too late, and Biggs died.
 Introducing Social Psychology 3

• In the mid-1970s, several hundred members of the Peoples Temple, a

California-based religious cult, immigrated to Guyana under the guidance of their
leader, the Reverend Jim Jones, where they founded an interracial community
called Jonestown. But within a few years some members wanted out, an outside
investigation was about to get Jones in trouble, and the group’s solidarity was
waning. Jones grew despondent and, summoning everyone in the community,
spoke to them about the beauty of dying and the certainty that everyone would
meet again in another place. The residents willingly lined up in front of a vat con-
taining a mixture of Kool-Aid and cyanide, and drank the lethal concoction. (The
legacy of this massacre is the term “drinking the Kool-Aid,” referring to a person’s
blind belief in ideology.) A total of 914 people died, including 80 babies and the
Reverend Jones.

Why do many people help complete strangers? Is Kristen right that opposites at-
tract or is she just kidding herself? Why did Oscar come to love his fraternity brothers
despite the hazing they had put him through? Why would people watch a troubled
young man commit suicide in front of their eyes, when, by simply flagging the video
to alert the website, they might have averted a tragedy? How could hundreds of peo-
ple be induced to kill their own children and then commit suicide?
All of these stories—the good, the bad, the ugly—pose fascinating questions about
human behavior. In this book, we will show you how social psychologists go about Social Psychology
answering them. The scientific study of the way in
which people’s thoughts, feelings,
and behaviors are influenced by
the real or imagined presence of

Defining Social Psychology other people

Social Influence
LO 1.1 Define social psychology and distinguish it from other disciplines.
The effect that the words, actions,
The task of the psychologist is to understand and predict human behavior. To do or mere presence of other people
so, social psychologists focus on the influence other people have on us. More for- have on our thoughts, feelings,
mally, social psychology is the scientific study of the way in which people’s thoughts, attitudes, or behavior
feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the
real or imagined presence of other people
(Allport, 1985). When we think of social in-
fluence, the kinds of examples that readily
come to mind are direct attempts at persua-
sion, whereby one person deliberately tries
to change another person’s behavior or atti-
tude. This is what happens when advertisers
use sophisticated techniques to persuade us
to buy a particular brand of deodorant, or
when our friends try to get us to do some-
thing we don’t really want to do (“Come on,
have another beer!”), or when the bullies use
force or threats to get what they want.
The study of direct attempts at social
influence is a major part of social psychol-
ogy and will be discussed in our chap-
ters on conformity, attitudes, and group
processes. To the social psychologist, how-
ever, social influence is much broader than
attempts by one person to change another Our thoughts, feelings, and actions are influenced by our immediate surroundings,
person’s behavior. Social influence shapes including the presence of other people—even mere strangers.
Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
The Project Gutenberg eBook of El imperio
jesuítico
 This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United
States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with
almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away
or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License
included with this ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you
are not located in the United States, you will have to check the
laws of the country where you are located before using this
eBook.

Title: El imperio jesuítico

Author: Leopoldo Lugones

Release date: March 1, 2021 [eBook #64668]

Most recently updated: October 18, 2024

Language: Spanish

Credits: Andrés V. Galia, Adrian Mastronardi, Sharon (srjfoo),

Santiago and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team
at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from
images generously made available by The Internet
Archive/Canadian Libraries)

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EL IMPERIO

JESUÍTICO ***
 NOTAS DEL TRANSCRIPTOR
En la versión de texto las palabras en itálicas están
indicadas con _guiones bajos_. Las palabras en
negritas están indicadas =así=.
La cubierta de libro fue agregada por el Transcriptor
y ha sido puesta en el dominio público.
El criterio utilizado para llevar a cabo esta
transcripción ha sido el de respetar las reglas de la
Real Academia Española vigentes cuando se publicó
la edición de la obra utilizada para esta
transcripción. El lector interesado puede consultar el
Mapa de Diccionarios Académicos de la Real
Academia Española.
Es por ello que palabras como vio, fue, dio, por
ejemplo, que en esa época llevaban acento
ortográfico, en esta transcipción aparecen escritas
con acento.
En la presente transcripción se adecuó la ortografía
de las mayúsculas acentuadas a la norma
establecida por la RAE, que estipula que las letras
mayúsculas deben escribirse con tilde si les
corresponde llevar tilde según las reglas de
acentuación gráfica del castellano, tanto si se trata
de palabras escritas en su totalidad con mayúsculas
como si se trata únicamente de la mayúscula inicial.
Algunas imágenes que se presentan en la versiones
HTML, EPUB y MOBI de la obra, en el libro original
estaban separadas en dos páginas. En esta
transcripción se han unido y ocupan una sola
página.
Errores evidentes de impresión y de puntuación han
sido corregidos.
El Índice de capítulos, incluido en la publicación
original al final, ha sido trasladado al principio por el
Transcriptor.
EL IMPERIO JESUÍTICO
EL IMPERIO JESUÍTICO
ENSAYO HISTÓRICO

POR

L. LUGONES

SEGUNDA EDICIÓN
CORREGIDA Y AUMENTADA

BUENOS AIRES
ARNOLDO MOEN Y HERMANO, EDITORES
Florida 323
1907
Imp. y estereotipia Casa Editorial Sopena.—Barcelona.
 PREFACIO DE LA SEGUNDA
EDICIÓN

La buena acogida que tuvo el presente libro en su primera edición,

completamente agotada, ha dado ánimo á mis editores, los señores
Arnoldo Moen y Hermano, para lanzar esta segunda, cuyo éxito
esperan con mayor confianza que yo, y con mejor cálculo sin duda.
He querido corresponder á su intento, corrigiendo escrupulosamente
mis páginas, enriqueciéndolas con nuevos datos y escribiendo otro
capítulo, donde trato de la política que los padres desarrollaron en el
Paraguay.
Reconozco que esta omisión desfavorecía mi primer trabajo; pero
como es tan raro en las letras salir perjudicado por exceso de
concisión, resulta que en el lapso de las dos ediciones, ha visto la luz
un documento tan importante como la «Historia de las Revoluciones
de la provincia del Paraguay», por el P. Lozano,[1] proporcionándome
una nueva y preciosa fuente, en la cual mucho bebí desde luego.
También ello me ha servido para definir mi opinión sobre Antequera
y sobre el carácter de la revolución que encabezó; de suerte que no
ha habido sino ventajas en aquel silencio, determinado, después de
todo, por una recóndita vacilación de mi criterio.
Se dirá que no es de historiador esta confesión; pero no me tengo
por tal, profesionalmente hablando, y desde Sócrates se ha hecho
fácil ya, la confesión de la propia ignorancia...
No quise escribir sino lo que sabia bien, quedándome siempre en la
conciencia, como carga asaz pesada, el remordimiento de no haberlo
sabido mejor.
Es, por otra parte, lo que ofrezco á mis lectores con mayor
confianza, por la fe que tengo en virtud tan principal como la
sinceridad. La dulzura del fruto, es condición de su madurez; y lo
tardío en ésta, lejos de perjudicar, encarece más bien el mérito de lo
sabroso.

Abril de 1907.
 PRÓLOGO

El Gobierno, en decreto de junio del año pasado, encargóme la

redacción de este libro, que por voluntad suya, y por mi propia
indicación, iba á ser una Memoria.
Los datos recogidos sobre el terreno, así como la bibliografía
consultada, fueron ampliando el proyecto primitivo, hasta formar la
obra que entrego á la consideración del lector. Habría podido,
ciñéndome estrictamente al plan oficial, ahorrar mi esfuerzo,
compensándolo con abundantes fotografías y datos estadísticos;
pero he creído interpretar los deseos del Excelentísimo señor
Ministro del Interior,[2] á quien debo esta distinción, agotando el
tema.
Así, la «Memoria» primitiva se ha convertido en un ensayo histórico,
al cual concurren la descripción geográfica y arqueológica, sin excluir
—y esto corre de mi cuenta—la apreciación crítica del fenómeno
estudiado.
En cuanto á las ilustraciones, he optado por concretarme á lo
pertinente, aunque resulte de apariencia menos lucida que esa vaga
profusión, cuyo abuso constituye una enfermedad pública; pero éste
no es un libro de viajes ni una disertación amena.
Los dibujos y planos que presento—entre los cuales sólo hay dos
fotografías,—tienden realmente á «ilustrar» el texto, sin esperar que
el lector se divierta; por lo demás, los datos incluidos en él sobran
hasta para guiar á los «turistas», si su intrépida ubicuidad llega á
derramarse por aquellos escombros...
He titulado este trabajo EL IMPERIO JESUÍTICO, porque, como verá el
lector, dicha clasificación cuadra mejor que ninguna á la organización
estudiada. Los jesuítas habíanla clasificado con el nombre de
República Cristiana, correcto también; pero la palabra «república»
apareja ahora un concepto democrático, enteramente distinto del
que corresponde á aquella sociedad.
Su carácter imperial fué ya notado, aplicándose también á un título,
entre otros por el jesuíta Bernardo Ibáñez, quien escribió en 1770,
bajo el nombre de «Reino Jesuítico del Paraguay», una obra contra
la orden de la cual había sido expulsado.
No necesito advertir al lector, que fuera de ésta, no hay otra
coincidencia entre mi libro y la diatriba del sacerdote rebelde; pues
no tengo para los jesuítas, y por de contado para los que ya no
existen en el Paraguay, cariño ni animadversión. Los odios históricos,
como la ojeriza contra Dios, son una insensatez que combate contra
el infinito ó contra la nada.
Creo inútil hablar de mi viaje por el territorio de las Misiones,
bastándome decir que no se limitó á la parte argentina; pues temo
que el lector vea en mí uno de esos viajeros que hacen del héroe
fácil, por la misma razón á la cual debe su prestigio «el mentir de las
estrellas».
Aprovecharé, sí, esta coyuntura, para agradecer en mi nombre y en
el de mis compañeros de exploración, sus finezas á las personas que
durante ella nos auxiliaron.
Ocupa el primer lugar el señor Juan J. Lanusse, gobernador de
Misiones y distinguido caballero que me ayudó con toda decisión. El
doctor Garmendia, Juez Letrado del Territorio, es también acreedor á
mi gratitud; y ella se extiende al señor Rafael Garmendia,
administrador de la Aduana; al ingeniero señor F. Fouilland; al Jefe
de Policía, señor Olmedo; á los comisarios de San José, Apóstoles y
Concepción, señores Silva, Rodríguez y Verón; al señor Gallardo,
Juez de Paz de San Carlos; al señor Castelli, administrador de la
colonia Apóstoles; al señor Augusto Gorordo, vecino de Concepción;
á los señores Noriega y García, comerciantes de Saracura; al señor
Caldeira, de Santa María; al señor Baumeister, cónsul argentino en
Villa Encarnación (Paraguay); al señor Zarza, Jefe político de Trinidad
en el mismo país; á la señorita Báez, maestra de escuela en el
mismo punto; al señor Chamorro, vecino de Jesús (Paraguay); al
señor Mariano Macaya, comerciante de Santo Tomás, y á los esposos
Frèdèric Villemagne, cuidadores de las ruinas de San Ignacio,
hospitalarios vecinos cuya generosidad es inolvidable.
En cuanto al territorio de Misiones, constituye, como es sabido, una
belleza nacional que no necesita mi recomendación.

Junio de 1903-mayo de 1904.

 NOTAS:
[1] Edición de la «Junta de Historia y Numismática Americana», benemérita de los
estudiosos entre los cuales humilde y agradecido me cuento.
[2] Dr. D. Joaquín V. González.
ÍNDICE
 ÍNDICE
CAPS. PÁGS.

PRÓLOGO 7
El país
I. 11
conquistador
El futuro
II. imperio y su 87
habitante
Las dos
III. 119
conquistas
La conquista
IV. 153
espiritual
La política
V. de los 195
Padres
Expulsión y
VI. 217
decadencia
VII. Las ruinas 235
EPÍLOGO 267
 I
El país conquistador.

Antes de describir la situación y condiciones de la conquista

espiritual realizada por los jesuítas sobre las tribus guaraníes,
conviene sintetizar en una ojeada el estado del país donde aquéllos
tuvieron origen y bajo cuya bandera ejecutaron su empresa, con el
fin de no hallarnos de repente en su presencia, sin los antecedentes
necesarios á toda investigación.
Ello es tanto más necesario, cuanto que hasta ahora el asunto se ha
debatido entre los elogios de los adictos y las diatribas de los
adversos—unos y otras sin mesura—pues para ésos y éstos la
verdad era una consecuencia de sus entusiasmos, no el objetivo
principal.
Tan escolásticos los clericales como los jacobinos, ambos adoptaron
una posición absoluta y una inflexible lógica para resolver el
problema, empequeñeciendo su propio criterio al encastillarse en tan
rígidos principios; pero es justo convenir en que el jacobinismo sufrió
la más cabal derrota, infligida por sus propias armas, vale decir el
humanitarismo y la libertad.
Producto de la misma tendencia á la cual combatía por metafísica y
fanática, el instrumento escolástico falló en su poder, tanto como
triunfaba en el del adversario para quien era habitual, puesto que
durante siglos había constituido su órgano de relación por
excelencia, cuando no su más perfecta arma defensiva.
Uno y otro descuidaron, sin embargo, el antecedente principal—la
filiación de la orden discutida y de la empresa que realizó.—Dando
por establecido que los jesuítas son absolutamente buenos ó
absolutamente malos, el estudio de su obra no era ya una
investigación, sino un alegato; resultando así que para unos, las
Misiones representan un dechado de perfección social y de sabiduría
política, mientras equivalen para los otros al más negro despotismo y
á la más dura explotación del esfuerzo humano.
No pretendo colocarme en el alabado justo medio, que los
metafísicos de la historia consideran garante de imparcialidad,
suponiendo á las dos exageraciones igual dosis de certeza, pues esto
constituiría una nueva forma de escolástica, siendo también posición
absoluta; algo más de verdad ha de haber en una ú otra, sin que
pertenezca totalmente á ninguna, pero es mi intención que el lector
y no yo saque las consecuencias del fenómeno descrito, y por bien
servido me daré si hay coincidencia.
Tampoco creo que reporte perjuicio á nadie el examen preliminar
antes indicado, y aun cuando así fuera, estoy completamente seguro
que no ha de causarlo á la verdad. El estudio de la conquista
requiere ese capítulo previo, que todas nuestras historias han
descuidado, y que da en síntesis, así como la semilla al árbol futuro,
el sucesivo problema de la Independencia. Lo más importante que
hay en historia, es el origen de los acontecimientos, si se quiere
explicarlos por medios humanos y clasificarlos en un orden
cualquiera, dependiendo de este concepto científico la rectitud de
relaciones entre el autor y el lector. Así la lógica viene á ser un
organismo fecundo, no una mera construcción dialéctica.
El conocimiento del estado en que se encontraba España al
emprender y realizar la conquista, resulta, pues, indispensable para
apreciar este fenómeno con claridad, puesto que fué naturalmente
una consecuencia de aquél.
Al descubrirse el Nuevo Mundo, España vacilaba entre el feudalismo
declinante y la nacionalidad naciente, como el resto de los países
europeos, agravada, sin embargo, esta situación de crisis, por un
fenómeno especial de la mayor importancia. Quiero referirme á la
impregnación morisca, que habían efectuado en su pueblo los ocho
siglos de dominación sarracena.
Es innecesario demostrar que ningún pueblo sufre en veinte
generaciones la conquista, sin resultar poco menos que mestizo del
conquistador. Por resistido que éste sea, por mucho que se le
aborrezca, á la larga establece relaciones inevitables con el vencido.
Ellas son tanto más rápidas, cuanto es en mayor grado superior la
civilización de aquél, pues une entonces al hecho consumado por la
fuerza, la seducción que ejercen las artes de la paz. Tal sucedió,
precisamente, con la conquista mahometana.
Sabido es que desde la confección y ejercicio de las armas,
elementos tan capitales entonces, hasta los principios de las ciencias
naturales, y las matemáticas introducidas por ellos en Europa, los
árabes sobrepujaron decididamente al pueblo avasallado,
estableciendo sobre él su dominio con tan decisiva ventaja. El
feudalismo facilitó la impregnación, al celebrar los señores
frecuentes alianzas con el enemigo común, para desfogar rencores ó
dirimir querellas de vecindad; y así como las cotas de nudos, que
trenzaban con lonjas brutas los guerreros godos, cayeron ante las
hojas de Damasco, la rudeza nativa cedió al contacto de la cultura
superior.
Rasgos étnicos que todavía duran, con mayor abundancia donde fué
más intensa la conquista y donde el ambiente es más propicio á su
conservación, sin dejar de revivir por esto en las otras regiones con
intermitencias suficientemente reveladoras; el idioma, es decir lo
último que ceden los pueblos conquistados, como lo demuestran
polacos y albaneses, invadido de tal modo, que ni la reacción
implícita en la adopción del dialecto aragonés y castellano como
lengua nacional, ni la transformación latina de los humanistas,
pudieron abolir desinencias, prefijos característicos, y hasta
elementos tan genuinamente nacionales como las expresiones
interjectivas, pues nuestro deprecatorio Ojalá es textualmente el «In
xa Alá» (¡si Dios quiere!) de los sarracenos. La misma nobleza
terciada de sangre judía, según lo propalaba un libelo
contemporáneo, el Tizón de la nobleza de Castilla, atribuido al
arzobispo Fonseca, que aun exagerando, por algo lo diría, así le
hubiera inducido, como se pretende, un resentimiento nobiliario:
todos éstos son elementos bastantes para demostrar la
impregnación.
La independencia fué un desprendimiento lógico del tronco semita,
el eterno fenómeno de la mayoría de edad que se produce en todos
los pueblos, mucho más que un conflicto de razas.
Comprendo que sea más dramático y más susceptible de inflamar al
patriotismo, aquel puñado de montañeses asturianos que empezó la
heroica reconquista; mas los aragoneses tienen cómo oponer, y por
iguales motivos, la cueva de San Juan de la Peña á la de Covadonga
y Garci Ximènez á don Pelayo...
Algo de eso hubo sin duda, pero las guerras de independencia nunca
son un arranque de aventureros; y en aquel choque, colaboró
decisivamente el mismo elemento semita, el árabe español, que
daba contra su raza por amor á su tierra natal. Tres siglos bastaron
para producir el mismo fenómeno con los españoles en América:
¡cuánto más no alcanzarían ocho en la Península, y mezclándose el
factor religioso para precipitar la separación!
El movimiento patriótico es, pues, bien explicable, sin necesidad de
recurrir á la guerra de razas, para dilucidar cómo España consiguió
su independencia del árabe, siendo substancialmente arábiga; pero
sin profundizar mayormente la tesis, puede sostenerse con verdad
que los dos pueblos en su largo contacto (la guerra lo es también,
hasta en términos específicos) se impregnaron mutuamente,
engendrando un tipo que, sin ser del todo semita, no era tampoco el
ario puro de los demás países de Europa.
Como es natural, los rasgos comunes de los antecesores se
robustecieron al sumarse, caracterizando fuertemente al nuevo tipo.
El proselitismo religioso-militar, que había suscitado en el Occidente
las Cruzadas y en el Oriente la inmensa expansión islámica; el
espíritu imprevisor y la altanera ociosidad característicos del
aventurero; la inclinación bélica que sintetizaba todas las virtudes en
el pundonor caballeresco, formaban ese legado. Rasgos semitas más
peculiares, fueron el fatalismo, la tendencia fantaseadora que suscitó
las novelas caballerescas, parientas tan cercanas de las Mil y Una
Noches;[3] y el patriotismo, que es más bien un puro odio al
extranjero, tan característico de España entonces como ahora.
Creo oportuno recordar á propósito que el semitismo español no era
puramente arábigo. Los judíos tenían en él buena parte, y sus
tendencias se manifiestan dominadoras en algunas peculiaridades,
como esa del patriotismo feroz.
Ellos y los árabes, resistieron cuanto les fué posible al destierro,
prueba evidente de que se hallaban harto bien en la Península.
Vencidos, perseguidos, humillados, sin esperanza de riqueza material
siquiera, sólo la atracción de la raza puede explicar su constancia.
Consideraban su patria á España, lo soportaban todo por vivir en ella
—no digamos años sino siglos después de la derrota,—sin la más
lejana idea de reconquista ya, dejando rastros de esta invencible
afección en toda la literatura contemporánea.
Los moros nunca abandonaron sus costumbres del todo, no digamos
ya en las Alpujarras donde disfrutaban de una autonomía casi
completa, sino en el resto de la Península y bajo su forzada corteza
de cristianos; igual sucedía con los hebreos, continuando esto,
profundamente, la impregnación que la guerra había abolido en la
superficie.
Además España, militarizada en absoluto por aquella secular guerra
de independencia, se encontró detenida en su progreso social; y
este estado semibárbaro, que luego trataré detalladamente, unido al
predominio del espíritu arábigo-medioeval antes mencionado, le dió
una capacidad extraordinaria para cualquier empresa, en la que el
ímpetu ciego, que es decir esencialmente militar, fuera condición de
la victoria.
Carlos V sueña entonces la monarquía universal, que no era sino una
transposición en el terreno político, del sueño de la Iglesia universal,
ó si se quiere, su realización consecutiva; pero la Iglesia sostenía
también un ideal semita, puesto que el Cristianismo, originariamente
hebreo, era una prolongación de la ley mosaica, y pretendía realizar
por cuenta propia las promesas de dominación universal, contenidas
en ella para los hijos de Israel.
No faltaron al absurdo proyecto las coincidencias, que en ciertos
momentos históricos parecen acumularse con milagrosa oportunidad
en torno de un hecho cualquiera, bien que ello no demuestre sino
una convergencia de causas más ó menos ocultas, al efecto que las
caracteriza. Así el desequilibrio morboso, necesario para concebir
como realizable ese sueño enfermizo también, tuvo en Carlos V y
Felipe II dos augustos representantes.
La hipocondría hereditaria,[4] que produjo en uno el místico desvarío
de la abdicación, y en el otro la torva displicencia que sombreó todas
sus horas, engendró en ambos la misma ambición desatinada, quizá
como una válvula de los tormentos atávicos; y así, fracasado el plan
del Emperador entre las ruinas de un mundo que se desmoronaba,
nació en Felipe II la idea del Imperio Cristiano. Era una reducción del
mismo sueño, después de todo grandioso, pues contaba para
efectuarse con el dominio de medio mundo. España y sus
posesiones constituían la base de aquel designio, que si fracasó en
su parte internacional, tuvo sobre el pueblo la influencia más
desastrosa.
Aquellos absolutistas, como nuestros demócratas de ahora,
pretendían conformar los acontecimientos humanos á principios
metafísicos, tomando por norma el ideal católico, del propio modo
que éstos pregonan su república universal sobre el concepto de una
fraternidad abstrusa. Ambos caminos que conducen fatalmente al
despotismo, como lo demostró tan claro el final imperialista de la
Revolución, trastornan en la mente de los pueblos toda noción de
progreso recto, y extravían á poco toda idea de libertad,
substituyéndola por la rigidez de un principio unitario, cuando su
desideratum racional es una constante variedad dentro del orden.
Los pueblos, que cuanto más ignorantes son, sienten más hondo el
influjo de las capas superiores, pues se encuentran más desprovistos
de medios de defensa y de apreciación, no tardan en conformar su
vida al principio dominante que se les sugiere como ideal;
proviniendo de aquí la importancia que tienen en su vida, las ideas
fundamentales cuyo respeto se les ha imbuido. Á los conceptos
falsos en la mente, corresponde casi siempre la falsedad de
conducta, pues ideas y sentimientos son como vasos comunicantes
en los que no puede alterarse parcialmente el nivel.
El Imperio Universal, y su sucedáneo el Imperio Cristiano, tuvieron
consecuencias desastrosas sobre el pueblo, como que pretendían la
supervivencia de un estado artificial; y de este modo, pronto
desaparecen á su sombra todas las virtudes que constituyen el
término medio común de las sociedades normales, para ser
reemplazadas por las condiciones heroicas, es decir de excepción,
necesarias al sostenimiento de un estado antinatural.
Por lo demás, la planta arraigó pronto, encontrando terreno propicio
en las tendencias dominantes del pueblo, pues aquellas dos
monstruosidades políticas fueron, ante todo, aventuras de paladines.
Bajo ese estado de crisis, mal cimentada aún la nacionalidad; el
derecho en pleno conflicto de los fueros consuetudinarios con la
unificación monárquica; el ideal absolutista en pugna con el
sentimiento federal; el feudalismo que caía, poderoso aún, y el
pueblo que se levantaba respetable; en esa crisis, el Descubrimiento
produjo una inundación de riquezas. No podían llegar en peor
momento para los destinos de la Península, pues fueron un tesoro
en poder de un adolescente.
El equilibrio á que tendían aquellos antagonismos, y que hubiera
llegado á establecerse después de las naturales oscilaciones, quedó
roto para siempre asegurando el triunfo de la política absolutista.
Floreció el pernicioso tema de la monarquía universal; y como el
éxito no estaba en relación con el esfuerzo, el pueblo, falto del
sensato reposo que da el trabajo para gozar de sus frutos, se
entregó ciegamente á la dilapidación de su lotería.
De tal modo, las tendencias de raza, el sentimiento religioso, el
concepto político, la misma obra de la independencia con su carácter
de militarismo exclusivo, la ignorancia general y el interés como
remate, constituyeron al pueblo español sobre un patrón heroico,
que sustituyó á la honradez con el pundonor y al deber con el
entusiasmo. Admirable máquina de guerra, la conquista formaba
naturalmente su ideal, y el destino le deparaba, con el
Descubrimiento, un mundo entero en qué realizarlo.
El siglo XVI fué el siglo del Conquistador. Al comenzar la Edad
Moderna, éste continuó el espíritu de la Edad Media. Obligado á ser
valeroso únicamente, pues era el defensor de la sociedad, que á la
sombra de sus armas trabajaba, y exento de todo otro esfuerzo y de
toda contribución, puesto que daba la de su sangre por labradores y
artesanos que costeaban gustosos su franquicia, todo se aunó para
constituirlo en ser privilegiado. El instinto aventurero que las
Cruzadas aguzaron hasta la locura, le dominaba enteramente. La
bravura, que después de todo era la única condición de sus
empresas y la garantía de su éxito, constituyó para él un culto; y
siendo solamente bravo, degeneró con toda facilidad en cruel. La
misma cortesía, que fué el rasgo amable de su condición romántica,
se tuvo por nada mientras no pudo tributar vidas de hombre á la
prez de la dama preferida. Poco á poco, los trofeos de honor se
convirtieron en su único salario, y como la guerra lo justificaba todo,
el pillaje fué para él ocupación lícita; despojó á mano armada, los
derechos más írritos, como el de fractura que enriqueció á tantos
feudos ribereños, consagraron sus demasías, y la protección á los
bandoleros, flor de sus huestes, fué tan celosamente conservada,
que sólo bajo Felipe II, las Cortes de Tarazona dieron á los oficiales
reales potestad de penetrar en los señoríos persiguiendo
malhechores.
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