BIOLOGY FORM THREE – THE CONCEPT OF REGULATION

Regulation is a dynamic biological process that continuously monitors and responds to

changes in the body. It ensures that the body can detect any internal or external change and take
action to restore balance.
The external environment of organisms (such as air, water, and land) constantly changes.
Examples of changes include: Temperature, Water availability, Salinity (amount of salt)
Despite these changes, organisms must keep their internal conditions stable. This stable
internal condition is necessary for survival and proper functioning of cells.

INTERNAL VS EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT

Ÿ Internal Environment: This refers to the fluid that surrounds body cells, such as:
Interstitial fluid, Intercellular fluid, Tissue fluid
These fluids provide nutrients and remove waste from cells.

Ÿ External Environment: This refers to the surroundings outside the organism, which can
be: Marine (saltwater), Freshwater, Terrestrial (land)

What is Homeostasis?
Homeostasis is the process by which an organism maintains constant internal conditions, even
when the external environment changes.
It is a type of regulation that: Keeps internal conditions like temperature, water levels, and
chemicals balanced. essential for life and health.
Ÿ Regulation controls the rate, frequency, or extent of biological processes in the body.
Ÿ It helps to: Prevent harmful changes, Maintain balance and stability inside the body.

MECHANISMS OF REGULATION
There are two main systems that regulate body functions:
Nervous System
Ÿ Uses nerve signals to detect and respond quickly to changes.
Ÿ Example: pulling your hand away from something hot.
Hormonal (Endocrine) System
Ÿ Uses hormones (chemical messengers) to control body functions over a longer time.

Ÿ Example: insulin controlling sugar levels in the blood.

Examples of Regulation (Homeostasis)
Ÿ Carbon dioxide level control in the blood: Too much CO₂ is removed through breathing.
Ÿ Body temperature control: Maintained through sweating or shivering.
Ÿ Water and mineral balance: Controlled through the kidneys.

Ÿ Sugar levels in blood: Controlled by insulin and glucagon.

Why Regulation is Important

Regulation is essential for the survival of living organisms because it helps maintain stable
internal conditions, allowing cells, tissues, and organs to work properly.
Here are the key reasons why regulation is important:
Ÿ Maintains Favorable Conditions
Ÿ Regulation keeps the tissue fluids (surrounding body cells) in a stable state.
Ÿ This allows cells, tissues, and organs to function efficiently.
Ÿ Removal of Body Wastes

Ÿ It helps the body eliminate excess materials like: Water, Salts, Carbon dioxide
Ÿ Safe Storage of Excess Materials Excess substances that cannot be removed immediately
are converted and stored safely. Examples: Excess sugar is stored as glycogen in the liver
and muscles. Extra fats are stored as fat deposits which also help protect organs like the
heart and kidneys.

HOMEOSTATIC MECHANISMS
Homeostatic mechanisms are the systems the body uses to maintain stable internal conditions
(homeostasis). They involve coordination between various body organs and systems.
To work properly, these mechanisms have three main components:
1. Receptor (Sensor)
Ÿ A receptor detects changes in the body’s internal or external environment.
Ÿ It senses a stimulus (any detectable change that may require a response).
Example:
Ÿ Chemoreceptors detect changes in blood pH.
Ÿ Baroreceptors detect blood pressure.
2. Control Centre (Integrator)
Ÿ The control Centre receives signals from the receptors
Ÿ It processes this information and decides on a response.
Ÿ The most important control Centre in humans is the hypothalamus in the brain.
Ÿ It helps in regulating temperature, hormone release, water balance, and more.
3. Effector
Ÿ An effector is an organ or cell that carries out the response to restore balance.
Ÿ It receives instructions from the control Centre and works to correct the change.

Types of Feedback in Homeostasis

Homeostasis uses two types of feedback mechanisms to control responses:
A. Negative Feedback Mechanism
Ÿ Reverses the change in the body.
Ÿ It reduces the effect of the stimulus and brings the body back to normal.
Examples of Negative Feedback:
Ÿ Blood Pressure Regulation →Baroreceptors detect high blood pressure → hypothalamus
sends signals → heart rate slows, blood vessels widen → pressure returns to normal.
Ÿ Thermoregulation →Body temperature rises → sweating → body cools down.
Ÿ Blood Sugar Regulation→ blood sugar rises → insulin released →
sugar stored → level returns to normal.
Ÿ Osmoregulation →Kidneys adjust water retention based on hydration level.
B. Positive Feedback Mechanism
Ÿ Amplifies or increases the effect of the stimulus.
Ÿ The process continues until the final goal is achieved.
Examples of Positive Feedback:
Ÿ Childbirth →Uterus contracts → stretches → more oxytocin released → stronger
contractions → continues until delivery.
Ÿ Lactation →Baby sucks → more milk produced → continues as baby sucks more.
Ÿ Ovulation →Oestrogen increases → triggers more LH and FSH → leads to ovulation.
Ÿ Blood Clotting →Platelet’s release chemicals → attract more platelets → clot forms.

Types of Regulation
Organisms maintain a constant internal environment through various regulatory mechanisms:
Ÿ Thermoregulation (temperature control)
Ÿ Blood sugar regulation
Ÿ Osmoregulation (water balance)

Thermoregulation
Thermoregulation is the process by which an organism maintains a constant body
temperature, even when the external temperature changes.
The body uses a thermoregulatory system to adjust temperature when it gets too hot or too cold.
Types of Animals Based on Thermoregulation
1. Homoiotherms (Endotherms)
Maintain a constant body temperature.
Generate heat from inside the body through metabolism.
Examples: Mammals and birds.
The word "homoiotherm" comes from Greek:
Homo = same
Thermo = heat
2. Poikilotherms (Ectotherms)
Body temperature changes with the environment.
Get most of their heat from the outside.
Examples: Reptiles, amphibians, fish.
The word "poikilotherm" comes from Greek:
Poikilos = various
Thermo = heat
Most animals, except birds and mammals, are ectotherms.

Temperature Regulation in Homoiotherms

Homoiotherms (warm-blooded animals like birds and mammals) must keep their body
temperature constant even when the environment changes.
How Homoiotherms Detect Temperature Changes
Ÿ Sensory cells in the skin detect temperature changes.
Ÿ These cells send nerve impulses to the brain’s thermoregulatory centre.
Ÿ The thermoregulatory centre (in the brain) interprets the changes and sends instructions to
the body to: Increase body temperature (if it's too cold), or Decrease body temperature (if
it's too hot)
Heat Loss in Cold Surroundings
When the environment is colder than the body: The body loses heat through:
Ÿ Radiation (heat lost from the skin)
Ÿ Evaporation (sweat turning into vapor)
Ÿ Conduction (heat moving into cooler surfaces)
To maintain normal temperature, the body responds in the following ways:
Body Responses to Cold (to Raise Temperature)
Ÿ Shivering – Muscles contract rapidly to produce heat.
Ÿ Vasoconstriction – Blood vessels near the skin narrow to reduce heat loss.
Ÿ Erection of body hairs – Hairs stand up (goosebumps) to trap air and keep warmth.
Ÿ Reduced sweating – To prevent loss of heat through evaporation.
Ÿ Increased metabolic rate – More energy is produced inside the body to generate heat.

Increased Metabolic Rate (Response to Cold)

When it's cold, the body increases metabolic activities to produce more heat.
Ÿ Carbohydrates and fats are broken down to release energy.
Ÿ Some of this energy is released as heat, which warms the body.
Ÿ Main organs involved: liver and skeletal muscles.
Ÿ Hormones from the thyroid, adrenal, and pituitary glands increase metabolism.
Ÿ More heat is produced to restore normal body temperature.
Ÿ More food is needed to support the increased metabolic rate. This is why animals in cold
climates eat more than those in warm climates.
Shivering (Response to Cold)
Shivering is a response to cold temperatures. It involves involuntary, rhythmic contractions of
skeletal muscles. These muscle contractions produce heat, helping to raise body temperature.
Shivering is an automatic and temporary way to generate body heat.

Vasoconstriction (Response to Cold)

Vasoconstriction is the narrowing of superficial (near-skin) blood vessels, especially
arterioles.
Ÿ It occurs when the animal is exposed to cold conditions.
Ÿ Blood flow to the skin is reduced, helping to minimize heat loss.
Ÿ More blood flows beneath the insulating layer of subcutaneous fat, conserving body heat.
Ÿ This process helps maintain normal body temperature.

Sweating (Response to Heat)

Sweating is triggered by nerve impulses sent to the sweat glands under the skin.
Ÿ The glands increase sweat production when body temperature rises.
Ÿ Evaporation of sweat from the skin surface absorbs heat, cooling the body.
Ÿ This process helps to reduce body temperature.
Ÿ Sweating stops or reduces during cold conditions to conserve heat.
Relaxation of Hair Erector Muscles (Response to Heat)
When it’s warm, the hair erector muscles relax. This causes hairs to lie flat on the skin.
As a result, the layer of insulating air is reduced. This allows more heat to escape from the
skin surface. The body cools down as heat is lost.
Panting and Licking
Panting is a cooling mechanism in dogs and birds.
Ÿ During panting, the animal breathes rapidly with the mouth open and tongue out.
Ÿ This allows air to move across moist surfaces in the lungs, throat, and mouth.
Ÿ Evaporation of moisture from these surfaces absorbs heat, cooling the body.
Ÿ Dogs have sweat glands only on their feet pads and nose, so panting helps cool them.
Licking is another cooling method where animals spread saliva over their body surface.
Ÿ Evaporation of saliva cools the body in animals that do not sweat much.
Ÿ Examples: rabbits lick their front legs and chest; cats lick their front paws and spread saliva
on their ears.

Body Extremities
Body extremities include external parts such as limbs, ears, tails, genitalia, and antennae.
Ÿ Animals in hot climates often have large extremities (e.g., large ears, bushy tails).
Ÿ These extremities are well supplied with blood vessels and have short hairs, making them
efficient for heat loss.
Ÿ Animals in hot environments typically have less subcutaneous fat, which reduces insulation
and promotes cooling.
Ÿ Subcutaneous fat, found beneath the skin, helps in insulation but is minimized in hot-
climate animals.
Ÿ In animals like camels and some cattle breeds, fat is stored in localized areas like humps to
reduce insulation elsewhere.

Behavioral Mechanisms in Thermoregulation

Some animals regulate body temperature through behavioral adaptations.
Ÿ Animals like mice, rodents, and bats are nocturnal—active at night and inactive during the
day.
Ÿ Nocturnal behavior helps avoid high daytime temperatures, minimizing metabolic activity
during the hottest parts of the day.
Ÿ This behavior reduces heat production and helps in maintaining a cooler body
temperature.

Temperature Regulation in Poikilotherms

Poikilotherms are animals that cannot regulate their internal body temperature
physiologically. Their body temperature changes with the environmental temperature.
Response to Cold Conditions
When the temperature drops, poikilotherms: Lose heat to the environment. Experience a drop-
in metabolic rate, become inactive and They risk being overcooled.
Ÿ To cope with cold, they: Move away from cold areas and Hibernate (enter a deep sleep to
conserve energy).

Response to Hot Conditions

When the temperature rises, poikilotherms: Gain heat from the surroundings, experience an
increased metabolic rate, Become active. And Prolonged exposure to heat can lead to
overheating and death.
Ÿ To avoid this, they: Move to cooler areas, Hibernate in burrows or nests.

Behavioral Mechanisms of Thermoregulation

Sun Basking
Used to gain heat from sunlight.
Animals like reptiles and amphibians spread out their bodies to increase heat absorption.
When it becomes too hot, they hide in shade or enter water to cool down.

Hibernation
Occurs during cold conditions (winter).
Animals enter deep sleep with very low metabolic activity and slow heart rate.
Helps conserve energy and reduce food and oxygen usage.
Animals without fur or fat migrate instead of hibernating.

Aestivation (in Poikilotherms)

Aestivation is a form of dormancy that occurs during hot and dry conditions
It is similar to hibernation but takes place in response to high temperatures.
During aestivation:
Ÿ Animals reduce their metabolic activities.
Ÿ They become inactive to conserve energy.
Ÿ Body temperature regulation slows down.
Ÿ Animals hide in nests or burrows, or rest in shady or cool places.
Ÿ This adaptation helps them survive extreme heat and dryness by avoiding dehydration and
overheating.

Migration
Movement from cold regions to warmer regions during extreme conditions.
Helps avoid temperature extremes when animals cannot hibernate.

Huddling (in Poikilotherms)

Huddling is the act of animals gathering or crowding closely together in a group.
It is a behavioral mechanism to help regulate body temperature in cold conditions.
The close body contact helps to:
Ÿ Increase body temperature.
Ÿ Reduce heat loss to the cold environment.
In cold regions, animals often:
Ÿ Are active during the day.
Ÿ Huddle together at night to conserve heat.
This behavior is common in animals that would otherwise lose heat quickly when exposed alone
to cold air.

Advantages of Homoiotherms
Ÿ Stable Body Temperature – Their body temperature remains constant regardless of
environmental conditions.
Ÿ Wide Habitat Range – Can exploit a wide variety of habitats due to temperature regulation.
Ÿ High Metabolic Rate – Allows them to stay active throughout their life.
Ÿ Consistent Enzyme Activity – Enzyme-controlled reactions continue without interruption
due to stable internal temperature.
Ÿ Faster Response to Stimuli – Respond more quickly than poikilotherms.

Disadvantages of Homoiotherms
Ÿ High Food Consumption – Require large amounts of food to generate internal heat.
Ÿ Need High-Calorie Diet – Especially in cold climates, they must consume food rich in fats
to maintain warmth.
Ÿ Energy-Expensive Temperature Regulation – Maintaining body temperature, especially
during migration or in cold climates, uses a lot of energy.
Ÿ Migration is Costly – Sometimes they must migrate to avoid extreme conditions, which
consumes additional energy.

Advantages of Poikilotherms
Ÿ Low Food Consumption – They do not need to generate internal heat, so they require less
food.
Ÿ Behavioral Temperature Regulation – Can regulate body temperature through behaviors
like hibernation, sun basking, and burrowing.
Disadvantages of Poikilotherms
Ÿ Low Metabolic Rate – Leads to inactivity when external temperatures are low.
Ÿ Inactivity in Cold Conditions – May become sluggish or go into hibernation, which can
sometimes result in death.
Ÿ Slow Response to Stimuli – Due to dependence on external temperature, their reactions are
slower.

Concept of Osmoregulation in Mammals

Osmoregulation is the process of controlling the concentrations of water and mineral salts in
the body to maintain a stable osmotic pressure. By maintaining osmotic pressure:
Ÿ Ensures that physiological processes operate efficiently.
Ÿ Maintains a constant internal environment for proper cell functioning.

Mechanism:
Achieved by: Removing excess water and solutes (salts).
Ÿ Water movement depends on the salt concentration between blood and cells:
Ÿ High salt concentration in blood → water moves out of cells into blood.
Ÿ High salt concentration in cells → water moves from blood into cells.

Consequences of Osmotic Imbalance:

Ÿ If intercellular fluid has lower osmotic pressure than cells:
Water enters cells → cells swell and may burst.
Ÿ If intercellular fluid has higher osmotic pressure:
Water leaves cells → cells shrink.

Effect of Imbalance:
Both swelling and shrinking of cells disrupt biological processes.
Factors Affecting the Content of Salts and Water in the Body
Ÿ Environmental Temperature:
Ÿ Hot conditions:
Increased sweating → loss of water and salts.
May lead to dehydration → osmotic pressure rises.
Stimulates osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus → pituitary gland releases ADH.
 ADH increases permeability of distal convoluted tubules and collecting ducts in kidneys →
more water reabsorbed → water balance restored.
Ÿ Cold conditions:
Sweating reduced → less water and salt loss.
Water content remains more stable.
Ÿ Water Intake:
High water intake lowers osmotic pressure.
Pituitary gland is less stimulated → reduced secretion of ADH
Less water reabsorbed by kidneys → more water excreted in urine.
Ÿ Type of Food Consumed:
Foods affect the amount of water and salts entering the body.
Succulent foods (e.g., watermelon, cucumber) and drinking lots of water → increase body
water content.

Mechanisms of Osmoregulation in Mammals

Ÿ Anti-Diuretic Hormone (ADH / Vasopressin):
Ÿ Produced by the pituitary gland.
Ÿ Function: Regulates water balance in the body.
Ÿ When osmotic pressure rises (due to water loss):

Ÿ More ADH is secreted into the bloodstream.

Ÿ Increases permeability of distal convoluted tubules and collecting ducts in kidneys.

Ÿ More water is reabsorbed into the blood → urine becomes concentrated.

Ÿ When osmotic pressure falls (due to excess water):

Ÿ Less ADH is secreted.

Ÿ Permeability of kidney tubules decreases.

Ÿ Less water reabsorbed → large amount of dilute urine is excreted.

Ÿ Aldosterone:

Ÿ Secreted by the adrenal glands.

Ÿ Function: Regulates salt (Na⁺ and Cl⁻) levels in the body.

Ÿ When salt ion concentration is low in the blood:

Ÿ Aldosterone is released.

Ÿ Stimulates reabsorption of sodium and

chloride ions in the kidney tubules and loop of Henle.

Ÿ Helps retain salts and conserve water.

Ÿ Example – Camel Adaptation:

Ÿ Camels have very long loops of Henle.

Ÿ This allows maximum reabsorption of water and salts.

Ÿ Enables camels to survive in dry environments by minimizing water loss.

Mechanisms of Osmoregulation in Mammals

Osmoregulation is regulated mainly by two hormones:

Ÿ Anti-Diuretic Hormone (ADH)

Ÿ Aldosterone

1. Anti-Diuretic Hormone (ADH / Vasopressin)

Ÿ Produced by: Pituitary gland

Ÿ Function: Controls water balance by regulating kidney function

When the body is dehydrated (high osmotic pressure):

Ÿ More ADH is secreted into the bloodstream

Ÿ Effect on kidneys:

Ÿ Increases permeability of distal convoluted tubules & collecting ducts

Ÿ More water is reabsorbed into the bloodstream

Ÿ Less urine is produced (urine becomes concentrated)

When the body has excess water (low osmotic pressure):

Ÿ Less ADH is secreted

Ÿ Effect on kidneys:

Ÿ Decreases permeability of kidney tubules

Ÿ Less water is reabsorbed

Ÿ More dilute urine is excreted

2. Aldosterone

Ÿ Produced by: Adrenal glands

Ÿ Function: Regulates salt (Na⁺ and Cl⁻) concentration in the blood

When salt levels are low:

Ÿ Aldosterone is released into the

bloodstream

Ÿ Effect on kidneys:

Ÿ Stimulates reabsorption of sodium and chloride ions

Ÿ Helps maintain salt balance

Ÿ Increases water retention indirectly (water follows salt)

3. Example: Camel Adaptation

Ÿ Camels have long loops of Henle in their kidneys

Ÿ This adaptation:

Ÿ Increases reabsorption of water and salts

Ÿ Minimizes water loss in urine

Ÿ Enables survival in dry, arid environments

Regulation of pH in Body Fluids

What is pH?

Ÿ pH is the negative logarithm of hydrogen ion (H⁺) concentration.

Ÿ It measures how acidic or basic a solution is.

Normal pH Range in Mammals:

Ÿ Maintained between 7.2 and 7.4.

Ÿ This range is optimum for enzyme activity and proper biological functions.
Causes of pH Imbalance

Ÿ Respiration By-products (increase acidity):

Ÿ Carbon dioxide (CO₂) forms carbonic acid in blood.

Ÿ Pyruvic acid and lactic acid are also produced.

Ÿ These increase H⁺ ions, lowering pH (more acidic).

Ÿ Deamination in the Liver (increases alkalinity):

Ÿ Produces ammonium ions (NH₄⁺).

Ÿ These raise the pH (more basic).

Mechanism of pH Regulation

Role of the Kidneys (Distal Convoluted Tubule):

Ÿ When pH falls (more acidic):

Ÿ Kidneys excrete excess H⁺ ions into the glomerular filtrate.

Ÿ This lowers H⁺ concentration in the blood, raising pH back to normal.

Why pH Regulation is Important:

Ÿ Prevents enzyme denaturation

Ÿ Maintains metabolic functions

Ÿ Ensures stability of cellular activities

When pH raises in the body (meaning the body fluids become more alkaline or less acidic), the
following happens:

1. Hydrogen ion concentration decreases:

Ÿ High pH means fewer hydrogen ions (H⁺) in the body fluids.

2. Enzymes are affected:

Ÿ Many enzymes work best in the normal pH range of 7.2 to 7.4.

Ÿ If pH rises too much, enzymes may become less active or denatured, disrupting metabolic
reactions.

3. Kidney response to high pH:

Ÿ Kidneys reduce excretion of H⁺ ions.

Instead, the kidneys may retain H⁺ ions to lower the pH back to normal.

Ÿ Less bicarbonate is reabsorbed, helping to reduce alkalinity.

4. Effect on respiration:

Ÿ The rate of breathing may slow down, causing CO₂ to build up in the blood.

Ÿ CO₂ combines with water to form carbonic acid, which lowers pH.
Regulation of Blood Sugar Level

1. Importance

Ÿ Blood glucose must be maintained between 90–100 mg per 100 ml of blood.

Ÿ If too high or too low, body cells (especially the brain) cannot function properly.

2. Source of Glucose

Ÿ Glucose comes from digestion of carbohydrates.

Ÿ It is absorbed into the blood through

active transport in the intestines.

3. Fluctuations

Ÿ Before meals: may fall to 80 mg/100 ml.

Ÿ After heavy carbohydrate intake: may rise to 140 mg/100 ml.

4. Main Organ Involved

Ÿ Pancreas: maintains blood sugar level using hormones.

5. Hormones Involved

Ÿ Both hormones are made in the islets of Langerhans:

Ÿ Alpha cells: secrete glucagon.

Ÿ Beta cells: secrete insulin.

Functions of the Hormones

A. Insulin (lowers blood sugar)

Ÿ Secreted when blood sugar is high.

Ÿ Functions:

Ÿ Stimulates body cells (except brain) to take in glucose from the blood.

Ÿ Converts glucose to glycogen (stored in liver & muscles).

Ÿ Prevents conversion of amino acids and glycerol to glucose.

B. Glucagon (raises blood sugar)

Ÿ Secreted when blood sugar is low.

Ÿ Functions:

Ÿ Stimulates liver cells to convert glycogen to glucose.

Ÿ Releases glucose into the blood.

6. Liver Role

Ÿ Stores glucose as glycogen.

Ÿ Responds to insulin (to store glucose) and glucagon (to release glucose).

7. Control Mechanism

Ÿ Regulated through negative feedback:

Ÿ High glucose → insulin released → lowers glucose.

Ÿ Low glucose → glucagon released → raises glucose.

HYPOGLYCEMIA (Low Blood Sugar)

Definition

Ÿ Hypoglycemia is a condition where the level of glucose in the blood drops abnormally
low.
Ÿ It disrupts the body’s ability to supply sufficient energy, especially to the brain.

1. Causes of Hypoglycemia

Ÿ Drug use (e.g., insulin overdose in diabetics).

Ÿ Hormone deficiencies.

Ÿ Tumors affecting hormone production.

Ÿ Organ failure (kidney, liver, or heart).

Ÿ Strenuous exercise right after eating.

Ÿ Gastrointestinal surgery affecting nutrient absorption.

Ÿ Poor diet (low carbohydrate intake or irregular meals).

2. Symptoms of Hypoglycemia

Ÿ Brain-related symptoms (first to appear):

Ÿ Headache

Ÿ Blurred vision or dizziness

Ÿ Slurred speech
Ÿ Seizures

Ÿ Coma

Ÿ Other common symptoms:

Ÿ Excessive sweating

Ÿ Trembling

Ÿ Anxiety or depression

Ÿ Heart palpitations

Ÿ Frequent hunger

3. Effects of Hypoglycemia

Ÿ Impaired body functions due to lack of glucose.

Ÿ Severe effects:

Ÿ Coma

Ÿ Permanent brain damage

Ÿ Death (if untreated)

HYPERGLYCEMIA (High Blood Sugar)

Definition

Ÿ A condition where the glucose concentration in the blood is above normal.

Ÿ Common in individuals with diabetes mellitus, where insulin secretion is insufficient or

absent.

1. Causes of Hyperglycemia

A. Diabetes Mellitus

Ÿ Caused by insulin deficiency from the pancreas.

Ÿ Leads to:

Ÿ Failure of glucose to diffuse into body cells.

Ÿ High blood glucose levels (400–800 mg/100ml).

Ÿ Glucosuria – glucose in urine (above

180 mg/100ml blood exceeds kidney reabsorption capacity).

Ÿ Polyuria – excessive urination due to glucose drawing water into urine.

Ÿ Polydipsia – excessive thirst caused by water loss.

B. Other Causes

Ÿ Obesity – Excess white fat reduces glucose absorption and utilization.

Ÿ Eating disorders (e.g., bulimia nervosa) – Can interfere with glucose metabolism.

2. Symptoms of Hyperglycemia (and Diabetes Mellitus)

Ÿ Frequent hunger

Ÿ Excessive thirst (polydipsia)

Ÿ Frequent urination (polyuria)

Ÿ Blurred vision

Ÿ Fatigue and weakness

Ÿ Weight loss

Ÿ Slow wound healing

Ÿ Dry mouth and itchy skin

Ÿ Recurrent infections (e.g., yeast infections, groin rashes, ear infections)

Ÿ Impotence in males
3. Effects of Hyperglycemia

A. Neurological Effects

Ÿ Increased cerebral lactate → causes brain tissue acidosis

Ÿ Disruption of blood-brain barrier

Ÿ Cerebral oedema – swelling of the brain due to fluid accumulation

Ÿ Worsens stroke outcomes by affecting cerebrovascular reactivity

B. Urinary Effects

Ÿ Glucosuria – glucose in urine

Ÿ Polyuria – excess urination

Ÿ Dehydration – due to water loss with glucose

C. Long-Term Complications

Ÿ Even with insulin, long-term diabetes can lead to:

Ÿ Kidney failure
Ÿ Vision loss

Ÿ Nerve damage

Ÿ Heart problems
DIABETES INSIPIDUS

Definition:

Ÿ A disorder caused by the failure of the pituitary gland to produce sufficient Anti-Diuretic
Hormone (ADH), also known as vasopressin.

Cause:

Ÿ Deficiency or absence of ADH production by the pituitary gland.

Effect on the Body:

Ÿ Without ADH, the kidneys cannot reabsorb water efficiently.

Ÿ This results in the excretion of large volumes of dilute urine (up to 20 litres/day).

Symptoms:

Ÿ Polyuria – excessive urination

Ÿ Dehydration – due to high water loss

Ÿ Excessive thirst (polydipsia)

Ÿ Craving for cold or watery foods and drinks

Management:

Ÿ Increased water intake to replace lost fluids

Ÿ Medical treatment with synthetic ADH (in some cases)

HOMEOSTASIS IN PLANTS

Definition:

Ÿ Homeostasis in plants is the ability to maintain a stable internal environment despite

changes in the external environment.

Importance:

Ÿ Essential for survival, growth, and functioning of plant cells.

Ÿ Helps plants adapt to changing environmental conditions.

Key Structures and Mechanisms:

1. Leaves:

Ÿ Major organs for homeostasis.

Ÿ Contain epidermis which:

Ÿ Protects internal tissues.

Ÿ Allows exchange of materials (gases,

water vapor).

2. Stomata (singular: stoma):

Ÿ Small pores mostly on the underside of leaves.

Ÿ Open and close to regulate:

Ÿ Gas exchange – CO₂ in, O₂ out (used in photosynthesis).

Ÿ Water balance – control water loss through transpiration.

How Stomata Contribute to Homeostasis: Open stomata: allow carbon dioxide in for
photosynthesis.
Ÿ Closed stomata: reduce water loss during dry or hot conditions.
Ÿ Help maintain optimum water levels and gas balance, ensuring plant cells function
properly.