N4 Mechanotechnics

NANDE FIHLA
MLUNGISI MDOVU
DUMISANI TANGIRAI

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 Pearson South Africa (Pty) Ltd
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First published in 2020

ISBN 9781485717485 (print)

ISBN 9781485718468 (epdf)

Publisher: Amelia van Reenen

Managing editor: Ulla Schüler
Editor: Hugh Monteith
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Artwork: Illana Dillon
Book design: Pearson Media Hub
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Cover artwork: Dmitry Kalinovsky. Shutterstock
Typesetting: Stacey Gibson
Printed by xxxx printers, [city]

Acknowledgements:

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 Module 16
Contents
Module 1 Workshop layout
Unit 1 Introduction to workshop layout............................................ 2
Unit 2 Types of production.................................................................. 5
Unit 3 Factory layout........................................................................... 7
Unit 4 Graphic layout techniques....................................................... 9
Unit 5 Considerations when placing machines in a factory............ 12

Module 2 Metal protection

Unit 1 Introduction to corrosion and its prevention....................... 18
Unit 2 Classification of corrosion...................................................... 19
Unit 3 Forms of corrosion.................................................................. 20
Unit 4 Corrosion tests........................................................................ 22
Unit 5 Metal protection processes.................................................... 25
Unit 6 Surface preparation for painting.......................................... 27
Unit 7 Painting processes.................................................................. 29

Module 3 Lubrication
Unit 1 Classification of lubricants..................................................... 36
Unit 2 Fluid film bearings.................................................................. 38
Unit 3 Selection of lubricants............................................................ 39
Unit 4 Lubrication devices................................................................. 40
Unit 5 Types of lubricants and their uses......................................... 44

Module 4 Precision measuring of machine parts

Unit 1 Basic principles of precision measuring................................ 48
Unit 2 Measuring tapers using precision rollers.............................. 49
Unit 3 Determining tapers of taper rings........................................ 57
Unit 4 Determining measurements for dovetails............................ 59
Unit 5 Sine bars.................................................................................. 62

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 Module 5 Gear drives
Unit 1 Introduction to gear drives.................................................... 70
Unit 2 Gear terminology................................................................... 71
Unit 3 Simple and compound gear trains........................................ 72
Unit 4 Epicyclic gear train................................................................. 81
Unit 5 Uses for epicyclic gears........................................................... 92

Module 6 Belt drives

Unit 1 Introduction to belt drives..................................................... 96
Unit 2 Belt drive calculations............................................................ 98

Module 7 Hydraulic systems

Unit 1 Basic principles of fluid statics............................................. 114
Unit 2 Basic principles of fluid dynamics........................................ 116
Unit 3 Energy stored in fluids......................................................... 117
Unit 4 Bernoulli’s theorem.............................................................. 119
Unit 5 Friction losses in pipes.......................................................... 126
Unit 6 Measurement of flow.......................................................... 133
Unit 7 Venturi meters...................................................................... 139

Module 8 Bearings
Unit 1 Loads acting on shafts.......................................................... 146
Unit 2 Bearing load distribution..................................................... 152
Unit 3 Mean load............................................................................. 153
Unit 4 Equivalent load..................................................................... 154

Module 9 Metal cutting machines

Unit 1 Introduction to metal cutting machines............................. 164
Unit 2 Metal cutting machine calculations.................................... 170

Glossary .......................................................................................... 182

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 Module

1 Workshop layout

What is covered?
This module will help you understand how to plan a workshop
layout by giving you the key principles that must be followed.
It will also give you the advantages and disadvantages brought
about by each workshop layout type, and the various types of
construction and processes available.

Learning outcomes

After studying this module, you should be able to:

Unit 1
■■ List the advantages and disadvantages of good workshop layout.
■■ List the factors that should be considered in the design of
workshop layout.
Unit 2
■■ Explain the differences between mass, individual, and batch
production.
Unit 3
■■ Draw diagrams to illustrate the differences between the
following processes of layout – product, fixed, and process.
Unit 4
■■ Draw two-dimensional and three-dimensional models.
Unit 5
■■ Explain how materials are handled in the workshop.
■■ Explain what is meant by each of the following requirements
of process layout:
■■ Economic placing of various sections
■■ Highly skilled workers
■■ Adaptability of inspection methods
■■ Thorough planning of production.

 1

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 Unit 1: Introduction to workshop layout

LEARNING OUTCOMES
■■ List the advantages and disadvantages of good workshop layout.
■■ List the factors that should be considered in the design of workshop layout.

Introduction
A workshop may be defined as a room, a series of rooms, or a building that provides
Keywords
both the space and the tools that are required for the fabrication or repair of
fabrication making
manufactured goods. When you plan a workshop, you need to take various factors
or creation
into consideration. The main objective is to make sure that raw materials are
optimum best processed into finished products with the optimum use of time, space, and resources.
possible way to Workshop layout is the way in which machines, work benches, storage space,
reach success staff facilities and administrative offices in a workshop are placed in relation to
one other. To have a successful workshop, prior knowledge, experience, and also
thorough planning is required. Some of the main factors to consider when planning
a successful workshop layout will be dealt with in the sections that follow.

There are many challenges associated with a poorly-planned workshop, some of which are:
■■ Unnecessary handling of material and equipment – since the product goes
backwards and forwards between processes.
■■ Workers walk a lot, since the transport routes are unnecessarily long.
■■ More labour is required, since there is poor worker performance.
■■ A huge wage bill, resulting from the unnecessarily large labour force.
Keywords ■■ Bottlenecks in the production line may lead to delays at machines, thus
bottleneck hold-up affecting the work-in-progress.
or congestion ■■ Space is wasted and the workers get in each other’s way due to the resulting
work-in-progress congestion.
goods not yet fully ■■ Lengthy handling time.
processed
■■ Untidy workshop and gangways due to a shortage of space.
unconducive ■■ Frequent accidents, resulting from the heavy traffic of goods and workers.
atmosphere not
leading to desired ■■ Demotivated workers, due to the unconducive working conditions.
outcome

1. Advantages
The advantages of good workshop layout may include the following:
■■ A good workshop layout can cut down on wasted movement and handling time.
■■ This increases the profit of an enterprise by keeping the production costs and
time spent to a minimum.
■■ Better quality goods are then produced at a faster rate, since machines and
labour are used more effectively.

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 ■■ Tidy workshops and gangways mean the risk of accidents is kept at a minimum.

Module 1
Keywords
■■ Workers have greater job satisfaction due to better working conditions. stock turn how
■■ Higher cash turnover results from high stock turn due to better machine usage. frequently stock is
sold and replaced
■■ Goods are delivered promptly to customers and cash payments may increase.
■■ It is much easy to control and supervise the labour force. psychological relating
to the mental and
■■ The enterprise may cut labour costs, due to the increased productivity of workers. emotional state of being
■■ Surplus money can then be used to set up a bonus scheme for workers.
physiological
■■ Improved psychological and physiological health of workers due to reduced relating to the body
walking distances (in some cases whilst carrying materials) and tidy working and its functions
environments.
automation use
■■ It is easier to make programme and production changes. of machines in a
workshop

2. Disadvantages
Even though it is beneficial to have a good workshop layout, several challenges may result:
■■ An enterprise may need to lay off some of its workers due to improved worker
productivity.
■■ When an enterprise becomes more prosperous and efficient, there is increased
risk of automation. This may result in the workers lacking job security.
■■ Due to programme and production changes, an enterprise may need to cater for
employee training expenses.
■■ Increased overall efficiency in the workshop may result in the overproduction of
manufactured goods. Some of these goods may end up being sold at a loss.
■■ Maintenance costs are much lower in a workshop with good workshop layout,
since maintenance is done more regularly.

3. Factors to consider in the design of

workshop layout
Different workshops have different requirements. Thus, the factors that need to be
considered when designing layout differ from one workshop to another. Some of the
factors to consider include:
■■ Type of production – whether it is mass, batch, or individual.
■■ Optimum flow routes for the type of production.
■■ The volume of work that will be dealt with.
■■ The inspection requirements to be met by the enterprise.
■■ The equipment to be used in the workshop.
■■ The quantity of material to be stored.
■■ The sequence of the production process.
■■ The quantities of manufactured goods to be handled.
■■ The regulations of the local authority.
■■ Utilities such as water, electricity, and sewerage to be availed.
■■ Quality and number of the available workforce.
■■ The storage space available.
■■ The volume of by-products to be handled.
■■ The volume of waste products to be handled.
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 3.1 Principles of good workshop layout
To have a good workshop layout, the following principles must be followed:
■■ Layout must be flexible to allow for future changes in production by the enterprise.
■■ Coordination between the various sections of the workshop must be optimised.
■■ Maintenance points and service points, such as those for electricity and water,
should be within easy reach of workers.
■■ Transport routes, aisles and gangways should be clean and well-lit at all times.
■■ Space should not be wasted. If it is possible, vertical space should be used to
the maximum.
■■ Minimum travelling of workers and materials should be ensured. This will save time.
■■ You should make sure there is minimum handling of material and products.
Keyword ■■ All activities should flow in the same direction so as to limit congestion.
standards a level of ■■ Hygiene standards should be met. For example, fresh air and sunlight should
quality to be met be allowed in.
■■ The safety of workers should be guaranteed at all times. The company should
provide safety wear such as overalls, goggles, and safety shoes.

ACTIVITY 1.1 The importance of good workshop layout

1. Discuss in pairs whether the workshop layout at your school is good or poor.
2. As an individual, come up with five additional advantages which may result from
having a good workshop layout.

4 Module 1: Workshop layout

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 Module 1
Unit 2: Types of production

LEARNING OUTCOMES
■■ Explain the differences between mass, individual, and batch production.

Introduction
There are three main types of production, namely mass production, batch production,
and individual production. There is also a fourth type of production called continuous
flow production; however it will not be covered in this book. To choose the most
suitable type of production for a given workshop, you have to take several factors
into consideration. Some of these factors are:
■■ The volume, size, and mass of the product.
■■ The length of processing time.
■■ The complexity of the product.
■■ The movability of the product.
■■ The available space. Keyword
■■ Any aesthetic factors to be considered. aesthetic factors
■■ The comparative costs of labour and capital. visual qualities such
as colour, shape,
■■ The level of demand. and beauty

1. Mass production
This involves the making of large quantities of identical, standardised products.
When you think of mass production, think of canned goods such as baked
beans, bottled goods such as soft drinks or bagged goods such as potato chips.
Characteristics of this type of production include:
■■ Production is on a large scale to meet high levels of demand.
■■ All the different operations are carried out in a repetitive order, i.e. they are
in sequence. Keyword
■■ It is capital-intensive since all kinds of machines, especially conveyor belts, capital-intensive lots
need to be procured. of money is needed
to buy machines and
■■ It has high set-up costs to enable the enterprise to operate at high capacity from equipment
the word go.
■■ There are reduced labour costs, since the type of production is highly automated.
■■ Product layout has one product per product line.
■■ The degree of computerisation is very high.
■■ A lot of storage space is required because of the large quantities of products.
■■ Employees are usually semi-skilled, since they usually play a supporting role to
the machines.
■■ The production cycle time is relatively short.
■■ The flow of materials, components and parts is continuous, without any backtracking.

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 2. Individual production
This involves the making of ‘one-off’ or unique items, usually to client specifications.
The item is handled from start to finish, by a single individual or just a few individuals.
The making of the next individual item only starts after the previous item is
completed. It is sometimes referred to as job production. When you think of
individual production, think of barbershops, jewellery making, and tailor-made
clothes. Characteristics of this type of production include:
■■ Each product varies in size, purpose and nature.
■■ The workers are highly skilled and very adaptable.
■■ The process and goods may be handmade, and thus labour intensive.
■■ Capital intensive, since production costs are usually high.
■■ Usually requires specialised equipment.
■■ Premium prices can be charged, since luxury goods are made most of the time.
Keyword ■■ The demand is irregular for some products.
inventory all the ■■ A large inventory of materials, parts, and tools is required, so as to cater for
different kinds of stock each individual order.
in the workshop
■■ The equipment settings may need to be readjusted every now and then so as to
suit changing manufacturing requirements.
■■ The movement of materials through the process is irregular.

3. Batch production
This involves the making of goods in separate groups, which are dealt with in
separate sections of the workshop at the same time. The manufacturing process
involves each operation carried out on the whole batch before it is moved on, and
another batch received. Batch production involves the manufacture of a group of
identical items, and is used when the demand for the product is relatively constant.
When you think of batch production, think of bakeries, toy manufacture, and
clothing manufacture. Characteristics of this type of production include:
■■ The making of identical products in groups, i.e. batches.
■■ The group remains together through each stage of production until all processes
are complete.
■■ Changes being made between batches, e.g. varying the sizes and colours of clothing.
■■ A delay in processes while equipment is changed or adjusted, i.e. downtime.
■■ Products are not individualised for customer requirements.
■■ Products are usually of a high quality, but at affordable prices.
■■ Specialised workers who are not highly skilled or multi-skilled.
■■ Use of specialised, but multi-purpose equipment.
■■ Capital cost is significantly higher than for job production.
■■ Production methods are flexible and adaptable.

ACTIVITY 1.2 Types of production

1. In groups, come up with five enterprises for each of the three main types of
production, i.e. batch, individual, and mass.
2. Which would be the most suitable type of production for a car battery charging
enterprise? Write a single paragraph to explain your answer.

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 Module 1
Unit 3: Factory layout

LEARNING OUTCOMES
■■ Draw diagrams to illustrate the differences between the following processes of
layout – product, fixed, and process.

Introduction
The layout of a workshop depends on the type of product that is made and the type
of assembly done. The three available workshop layout types are named product,
process, and fixed. Let us look at them in greater detail.

1. Product layout
With product layout, the machines are arranged in the order in which you want the
product to be processed.

Raw Inspec- Final

Lathe Drill Mill Grinder product
material tion

Figure 1.1 Product layout

2. Fixed layout
This layout is used to assemble goods which are too large, bulky or
fragile to be moved from one part of the workshop to the next.

Mill

Grind Assembly

Job

Drill Paint

Weld

Figure 1.2 Fixed layout

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 3. Process layout
In process layout, machines which perform the same function are grouped together
in their own separate section. In other words, work travels to dedicated process centres.

Assembly & Test

Milling Grinding

Plating Drilling

Figure 1.3 Process layout

ACTIVITY 1.3 Workshop layout

1. In groups, come up with five products for each of the three types of workshop
layout, i.e. product, fixed, and process.
2. Select the most suitable workshop layout type for an aircraft manufacturing
enterprise; then come up with a diagram showing the five main sections which
you think would be necessary.

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 Module 1
Unit 4: Graphic layout techniques

LEARNING OUTCOMES
■ Draw two-dimensional and three-dimensional models.

Introduction
Instead of solely depending on drawings when designing workshop layout, two-
dimensional and three-dimensional models are often used. Nowadays, drawings are
commonly done using computer drawing software such as AutoCAD, Fusion 360,
and SolidWorks. Even though computer-aided design poses several advantages (such
as drawing complicated designs very quickly and storing them safely at a click), it
also has its challenges. The major challenge is that these software packages require
great skill for you to be able to use them. Also, if they cannot be purchased outright Keyword
at great expense, they will require annual (or shorter term) subscriptions. subscription fee paid
to access a product

1. Two-dimensional models
A layout board with two-dimensional models made of wood, cardboard, plastic,
paper or any other substance, is used. The layout board represents the workshop
floor, and the models are placed in the preferred positions on the layout board.

7m

Lathe Grinder
Drill press
Mill
5,5m

Welder

Metal Rack
Door

Figure 1.4 A 2D model of a workshop office

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 1.1 Advantages of two-dimensional model layout
■ This is a highly flexible method, since models can be moved around easily.
Keyword
■ Space utilisation is shown clearly, since models are made to scale.
space utlisation
how space is used ■ Different colours can represent different aspects of the design.
■ There is no additional equipment needed once you have your models.
■ Even semi-skilled and unskilled people can interpret the layout.
■ It can be used as a quick rough draft for a three-dimensional model layout.

1.2 Disadvantages of two-dimensional model layout

■ It is difficult to keep a permanent record of the design.
■ It cannot be moved around from place to place.
■ It does not show the heights of the models.

2. Three-dimensional models
A layout board with three-dimensional scale models (made of the actual materials
most of the time) is used. This method is very useful for complicated designs in
which the height of objects is an important aspect.

Figure 1.5 A 3D model of a workshop

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 2.1 Advantages of three-dimensional model layout

Module 1
■■ It is to precise scale.
Keyword
■■ It is the best method to show the heights involved. precise exact and
■■ Even semi-skilled and unskilled people can interpret the layout. accurate
■■ The models can easily be rearranged.

2.2 Disadvantages of three-dimensional model layout

■■ It is the most expensive method.
■■ It cannot be moved around from place to place.
■■ It is difficult to keep a permanent record of the design.

ACTIVITY 1.4 Comparing 2D and 3D models

1. Draw a table and use it to compare and contrast two-dimensional and three-
dimensional models.
2. Between two-dimensional and three-dimensional models, which would be the
better model to use if you want to plan the layout of your school’s workshop?
Explain your answer.

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 Unit 5: C
 onsiderations when placing machines
in a factory

LEARNING OUTCOMES
■■ Explain how materials are handled in the workshop.
■■ Explain what is meant by each of the following requirements of process layout:
■■ Economic placing of various sections
■■ Highly skilled workers
■■ Adaptability of inspection methods
■■ Thorough planning of production.

Introduction
When placing machines in the workshop, you need to consider several factors so that
you keep the risk of accidents to a bare minimum. Some of the factors to consider
are explained below.

1. Handling equipment
■■ Heavy machines and workpieces should be moved using mechanised lifting
equipment such as cranes and hoists. Manual lifting of heavy loads over a
long period of time may induce musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs) such as
lower back pain.
■■ Sufficient space should be left between machines so that machine operators can
work concurrently without hindering each other’s progress. There should be
enough space above each machine so as to enable cranes and hoists to navigate
if there is a need for the machine to be moved.
■■ Keep aisles and gangways open at all times so that equipment, materials and
workpieces can be transported safely. Under no circumstances should aisles
and gangways be used as storage spaces, as this not only increases the risk of
accidents but also causes time delays when handling and conveying materials.
■■ Storage containers for workpieces should be placed near the machines. This will
save on time and effort for the operators when they are still dealing with the
workpieces.
■■ Service points for utilities, such as water, electricity and gas, should be within easy
reach of workers. To prevent accidents, supply routes and service points should
be housed in ducts in the floor or walls and should be protected with steel covers.
■■ You should make sure that floor areas where heavy machinery and equipment
are used or placed are sufficiently strengthened to carry the heavy loads. The
carrying capacity of a floor should never be exceeded as this may cause collapse.
■■ Soon after being placed in the workshop, machinery and equipment should be
Keyword checked for defects by the maintenance team (i.e. mechanics, technicians, or
defect fault or flaw
millwrights) before they start operating. Sometimes bolts and knots move out of
place during lifting, thereby posing the risk of accidents.

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 Module 1
ACTIVITY 1.5 Machine placement

“When placing machines in the workshop you need to consider several factors.”
1. Give five factors that need to be considered.
2. In case these precautions are not taken, what is the worst that can happen? Give a
paragraph explaining your answer.

2. Requirements for process layout

Since process layout is the most common layout in machine shops, we need to go
into it in greater detail. Process layout is best used for processing goods that involve
a variety of processing requirements. In most workshops, you will find different
rooms where different operations are carried out. In one room you may find milling
operations, whilst in the next there could be hydraulic pressing, etc. In such a scenario,
process layout would be the best choice since operations would be spread out in
different rooms.

2.1 Economic placing of various sections

When designating the various sections in a workshop, the planners should
ensure that they avoid unnecessary waste or expense. This said, two sections
with high traffic volumes between them should be placed as close together as
possible. A good example of a high traffic zone is one which connects the testing
section and the packing section, since packing almost always follows testing,
so the two sections should be located next to one another. To come up with a
workshop’s unique pattern of flows that helps designate sections, a workshop can
reference their customers’ past purchases.

2.2 Highly skilled workers

A process layout needs highly skilled workers who are able to operate the various
machines and equipment available with minimum supervision. Employing workers
who already know what they are doing is the only sure way of guaranteeing high
quality products in the production of very different looking final products. As a Keyword
quality control measure, workers are usually entitled to some form of individual individual incentive
incentive if they get the job done on time. Since there is no specialised equipment additional rewards on
in a process layout, each worker needs to be able to operate not only the equipment top of a salary or wages
in their particular department, but also in other departments. This is way different
from the specialised worker working in a product layout system who is only able to
perform a repetitive task to create products on an assembly line.

2.3 Adaptability of inspection methods

To run a successful process layout system, adaptable and interchangeable inspection
methods should be used. In other words, inspection should not be rigid but
random and should not be limited to equipment and machines. Workers should
be checked if they are using the appropriate gear (such as safety wear and goggles)
every time they use machinery. Buildings need to be checked for proper lighting
and ventilation, and also if adequate hazard signage is in place. Most importantly,
machinery and equipment need to be checked, and repaired or replaced if they are
found to be faulty.

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 2.4 Thorough planning of production
In process layout, material handling is typically slower and more inefficient when
compared with other layout systems. Hence, production should be carefully planned
if you are to run a successful process layout system. Typically, backtracking is the
order of the day; this means that the order in which workers use different machinery
is very random. One worker may start in the milling department and end in the
drilling department, whilst the next worker may be performing their operations in
the exact opposite direction. This random movement, if not properly scheduled, will
lead to queuing at a high cost to in-process inventory. Given that each operator may
have to adjust the equipment to suit their particular needs when it is their turn to
use it, the time losses are compounded. Thus, when planning a successful process
layout, all these challenges need to be taken into consideration.

ACTIVITY 1.6 Layout systems

1. Write a paragraph explaining all the factors you need to consider when planning a
process layout system for a given workshop.
2. Is it possible to run a successful fixed layout system for a machine shop? Explain
your answer.

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 Module 1
Module summary
■■ A workshop needs to have a good workshop layout for it to generate
enough profit to cater for both the owners and its workers. If the
workshop fails to follow the proper housekeeping procedures, accidents
and hazards become commonplace.
■■ You need to choose the most appropriate type of production if you are
running an enterprise. For you to come up with the best solution, you
need to plan thoroughly beforehand.
■■ Different types of products have different types of layouts that are most
suitable for them. You need to be very careful when selecting the layout
for your product.
■■ Each graphic layout technique has its own advantages and
disadvantages. You need to weigh these up before you select the best
technique for your workshop.
■■ There are so many risks in the workshop at any given time, so the placing
of machines should be such that no dangerous occurrence ends up
affecting the workshop’s productivity.
■■ For you to run a successful workshop with a process layout system, you
need to place various sections economically, hire highly skilled workers,
apply adaptable inspection methods, and thoroughly plan your production.
■■ Before you even consider opening a workshop, thorough planning is critical.
■■ Firstly, you need to identify the most suitable type of production to use.
■■ Then you must select the most viable type of layout.
■■ If you are successful, you will end up with a good workshop layout
that is profitable; and if you are not successful, you will end up with a
bad layout with many problems.

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 Exam questions
1. Describe what workshop layout means.  (2)
2. List five benefits of having good workshop layout.  (5)
3. Name ten important factors to consider when designing a workshop’s layout. (10)
4. Give ten key principles for good workshop layout.  (10)
5. Give four factors that influence the selection of the most suitable method
of production.  (4)
6. Each workshop has its individual requirements and conditions under
which it has to function. Name ten important factors to consider when
designing a workshop layout.  (10)
7. Name five requirements for product layout.  (5)
8. Name five requirements for process layout.  (5)
9. Differentiate between product layout and process layout. Use simple
sketches to help you explain.  (10)
10. Give five requirements of fixed layout.  (5)
11. For a process layout, what do the following requirements mean?
a) Economical placing of the various sections.  (2)
b) Shortest possible transport routes between sections.  (2)
12. Computer-aided design has since replaced conventional drawings done
by a draughtsperson on the drawing board. As a result, layout design in
industry has modernised. Give seven advantages and three disadvantages
of using computers.  (10)
13. The layout of a workshop involves how various machines and equipment in
different work areas, storage space, staff facilities and administrative offices
are placed. There are six important requirements to satisfy. Name and
briefly discuss any five.  (10)
Total: 90 marks

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 Module

2 Metal protection

What is covered?
This module will help you understand how corrosion affects a lot
of metals, and how it is prevented. It further provides information
on the various classes and forms of corrosion, the types of
corrosion tests, surface preparation methods, and the various
painting processes in use.

Learning outcomes

After studying this module, you should be able to:

Unit 1
■■ Describe corrosion as the destruction of a material as a result
of chemical, electrochemical, or metallurgic interaction
between the material and the environment.
Unit 2
■■ Explain the two main classes of corrosion.
Unit 3
■■ Explain the following forms of corrosion: Surface corrosion:
■ Stress corrosion
■ Galvanic corrosion
■ Inter-crystalline corrosion
■ Pitting corrosion.
Unit 4
■■ Explain the most common types of corrosion tests.
Unit 5
■■ Describe what each of the following metal-protection
processes involves:
■ Cathodic protection
■ Electroplating
■ Anodising
■ Phosphating.
Unit 6
■■ Describe the following processes that we use to prepare steel for
spray painting: Sandblast cleaning, Descaling, and Grease removal.
Unit 7
■■ Explain the following painting processes: Air spray painting, Airless
spray painting, Electrostatic spray painting, and Dip painting.
■■ List the advantages and disadvantages of using each of the
painting processes.

 17

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 Unit 1: Introduction to corrosion and its prevention

LEARNING OUTCOMES
■■ Describe corrosion as the destruction of a material as a result of chemical,
electrochemical. or metallurgic interaction between the material and the environment.

Introduction
In 2013, it was estimated that the world was losing roughly 3% of its total annual
production value to corrosion. Experts claimed that if corrosion-control practices
had been put in place, this would have saved the world between 15% and 35% of
these costs. As can be seen, corrosion is a major problem on a global scale, and it is
every engineer’s duty to put control measures in place.

Corrosion
Corrosion is the destruction of a metal as a result of the chemical, electrochemical, or
metallurgic interactions it has with the environment. Metals are generally unstable in their
purified forms, so they tend to go back to their natural ore state by means of corrosion.
To prevent corrosion, it is important to know the factors that influence the
process, i.e. the type of metal, the type of environment it is exposed to, and how the
metal surface is treated. Corrosion generally occurs in the presence of moisture and
oxygen, so most metal protection methods work by isolating either or both of these
agents from the metal. However, the challenge of corrosion is that it is a very slow but
continuous, self-perpetuating process. Thus, once the metal starts corroding, it will
continue doing so even if the corrosive agents are eliminated from the environment.

ACTIVITY 2.1 Corrosion research

1. In pairs, do internet research about the global cost of corrosion.

2. As an individual, find definitions for chemical, electrochemical, and metallurgic.

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 Module 2
Unit 2: Classification of corrosion

LEARNING OUTCOMES
■ Explain the two main classes of corrosion.

Introduction
Corrosion can be divided into two main subclasses that are:
■ Chemical corrosion
■ Electrochemical corrosion.

1. Chemical corrosion
Also referred to as oxidation, chemical corrosion occurs when a metal reacts chemically
with oxygen in the air. A good example is the formation of rust in iron, and in its
alloys such as steel. The metals react with oxygen to form a typical red or orange
coating of iron oxide on its surface. Atmospheric corrosion of metals and their
alloys, which is very common in industrial cities, also falls under chemical corrosion.
This results when hydrogen sulphate, nitrogen, sulfur dioxide and carbon dioxide,
released from factories in fumes, combine with moisture in the atmosphere to form
acids such as sulfuric acid, nitric acid, and carbonic acid. These acids then attack
metals through their powerful oxidising natures.

corrosion cell
2. Electrochemical corrosion
metallic path
Electrochemical corrosion consists of two surface reactions – oxidation
and reduction reactions. The electrochemical circuit consists of three conventional current
basic components, namely an anode, a cathode, and an electrolyte.
■ Anode – The electrode that provides electrons. It is usually the anode cathode
site for corrosion.
- ions
■ Cathode – The electrode that receives electrons. It is usually + ions
made up of a metal that needs protection from corrosion.
■ Electrolyte – It provides the environment for electrochemical electrolytic path
reactions. Electrolytes can be an acidic or alkaline aqueous
solution, or even just water.
conventional current
■ Return current path – provides an electrical link between the
two electrodes. Figure 2.1 Elements of electrochemical corrosion

ACTIVITY 2.2 Electrochemical corrosion

1. Copy the corrosion cell diagram in your notebook and label all the main parts.
Now explain in your own words how the cell works.
2. Compare and contrast the anode and the cathode.

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 Unit 3: Forms of corrosion

LEARNING OUTCOMES
■■ Explain the following forms of corrosion:
■■ Surface corrosion
■■ Stress corrosion
■■ Galvanic corrosion
■■ Inter-crystalline corrosion
■■ Pitting corrosion.

Introduction
There are five main forms of corrosion that we will be dealing with in this module.
Let us consider each form in greater detail.

1. Surface corrosion
Surface corrosion is the most common form of corrosion, and it mainly involves an
Keywords
electrochemical reaction that proceeds uniformly over the entire exposed surface of
adverse of weather
a metal. Due to adverse weather conditions, especially humidity, anode and cathode
conditions; meaning
harsh, e.g. high spots form on the metal surface where they constantly change position. This form of
temperatures corrosion causes the most damage to metals, in terms of the total mass loss, and is
or humidity very hard to detect since it even occurs beneath a protective layer of paint or grease.
inert of the
environment, meaning 2. Stress corrosion
chemically inactive
When a force for example a dead weight is suddenly applied on a metal, stress
catastrophic corrosion may result. This can even occur to structures in inert surroundings, so
failure total failure,
humidity is not a big factor. Many metal-working processes – activities such as
which cannot
be repaired welding, cold-welding, or forming – are major players in stress corrosion; so, if
metals are subjected to these processes, normalising processes should be performed
soon after to strengthen the metal back to its original form. If normalising processes
are not done, the corrosion can commence without being visible – cracks only
appearing just before catastrophic failure of the structure.

magnesium
corroded end
(anodic)
zinc
aluminium 2017
3. Galvanic corrosion
steel or iron When two dissimilar metals are dipped in a liquid that can
cast iron
lead-tin solders act as a suitable electrolyte, the more reactive metal corrodes
lead first – thereby protecting the other metal. In most cases, the
tin
brass humid atmosphere acts as the electrolyte. Depending on the
copper position of the metal on the galvanic ladder, the metal with
protected end bronzes
(cathodic) silver the lesser resistance corrodes before and to a greater degree
gold than the other.
Figure 2.2 The galvanic ladder

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 4. Inter-crystalline corrosion

Module 2
Due to various physical and chemical processes, metal particles can gain a charge.
Usually the metal grains may start behaving like a cathode, whilst the boundaries
separating the grains may then behave like an anode. This greatly weakens the grains
and usually results in catastrophic failure. Inter-crystalline corrosion is very common
in stainless steels, and is sometimes called intergranular corrosion.

5. Pitting corrosion
In the presence of moisture, imperfections on a metal surface such as scratches may
form small anodes, whilst the rest of the metal surface acts as the cathode. As the
pitting continues, the scratches ultimately develop into tiny holes all over the surface.
During pitting, the affected areas do not move as they do in surface corrosion. As a
result, pitting corrosion is very hard to predict.

ACTIVITY 2.3 Forms of corrosion

1. In groups, come up with similarities and differences between all the five main
forms of corrosion.
2. As an individual, try to memorise the galvanic ladder.

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 Unit 4: Corrosion tests

LEARNING OUTCOMES
■■ Explain the most common types of corrosion tests.

Introduction
There are several factors that affect the corrosion rate of metals. These include humidity,
temperature, air pollution, salt water content, acids, or the type of contact between
dissimilar metals.

1. Corrosion tests
Corrosion tests are done to ensure the performance of metals, metal platings, and
coatings. There are several factors that affect the corrosion rate of metals. These
include humidity, temperature, air pollution, salt water content, acids, or the type
of contact between dissimilar metals. In most tests though, only temperature,
humidity, and salt water content are varied. Tests are comparative, which means that
the workpiece is compared with a standard workpiece of known corrosion-resisting
properties. When the tests are complete, we then consider:
■■ Changes in mass of the workpiece, i.e. weight loss after removing rust.
Keywords ■■ Changes in visual appearance of the workpiece.
mechanical using ■■ Changes in mechanical properties such as hardness and strength.
physical force
■■ Changes in the corrosive medium.
atomise break ■■ Changes in the depth of corrosion.
into fine particles
or droplets ■■ Changes in electrical resistance.

1.1 The salt-spray test

A salt solution of 5% table salt (NaCl) by weight is atomised and sprayed as fog
on workpieces hanging at angles of 15º– 30º from the vertical. The temperature of
the spray chamber is maintained at 35 ºC using thermostats. The period of exposure
varies from test to test, depending on the type of workpiece.

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 Module 2
test specimen reservior for
salt solution

heated air

fog
chamber

drain
salt solution

inflow of
thermostat spray nozzle compressed air
Figure 2.3 The salt-spray test

1.2 The humidity test

In the standard humidity test, workpieces are placed in a humidity chamber at 100%
humidity . They are hung perpendicularly, and distilled water is usually used instead
of salty water. After 24 hours, the workpieces are removed from the chamber and the
water is poured out. The workpieces are then evaluated.

test pieces

humidity
chamber

distilled
water
dry
compressed
air

heating element

Figure 2.4 The humidity test

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 1.3 The sulfur dioxide test
Also called the Kesternich test, this test is very popular as it takes significantly
less time to obtain results compared to the other two tests. There are similarities
Keyword with the other two test chambers in terms of design. In addition to distilled water,
simulate imitate the a controlled volume of sulfur dioxide is released inside the chamber to simulate
properties of acid rain. The temperature is then maintained at 40 ºC for a period of 8 hours.
The heating system is then switched off and the chamber is left open for a further
16 hours. The test can then be repeated until the required results are obtained.
sealed cabinet test pieces

shut-off valves

thermostat

container with liquid

sulphur-dioxide

distilled
water
heating element
Figure 2.5 The sulfur dioxide test

ACTIVITY 2.4 Corrosion tests

1. Draw a fully-labelled diagram of the salt-spray test.

2. What are the similarities and differences between the humidity test and the sulfur
dioxide test? Discuss in pairs.

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 Module 2
Unit 5: Metal protection processes

LEARNING OUTCOMES
■■ Describe what each of the following metal-protection processes involves:
■■ Cathodic protection
■■ Electroplating
■■ Anodising
■■ Phosphating.

Introduction
When metal structures corrode, they can collapse and cause accidents. The two
easiest ways to avoid corrosion are either to replace a metal with one that does not
corrode easily, e.g. aluminium and stainless steel, or else you can apply a protective
coat of paint to the metal, where applicable. Otherwise, more sophisticated methods
of protecting the metal need to be applied. These include:
■■ Cathodic protection
■■ Electroplating
■■ Anodic protection
■■ Phosphating.

1. Cathodic protection
Otherwise known as sacrificial protection, cathodic protection involves the
following steps:
■■ The metal requiring protection is made the cathode.
■■ A metal higher than it on the galvanic ladder (see Figure 2.2) is made the anode.
■■ The two electrodes are then placed in a suitable electrolyte and are joined by
an electric conductor.

A special case of cathodic protection is called galvanizing. This process uses zinc
metal to coat iron and steel parts. Since zinc is higher than iron on the galvanic
ladder, it corrodes first – thereby forming zinc-oxide. This zinc-oxide layer then
inhibits the corrosion of the iron or steel. Cathodic protection is very useful in
the production of steel pipelines for carrying water or fuel. It is also used in the
production of ship hulls, water heater tanks, and even offshore oil platforms.

2. Electroplating
This involves electronically depositing a metal onto another metal. Usually, a thin layer
of nickel, tin, or chromium is deposited on steel in an electrolytic bath. In most cases,
the electrolyte consists of a water solution containing salts of the metal to be deposited.

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 Again, the metal requiring protection is made the cathode and a low-voltage direct
current is turned on. Electroplating can also be done, not for protection purposes,
but for decorative purposes in jewellery making. Different types of electrolytes give
different finishes; for example, an acidic electrolyte normally gives a thick and shiny
finish whilst an alkaline electrolyte gives a dense, fine-grain deposit and a smooth,
reflective finish.

3. Anodic protection
Anodising is a corrosion control method developed from observing how aluminium
behaves in nature. When pure aluminium metal is exposed to air, it forms a thick
layer of aluminium oxide on its surface which then prevents it from further reaction.
When anodising a metal surface, the following steps should be observed:
■■ The metal requiring protection is made the anode.
■■ Lead, tin, or graphite is made the cathode.
■■ The two electrodes are then dipped in an acidic electrolyte usually made of
chromatic acid, sulfuric acid, or oxalic acid. The circuit is completed using a
direct current power source.

When the current flows, oxygen particles are released on the surface of the anode
and they form an oxide there. Steam is then applied to the metal afterwards so as to
seal the pores on the metal, thereby creating a more durable layer. This protection
method is mostly applied to carbon steel tanks for storing sulfuric acid and 50%
caustic soda. In this case, cathodic protection cannot be used since it cannot
withstand extremely high currents.

4. Phosphating
Phosphate coatings are used to prepare steel, aluminium, zinc, and galvanised
steel for corrosion resistance, lubrication, or as a foundation for painting. Usually,
the parts to be processed are dipped in a dilute solution of phosphoric acid and
phosphate salts, such as iron phosphate or crystalline zinc phosphate. The solution
then reacts with the surfaces of the parts to form a layer of insoluble, crystalline
phosphates. The parts are later washed and dried; if further protection is required,
they can then be sent for chromating.

ACTIVITY 2.5 Protecting metal

1. How is cathodic protection different from electroplating?

2. What are the similarities between anodising and phosphating?

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 Module 2
Unit 6: Surface preparation for painting

LEARNING OUTCOMES
■■ Describe the following processes that we use to prepare steel for spray
painting: Sandblast cleaning, Descaling, and Grease removal

Introduction
To ensure the quality and durability of metal coatings subjected to corrosion, sufficient
surface preparation is very important. There are five steps that need to be carried out:
■■ Thoroughly clean the surface.
■■ Remove old paint if present.
■■ Remove rust using sandpaper.
■■ Fill holes and dents using epoxy filler.
■■ Prime the surface.

1. Sandblast cleaning
To smooth out and clean the metal surface, compressed air is used to force sand
grains across the surface at high speeds. To make the process more effective, materials
such as grit, aluminium oxide, or even steel balls may be used in place of sand. Other
factors that can influence the effectiveness are:
■■ Air pressure
■■ Size of grains
■■ Weight of grains
■■ Speed of grains
■■ Size of the nozzle.

2. Descaling
This involves the removal of oxide deposits from heated metal surfaces before or
during forging operations. During heat treatment processes, scales may form on
a metal surface, thereby discolouring it and reducing its quality. After cleaning,
stripping and pickling, a smooth surface remains. There are three main descaling
methods that you can use.

2.1 Sandblast cleaning (mechanical cleaning)

Sandblast cleaning is a mechanical cleaning method which not only cleans the metal
surface, but also removes scales. Other mechanical methods include scrubbing using
wire brushes, and waterjet spraying.

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 2.2 Flame cleaning
This method involves flame washing the metal surface using an extremely hot
oxyacetylene flame. The flame has a reducing effect which removes both scales and
rust, leaving the surface ready for wire brushing and painting.

2.3 Acid pickling

Acid cleaning on metal surfaces is used to remove scale deposits, and to also
neutralise any remaining alkaline deposits from previous cleaning processes.
This cleaning method is mainly used on ferrous metals, and aluminium and
copper alloys. The metal parts are dipped in an acid bath of between 5% and
10% sulfuric acid concentration for 15 to 20 minutes at 60 ºC. Afterwards, the
metal parts are washed with warm water before dipping them in a 2% phosphate
acid solution for 3 to 5 minutes. A primer coating is then applied while the parts
are still warm.

3. Grease removal
For a thin grease layer on a metal surface, there are several methods of removal
that include applying caustic soda (sodium hydroxide), paint solvents, detergents,
rubbing alcohol, or even household vinegar in some cases. However, in severe
cases, the parts are scrubbed with hot solvent vapours and placed in a vapour
room. The vapours condense on the part to form a liquid flow, which dissolves and
washes the grease away as the liquid drains with gravity. Solvents in use include
trichloroethylene, methyl chloroform, and also methylene chloride.

ACTIVITY 2.6 Descaling metal surfaces

1. Write a paragraph explaining what descaling involves.

2. In pairs, research additional ways that make sandblasting more effective.

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 Module 2
Unit 7: Painting processes

LEARNING OUTCOMES
■■ Explain the following painting processes: Air spray painting, Airless spray
painting, Electrostatic spray painting, and Dip painting.
■■ List the advantages and disadvantages of using each of the painting processes.

Introduction
There are four painting processes we need to know about, namely: air spray, airless spray,
and dip and electrostatic spray painting. Let us look at each process in greater depth.

1. Air spray painting

Conventional spray painting is done using a device that sprays a coating through
the air onto a surface. The device consists of a compressor, an air-pressure tank,
a paint container, a paint spray gun, and flexible piping. Compressed air sucks up
and atomises paint particles using the Venturi principle, and then directs them to
the spray nozzle which controls the shape and density of the spray. Spray guns can
be automated or manual, and may come with a range of heads to allow for different
spray patterns.

1.1 Advantages of air spray painting

■■ It is fairly cheap.
■■ Uniform thickness of paint is easily achievable.
■■ Air spray painting can reach uneven and hard-to-reach surfaces.
■■ It is very easy to change the paint colour.
■■ The operator can easily adjust the spraying width to suit the workpiece requirements.
■■ Its excellent atomisation ability makes it highly favoured in the automotive industry.
■■ There is a low risk of orange peel effect.
■■ The equipment is very easy to operate and repair.
■■ It rarely produces air bubbles in the solvent.
■■ It provides a smooth paint finish.

1.2 Disadvantages of air spray painting

■■ Overspray results in high paint wastage.
■■ A large quantity of thinners is necessary.
■■ The spraying time is relatively long, and so is the drying period.
■■ It evaporates more in cold systems due to the use of more diluent.
■■ It is difficult to paint overhead because of the cumbersome paint container.

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 spray nozzle
air pressure

suction pipe

paint

Figure 2.6 (a) The principle of air spray painting

Venturi action

compressed air supply

siphon tube

paint container

Figure 2.6 (b) Air spray painting

motor-driven pump
airless spraygun
2. Airless spray painting
Airless spray painting or high-pressure
spray painting is done using a device that
forces paint up a hose and then out of
paint filter
the spray gun through a minute tip. The
nozzle then creates a fan-shaped pattern
of paint onto the surface; to vary the flow
rate, the tip size and the pressure may be
altered. To achieve atomisation when using
viscous fluids with high surface tension, a
heater can be installed between the pump
paint container and filter. This results in temperatures in
the range of 70 ºC to 80 ºC, which keeps
strainer the paint thin and thus reduces the need
for thinners. This also reduces the risk
Figure 2.7 Cold airless or high-pressure spray painting of sagging.

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 2.1 Advantages of airless spray painting

Module 2
■■ Very versatile since it can be used for the interiors and exteriors of different
kinds of material.
■■ It is very fast.
■■ The gun lays paint on a surface evenly, unlike brushes or rollers.
■■ Can be applied on rough, textured and damaged surfaces, for example where
paint is peeling.
■■ The coating made is thick, so there is no need to overspray.
■■ It gives a flawless finish.
■■ Water-based paints or paints containing metallic particles can be applied using
this method, as opposed to the electrostatic method.
■■ An airless sprayer‘s coating is very ‘wet’ and thus there is good adhesion with
the material.
■■ The coating is very durable.
■■ There is no need to buy huge quantities of thinners.
■■ Overhead spraying is possible.

2.2 Disadvantages of airless spray painting

■■ There is high wastage of paint since between 20% and 40% of the paint droplets
do not end up on the metal surface.
■■ There is a need to cover items which are in close proximity to the metal surface.
■■ It requires some effort to clean the pump, hose, filters, and the spray gun itself.
■■ It is not easy to control the thickness of the coat.
■■ It is not possible to overlap paint strokes.

3. Electrostatic spray painting

Electrostatic spray painting has the advantage that it can be done with both liquid
and powdered paint. The paint particles can be electrostatically charged in several
ways. A negative charge can be applied to the paint while it is still in the reservoir or
in the barrel of the spray gun. When the paint is propelled through the gun, it gains a
static electric charge as it moves through the barrel. The metal object to be painted has
a positive charge, and hence it attracts the negatively-charged paint particles (opposite
charges attract). Since the paint particles are all negatively charged, they repel each other
and distribute themselves evenly on the metal surface, thus giving it a uniform coverage.

3.1 Advantages of electrostatic spray painting

■■ It creates a strong bond, which produces a highly durable coating.
■■ Powder coating is highly resistant to corrosion.
■■ Powder coating does not use a solvent, hence it does not cause water pollution.
■■ It covers a three-dimensional object evenly, giving it a good edge and wrap-
around coverage.
■■ It has a high paint transfer efficiency of about 95%, which saves paint and cuts costs.
■■ Not only does the powder have a high utilisation rate, it can also be recycled.

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 ■■ It has a better looking finish compared to other methods, because it produces a
uniform paint thickness.
■■ It is portable and can be applied onsite; thus, large architectural metal items do
not need to be dismantled for recoating as this can be done electrostatically.

3.2 Disadvantages of electrostatic spray painting

■■ The equipment is expensive to acquire.
■■ It is mostly applicable to metals only.
■■ It is not suitable for uneven surfaces.
■■ Poor management can result in electric shock and fires.

electrostatic field and spray pattern of

atomised paint particles

electrostatic spray gun

grounded
workpiece

compressed air
wrap-around effect of high-tension cable
the electrostatic field
paint
Figure 2.8 Electrostatic spray painting

4. Dip painting
Dip painting involves immersing metal parts in a tank of paint, and then draining off
the excess paint in a solvent-saturated atmosphere before drying or curing. Before
immersion, the surface is cleaned using a solvent, a phosphate bath, or sandblasting. This
method is very quick and is most suited for mass production of parts which need coating
on all surfaces. The process is usually highly automated, and thus the parts are moved
on conveyors. The thickness of coating can be controlled by varying the viscosity of
the paint and the rate of withdrawal of parts from the tank. To reduce wastage, it is also
possible to modify the system and incorporate electrostatic spray painting principles.

conveyor belt baking oven

direction of flow

components

vapour

negatively-charged paint catch basin for

cleaning liquid paint overflow

Figure 2.9 Dip painting

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 4.1 Advantages of dip painting

Module 2
■■ Metal parts with challenging geometries, for example wheels and pipes, can
be painted.
■■ It is a much simpler and cheaper process.
■■ Provides a way cheaper alternative, where powder coating is deemed too expensive.
■■ It is very quick.
■■ It is highly resistant to corrosion.
■■ It can increase the friction or grip of cutting tools such as pliers and shears.
■■ It also gives aesthetics to metal surfaces.

4.2 Disadvantages of dip painting

■■ If metal parts are too light compared to the paint, they may float on the paint
surface instead of being immersed.
■■ A wedge effect may result. This is when the film thickness is not uniform, i.e.
with the lower bottom edges of parts being more heavily coated.
■■ Dip painting is prone to sags forming due to gravity during curing.
■■ There are large capital requirements due to high levels of automation and huge
quantities of paint.

ACTIVITY 2.7 Painting processes

1. Compare and contrast airless and air spray painting.

2. Copy the dip painting diagram in your notebook and label the main parts.

Module summary
■■ Corrosion causes huge economic losses worldwide and thus needs to be
prevented. There are various metal protection processes available that
can be used to solve the problem of corrosion.
■■ There are two subclasses of corrosion, namely chemical and
electrochemical. At times, both chemical and electrochemical corrosion
take place on the same metal. In such a case, stringent measures need to
be taken so that the metal can be saved.
■■ There are five main forms of corrosion, namely: surface, stress, galvanic,
inter-crystalline, and pitting. If any one of them is left acting on a metal
without preventative measures being taken, the structure will fail.
■■ The salt-spray test, the humidity test, and the sulfur-dioxide test are the
three main tests done to check a metal’s performance against corrosion.
Each test has its own unique pros and cons.
■■ There are four main metal protection methods, namely: cathodic
protection, electroplating, anodising, and phosphating. Each method has
its own strengths and weaknesses.
■■ Surface preparation is essential before applying a coat of paint;
otherwise the paint may fail to stick to the metal surface. Before
applying paint, a surface must be clean without any dirt or grease on it.

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 ■■ There are several methods of applying paint on a metal surface. Each
method of paint application has its advantages and disadvantages that
must be noted before selection.
■■ Corrosion is a major problem worldwide. For it to be controlled, there is
a need to understand its various classes and forms.
■■ Different tests have been designed to evaluate the performance of
workpieces in corrosion environments. The main methods are the salt-
spray test, humidity test, and sulfur-dioxide test.
■■ The most applicable corrosion prevention method is painting metal
surfaces. Thus, several painting methods need to be understood – taking
note of their advantages and disadvantages.

Exam questions
1. There are two main classes of corrosion, namely chemical and
electrochemical corrosion.
a) Describe chemical corrosion  (2)
b) Explain electrochemical corrosion  (5)
c) Draw a fully-labelled diagram of electrochemical corrosion.  (5)
2. Name and describe all five forms of corrosion.  (10)
3. Briefly explain the salt-spray test.  (5)
4. Make a labelled drawing of the salt-spray test.  (5)
5. How is electroplating different from cathodic protection?  (4)
6. Describe the following components of an electrolytic circuit:
a) Anode  (1)
b) Electrolyte  (1)
c) Cathode.  (1)
7. Briefly describe galvanising.  (3)
8. Explain why sandblasting is very useful in corrosion prevention.  (2)
9. What are the differences and similarities between conventional spray
painting and high-pressure spray painting?  (10)
10. Discuss the electrostatic method of painting, clearly outlining its pros
and cons.  (6)
11. Name three popular corrosion tests which are carried out in industry.  (3)
12. State three possible causes for each of the following faults that can happen
in the spray process:
a) Excessive paint spray  (3)
b) Uneven spray painting  (3)
c) Sagging surface  (3)
d) Speckle or orange peel effect.  (3)
13. State six advantages and four disadvantages of airless spray painting.  (10)
14. Explain the dip painting method.  (5)
15. Draw a fully-labelled diagram of this method.  (5)
Total: 95 marks

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 Module

3 Lubrication

What is covered?
This module will cover the classes and types of lubricants available
in industry, and will also deal with the various lubrication methods
involved so that you know how to select the best lubricant for a given
system. It will also give you an overview of the main lubrication
devices in use.

Learning outcomes

After studying this module, you should be able to:

Unit 1
■■ List the different classes of lubricants and give examples of each.
Unit 2
■■ Describe in detail hydrodynamic and hydrostatic lubrication.
Unit 3
■■ List factors that should be considered when selecting lubricants.
Unit 4
■■ Draw and label different types of lubricating devices.
Unit 5
■■ List different types of lubricants and their uses.

 35

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 Unit 1: Classification of lubricants

LEARNING OUTCOMES
■■ List the different classes of lubricants and give examples of each.

Introduction
To ensure that bearings work at their best performance, lubrication is essential.
To safeguard bearing life, you need to make sure that you select the most suitable
lubricant for the bearings and apply the best lubrication method. Some of the uses of
lubricants are:
■■ To reduce friction between surfaces.
■■ To cool down the bearings.
■■ To prolong the fatigue life of bearings.
■■ To prevent corrosion.
■■ To wash out contamination such as grit and dirt.
■■ To seal uneven surfaces.

There are 3 main classes of lubricants, namely:

■■ Liquid lubricants
■■ Semi-solid lubricants
■■ Solid lubricants.

Let us look at each class more closely.

1. Classes of lubricants
1.1 Liquid Lubricants
This group is made up of oils, which are either termed mineral or synthetic.
Keywords Mineral oils are directly derived from crude oil, whilst synthetic oils are obtained
mineral oil from
from synthetic petroleum. Oils are best applied:
natural crude oil
■■ Where there are high speeds involved.
synthetic oil
■■ Where there are light loads.
from man-made
hydrocarbons ■■ Where there are high temperatures.
■■ Where filtration of dirt is necessary.
■■ Where the lubricant should have a long lifespan.
■■ Where lubricant can be changed frequently.

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 1.2 Semi-solid lubricants

Module 3
Grease is the best example of a semi-solid lubricant. Once it is applied, it takes a
long period before there is a need to change it. Grease is applied using two methods,
namely the closed lubrication method and the feeding method. In the closed
lubrication method, grease is filled in advance into a sealed bearing. In the feeding
method, the bearing and its housing are filled in proper quantities for the first time
and then refilled at regular intervals afterwards. Grease is best applied:
■■ Where there are moderately slow and slow moving bearings.
■■ Where there is a need to seal surfaces from dirt.
■■ Where there is no need to replace lubricant frequently.

1.3 Solid lubricants

Solid lubricants, also referred to as dry lubricants, are solid materials that are able
to reduce friction between two surfaces without the need for a liquid medium.
Sometimes dry lubricants such as white lead, mica, and talc are mixed with grease
and oils to improve their frictional properties. Graphite and molybdenum disulphide
are two lubricants commonly used in their dry state and are best applied on:
■■ rails
■■ threaded rods
■■ locks
■■ hinges.

ACTIVITY 3.1 Types of lubricant

1. Give five solid lubricants which are used in industry.

2. In what way are oils different from grease?

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 Unit 2: Fluid film bearings

LEARNING OUTCOMES
■■ Describe in detail hydrodynamic and hydrostatic lubrication.

Introduction
In a fluid film bearing, the shaft is supported by a thin layer of lubricating fluid that
prevents the rotating parts and stationary parts from making contact. There are two
main types of fluid film bearings, namely hydrodynamic bearing and hydrostatic
bearing. Hydrodynamic bearings use the speed of the shaft to pressurise the fluid in
the bearing, thereby lifting the shaft away. Hydrostatic bearings use a lubricant to
apply pressure from the outside, so they do not rely on the rotating shaft to produce
their fluid film. Let us look at the two in greater detail.

1. Hydrodynamic lubrication
Hydrodynamic lubrication reduces friction between two metal surfaces with the
help of a suitable liquid or semi-solid lubricant. Most surfaces have imperfections,
which results in roughness. Hydrodynamic lubrication works by adding a proper
lubricant that penetrates right into the contact zone between the two rough surfaces;
the lubricant then creates a thin liquid film that separates the surfaces from direct
contact. The friction within the lubricant is less than that between the two surfaces,
hence friction is controlled.

2. Hydrostatic lubrication
Hydrostatic lubrication reduces friction by completely separating the two metal
surfaces by means of a fluid film. An external oil pump is connected to the system
so that it provides the film with the required pressure. The pressure is critical
in hydrostatic lubrication; another critical factor is the thickness of the gap that
separates the affected surfaces. This ultimately determines the most suitable type of
oil to use as a lubricant. Since hydrodynamic lubrication does not use a pump, the
important factors in its design are: the operation speed, the thickness of the oil used,
the dead weight of the system, and the thickness of the gap that separates the moving
metal surfaces.

ACTIVITY 3.2 Hydrodynamic versus hydrostatic lubrication

Discuss in pairs the ways in which hydrodynamic lubrication and hydrostatic lubrication are:
1. Similar
2. Different.

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 Module 3
Unit 3: Selection of lubricants

LEARNING OUTCOMES
■■ List factors that should be considered when selecting lubricants.

Introduction
It is always best to use a lubricant that meets the specific demands of the task at
hand. This does not only extend the lifespan of a shaft or a bearing, but also makes
sure it works reliably each time during operation.

Factors to consider when selecting lubricants

There are several factors to consider when selecting lubricants. These include:
■■ The temperature range in which the lubricant will operate.
■■ The speed of operation which influences the permissible viscosity.
■■ The size of the load and vibrations.
■■ The environmental conditions.
■■ The industry standards which need to be followed.
■■ The tolerance between the metal surfaces.
Keywords
■■ The specific type of friction which will be experienced.
tolerance the
■■ The material type of the part that needs to lubricated. allowed movement
■■ The grade of the lubricant that is required. between surfaces

■■ The application of the lubricant on the machine. grade quality of oil

■■ The flushing properties of the lubricant.

ACTIVITY 3.3 Concepts for lubrication

Define the following terms:

1. Temperature range
2. Tolerance
3. Flushing properties.

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 Unit 4: Lubrication devices

LEARNING OUTCOMES
■ Draw and label different types of lubricating devices.

Introduction
Lubricating devices are used to provide a regulated amount of lubricant to machine
parts. There are five main methods that are used, namely:
■ Gravity-feed lubrication
■ Grease lubrication
■ Splash lubrication
■ Forced lubrication
■ Pressure-feed lubrication.

1. Gravity-feed lubrication
There are four main gravity-feed devices, namely: the needle lubricator, the siphon-
wick lubricator, the sight-feed lubricator, and also the mechanically-operated sight-
feed lubricator. We shall look closely at them.

1.1 The needle lubricator

oil container

needle resting
on shaft

oil

bearing

shaft

Figure 3.1 The needle lubricator

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 1.2 The siphon-wick lubricator

Module 3
oil container

wick

oil

Figure 3.2 The siphon-wick lubricator

1.3 The sight-feed lubricator

feed handle

filling hole

oil holder

oil

valve

sight glass

Figure 3.3 The sight-feed lubricator

1.4 The mechanically-operated sight-feed lubricator

oil container
adjustable lever

sight feed
pump plunger

rocker arm

driving cam

discharge pipe for oil

Figure 3.4 The mechanically-operated sight-feed lubricator

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 2. Grease lubrication
Grease lubrication is most suitable when applied on slow-moving parts under light
loads. There are two main grease devices, namely: the screw-cap grease cup and the
spring-loaded grease cup. Take a look at Figures 3.5 and 3.6.

2.1 The screw-cap grease cup

screw cap
filled with grease

Figure 3.5 The screw-cap grease cup

2.2 The spring-loaded grease cup/the tell-tale

coil spring

filled with grease

Figure 3.6 The tell-tale

3. Splash lubrication
In this kind of system, the lubricant is splashed on the metal surfaces whilst they are
in motion. There are two main splash devices, namely: ring lubrication and cylinder
wall lubrication. Take a look at Figures 3.7 and 3.8.

3.1 Ring lubrication

sealing rings
shaft
shaft

bearings
oil sump oil ring
Figure 3.7 Ring lubrication

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 3.2 Cylinder wall lubrication

Module 3
piston
water jacket gudgeon pin

piston rod
crank shaft
oil sump
oil

Figure 3.8 Cylinder wall lubrication

to system
4. Forced lubrication outlet

In forced lubrication systems, hand oil-pumps or hand grease-pumps pressurise

the oil or grease, which is then directed into holes or nipples and onto the metal inlet
surfaces. Forced lubrication has varied applications in mechanical and electrical check valve
systems, such as pumps, gearboxes, compressors, and generators.

5. Pressure feed lubrication Figure 3.9 A typical hand pump

In pressure lubrication, an oil pump precisely distributes oil to all the key areas of the
system. The oil first passes through an oil filter. It then moves into the pump where it is
recycled and reused. Usually, oil filters are replaced after a period of time, so as to increase
the lifespan of the oil. A pressure feed is used mainly in piston compressor applications.

oil gauge valves oil return

camshaft

main oil line

crankshaft

drive shaft
passages (supply oil (powers pump)
through crankshaft and
connecting rods)

oil pan

pump (circulates oil) floating oil intake

and screen
Figure 3.10 A typical pressure feed system

ACTIVITY 3.4 Lubrication devices

1. Redraw all the lubrication devices in your notebook and try to memorise the key
parts of each device.
2. Which parts are commonly found in most devices?

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 Unit 5 Uses of lubricants

LEARNING OUTCOMES
■■ List different types of lubricants and their uses

Introduction
In each class of lubricant, i.e. liquid, semi-solid and solid, there are different types of
lubricants developed to serve different functions. We will deal with some of the most
useful types.

1. Liquid lubricants
1.1 Motor oil
Motor oil is used for reducing friction in vehicle engines. You use different grades
according to different clamtic conditions, for example 5W-30 instead of 5W-40 in
cooler areas.

1.2 Mineral based oils (both petroleum and

synthetic based)
■■ Used as coolants in processing plants with extreme temperature ranges.
■■ They can also be used when sharpening tools.

Figure 3.11 A typical

2. Semi-solid lubricants
motor oil brand
2.1 Lithium and lithium complex greases
■■ These greases have various uses for bearings, and in compressors and mining
machinery.

2.2 Aluminium complex greases

■■ These are used where corrosion resistance is important, for example in food
processing equipment.
■■ They are also used in mills and rolling equipment (both hot and cold).

2.3 Polyurea grease

■■ This is used for increasing the lifespan of bearings, spindles, and fans.

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 3. Solid lubricants

Module 3
3.1 Graphite
■■ It is used to reduce friction in machine parts.
■■ Also used inside locks, and as a coating for materials exposed to extremely high
temperatures.

3.2 Hexagonal boron nitride

■■ This is used in paints, thinners, and cement.
■■ It can also serve the same functions as graphite.

3.3 Molybdenum disulphide

■■ It is useful for frictional resistance, and is usually mixed with grease.
■■ One of its everyday use is in 2-stroke engines.
■■ Besides withstanding high temperatures, it can also be applied in acidic
environments since molybdenum disulfide is relatively unreactive.

ACTIVITY 3.5 Uses and properties of lubricants

1. Which liquid lubricant is used in motor car engines?

2. Which semi-solid lubricant is best applied to prevent rust formation?
3. Which solid lubricant is not affected by very low pH (acidic conditions)?

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 Module summary
■■ For the proper functioning of bearings, the correct lubricant and
lubrication method must be selected.
■■ There are several lubrication devices, with varying complexity in their
design and working principles.
■■ It would be very useful to have a general understanding of how each
device works.
■■ Both hydrodynamic and hydrostatic lubrication can be used in fluid
film bearings.
■■ Before you select a lubricant, you need to figure out the type of
conditions it is going to work under; otherwise it will fail very quickly.
■■ There are several lubrication devices which can be grouped using their
general method of applying lubrication, namely: gravity-feed, grease,
splash, forced, and pressure-feed lubrication. It is very important to know
the main parts of each device.
■■ Different lubricant types have different applications, so it is important to
select a lubricant carefully.

Exam questions
1. Define the following concepts used in lubrication:
a) Cohesion (1)
b) Adhesion. (1)
2. Compare and contrast hydrostatic and hydrodynamic pressure. (6)
3. Describe hydrostatic lubrication. (5)
5. Compare and contrast oil and grease lubrication. (6)
6. What are the uses of lubricants? Give five. (5)
7. How are lubricants classified? (3)
8. Give five solid lubricants used in industry. (5)
11. Draw a fully-labelled diagram of a siphon and wick lubricator. (5)
12. Name the five general methods of lubrication. (5)
13. Draw a fully-labelled diagram of a sight-feed lubricator. (5)
14. Give five factors to consider when selecting a lubricant. (5)
15. Draw a fully-labelled diagram of the tell-tale or spring-loaded grease cup. (5)
Total: 57 marks

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 Module
Precision measuring
4 of machine parts
What is covered?
This module will teach you how to use precision measuring
instruments, namely: rollers, balls, and sine bars, to measure the
dimensions of machine parts. It will also teach you each device’s
working principles, and the relevant calculations that are done to
come up with precise measurements.

Learning outcomes

After studying this module, you should be able to:

Unit 1
■■ Describe the concepts and terminology of precision
measuring instruments.
Unit 2
■■ Explain how to measure tapers with balls, sine bars, and rollers.
■■ Explain how to use precision balls to determine the taper of a
small ring, a small ring gauge, and internal tapers.
Unit 3
■■ Analyse how to use balls and slip gauges to determine the
taper of a taper plug.
Unit 4
■■ Explain how balls or rollers are used to determine angles of
dovetails.
Unit 5
■■ Draw and label a taper plug gauge with a sine bar.
■■ Calculate inclined and included angles using sine bars.

 47

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 Unit 1: Basic principles of precision measuring

LEARNING OUTCOME
■■ Describe the concepts and terminology of precision measuring instruments.

Introduction
Nowadays, the design of manufactured parts is almost always done using Computer
Keywords Aided Design (CAD) software. Drawing software produces drawings with precise
standards relates dimensions; but when it is time to manufacture, machines do not come up with
to an established identical parts all the time. As a result, companies conduct tests using certain
requirement for a
set standards. If the part meets the required degree of accuracy, they can then
repeatable technical
task that is performed ‘pass’ it. If a part does not meet the standards, it is either altered or discarded since it
to check for quality poses a safety risk. When testing tapers for accuracy, it is usually convenient to use
balls, rollers, and also sine bars, since more complex apparatus may be difficult or
accuracy relates to
expensive to acquire. In this module, we are going learn about precision measuring
how close certain
measurements are to instruments in greater detail.
a specific given true
value or benchmark
Basic principles
precision relates
to how close two or Balls, rollers, and sine bars all apply mathematical principles in their functioning.
more measurements Profound knowledge in the following fields of Mathematics is a pre-requisite when
are to each other doing precision calculations:
■■ Trigonometry: Use of sine, cosine, and tan to calculate lengths and angles.
■■ Circle Geometry: Use of diameters, radii, and tangents to calculate missing
lengths and angles.
■■ Conversion: Conversions between units, for example from degrees to minutes.

ACTIVITY 4.1 Concepts related to measuring

Define the following terms:

1. Precise
2. Degree of accuracy
3. Standards.

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 Module 4
Unit 2: Measuring tapers using precision rollers

LEARNING OUTCOME
■■ Explain how to measure tapers with balls, sine bars, and rollers.
■■ Explain how to use precision balls to determine the taper of a small ring a small
ring gauge and internal tapers.

Introduction
When it is difficult to find a suitable taper plug gauge or taper ring gauge, balls and
rollers can be used to test the angles and dimensions of tapers. These two devices are
usually made of hardened and tempered steels and are found in various sizes ranging
from 1 to 25 mm in diameter. Figure 4.1 below shows how rollers can be used to
test the included angle of a taper. Precision balls will also be dealt with.
large diameter (D)

identical
rollers

slip gauges A
(H – h)
height (H)
height (h)

small diameter (d)

Figure 4.1 Calculating the angle of a taper plug gauge

1. How to test the included angle of a taper

plug gauge using rollers
Set up the apparatus as shown in Figure 4.1.
Using a micrometer, measure:
■■ Initial height, H
■■ Final height, h
■■ Large diameter, D
■■ Smaller diameter, d.

To get the included angle, i, first find angle A using the formula:
(D − d)
tan A = 0,5 ​​ ______
(H − h) ​​
then i = 2A.
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 Worked example 4.1 Included angle of tapered plug gauge

For the tapered plug gauge shown in Figure 4.2: Calculate the included angle, i.
Given that the working drawing has 18º 30’ as the included angle, find out if the taper is
within the limits of the gauge’s range.

82,68 mm

18°±30’

50 mm

66,24 mm

Figure 4.2 Arrangement for checking the included angle

Figure 4.2 shows that:

■■ D = 82,68 mm   d = 66,24 mm   H = 50 mm
h = 0 mm.

Solution
(​​D − d​)
tan A = 0,5 ​​​ ​​_____​​ ​​​​​
(​​H − h​)
(82,68 − 66,24)
= 0,5​​​ ​​____________
   ​​ ​​​
(50 − 0)
411
tan A = _____
​2 500 ​​ ​​​

​2411
A = tan–1(​_____ 500
​​) = 9,336º
therefore, i = 9,336 × 2 = 18,672º or 18º 40’.

To check for limits:

■■ Upper limit = 18º + 30’ = 18º 30’
■■ Lower limit = 18º – 30’ = 17º 30’

18º 40’ is too big, hence not within limits.

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 Module 4
Worked example 4.2 Tapered plug gauge rollers

For the tapered plug gauge shown in Figure 4.3, calculate:

1. The distance across the bottom rollers, distance Y
2. The distance across the top rollers, distance X.

ø70,47 mm

m
m
ø20
100 mm

65,75 mm
1:5

Figure 4.3 Tapered plug gauge

From Figure 4.3:

■■ Roller diameter = 20 mm
■■ Centre distance = 65,75 mm

■■ Height = 100 mm

■■ Top diameter = 70,47 mm

■■ Taper = 1-in-5.

Solution
1. To find distance Y:
A taper of 1-in-5 means that for every increase of the diameter of the gauge by
1 unit, the taper increases in length by 5 units. We can use this information to
come up with two right-angled triangles.
1

Figure 4.4 (a) Enlarged triangle

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 A

0,5
a C
B

1
0,5
5

Figure 4.4 (b) Right-angled triangles with dimensions

Considering triangle ABC in Figure 4.4 (b):

​AC ​​
tan a = ___
BC
0,5
= ___
​ 5 ​​
= 0,1
therefore, a = tan–1(0,1) = 5,711º
and i = 5,711 × 2 = 11,422º.
To find the smaller diameter of the taper:

ø70,47 mm
B
C

A
70,47 mm – 2(BC)

Figure 4.5 Finding the smaller diameter of the taper

In triangle ABC: AB = 100 and a = 5,711º

therefore BC = 100 × tan 5,711 = 10 mm
small diameter of taper = 70,47 – (2 × 10) = 50,47 mm.
Now, to find Y, look at Figure 4.6:

A E
50,47 mm AE DE
Y

Figure 4.6 Finding Y

Distance Y = 50,47 + 2(AE) + 2(DE).

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 To find AE:

Module 4
In ADE, u = 0,5(90º – 5,711º)
= 42,145º
DE ​​
But tan u = ​___
AE
DE
AE = ________
​tan 42,145 ​​
10
= _____
​0,905 ​​
= 11,050 mm
therefore, distance Y = 50,47 + 2(11,050) + 2(10) = 92,57 mm.
2. To find distance X, we can use two methods:
Method 1
In triangle ABC in Figure 4.7:
u = 5,711º
and AB = 65,75 mm
​​ BC ​​
tan 5,711º= _____
65,75
BC = 65, 75 × tan 5,711º
BC = 6,575 mm
therefore, distance X = 92,57 + 2(6,575) = 105,72 mm.
Method 2
distance X = distance Y + change in large diameter
65,75
distance X = 92,57 + _____
​ 5 ​​ = 105,72 mm.

X = 92,57 mm + 2(BC)

C B

C B
65,75 mm
65,75 mm

A A

92,57 mm

Figure 4.7 Finding X

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 ACTIVITY 4.2 Calculating external tapers

1. An external taper has the following measurements:

■■ Initial height, H = 28 mm

■■ Final height, h = 8 mm

■■ Large diameter, D = 54,46 mm

■■ Smaller diameter, d = 43,24 mm.

a) Calculate the included angle.

b) Given that the work drawing of the external taper showed an included angle of
31º ± 20’, check whether the taper is within limits.
2. For the tapered workpiece shown in Figure 4.8, calculate:
a) The included angle
b) The large diameter Y
c) The small diameter X.

120,52 mm

25 mm

105,74 mm
ø25 mm

95,48 mm

Figure 4.8 Tapered workpiece

When measuring internal tapers of a taper ring gauge we use precision balls. Study
figures 4.9(a), 4.9(b) and 4.9(c) and then follow the given procedure:
Y

Y
X

Figure 4.9(a) Figure 4.9(b) Figure 4.9(c)

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 2. How to test the included angle of a taper ring

Module 4
gauge using precision balls
1. Place the taper ring gauge on a surface plate as shown in Figure 4.9(c).
2. Place the smaller precision ball inside and measure X.
3. Place a larger ball inside and measure Y.
If it protrudes, measure the distance shown in Figure 4.9(c).
4. Make a right-angled triangle (see Figure 4.10) and use trigonometry to find the
included angle.
5. Calculate the remaining measurements of the ring gauge.

Y
R

X
h

Figure 4.10 Making a right-angled triangle

Worked example 4.3 Included angle of tapered ring gauge

Calculate the included angle, i, for the tapered ring gauge shown in Figure 4.11, which
shows that D = 35 mm and d = 25 mm.
37,25 mm
5 mm

m
m
ø 35
ø2
5
m
m

Figure 4.11 Tapered ring gauge

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 Solution
AC = (X + r) – (Y + R)
= (37,25 + 12,5) – (5 + 17,5)
= 27,25 mm,
and
BC = R – r
= 17,5 – 12,5 = 5 mm.
Draw the right-angled triangle as shown in Figure 4.12.

C 5 mm
B
27,25 mm

A
Figure 4.12 Right-angled triangle

​BC ​​ = _____
sin u = ___ 5
​27,25 ​​
AC
5
u = sin–1(​_____
​27,25 ​​)
u = 10,573º
the included angle = 2 × 10,573º = 21,146º or 21º 8’.

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 Module 4
Unit 3: Determining tapers of taper plugs

LEARNING OUTCOME
■■ Analyse how to use balls and slip gauges to determine the taper of a taper plug

Introduction
Slip gauges are stackable rectangular blocks used for accurate linear measurements.

Worked example 4.4 Calculating the diameter of a ball using slip gauges

Calculate the diameter of the ball used in A B

the setup shown in Figure 4.13, where:
1. The gauge blocks = 12,75 mm thick d=
? D

12,75 mm
2. The groove depth = 70 mm
3. The included angle = 60º.
E

70 mm
Solution
Connect B, D, and E with a dotted line and
then label angle u, as shown in Figure 4.14.
C
A B

60º
D
Figure 4.13 Roller with two sets of slip gauges
E

60º
Figure 4.14 Roller with two sets of slip gauges
AC = 70 mm + 12,75 mm = 82,75 mm
but AC = AD + CD = r + CD, since AD is a radius.
so, 82,75 mm = r + CD. Equation 1
To find CD, use triangle CDE:
​DE ​​
sin 30º = ___
CD
but DE is also a radius, so
r ​​
Sin 30º =​ ​​___ Equation 2
CD​
r ​​ = 2r.
and CD = ​______
sin 30º
Substituting Equation 2 into Equation 1:
82,75 mm = 3r, so r = 27,583 mm.
Therefore d = 27,583 × 2 = 56,167 mm.

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 ACTIVITY 4.3 Calculating the diameter of a roller using slip gauges

Calculate the diameter of the roller shown in Figure 4.15, where the two sets of slip
gauge blocks are each 14,25 mm thick.

A B

14,25 mm
E

67,75 mm
C

60º
Figure 4.15 Roller with two sets of slip gauges

ACTIVITY 4.4 Calculating the included angle of a taper ring gauge

Calculate the included angle of the ring gauge shown in Figure 4.16.
5 mm

37,25 mm

ø34 mm

ø22 mm

Figure 4.16 A taper ring gauge

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 Module 4
Unit 4: Determining measurements for dovetails

LEARNING OUTCOMES
■■ Explain how balls or rollers are used to determine angles of dovetails.

Introduction
Dovetail joints are very common in the construction of machine parts since they are
very strong and rigid. We use balls and rollers to check the precision of dovetails.
The procedure follows.

How to test dovetails for precision

■■ Place identical rollers into each corner of the dovetail.
■■ Use either the hit and trial method of measurement, or calculate the
missing dimensions.

Worked example 4.5 Using rollers to check dovetail symmetry

Calculate the diameter of the ball used in the setup of the internal dovetail shown in
Figure 4.17.

45 mm

E F
d=
°
60

?
35 mm

A B C
D

65 mm

Figure 4.17 Internal dovetail

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 Solution
AD = AB + BC + CD
so 65 = AB + BC + CD. __ Equation 1
​tanr30º ​​ = ​√ 3 ​​ = 1,732r.
But AB = r and BC = ______
To find CD using triangle CEF:
​tan3560º ​​ = 20,207. So CD = 45 – 20,207 = 24,793 mm
EF = ______
Substituting into Equation 1:
65 = r + 1,732r + 24,793
40,207 = 2,732r.
Therefore, r = 14,717 mm and the diameter = 14,717 × 2 = 29,434 mm.

Worked example 4.6 External dovetail calculation

If both the angles for the external dovetail shown in Figure 4.18 are 45º, calculate the
distance X.

°
ø15 mm
45

125 mm

Figure 4.18 External dovetail

Solution
Label the critical points, as shown in Figure 4.19.
°

ø15 mm
45

A
C
B

125 mm

Figure 4.19 External dovetail

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 X = 125 mm – 2(AB + BC)

Module 4
radius
but BC = radius, and AB = _______
​tan 22.5º
​​ (see previous sections)
7,5
therefore, X = 125 – 2 (7,5 + ​_______
tan 22.5º
​​) = 73,787 mm.

ACTIVITY 4.5 Inclined faces

For the two inclined faces shown in Figure 4.20, calculate the distance X.

ø25 mm

58° A B E F 62°

125 mm

Figure 4.20 Inclined faces

ACTIVITY 4.6 Internal dovetail

Calculate the distance X for the internal dovetail shown in Figure 4.21.
X

125 mm

A B
65
°
35 mm

E
mm
ø25

C D

Figure 4.21 Internal dovetail

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 Unit 5: Measuring tapers with sine bars

LEARNING OUTCOMES
■ Draw and label a taper plug gauge with a sine bar
■ Calculate inclined and included angles using sine bars.

Introduction
A sine bar is a precision measuring device that uses basic trigonometry to calculate
included angles and face-locate workpieces. The most common types of workpieces
dealt with include: taper plug gauges, bevel gauges, and shapers. The devices are
made from chromium-coated steels that are both hard and corrosion resistant.

hardened and ground bar

gth) B
l(len

H2
h

H1
A C

hardened and ground cylinders surface plate gauge blocks

Figure 4.22 Forming an angle with a sine bar and gauge blocks

How to test the included angle using a sine bar

1. Measure the distance l between A and B.
2. Measure the height, h, between the cylinders.
h
3. Use the formula sin u = __l to get sin u.
h
4. Use u = sin–1(__l ) to get angle u.
5. Use the formula i = 2u to get the included angle.

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 Figure 4.23 shows how the sine bar is positioned when checking the included angle

Module 4
of a taper plug gauge.

sine bar
taper plug gauge

gauge blocks

Figure 4.23 Checking the included angle of a taper plug gauge

Worked example 4.7 Checking inclined angle using a sine bar

The workpiece in Figure 4.24 is being machined with a taper of 1-in-15 on the diameter.
Explain how you would check the included angle using a 100 mm sine bar.

taper of 1:15

Figure 4.24 Workpiece being machined

Solution
1. Find the included angle using Figure 4.25.

15
0,5
0,5

Figure 4.25 Calculating the included angle of a taper

0,5
tan u = ___
​15 ​​
0,5
u = tan–1(​___
​15 ​​) = 1,909º
therefore the included angle = 1,909º × 2 = 3,818º.

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 2. Find the height of one roller above the other.

mm
100
B

height h
A 3,818°
C

Figure 4.26 Setup for calculating h

To find h, use triangle ABC:

h = 100 × sin 3,818º = 6,659 mm
therefore, one roller must be 6,659mm above the other.
3. Arrange the workpiece, the sine bar, and gauge blocks, as shown in Figure 4.26;
then compare the actual values you get with the calculated values. If the two values
correspond, it means that the included angle of the workpiece is correctly machined.

Worked example 4.8 Testing accuracy using a sine bar

Figure 4.27 shows the two faces of a casting which needs to be tested for correctness.
Show step-by-step how you would do so using a 100 mm sine bar.
0'
°3
70

Figure 4.27 Two faces of a casting

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 Solution

Module 4
h = h2 – h1
h2
h1

Figure 4.28 Setup of a sine bar with two faces of a casting

Set up the apparatus as shown in Figure 4.28, and then measure both h1 and h2.
Calculate h using the cosine formula, i.e. h = 100cos 70,5º = 33,381 mm.
Now compare this calculated value with the actual value you get. If they are the same,
then the angle is correct.

Worked example 4.9 Using a sine bar to measure an angle

The angle between the flanges of the workpiece shown in Figure 4.29 was found to
be 45º 45’ ± 15’. A 100 mm sine bar is used to check the workpiece. Calculate the
angle between the flanges and check if it is within the limits.
364,36 mm
290,5 mm

Figure 4.29 Workpiece with two flanges

Solution
Height difference:
h = h2 – h1= 364,36 – 290,5 = 73,86 mm.
Angle u:
73,86
h ​​ = _____
sin u = ___
​100 ​ 100 ​​
so u = sin–1(0,7386) = 47,612º = 47º 74’ (not within limits).

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 ACTIVITY 4.7 Sine bar calculations

1. You want to test an angle of 12º 30’ with a 250 mm sine bar. Calculate the height
difference of the two rollers.
2. The heights of two rollers of a sine bar are 376,47 mm and 425,25 mm. A 100 mm
sine bar was used to make the measurements. Calculate the angle the flanges
make with each other.

Module summary
■■ Machine parts need to be tested to check if they were machined to their
precise measurements. Balls, rollers, and sine bars are devices which can
be used for these tests.
(D − d)
■■ tan A = 0,5 ​​ ______​​
(H − h)
■■ i = 2A.
■■ When measuring internal tapers, follow the guidelines given in Figure
4.9 and Figure 4.10, and use the formulae:
opposite
■■ sin u = __________
​​  ​​
hypotenuse
opposite
■■ u = sin–1(​​ __________​​).
hypotenuse
■■ To determine measurements for dovetails, you need to use trigonometry:
opposite
■■ sin u = __________
​​  hypotenuse ​​
adjacent
■■ cos u = __________
​​  hypotenuse
opposite
■■ ​​tan u = ________
​​  adjacent ​​.
■■ There are various precision measuring instruments in use. These include:
■■ balls
■■ rollers
■■ sine bars.
■■ To be able to come up with precise calculations when testing machined
parts, you need to have some mathematical skill.

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 Exam questions

Module 4
1. Calculate the values of X and Y for the taper of 1-in-5 shown in Figure 4.30. (14)

50

55

80
ø18

Figure 4.30 Taper of 1-in-5

2. Calculate the angle of the tapered ring gauge shown in Figure 4.31. (14)
4,25
36,75

ø30

ø20

Figure 4.31 Tapered ring gauge

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 3. Calculate the angle of the tapered ring gauge shown in Figure 4.32. (14)

7,25 mm

37,25 mm
m
m
ø35

ø2
5m
m

Figure 4.32 Tapered ring gauge

4. Calculate the angle u shown in Figure 4.33, given that the diameter of the
ball used is 50 mm. (14)

A B

D
12,5 mm

65 mm

Figure 4.33 Roller with slip gauges

Total: 56 marks

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 Module

5 Gear drives

What is covered?
This module will cover the application of elementary calculations
with respect to spur gear systems, as well as to epicyclic gear
systems. Moreover, it will review and discuss the advantages and
disadvantages of gear trains – in comparison with other types of
drives such as chain drives and belt drives.

Learning outcomes

After studying this module, you should be able to:

Unit 1
■■ List advantages and disadvantages of gear drives when
compared with V-belt drives and chain drives.
Unit 2
■■ Draw and label different gear parts.
Unit 3
■■ Explain the working principles of simple and compound
gear trains.
■■ Practise calculations for simple compound gear trains.
Unit 4
■■ Explain the basic working principle of an epicyclic gear system.
■■ Explain speed increases with sun gear or annulus stationary,
speed increase with annulus stationary, speed reduction with
sun gear stationary, and speed increase and direction reversal
with planet stationary.
Unit 5
■■ List situations where epicyclic gears are used.

 69

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 Unit 1: Introduction to gear drives

LEARNING OUTCOME
■■ List advantages and disadvantages of gear drives when compared with V-belt
drives and chain drives.

Introduction
In this section, you will learn about gear systems, focusing mainly on spur gear and
Keywords epicyclic gear systems. A gear is a machine part that moves in a rotating manner to
spur gear a type of produce torque. Metal teeth obtrude from gears, and these teeth are spaced out at
gear that is widely
used in most torque
regular intervals around the circumference of the gear. The interlocking teeth allow
transfer systems, the gear to match, or mesh, with another gear to provide rotational force. Gears are
like spin dryers and typically attached to shafts, and arranged next to each other in order to mesh. Gears
washing machines are used for many industrialised purposes and processes where large machinery is
involved. The gear teeth are designed and arranged in such a manner as to minimise
epicyclic gear one
gear wheel axis which friction and wear when meshing, in order to increase the gear lifespan. Gearing
itself rotates about systems operate on the basis of converting speed form one shaft to the other. Gears
another fixed axis are considered as instrumental parts of machines such as cars, manufacturing
equipment, bicycles, and clocks. The main purpose of a gear train is to either reduce
torque the measure
of a force that tends or increase speed from the driver gear to the driven gear by influencing the torque
to cause rotation of an (mechanical advantage) exerted on the driven gear.
object about an axis

interlocking tight Advantages and disadvantages of gear drives

meshing of gear
wheel teeth Gear drives have advantages compared to V-belt drives
velocity ratio the or roller chain drives
ratio of the distance
through which a ■■ They deliver a large range of speeds and torque for the equivalent input power.
driven gear moves to ■■ They require little maintenance, with the possibility of a lengthy lifespan.
the distance which
the driving gear ■■ They deliver an accurate velocity ratio.
moves over the same ■■ They are used to achieve different speeds under various load conditions.
timeframe
■■ They are compact compared to other systems.
compact arranged ■■ They transmit direct power between two shafts.
closely together

Disadvantages of gear drives

■■ They are not suitable for large velocities.
■■ They are not suitable for transmitting motion over a large distance.
■■ Due to the engagement of the toothed wheels of gears, some parts of a machine
may get permanently damaged in a case of excessive loading.
■■ They have no flexibility.

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 Module 5
Unit 2: Gear terminology

LEARNING OUTCOMES
Draw and label the following gear parts:
■■ Involute ■■ Addendum (module)
■■ Line of action and pressure angle ■■ Dedendum
■■ Base circle ■■ Clearance
■■ Pitch circle diameter ■■ Whole depth
■■ Circular pitch ■■ Working depth
■■ Tooth thickness ■■ Blank or outside diameter
■■ Root diameter ■■ Centre distance between gears
■■ Root (tooth) fillet on parallel shafts.

Introduction
In this module, we shall consider the gear terminology applicable to gear drives.
Learners need to familiarise themselves with these terms, as they play a vital
measure in attempting calculations.

Spur gear
A gear is a common, versatile machine part for transmitting power or wheel or spur
energy from one shaft to another parallel shaft. It operates on the principle
of two rolling gear wheels that have been adapted to transmit motion
without slippage. When two gears are in mesh, the larger gear is termed pinion
the wheel, or spur, and the smaller gear the pinion – refer to Figure 5.1.
Figure 5.2 illustrates the terminology that is commonly used in
gear drive calculations. Figure 5.1 Principle of power
pitch circle transmission using gears
line of action
outside tooth profile
diameter (involute)
pressure base circle
angle
pitch circle
whole depth centre
working
depth distance
clearance
addendum
dedendum

root
diameter root (tooth)
circular tooth fillet
thickness

circular pitch

Figure 5.2 Terminology for gear drives

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 Unit 3: Simple and compound gear trains

LEARNING OUTCOMES
Explain the working principles of simple and compound gear trains.
Calculate the following for simple compound gear trains:
■■ Module
■■ Pitch circle diameter
■■ Circular pitch
■■ Tooth thickness
■■ Addendum, Dedendum
■■ Clearance, Whole depth
■■ Working depth
■■ Blank or outside diameter
■■ Centre distance between shafts.

Introduction
There are two types of gear trains, namely the simple gear train and compound gear
trains. In a simple gear train, spur gears rotate in reverse rotation to one another
when geared in a series.. Compound gear trains are simple gear trains joined
together, resulting in the output of a simple gear train being the same as the input of
another gear train. Gears of the same pitch are paired to get a gear ratio that is used
to increase mechanical advantage, or to increase velocity.

1. Calculations for simple and compound

gear trains
This section considers the formulae and symbols needed for simple gear and
compound gear train calculations.

2. Formulae and symbols

2.1 Module
PCD
m = ____
​  T ​ ​​
where: PCD = pitch circle diameter
T = number of teeth on gear
m = module.

2.2 Circular pitch

Circular pitch (CP) = π × m
where: CP = circular pitch
m = module.

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 2.3 Addendum

Module 5
Addendum = module (m)

​2.4 Dedendum
Dedendum = 1,157 × module (m)

​2.5 Total depth of tooth

Total depth of tooth = addendum + dedendum

​2.6 Tooth thickness

Circular pitch (CP)
Tooth thickness = ​​ _______________
   2 ​​ ​​

2.7 Outside diameter of gear

DO = m × (T + 2)
where: DO = outside diameter of the gear
T = number of teeth on gear
m = module.

2.8 Centre distance between the shafts

m
C = __
​​  2 ​​ × (TA + TB)
where: C = centre distance between the shafts
TA = number of teeth on gear wheel
TB = number of teeth on pinion
m = module.

2.9 Velocity ratio of gears

T
VR = ___
​​  TA ​​
B
PCD of gear wheel
______________
or VR =   
​​    
PCD of pinion ​​
N
or VR = ​​ ___
A
N ​​ B

and NA × TA = NB × TB
or NA × (product of driving gears) = NB × (product of driven gears)​
where: VR = velocity ratio
TA = number of teeth on gear wheel Note
TB = number of teeth on pinion The main principle in
NA = rotational frequency of gear wheel answering questions
NB = rotational frequency of pinion. is to apply the ‘info
given’ against the
‘data required’
Having looked at the terms that are used in the design of spur gears, calculations methodology.
relating to the terms described are explained in the Worked examples that follow.

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 Worked example 5.1 Simple gear train calculations

Refer to Figure 5.3, which shows a simple gear train consisting of a pinion and a gear
wheel meshing together.

120

gear B

gear A

Figure 5.3 Simple gear train of two spur gears meshing

This simple gear train has a module of 4 mm, and the centre distance between the
shafts is exactly 120 mm. Take the velocity ratio of the gears to be 3:2, and calculate
the following:
1. The number of teeth on each of the gears
2. The PCD of each gear
3. The outside diameters of the two gears
4. The circular pitches of the gear teeth
5. The total depth of the tooth.

Solution
Data given:
C = 120 mm
VR = 3:2
m = 4 mm.
1. Find TA and TB:
VR = 3:2
2TA = 3TB
3T
TA = ___
2
B

∴ TA = 1,5TB
m (T + T )
and C = __
2 A B
4 (1,5T + T )
120 = __
2 B B

120 = 2(2,5TB)
120
____ 2(2,5TB)
2
= ______
2
60 = (2,5TB)
TB = 24.
∴ TA = 1,5TB
TA = 1.5 × 24
TA = 36.
Answer: TA = 36 and TB = 24.

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 2. Find PCDA and PCDB:

Module 5
PCD
m = ​​ ____
T
​​
PCD = m × T
∴ PCDA = m × TA
PCDA = 4 × 36 = 144 mm
​PCD
m = ​ ____
T
​​
PCD = m × T
∴ PCDB = m × TB
PCDB = 4 × 24 = 96 mm.
Answer: PCDA = 144 mm and PCDB = 96 mm.
3. Find outside diameters of Gear A and Gear B: Note
DO = m × (T + 2) The outside diameters
do not have the
∴ DO of gear A = m × (TA + 2) same ratio, since the
DO of gear A = 4 × (36 + 2) = 152 mm. formula for calculating
DO = m × (T + 2) the outside diameter is
∴ DO of gear B = m × (TB + 2) of an empirical nature,
DO of gear B = 4 × (24 + 2) = 104 mm. irrespective of the
velocity ratio of the
4. Find the circular pitch for the gears:
gear wheels being 3:1.
π × PCD
circular pitch (CP) = ​​ _____________
  ​​
number of teeth
π × 144 ​​
CP of gear A = ​​ ______
36
∴ CP of gear A = 12,566 mm.
Test the answer by calculating B:
π × 96
CP of gear B = ​​ _____
24
​​
∴ CP of gear B = 12,566 mm.
The answer shows that: CPA = CPB = 12,566 mm.
5. Find total depth of tooth:
total depth of tooth = addendum + dedendum
addendum = module = 4 mm
dedendum = 1,157 × module
= 1,157 × 4
dedendum = 4,628 mm
total depth of tooth = 4 + 4,628
total depth of tooth = 8,628 mm.
​

Worked example 5.2 Simple spur gear calculations

Refer to Figure 5.4, which shows a simple spur gear train, made up of gear wheel A
and pinion B, with a module of 5 mm.

gear A

gear B
TB = 24 teeth

Figure 5.4 Simple spur gear train of gear wheel A and pinion B

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 The velocity ratio of the two gears is 3:1, and the pinion has 24 teeth. Calculate:
1. The pitch circle diameters of both gear wheels
2. The exact centre distance between the two shafts
3. The outside diameters of both gear wheels
4. The addendum and dedendum of the gear wheels.

Solution
Data given:
TB = 24
VR = 3:1
m = 4 mm.
1. Find PCDA and PCDB:
VR = 3:1
∴ TA = 3TB
TA = 3 × 24 = 72 teeth
PCD
m = ​​ ____
T
​​
PCD = m × T
∴ PCDA = m × TA
PCDA = 5 × 72 = 360 mm.
PCD
m = ​​ ____ T
​​
PCD = m × T
∴ PCDB = m × TB
PCDB = 5 × 24 = 120 mm.
Answer: PCDA = 360 mm and PCDB = 120 mm.
2. Find the exact centre distance between the gears:
m ​​(T + T )
C = ​​ __
2 A B
5
__
C = ​​  2 ​​(72 + 24) = 240 mm.
Answer : C = 240 mm.
3. Find the outside diameters of Gear A and Gear B:
DO = m × (T + 2)
∴ DO of gear A = m × (TA + 2)
DO of gear A = 5 × (72 + 2) = 370 mm.
DO = m × (T + 2)
∴ DO of gear B = m × (TB + 2 )
DO of gear B = 5 × (24 + 2) = 130 mm.
4. Find the addendum and dedendum:
addendum = module = 5 mm
dedendum = 1,157 × module
= 1,157 × 5
dedendum = 5,785 mm.

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 Module 5
Worked example 5.3 Calculations for simple spur gears

Refer to Figure 5.5, which shows two shafts connected by spur gears with a module of
8 mm, and approximately 639 mm centre distance between the shafts.

±639 mm

gear B

gear A

Figure 5.5 Two shafts connected by spur gears, A and B

If the velocity ratio of the two gears is 3:1, find the following:
1. The number of teeth on each gear wheel
2 The actual centre distance between the shafts
3. The circular pitch of the gears
4. The total depth to which the cutter has to be fed to mill the tooth
5 The tooth thickness.

Solution
Data given:
C = ±639 mm
VR = 3:1
m = 8 mm.
1. Find TA and TB:
VR = 3:1
TA = 3TB
m (T + T )
C = __
2 A B
8
639 = __
2
(3T B
+ TB)
639 × 2
______
8
= 4TB
4TB = 159,75
TB = 39,938
TB = 40.
TA = 3TB
∴ TA = 3 × 40
TA = 120.
Answer : TA = 120 and TB = 40.
2. Find the circular pitch for the gears:
circular pitch (CP) = π × m
circular pitch (CP) = π × 8
∴ CP = 12,566 mm.

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 3. Find total depth of tooth:
total depth of tooth = addendum + dedendum
addendum = module = 8 mm
dedendum = 1,157 × module
= 1,157 × 8
dedendum = 9,256 mm
total depth of tooth = 8 + 9,256
total depth of tooth = 17,256 mm.
4. Find the actual centre distance between shafts:
m ​​(T + T )
C = ​​ __
2 A B

​​  28 ​​(120 + 40) = 640 mm.

C = __
Answer: Actual centre distance = 640 mm.
5. Find tooth thickness of gear:
CP
tooth thickness = ​​ ___
2
​​
12,566
tooth thickness = ​​ ______
2
​​= 6,283 mm.

Worked example 5.4 Ring gear calculations

Refer to Figure 5.6, which shows a pinion, B, with 40 teeth, meshing with a ring gear, A.

gear A

gear B

80 mm

Figure 5.6 Pinion B meshing with ring gear A

The centre distance between the shafts is 80 mm, and the module of the teeth is 4 mm.
Calculate:
1. The number of teeth on the ring gear
2. The pitch circle diameter of the ring gear.

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 Solution

Module 5
Data given:
C = 80 mm
m = 4 mm.
1. Find TA:
m ​​(T − T )
C = ​​ __
2 A B

80 = ​​ __4 ​​(T − 40)

2 A
80 × 2
_____
​​  4 ​​ = TA − 40
TA = 40 + 40 = 80.
Answer: TA = 80 teeth.
​ . Find the PCD of ring gear A:
2
PCDA = m × TA
PCDA = 4 × 80 = 320 mm.
Answer: PCDA = 320 mm.

Worked example 5.5 Compound gear train calculations

Refer to Figure 5.7, which shows a compound gear train made of an input gear A
with 60 teeth, rotating at 800 r/min, and other gears B, C and D. The figure also
shows the number of teeth on the other gears.

gear A 60 teeth
gear C 84 teeth NA = 800 r/min

gear B 40 teeth

gear D 30 teeth
Figure 5.7 Compound gear train of gears A, B, C and D

Given a module of 3 mm, calculate the following:

1. The rotating speed of gears B, C and D
2. The centre distance of X and Y.

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 Solution
1. Find NB, NC, ND:
TA × NA = TB × NB
T ×N
NB = ​​ ______
A
T
A
​​
B
60 × 800
NB = ​​ _______
40
​​  = 1 200 r/min.
Answer: NB = 1 200 r/min, and NC = NB = 1 200 r/min since the gears are mounted on
a common axis.
Now, finding ND:
NA × (product of driving gears) = ND × (product of driven gears)
N × (product of driving gears)
ND = ​​ _______________________
A
     ​​
(product of driven gears)
N × TA × TC 800 × 60 × 84
ND = ​​ _________
A
TB × TD
___________
​​  = ​​    40 × 30
​​  = 3 360 r/min.
2. Find the centre distance of X and Y:
m ​​(T + T )
C of X = ​​ __
2 A B
3
C of X = ​​ __
2
​​(60 + 40) = 150 mm.
m ​​(T + T )
C of Y = ​​ __
2 A B
3
C of Y = ​​ __
2
​​(84 + 30) = 171 mm.
Answer: Centre distance of X = 150 mm, and centre distance of Y = 171 mm.

Worked example 5.6 Calculating the output shaft speed for a gearbox

Refer to Figure 5.8 showing three shafts in a gearbox, which is used for transmitting
power from the input shaft carrying Gear A to the output shaft carrying Gear D.

gear D

gear C gear B

gear A

Figure 5.8 Power transmission gearbox

If gears A, B, C and D have 30, 50, 45 and 65 teeth respectively and if the input shaft
rotates at a speed of 650 r/min, calculate the output shaft speed.

Solution
NA × (product of driving gears) = ND × (product of driven gears)
N × (product of driving gears)
ND = ​​______________________
   A
   ​​
(product of driven gears)
N × TA × TC ___________
ND = ​​_________
A
TB × TD
​​ 65050× ×3065× 45 ​​= 270 r/min.
​​ =   

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 Module 5
Unit 4: Epicyclic gear train

LEARNING OUTCOMES
■ Explain the basic working principle of an epicyclic gear system.
■ Explain speed increases with sun gear or annulus stationary, speed increase
with annulus stationary, speed reduction with sun gear stationary, and speed
increase and direction reversal with planet stationary.

Introduction
Epicyclic gearing, or planetary gearing, is a gear system having one or more outer
gears – pinions, or planets rotating about a central sun gear, or sun wheel. Classically
speaking, the planet gears are mounted on a mobile arm or carrier, which itself may
revolve relative to the sun gear. The rotational speed of the output is lower than that
of the drive, and the torque of the output is higher in reverse proportion. The greater
the number of gear wheels that mesh with each other, the higher the torque. In general,
one planetary gear system contains three to four planet gears. Refer to the simple
basic form shown in Figure 5.9.
Planetary gears commonly comprise a combination of several gear wheels toggled
within and behind each other. Several simple planet gear sets can be merged into a
multiple gear unit. This enables a hub gear changer on a bicycle to have in excess of
the three speeds usually achieved with a simple gear set.

1. Applications of epicyclic gear train

ring gear

arm

planet gear sun gear

Figure 5.9 An epicyclic gear train

The epicyclic gear is used extensively due to its many benefits and applications.
As mentioned, it has three main components – the sun gear, one or more planetary
gears, and a ring or annulus gear. An epicyclic gear can be either simple or compound.

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 The section below discusses the application and uses of the epicyclic gear train,
as well as the advantages and disadvantages of an epicyclic gear.

2. Gear ratios
The different gear components –planetary wheels, the sun gear and the annulus – are
used to construct an epicyclic gear train. This allows the assembly of a variety of different
gear ratios through the manipulation of each of the three main components. This
means that each component can provide either input or output, where engine power
is transferred to or from that gear. The gear connected to the output shaft can in this
instance be fixed. Table 5.1 below summarises the different epicyclic gear arrangements.
Table 5.1: Summary of the different epicyclic gear arrangements

Sun gear Planetary gear Ring gear Torque Speed

Input Output Fixed Increased Decreased
Output Input Fixed Decreased Increased
Fixed Output Input Increased Decreased
Fixed Input Output Decreased Increased

3. Advantages of epicyclic gear trains

■■ Epicyclic gear trains are popular for automatic transmission in automobiles.
■■ They are also used in bicycles for controlling pedalling power, automatically
or manually.
■■ They are used in the back gears of lathes, hoists, pulley blocks, and wrist watches.
■■ They are also used for the power trains between internal combustion engines
and an electric motor.
■■ Various kinematic arrangements are possible.
■■ There is no offset output shaft, which simplifies the design and cuts down on
production costs.
■■ Many different gear ratios can be obtained within a very limited space.

4. Disadvantages of an epicyclic gear train

■■ An epicyclic gear train has a complex design due to the many interacting parts
requiring precise tolerances.
■■ The entire gear train has to be disassembled in order to perform maintenance.
■■ Constant lubrication is required.
■■ Operation is noisy, due to the meshing of multiple gears.
■■ It uses high load bearings, which are put under large amounts of stress
during operation.

Keyword
RPM revolutions per
5. Calculations of simple epicyclic gear trains
minute, or r/min; are To do calculations involving epicyclic gear train design, you need information regarding
the number of full the input or output shaft speeds – often measured in RPM – and torques involved.
turns, or rotations
You can then calculate the correct gear sizes and the numbers of gear teeth required
(360º), an object
makes in one minute for gear reduction.

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 There are two common methods for doing epicyclic gear calculations – the tabular

Module 5
method and the algebraic method. This module will focus only on the tabular
method for its simplicity and versatility in applying it to any simple epicyclic gear
train calculation.
The tabular method looks complicated at first, but it will make more sense after
breaking it down and explaining it step-by-step under the following considerations:
■■ Because planet gears are attached to the same carrier arm and rotate together,
they can be considered as one element.
■■ Also note that TA, TP, and TS represent the number of teeth on the annulus, the
planetary wheels, and the sun gear respectively.
■■ Note that NA, NS, and NL represent the annulus speed, the sun gear speed, and
the arm carrier speed respectively.
As discussed earlier, spur gears are the most common types of gear used in epicyclic
gear trains, and it is therefore important to know how to perform calculations
relating to them. Table 5.2 illustrates, step-by-step, the important procedures to
consider when calculating epicyclic gear trains.
Table 5.2: Simple gear calculation steps

Step 1 Rotate the entire gearbox a number of times in the positive direction.
Treat the clockwise direction as + ve, and the anti-clockwise direction as − ve.
​
Step 2 This step serves as the first condition for epicyclic gear calculations, where you fix
the carrier arm and rotate the ring gear one revolution in the clockwise direction –
even if the ring gear’s speed is treated as steady in the calculations.
Note: You fix the arm so that the epicyclic gear functions in the same way as spur
gears meshing. This allows you to obtain a relevant gear ratio between the three
gears. Remember that this first condition relates to the gear ratio, and has nothing
to do with the speeds involved. When the annulus is rotated clockwise, the
planetary wheels will rotate in the same direction since the annulus is ringed. For
the sun gear to then move, the annulus must drive the planetary gears so that they
drive the sun gear in an anti-clockwise direction.
teeth of the annulus
________________ T teeth of the annulus teeth of the planetary TA ___ T
​​    
   ​​ = __
​​  TA ​​ ________________
​​    
   ​​ × ________________
​​    ​​ = __
   ​​  T ​​ × ​​  −TP ​​.
teeth of the planetary P teeth of the planetary teeth of the sun P S

Step 3 This second condition is where you consider multiplying the ratio obtained in the
first condition by multiplying by X and adding Y.

Step 4 The fourth step is used to find the unknown rotational speeds between the
annulus (NA), the sun gear (NS), and the arm (NL), where two speeds need to be
known in order to solve the simultaneous equations. When using this method, you
use steps 3 and 4 for the calculations; however, step 2 is as vital as the other steps
because once the gear ratio is miscalculated, it can have a ripple effect on the
remaining steps and lead to incorrect end results.

A few important things to note from this table:

■■ No two gears can have the same configuration at the same time. For example, the sun gear
and the ring gear cannot be both an input gear and a fixed gear. One gear must be the
input gear and one must be the output gear, while the remaining gear is fixed.
■■ The planet gears can never be fixed. It is rare that the speeds of the planet wheels appear as
solvable variables in tabular methods.
■■ The speed ratio increases as the torque ratio decreases, and vice versa.
■■ Unless otherwise stated for simple epicyclic gear trains, the input shaft is connected to the
sun gear and the output shaft is connected to the arm. This will be shown in the Worked
examples for epicyclic gear train calculations.

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 6. Table of calculations for epicyclic gear drives
Table 5.3: Table for calculating epicyclic gear drives

No Condition Gear A Gear P Gear S Arm L

(annulus gear) (planetary gear) (sun gear)

1 Fix arm L and rotate A + 1 revolutions T T T

​​  __
A
​​ ​​  __
A
​​ × ___
​​  −TP ​​ 0
+1 revolutions clockwise TP T
P S

2 Multiply by X and X+Y T T +Y

​​  __
A
​​(X+Y) ​​  ___
P
(​​​X+Y)​
add Y TP
−T S

3 This step is dependent NA ------------ NS NL

on the question
posed relating to the
speeds given and
speeds required to
solve simultaneously.
Two speeds must be
known to solve the
unknown column.

Having looked at the steps used in epicyclic gear train calculations, work through the
examples that follow:

Worked example 5.7 Simple epicyclic gear drive calculations

A B
TA = 20

arm C
TB = 80

NC = 100 r/min

Figure 5.10 Simple epicyclic gear drive for Worked example 5.7

Refer to Figure 5.10, which shows a simple epicyclic gear drive consisting of a gear wheel B
with 80 teeth, and a pinion A with 20 teeth. Assume that gear wheel B is fixed. Find the
speed and the direction of rotation of pinion A mounted on an arm C, rotating clockwise
at 100 r/min about the centre of gear B.

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 Solution

Module 5
Table 5.4: Table for calculating epicyclic gear drives

No Condition Gear B Gear A Arm C

1 Fix arm C and rotate B + 1 revolutions clockwise T 80 0

​​  __
T
A
​​ = ____
​​  −20 ​​ = −4
+1 revolutions P

2 Multiply by X and add Y X+Y 4X + Y +Y

3 NB = 0, NC = 100 r/min, 0 NA = ? NC = +100

NA = ?

X+Y = 0 Equation 1
Y = 100 Equation 2
Substitute Equation 2 into Equation 1:
X + 100 = 0
X = −100.
Then substitute the value of X and Y into the required equation to solve for the unknown:
∴ −4X + Y = NA
4(−100) + 100 = NA
NA = 500 r/min clockwise.

Worked example 5.8 Epicyclic gear train calculations

Refer to Figure 5.11, showing a simple epicyclic gear train consisting of a ring gear A,
three planetary wheels P, the spider arm L connected to the output shaft, and the sun
gear S, connected to the input shaft. The annulus A has 80 teeth, the planetary wheels
have 40 teeth each, and the sun gear has 20 teeth.
Calculate the following, provided that the input shaft is rotating at 60 r/min in a
clockwise direction:
1. The speed of the output shaft, provided that the ring gear is fixed
2. The annulus speed, assuming that the sun gear is fixed, and the arm now rotates
at 60 r/min in an anti-clockwise direction.

A = 80 teeth

P = 40 teeth

arm L
S = 20 teeth

Figure 5.11 Simple epicyclic gear drive for Worked example 5.8

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 Solution
Table 5.5: Table for calculating epicyclic gear drives

No Condition Gear A Gear P Gear S Arm L

(annulus gear) (planetary gear) (sun gear)

1 Fix arm L and + 1 revolutions T 80 T T 80 0

​​  __
A
​​ = ___
​​  40 ​​ = 2 ​​  __
A
​​ × ___
​​  −TP ​​ = ____
​​  −20 ​​ = −4
rotate A +1 clockwise T
P
T
P S
revolutions
2 Multiply by X X +Y 2X + Y −4X + Y +Y​
and add Y
3 NA = 0, 0 ------------ 60 NL
NS = 60 r/min,
NL =?
4 NA = 0, NA ------------ 0 –60
NS = 0 r/min,
NL = –60

1. X + Y = 0 Equation 1
−2X + Y = 60 Equation 2
From Equation 1:
X = −Y
Substitute the value of X into Equation 2:
∴ −2(−Y) + Y = 60
3Y = 60
60
Y = ​​ ___
3
​​ = 20
∴ NL = +20 r/min.
2. X + Y = NA
Y = −60 Equation 1
−2X + Y = 0 Equation 2
Substitute Equation 1 into Equation 2:
∴ −2X − 60 = 0
−2X = 60
−60
X = ​​ ____
2
​​= −30 r/min.
Substitute the values of X and Y into the required equation to solve for the unknown:
∴ X + Y = NA
NA = −30 − 60 = −90 r/min
NA = 90 r/min (anti-clockwise direction).

Worked example 5.9 Epicyclic gear train calculations

Refer to Figure 5.12, which shows a simple epicyclic gear train consisting of a ring gear A,
three planetary wheels P, the spider arm L connected to the output shaft, and the sun
gear S connected to the input shaft. The planetary wheels have 40 teeth each, and the
sun gear has 20 teeth.
Calculate the following, provided that the input shaft is rotating at 300 r/min in a
clockwise direction:
1. The number of teeth on the annulus gear
2. The output shaft speed, assuming that the ring gear is fixed
3. The speed of the annulus if the output shaft is rotated at 10 r/min in the same direction
4. The PCD of the annulus, if the gears have a module of 3,5 mm.

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 Module 5
P = 40 teeth

S = 20 teeth

Figure 5.12 The epicyclic gear train for Worked example 5.9

Solution
Table 5.6: Table for calculating epicyclic gear drives

No Condition Gear A Gear P Gear S Arm L

(annulus gear) (planetary gear) (sun gear)

1 Fix arm L and + 1 revolutions T T T 0

​​  __
A
​​  100
​​ = ____ ​​ = 2,5 ​​  __
A
​​ × ___
​​  −TP ​​ = ____100
​​  −20 ​​ = −5
rotate A +1 clockwise T
P
40 T
P S
revolutions

2 Multiply by X X+Y 2,5X + Y −5X + Y +Y

and add Y

3 NA = 0, NS = 0 ------------ 300 NL
300 r/min, NL = ?

4 NA = ?, NS = NA ------------ 300 10
300 r/min,
NL = 10

1. TA = 2TP + TS
TA = 2(40) + 20 = 100 teeth.
​2. X + Y = 0 Equation 1
−5X + Y = 300 Equation 2
From equation 1:
X=−Y
Substitute the value of X into Equation 2:
∴ −5(−Y) + Y = 300
6Y = 300
​​  300
Y = ____ 6
​​ = 50 r/min
∴ NL = 50 r/min (clockwise direction).
​3. X + Y = NA
Y = 10 Equation 1
−5X + Y = 300 Equation 2
Substitute Equation 1 into Equation 2:
∴ −5X + 10 = 300
−5X = 290
​​  290
X = – ____ 5
​​= −58 r/min
substitute X and Y values into the required equation to solve unknown:
∴ X + Y = NA
NA = −58 + 10 = −48 r/min
NA = 48 r/min (Anti-clockwise direction)

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 4. TA = 100 teeth
m = 3,5 mm
PCD
m = ​​ ____
TA
A
​​
∴ PCDA = m × TA
PCDA = 3,5 × 100 = 350 mm.

Worked example 5.10 Simple epicyclic gear train calculations

compound internal gear

gear
G
D G

E D
E
arm

A C

Figure 5.13 Simple epicyclic gear consisting of a sun gear and three other gears

Refer to Figure 5.13, which shows a simple epicyclic gear train consisting of a sun gear
and three other gears. Ring gear G has 60 teeth, planetary gear E has 20 teeth, gear D
has 24 teeth, and sun gear C has 16 teeth. The input shaft A is connected to the sun
gear C, rotating at 120 r/min in a clockwise direction. Gears E and D are mounted on the
same axis, and the arm is connected to the output shaft B.
Using the information provided, calculate the following:
1. The speed and direction of rotating annulus G if the arm connected to the output
shaft B is fixed
2. The output shaft speed, assuming that the ring gear is fixed.

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 Solution

Module 5
Table 5.7: Table for calculating epicyclic gear drives

No Condition Gear G Gear E Gear D Gear C Arm B

(annulus gear) (planetary gear) (inline) (sun gear)

1 Fix arm B and + 1 revolutions T 3 T T 0

​​  __
T
G
​​  60
​​ = ___ 20
​​ = 3 ​​  __G
​T​  ​​
​​ × ___
​​  −TD ​​ =
rotate G +1 clockwise E E C
revolutions ___ 60 ____ 24 ​​ =
​​  20 ​​ × ​​  −16
−4,5

2 Multiply by X X +Y 3X + Y 3X + Y −4,5X + Y +Y
and add Y

3 NB = 0, NC = NG -------- -------- 120 0

120 r/min

4 NG = 0, NC = 0 -------- -------- 120 NB = ?

120 r/min

1. X + Y = NG​​
−4,5X + Y = 120 Equation 1
Y =0 Equation 2
Substitute equation 2 into equation 1:
− 4,5X + 0 = 120
120
X = ​​ ____
−4.5
​​ = −26,666
∴ Substitute the values of X and Y into the formula to find the unknown:
−26,666 + 0 = NA
NA = −26,666 r/min.
2. Y = NB
−4,5X + Y = 120 Equation 1
X+Y = 0 Equation 2
From Equation 2, make X the subject of the formula:
X = −Y Equation 2
−4,5(−Y) + Y = 120
120
∴ Y = ​​ ____
5,5
​​ = 21,818
NB = 21,818 r/min.

ACTIVITY 5.1 Simple epicyclic gear drive calculation

Refer to Figure 5.14, which shows a A B

simple epicyclic gear drive consisting TA = 30
of a gear wheel B with 100 teeth, and
arm C
a pinion A with 30 teeth. Assume that TB = 100
the gear wheel B is fixed.
■■ Find the speed and the direction of

rotation of pinion A, mounted on

an arm C, and rotating clockwise
at 120 r/min about the centre of
gear B.
NC = 120 r/min

Figure 5.14 Simple epicyclic gear drive

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 ACTIVITY 5.2 Simple epicyclic gear drive calculation

Simple epicyclic gear drive calculation

Refer to Figure 5.15, showing a simple epicyclic gear train consisting of a ring gear A,
three planetary wheels P, the spider arm L connected to the output shaft, and the sun
gear S connected to the input shaft. The annulus A has 95 teeth, the planetary wheels
have 40 teeth each, and the sun gear has 20 teeth.
Provided that the input shaft is rotating at 90 r/min in a clockwise direction, calculate
the following:
1. The output shaft speed, assuming that the ring gear is fixed
2. The speed of the annulus, if the output shaft is rotated in the same direction.
ring gear is
A = 95 teeth
P = 40 teeth
S = 20 teeth
arm L

Figure 5.15 Simple epicyclic gear drive

ACTIVITY 5.3 Calculations for simple spur gears

Refer to Figure 5.16, which shows a simple epicyclic gear train consisting of a ring gear A,
three planetary wheels P, the spider arm L connected to the output shaft, and the sun
gear S connected to the input shaft. The planetary wheels have 35 teeth each, and the
sun gear has 25 teeth.
Calculate the following, provided that the input shaft is rotating at 250 r/min in the
clockwise direction:
1. The number of teeth of the annulus gear
2. The output shaft speed, assuming that the ring gear is fixed
3. The speed of the annulus if the output shaft is rotated in the same direction
4. The PCD of the annulus, if the gears have a module of 4 mm.

P = 35 teeth

S = 25 teeth

Figure 5.16 Epicyclic gear train

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 Module 5
ACTIVITY 5.4 Simple epicyclic gear train calculation

Refer to Figure 5.17, which shows a simple epicyclic gear train consisting of a sun gear
and three other gears. Ring gear G has 80 teeth, planetary gear D has 25 teeth, gear E
has 28 teeth, and sun gear C has 19 teeth. The input shaft A is connected to the sun
gear C, rotating at 155 r/min in a clockwise direction. Gears E and D are mounted on the
same axis, and the arm is connected to the output shaft B.
Using the information provided, calculate the following:
1. The speed and direction of rotating annulus G if the arm connected to the output
Note
shaft B is fixed You need to fully
understand the
2. The output shaft speed, assuming that the ring gear is fixed. process involved
compound internal gear before attempting
gear calculations, especially
G for epicyclic gears.
D G

E D
E
arm

A C

Figure 5.17 Simple epicyclic gear train consisting of a sun gear and three other gears

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 Unit 5: Uses for epicyclic gears

LEARNING OUTCOME
■■ List situations where epicyclic gears are used.

Introduction
In this unit, we shall reflect on the learning outcomes expected at the end of the
module. Moreover the Exam questions serve as a gauge of how much you have
understood gear drives, as well as serving as a guideline for examination preparations.

Situations where epicyclic gears are used

■■ Wristwatch ■■ Electric screwdriver
■■ Bicycle for controlling ■■ Hoist
pedalling power ■■ Pulley blocks
■■ Automatic transmission in vehicles ■■ Robotic arms
■■ Turbine generators

a) b)

c) d)

Figure 5.18 a)–d)

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 Module 5
Module summary
■■ This module covered the explanations of different terms and dimensions
applicable to gear drives, and explained the difference between simple
and compound gear trains. In this module you have learnt:
■■ How to differentiate between a spur gear train and an epicyclic
gear train.
■■ How to do elementary calculations on the pitch circle diameter, pitch
circle, module, addendum, dedendum and centre distances.
■■ How to do basic calculations on simple and compound gear drives with
respect to velocity ratios and the rotational speeds of gear components.
■■ How to construct the epicyclic gear calculation table using the
conditions of the tabular method.
■■ How to perform calculations in respect of simple epicyclic gears.

Exam questions
1. Give six advantages of gear trains over belt drives and roller chain drives. (6)
2. Make an accurate sketch of spur gear teeth, showing the following:
a) The addendum
b) The dedendum
c) The total depth of tooth
d) The tooth thickness
e) The pitch
f) The face width
g) The pitch circle. (10)
3. Explain the following terms in your own words:
a) Pitch circle diameter
b) Addendum
c) Centre distance
d) Module
e) Dedendum
f) Total depth of tooth
g) Tooth thickness. (7 × 2 = 14)
4. A simple gear train, consisting of two spur gears meshing with each other,
has a centre distance of approximately 140 mm between the two shafts.
Assuming the gears have a velocity ratio of 5:3 and that the gear train has a
module of 8 mm, calculate the following:
a) The number of teeth on each gear
b) The PCD of each gear
c) The outside diameter of each gear
d) The circular pitch of the gear teeth
e) The total depth of tooth. (5 × 2 = 10)
5. A simple spur gear train with a gear wheel A and a pinion B has a module
of 5,5 mm. The velocity ratio of the two gears is 3:2, and the pinion has
24 teeth. Calculate:
a) The pitch circle diameter of both gears
b) The exact centre distance between the two shafts
c) The outside diameter for both gears
d) The addendum and dedendum of the gears. (4 × 2 = 8)

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 6. The following particulars apply to a simple gear train made of a gear wheel
and a pinion: module = 3,5 mm, pressure angle = 20º, gear ratio = 3:1,
PCD of pinion = 66,5 mm. Calculate the following:
a) The number of teeth on each gear
b) The addendum and the dedendum of the gear teeth
c) The outside diameter for both gears
d) The pitch circle diameter of the gear wheel
e) The total depth of tooth
f) The tooth thickness at the pitch circle. (6 × 2 = 12)
7. Refer to Figure 5.18 below, which shows a pinion with 40 teeth meshing
with a ring gear.

TA= 40

±74 mm

Figure 5.18 A pinion meshing with a ring gear

The centre distance between the shafts is approximately 74 mm, and the
module of the teeth is 4 mm. Find:
a) The pitch circle diameter of the ring gear
b) The number of teeth on the ring gear. (2 × 2 = 4)
8. Refer to Figure 5.19, which shows a compound gear train made up of an
input gear A with 68 teeth, rotating at an input speed of 850 r/min, and other
gears B, C and D. The figure also shows the number of teeth on the other gears.
gear A 68 teeth
gear C 70 teeth NA = 850 r/min

gear B 136 teeth

gear D 100 teeth

Figure 5.19 Compound gear train of gears A, B, C and D

Given a module of 3 mm, calculate the following:

a) The rotation speeds of gears B, C and D
b) The centre distances X and Y. (2 × 2 = 4)
Total: 68 marks

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 Module

6 Belt drives

What is covered?
This module will cover the application of elementary calculations
relating to flat belts and V-belts, as well as to conveyor belt drives.
Moreover, it will discuss the applicable concepts and terminology.

Learning outcomes

After studying this module, you should be able to:

Unit 1
■■ Explain the concepts and terminology applicable to belt drives
and conveyor drives.
■■ Draw and explain belt drives, including flat, open, crossed,
and V-belt drives.
Unit 2
■■ Calculate the following for all types of belt drives: effective
diameter, velocity ratio, belt velocity, belt length, angle of
contact, tensions in the belt, torque transmitted by the belt,
power transmitted by the belt, and the force on the bearings.

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 Unit 1 Introduction to belt drives

LEARNING OUTCOMES
■■ Explain the concepts and terminology applicable to belt drives and conveyor drive.
■■ Draw and explain belt drives, including flat, open, crossed, and V-belt drives.

Introduction
In this section, you will learn about different types of belt drives, namely: flat belt, V-belt,
and conveyor belt drives. A belt drive uses a belt made of a flexible material, such as
rubber or leather, to mechanically connect shafts with power-transmitting pulleys.

Advantages of belt drives

Belt drives have many advantages for extensive industrial application:
■■ They are simple and cost-effective.
■■ They are not restricted to parallel shafts.
■■ Due to the flexibility of belt materials, noise and vibrations are minimised,
machine stresses are decreased, and machinery lifespan increased.
■■ Less maintenance is required since lubrication is not involved.

Keywords Disadvantages of belt drives

velocity ratio the ■■ Inconsistent velocity ratios can be experienced, due to their slippage and stretching.
ratio of the distance
through which a ■■ Power transmission and speed are limited, since belts are not good
driven pulley moves, conductors of heat.
to the distance the ■■ Operating temperatures are limited to a range of between -35 and 85 degrees Celsius.
driving pulley moves
during the same
timeframe. Types of belts
power There are two different arrangements of belt drives, namely open drives and crossed
transmission the
drives. An open belt drive is applied when a driven pulley needs to rotate in the same
transfer of energy
from the point of direction as the driving pulley. A crossed belt drive, on the other hand, is used when
generation to the the driven pulley rotates in the opposite direction to the driving pulley. Refer to
point of its application Figure 6.1, which illustrates these two types of drives.
as useful work
B B
A A

open belt configuration crossed belt configuration

Figure 6.1 The difference between open and crossed belt drives

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 This section will introduce flat belts, as well as V-belts. These types of belt drive are the

Module 6
Keywords
most commonly used, depending on the application and specifications of the drive.
alignment an
arrangement of
V-belts pulleys in a straight
line, or in the required
V-belts, also known as Vee belts, were designed to improve on the flat belt as far as relative positions
slippage and alignment are concerned. Currently, V-belts are commonly used for
power transmission, as they provide good traction, speed, a capacity for bearing higher traction the grip of
the belt material on
loads, and a longer service life. Figure 6.2 shows the cross section of a V-belt. a pulley, reducing
the chances of the
belt top width belt slipping

angle of contact in
the case of belt drives,
refers to the angle made
by the portion of the
belt in contact with the
pulley; given in degrees,
but expressed as
radians in calculations

belt centrifugal
thickness forces the tension
caused in a running
included belt angle belt by the centrifugal
force is known as
centrifugal tension.
Whenever a particle of
mass m is rotated in a
circular path of radius r
at a uniform velocity
Figure 6.2 Cross section of a V-belt v, a centrifugal force is
acting radially outward
Flat belts
Flat belts are used for light-duty power transmission and its
applications, where they can deliver good performance. They
are used mostly where small pulleys need to be spaced at
large centre distances from large pulleys. Due to technological
advancements, flat belts are no longer the first option for power
t b = width
transmission. However, their application is still vital in current t = thickness
industrial production for driving steam engines, and in mining b
as well as in farming applications. Refer to Figure 6.3 to see a
Figure 6.3 cross section of a flat belt
cross section of a flat belt.
The rest of this section will cover flat belt and V-belt calculations, focusing
on velocity ratios of pulleys, belt velocity, maximum belt tensions, tension ratios,
effective tension, power transmissions, torque transmissions, belt lengths of both
open belts and crossed belts, angle of contact, and the forces on the bearings.

Centrifugal tension
Centrifugal tension is a result of the centrifugal forces at play when a belt runs
over a pulley at faster speeds. At low speeds of less than 12 m/s, centrifugal tension is
small enough to be negligible. At speeds higher than 12 m/s, however, the effects of
centrifugal tension need to be considered in calculations.

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 Unit 2 Belt drive calculations

LEARNING OUTCOME
■■ Calculate the following for all types of belt drives: effective diameter, velocity
ratio, belt velocity, belt length, angle of contact, tensions in the belt, torque
transmitted by the belt, power transmitted by the belt, and the force on
the bearings.

Introduction
This unit first considers the formulae and symbols needed for belt drive calculations.
It then describes the calculations involved for both flat belts and V-belts, before moving
on to cover conveyor belt drives.

1. Formulae and symbols

1.1 Velocity ratio
D×N=d×n
where: D = diameter of a larger pulley (in m)
N = rotational speed of the larger pulley in (r/min)
d = diameter of a smaller pulley (in m)
n = rotational speed of the smaller pulley in (r/min).

1.2 Belt speed

v = π × (d + t) × n
v = π × (D + t ) × N
where: D = diameter of a larger pulley (in m)
N = rotational speed of a large pulley (in r/s)
d = diameter of a smaller pulley (in m)
n = rotational speed of a smaller pulley (in r/s)
t = thickness of belt (in m)
(D + t) = effective diameter between the belt and the pulley (in m).

1.3 Effective tension

Te = T1 – T2
where: Te = effective tension in belt (in N)
T1 = tension in tight side of the belt in (in N)
T2 = tension in slack side of the belt (in N).

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 1.4 Power transmission

Module 6
P = Te × v
Or, P = (T1 − T2 ) × π × (D + t ) × n
where: Te = effective tension in belt drive (in N)
v = belt speed (in m/s).

1.5 Centrifugal tension

Tc = m × v2
where: Tc = centrifugal tension (in N)
m = mass of one metre length of belt (in kg)
v = belt speed (in m/s).

1.6 Maximum tension in a belt

T1 = σ × A   or   T1 = σ × w × t (depending on how area is given)
where: T1 = maximum belt tension (in N)
σ = maximum stress in a belt (in Pa)
A = cross-sectional area (in m2)
A = thickness of belt (t) × width of belt (w).

1.7 Ratio between T1 and T2 (flat belts)

__ T
​​  T1 ​​ = ɛμu
2
T1 − Tc
______
​​  T − T ​​ = ɛμu (considering centrifugal tension)
2 c

where: T1 = tight side tension of the belt (in N)

T2 = slack side tension of the belt (in N)
Tc = centrifugal tension (in N)
ɛ = 2,718 (base of Napierian logarithms)
uº
u = contact angle in radians (u = ____
​​ 57,3 ​​ in radians).

1.8 Ratio between T1 and T2 (V-belts)

__ T
​​  T1 ​​ = ɛ μucos eca
2
T1 − Tc
______
​​  T − T ​​ = ɛ μucos eca (considering centrifugal tension)
2 c

where: T1 = tight side tension of the belt (in N)

T2 = slack side tension of the belt in (in N)
Tc = centrifugal tension (in N)
ɛ = 2,718 (base of Napierian logarithms)
uº
u = contact angle in radians (u = ____
​​ 57,3 ​​ in radians)
a = half-groove angle of the V-pulley (measured in degrees)
​​  sin1 a ​​.
cosec a = ____

1.9 Belt length for open belt drives

π (D − d)2
l = __
​​  2 ​​ × (D + d) + _______
​​  4C ​​ + 2C
where: l = length of belt (in m)
D = diameter of large pulley (in m)
d = diameter of smaller pulley (in m)
C = centre distance between the pulley (in m).

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 1.10 Belt length for cross belt drives
π (D + d)2
l = __
​​  2 ​​ ×(D + d) + _______
​​  4C ​​ + 2C
where: l = length of belt (in m)
D = diameter of large pulley (in m)
d = diameter of smaller pulley (in m)
C = centre distance between the pulley (in m).

1.11 Total tensile force on bearings

Total tensile force = T1 + T2
where: T1 = tight side tension (in N)
T2 = slack side tension (in N).
Note: when other tensile forces such as tensile forces due to the shaft and the pulley
are included in a calculation, their sum must also be included in the formula for the
total tensile force on the bearings.

Having looked at the terms that are used for belt drives, calculations related to the
terms described are explained in the Worked examples that follow.

Worked example 6.1 Crossed belt drive calculations

The large pulley of a crossed belt drive has a diameter of 320 mm and is rotating at
750 r/min. The small pulley has a diameter of 170 mm. Take the tension in the tight side
of the belt to be 530 N, where the angle of contact of the belt is 192º, and the coefficient
of friction is 0,4.
For the small pulley, calculate:
1. The power that it is transmitting
2. Its rotational speed in r/min.
Solution
Data given:
D = 320 mm = 0,32 m   d = 170 mm = 0,17 m    N = 750 r/min
T1 = 530 N
​​ 192º
u = ____
57,3
​​ = 3,351 radians
μ = 0,4
1. First find T2:
__ T
​​  T1 ​​ = 2,718μu
2

​​ 530
___
T2
​​ = 2,718(0,4 × 3,351)
530
T2 = ​​_____
3,820
​​ = 138,743 N.
Now find power transmitted:
P = Te × v
where: Te = T1 − T2
∴ Te = 530 − 138,743 = 391,257 N
but v = π × D × N (consider the particulars of the pulley with both diameter and
rotational speed)
750
v = π × 0,32 × ​​___
60
​​ = 12,566 m/s
∴ P = 391,257 × 12,566 = 4916,535 W
P = 4,917 kW.

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 2. Find the rotational speed of the small pulley in r/min:

Module 6
D×N=d×n
0,32 × 750
​​ D × N ​​ = ________
n = _____ ​​ 0,17 ​​ = 1 411,765 r/min.
d

Worked example 6.2 Flat belt drive calculation

The following particulars apply to a flat belt drive: the width of the belt is 250 mm,
and the thickness of the belt is 6 mm. The tension in the tight side of the belt is two–
and-a–half times greater than the slack side of the belt. Take the safe working stress to
be 350 kPa. The pulley in question has a diameter of 1,5 m, and rotates at 150 r/min.
Calculate the power transmitted.
Solution
Data given:
w = 250 mm = 0,25 m
t = 6 mm = 0,006 m
T1 = 2,5T2
σ = 350 kPa
d = 1,5 m
N = 1 500 r/min.
To find power transmitted:
P = Te × v
T1 = 2,5T2
T1 = σ × A
where A = w × t
∴ T1 = σ × w × t
T1 = 350 × 103 × 0,006 × 0,25 = 525 N
525
T2 = ​​___
2,5
​​ = 210 N
P = (T1 − T2) × v
but v = π × (D + t) × N
v = π × (1,5 + 0,006) × ____​​  150
60
​​ = 11,828 m/s
∴ P = (525 − 210) × 11,828 = 3725,82 W
P = 3,726 kW.

Worked example 6.3 V-belt drive calculations

A belt drive with a single V-belt needs to transmit 145 kW at 1 250 r/min. The contact
angle of the driving pulley is 178º, and the included V-groove angle is 42º. Assume the
coefficient of friction to be 0,25 and calculate the following:
1. The ratio of belt tensions
2 The effective tension in the belt
3. The tensile force on each of the two shaft bearings.
Solution
Data given:
P = 145 kW
v = 1 250 r/min = _____ ​​ 1 60
250
​​ = 20,833 m/s
μ = 0,25
178
u = 178º = ____
​​ 57,3 ​​ 42º
​​ = 3,106 radians, and a = ___ 2
​​ = 21º

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 1. Find the ratio of belt tensions:
T1
__
T2
= 2,718μucos eca
T1
__ 1
______

T2
= 2,718(0,25 × 3,106 × sin 21º )
T1 = 8,728T2.
2. Find the effective tension in the belt:
P = (T1 − T2) × v
P = (8,728T − T )
__
v 2 2
145 × 10 3
T2 = ____________
20,833 × 7,728
= 900,636 N
T1 = 8,728 × 900,636 = 7 860,751 N
∴ Te = T1 − T2
Te = 7 860,751 − 900,636 = 6 960,115 N.
3. Find the tensile force on each of the bearings:
total tensile force on the two shaft bearings = T1 + T2
T +T 7 860,751 + 900,636
∴ tensile force per shaft bearing = _____
1
2
2
= ________________
2
= 4 380,694 N.

Worked example 6.4 Open flat belt drive calculations

Figure 6.4 Open flat belt drive system

Figure 6.4 shows an open flat belt drive system used to transmit 25 kW. The driving pulley is
150 mm in diameter and rotates at 240 r/min, while the driven pulley rotates at 120 r/min.
The contact angle of the driving pulley is 178º, and the centre distance between the pulleys
is 800 mm. Given a coefficient of friction of 0,3, calculate the following:
1. The belt tensions, both tight side and slack side
2 The length of the belt needed for the drive.

Solution
Data given:
P = 25 kW
d = 150 mm at n = 240 r/min
d × n ________
N = 120 r/min and D = ____
N
= 150120
× 240
= 300 mm
178º
u = ____
57,3
= 3,106 radians.
1. Find T1 and T2
When calculating velocity, always consider the pulley that contains both the
given rotational speed and diameter because the velocity of the belt is the same,
whether using the driven or the driving belt particulars.

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 So: v = π × d × n

Module 6
240
v = π × 0,15 × ___
60
= 1,885 m/s, OR v = π × D × N
120
v = π × 0,3 × ___
60
= 1,885 m/s
T
__1 = 2,718μu
T 2
T1
__
T2
= 2,718(0.3 × 3.106)
T1 = 2,539T2
P = (T1 − T2) × v
∴ T1 − T2 = _Pv
25 × 10 3
T2 = ___________
1,885 × 1,539
= 8 617,673 N
∴ T1 = 2,539 × 8 617,673 = 21 880,273 N.
2. Find belt length:
(D − d)2
π × (D + d) + ______
l = __
2
+ 2C
4C
π (300 − 150)2
l = __
2
× (300 + 150) + __________
4 × 800
+ 2 × 800 = 2 313,89 mm.

Worked example 6.5 Crossed belt drive calculations

Refer to Figure 6.5, which shows a crossed belt drive system with the two pulley diameters
being 500 mm and 250 mm respectively, and a centre distance of 2 m. The large pulley
rotates at 250 r/min, and the maximum tension in the belt is 1,5 kN. Assume the coefficient
of friction between the belt and the pulley to be 0,3, and a tension ratio of T1 = 2,7T2.

Figure 6.5 Crossed belt drive system

Calculate the following:

1. The belt length, in metres, needed for the drive
2. The power transmitted.

Solution
1. Find belt length in metres:
(D + d)2
π × (D + d) + ______ + 2C
l = __
2 4C
(0,5 + 0,25)2
π × (0,5 + 0,25) + __________
l = __
2 4
× 2 + 2 × 2 = 5,248 m.
2. Find the power transmitted:
v = π×D×N
250
v = π × 0,5 × ___
60
= 6,545 m/s
T1 = 2,7T2
T 1 500
∴ T2 = ___
1
2,7
= _____
2,7
= 555,556 N
P = (T1 − T2) × v
P = (1 500 − 555,556) × 6,545 = 6 181,386 kW.

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 Worked example 6.6 Flat belt drive calculations

The following particulars are given for an open flat belt drive between a motor and a machine:
Keywords ■■ The belt speed = 890 r/min, the centre distance = 4,75 m, the speed of the motor
maximum allowable
= 1 470 r/min, and the contact angle of the motor pulley = 185º
tension the total
■■ Take the power to be 15 kW, consider the machine speed to be 2 500 r/min, and
of the starting and
operating tensions. In the contact angle of the machine pulley = 175º
the average belt, this ■■ Belt thickness = 5 mm, the coefficient of friction = 0,25, and take the maximum
is considered to be allowable tension = 150 N per cm of belt width.
the same as the tight
side tension Calculate the following:
1. Diameters of the pulleys
2. Belt width in mm
3. Belt length.

Solution
1. Find the diameters of pulleys:
speed of motor pulley: v = 890 m/min = 14,833 m/s, and N = 1 470 r/min = 24,5 r/s
v = π × (D + t) × N
v ​​
(D + t) = ​​ _____
π×N
14,833
(D + 0,005) = _______
​​  π × 24,5 ​​ = 0,193
D = 0,193 − 0,005 = 0,188 m
∴D×N=d×n
0,188 × 1 470
​​  D ×n N ​​ =   
d = _____ ___________
​​  2 500
​​ = 0,111 m
D = 188 mm and d = 111 mm.
2. Find the belt width:
T1 = 150 × belt width in cm
T1 = 15 × belt width in mm
T
∴ belt width = ___
​​  151 ​​ = 0,0667T1 Equation 1
​​ __Pv ​​ = T1 − T2 (Note: v = 890 m/min = 14,8333 m/s)
15 × 103
​​ _______
14,8333
​​ = T1 − T2
1 011,238 = T1 − T2 Equation 2
T
​​ = 2,718(0,25 × ​  57,3 ​​)
​175º
using the particulars of the machine pulley: ​​ __1 ____

T
__ T 2
​​  T1 ​​ = 2,15
2

∴ T1 = 2,15T2 (by substituting the tension ratio into Equation 2, you can find T1 and T2)
1 011,238 = 2,15T2 − T2
T2 = 879,338 N
∴ T1 = 2,15 × 879,338 = 1 890,576 N
1 890,576
substituting T1 into equation 1, then: belt width = ________
​​  15 ​​ = 126,038 mm.
3. Find belt length:
π ​​ × (D + d ) + ______ (D − d)2
l = ​​ __
2
​​  ​​ + 2C
4C
(0,188 − 0,111)2
π ​​ × (0,188 + 0,111 ) + _____________
l = ​​ __
2
​​  4 × 4,75 ​​ + 2 × 4,75 = 9,969 m.
  

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 Module 6
Worked example 6.7 Open flat belt drive calculation

The following particulars are given for an open flat belt drive:
■■ The diameter of the driving pulley is 500 mm, the rotational speed = 600 r/min, the
angle of wrap = 165º, and the coefficient of friction is 0,4.
■■ Take the safe working stress to be 2,75 Mpa, and consider the belt mass to be 0,3 kg

per metre length. The belt thickness is 10 mm, and the belt width is 130 mm.
Calculate the power that the belt can transmit.

Solution
Data given:
w = 130 mm = 0,13 m and t = 10 mm = 0,01 m
u = 165º = 2,87 radians
σ = 2,75 MPa
d = 0,5 m
N = 600 r/min
mass = 0,3 kg per metre length.

Find the transmission power:

T1 = σ × A
where: A = w × t
∴ T1 = σ × w × t
T1 = 2,75 × 106 × 0,13 × 0,01 = 3 575 N
T −T
finding T2: _____
​​  T1 − Tc ​​ = 2,718μu
2 c

but Tc = m × v2
v = π × (D + t) × N
​​  600
v = π × (0,5 + 0,01) × ____60
​​ = 16,02 m/s
Tc = 0,3 × 16,022 = 77 N
​​  3 575
_________ − 77
T2 − 77
​​ = 2,718(0.4 × 2.87)

​​  3 575(0.4−×77
__________ ​​ = T2 − 77
2,718 2.87)

3 575 − 77
_________
∴ T2 = (​​  3,152 ​​) + 77 = 1 186,77 N
P = (T1 − T2) × v
P = (3 575 − 1 186,77) × 16,02 = 38,26 kW.

Worked example 6.8 Calculating belt requirements

The following particulars apply to a V-belt drive transmitting 23 kW. The effective Keywords
diameter of the motor is 250 mm, with a speed of 1 150 r/min. The V-groove angle of the effective diameter
pulley is 40º, and the coefficient of friction is 0,25. Take the contact angle as 150º, the mass often called the
of the belt as 0,5 kg per metre length, and the maximum allowable tension per belt to be pitch diameter, this is
675 N. Calculate the number of V-belts needed to transmit the 23 kW of power. the diameter of the
imaginary co-axial
Solution cylinder that intersects
the surface of the
Data given:
belt in such a manner
d = 250 mm = 0,25 m u = 150º = 2,618 rads that it matches the
T1 = 675 N ​​ 40º
a = ___ 2
​​ = 20º intercept on the pulley
N = 1 150 r/min mass = 0,5 kg per metre length.

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 Find the number of belts:
v=π×D×N
1 150
v = π × 0,25 × _____
60
= 15,053 m/s
but Tc = m × v2
Tc = 0,5 × 15,0532 = 113,296 N
T −T
finding T2: _____
1
T −T
c
= 2,718μucoseca
2 c
675 − 113,296
____________ 0,25 × 2,618
T2 − 113,296
= 2 718 (__________ )
sin20º
675 − 113,296
____________
6,776
= T2 − 113,296
675 − 113,296
T2 = (____________
6,776
) + 113,296 = 196,197 N
∴ P = (T1 − T2) × v × n
P
n = _________ 23 × 103
= ____________________ = 3,191 belts
(T1 − T2) × v (675 − 196,197) × 15,053
Let’s say n = 3 belts.

belt pitch line

ide
outs
eter
diam

effective diameter

Figure 6.6 The effective diameter

2. Belt conveyors
Belt conveyors are used extensively for warehousing and distribution operations, as
well as in mining industries. Belt conveyors operate on the same principles as belt
drives, using similar mechanisms, but differing in their setups. Both use two or more
pulleys linked with belts to provide power for running machines. A good example
of a belt conveyor is at the checkout till point in your local supermarket, where a
cashier presses a button to rotate pulleys to move your groceries closer on the belt –
in order to ring them up for payment. Conveyor belts can be utilised for transporting
almost any object or bulk material over varying distances.

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 Module 6
Figure 6.7 A conveyor belt transporting crushed rock

3. Formulae and symbols

3.1 Belt speed
v=π×d×n
v=π×D×N
where: D = diameter of the larger pulley (in m)
N = rotational speed of the larger pulley (in r/s)
d = diameter of the smaller pulley (in m)
n = rotational speed of the smaller pulley (in r/s).
Note: In conveyor belt calculations, the belt thickness is not considered in
calculating belt speed.

3.2 Effective tension

Te = T1 − T2
where: Te = effective tension in the belt (in N)
T1 = tension in the tight side of the belt (in N)
T2 = tension in the slack side of the belt (in N).

3.3 Power transmission

P = Te × v
or, P = (T1 − T2 ) × π × D × n
or, P = Pf + Pg
where: Te = effective tension in the belt drive (in N)
v = belt speed (in m/s)
Pf = power to overcome frictional resistance (in W)
Pf = Ff × v
Pg = power to overcome gravity (in W)
Pg = m × g × h

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 where: Ff = frictional force (in N)
m = mass of the material per second (in kg/s)
h = vertical height between loading and discharge points (in m).

3.4 Ratio between T1 and T2

__ T
​​  T1 ​​ = ɛ μu
2
where: T1 = tight side tension of the belt (in N)
T2 = slack side tension of the belt (in N)
ɛ = 2,718 (base of Napierian logarithms)
uº
u = contact angle in radians (u = ____
​​ 57,3 ​​ in radians).

3.5 Belt length for open belt drives

π (D − d)2
l = __
​​  2 ​​ × (D + d ) + _______
​​  4C ​​ + 2C
where: l = length of belt (in m)
D = diameter of larger pulley (in m)
d = diameter of smaller pulley (in m)
C = centre distance between the pulleys (in m).

3.6 Efficiency of the drive

output power P × 100%
___________________
ŋ =   
​​    
input
O
power P
​​
i
where: ŋ = efficiency of the drive (in %)
PO = output power associated with the machine power (in W)
Pi = input power associated with the motor power (in W).

Having looked at the terms and formulae relating to conveyor belt drives, work
through the related calculations described in the Worked examples that follow.

Worked example 6.9 Belt conveyor tensile load calculation

A belt conveyor with a driving pulley diameter of 450 mm must transmit 140 kW at a
rotational speed of 115 m/min. Assume that the contact angle of the driving belt on the
pulley is 280º and that the coefficient of friction between the belt and the pulley is 0,3.
Calculate the total tensile load on the bearings.

Solution
​​ 280º
Data given: u = ____
57,3
​​ 115
​​ = 4,887 rads   v = ___60
​​ = 1,917 m/s
T
​​__
T
1
​​ = ɛ μu
2
T1 = 2,718(0.3 × 4,887)T2
T1 = 4,332T2
∴ 140 × 103 = (4,332T2 − T2) × 1,917
140 × 10 3
T2 = ​​___________
  ​​ = 21 918,000 N
3,332 × 1,917
T1 = 4,332 × 21 918,000 = 94 948,778 N
total tensile load on bearings = T1 + T2
total tensile load on bearings = 94 948,778 + 21 918,000 = 116 866,778 N = 116,867 kN.

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 Module 6
Worked example 6.10 Belt conveyor calculations

A belt conveyor, with an inclination angle of 17º to the horizontal, has a capacity of
300 tonnes of rock per hour over a distance of 130 m from loading point to discharge
point. The belt speed is 2 m/s, and there is a frictional force of 12 kN. Take the contact
angle at the driving pulley as 233º, and the coefficient of friction as 0,3. The efficiency of
the drive is 80%.
Calculate the following:
1. The output of the driving motor
2. The tight side and slack side belt tensions.

Solution
​​ 233º
Data given: u = ____
57,3
​​ = 4,066 rads    m = 300 t/h = 83,33 kg/s
​​ 80% ​​ = 0,8
ŋ = _____
100%
​1. Pout = Pf + Pg
Pf = Ff × v
Pf = 12 000 × 2 = 24 000 W
height
and Pg = m × g × h (sin u = _____
​​  ​​)
length
Pg = m × g × L × sin u height = length × sin u
Pg = 83,333 × 9,81 × 130 × sin 17º = 31 071,679 W
Pout = 24 000 + 31 071,679 = 55 071,679 W = 55,072 kW
output power P × 100%
ŋ = ___________________
​​ 
     
O
​​
input power Pi
55,072
______
Pi = ​​  0,8 ​​ = 68,84 kW.
T1
2. ​​ __
T2
​​ = ɛ μu
T1 = 2,718(0,3 × 4,066)T2
T1 = 3,386T2
∴ 55,072 × 103 = (3,386T2 − T2) × 2
55,072 × 103
T2 = __________
​​  2,386 × 2 ​​ = 11 540,654 N = 11,541 kN
T1 = 3,386 × 11 540,654 = 39 076,654 N = 39,077 kN.

Worked example 6.11 Belt conveyor calculation

Calculate the amount of rock, in tonnes per hour (t/h), which can be transported by a
belt conveyor having the following characteristics: maximum tension in the belt = 35 kN,
contact angle = 190º, power to overcome friction = 4,5 kW, belt speed = 1,5 m/s, vertical
height = 30 m, and coefficient of friction = 0,25.
Solution
​​ 190º
Data given: u = ____
57,3
​​ = 3,316 rads T1 = 35 kN = 35 000 N
Pout = Pf + Pg
Pg = Pout − Pf
Pout = (T1 − T2) × v
Pf = 4 500 W
__ T
​​  T1 ​​ = ɛ μu
2

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 T1 = 2,718(0,25 × 3,316)T2
T1 = 2,291T2
T1 = 35 000 N
​​  35
∴ T2 = ______ 000
2,291
​​ = 15 277,172 N
Pout = (35 000 − 15 277,172) × 1,5 = 29 584,242 W
Pg = Pout − Pf
Pg = 29 584,242 − 4 500 = 25 084,242 W
but Pg = m × g × h
Pg 25 084,242
∴ m = _____
​​  ​​ = _________
​​  9,81 ​​ × 30 = 85,234 kg/s
g×h
​​  31 600
m = 85,234 × _____ 000
​​ = 306,841 t/h.

ACTIVITY 6.1  Calculating total tensile load on bearings

A belt conveyor must transmit 135 kW of power. The driving pulley has a diameter of
500 mm, and rotates at 75 r/min. Assume that the contact angle of the driving belt on
the pulley is 275º and that the coefficient of friction between the belt and the pulley is
0,25. Calculate the total tensile load on the bearings.

ACTIVITY 6.2  Calculating driving motor output and belt tensions

A belt conveyor with an inclination angle of 17º to the horizontal has a capacity of 300 tonnes
of rock per hour over a distance of 125 m from loading point to discharge point. The belt
speed is 1,5 m/s, and a frictional force of 10 kN applies. Take the contact angle at the
driving pulley to be 230º, with a coefficient of friction of 0,3. The efficiency of the drive is
80%. Calculate:
1. The output of the driving motor
2. The tight side and slack side belt tensions.

ACTIVITY 6.3  Calculating the rate of load transportation

Calculate the amount of rock, in tonnes per hour, which can be transported by a belt
conveyor having the following characteristics: maximum belt tension in the belt = 40 kN,
the contact angle = 199º, the power to overcome friction = 5 kW, belt speed = 1,8 m/s,
vertical height = 37 m, and the coefficient of friction is 0,25.

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 Module 6
Module summary
■■ This module has explained the different terms and dimensions that apply
to belt drives. This has involved describing and comparing flat belts,
V-belts, and conveyor belts. You have learnt how to:
■■ Calculate the velocity ratios of pulleys
■■ Do elementary calculations for flat belts and V-belts regarding
their lengths, the ratios between the forces involved, and power
transmission
■■ Do basic calculations involving flat belt and V-belt tension ratios,
knowing when to take centrifugal forces into consideration, and
power transmission
■■ Calculate effective tension, the forces exerted on shaft bearings, and
the number of belts required.

Exam questions
1 List four advantages of belt drives. (4)
2. Provide sketches to indicate the difference between a crossed belt drive
and an open belt drive system. (10)
3. List three disadvantages of belt drives. (3)
4. The following particulars are available for an open flat belt drive: the
diameter of the driving pulley is 480 mm, the rotational speed = 550 r/min,
the angle of wrap = 175º, and the coefficient of friction is 0,35. Take the
safe working stress as 3 Mpa and consider the belt mass to be 0,4 kg per
metre length. If the belt thickness is 9 mm and the belt width is 122 mm,
calculate the power which the belt can transmit. (14)
5. The following particulars apply to a flat belt drive: the width of the belt is
280 mm and the thickness of the belt is 6,5 mm. The tension in the tight
side of the belt is two-and-a-quarter times greater than the slack side.
The pulley has a diameter of 1,5 m and rotates at 130 r/min. Take the safe
working stress to be 300 kPa. Calculate the power transmitted. (14)
6. The following applies to a flat belt drive: the width is 250 mm and the
thickness is 6 mm. The tension in the tight side of the belt is two-and-a-half
times that in the slack side. The safe working stress is 350 kPa. The centre
distance between two shaft-carrying pulleys, with diameters of 1 500 mm
and 500 mm respectively, is 2 m. The larger pulley rotates at 150 r/min.
Calculate the following:
a) The power transmitted (10)
b) The length of the open belt drive (2)
c) The length of the belt if the drive is changed to a crossed belt drive. (2)
7. A crossed belt drive has a large pulley with a diameter of 300 mm, rotating at
750 r/min. The smaller pulley has a diameter of 150 mm. Take the tension on
the tight side of the belt to be 500 N. The angle of contact of the belt is 190º,
and the coefficient of friction is 0,4. For the smaller pulley, calculate:
a) The power transmitted (5)
b) The rotational speed in r/min. (5)

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 8. A belt drive with a single V-belt has to transmit 150 kW at 1 200 m/min.
The contact angle of the driving pulley is 175º, and the included V-groove
angle is 40º. Assume the coefficient of friction to be 0,3. Calculate the following:
a) The ratio of belt tensions
b) The effective tension in the belt
c) The tensile force on each of the two shaft bearings. (10)
9. The following particulars apply to a V-belt drive transmitting 25 kW: the
effective diameter of the motor is 250 mm with a speed of 1 200 r/min. The
V-groove angle of the pulley is 40º and the coefficient of friction is 0,25.
Take the contact angle as 145º, the mass of the belt as 0,5 kg per metre
length, and the maximum allowable tension per belt as 675 N. Calculate
the number of V-belts needed to transmit the 25 kW of power. (14)
10. A conveyor belt drive, placed at an inclination angle of 15°, has a length of
120 m between the loading point and the discharge point. The belt speed is
2,5 m/s, and the belt is subjected to a frictional force of 9 kN. Assume the
contact angle on the driving pulley to be 225°. The coefficient of friction is
0,25 and the efficiency of the drive is 87%. The maximum tension in the
belt is 28 kN. Calculate the quantity of rock transported in tonnes per hour. (14)
11. Calculate the quantity of rock, in tonnes per hour, which can be
transported by a belt conveyor with the following specifications:
Maximum tension in the belt 35,5 kN
Contact angle of the belt on the driving pulley 185°
Frictional force 2,5 kN
Belt speed 95 m/min
Delivery height 35 m
Coefficient of friction 0,3

(14)
Total: 121 marks

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 Module

7 Hydraulic systems

What is covered?
This module will cover the concepts applicable to principles
of fluid statistics and the elementary calculations in respect to
hydraulic systems, specifically of flow of water pipes and venture
meters. Moreover, the concepts and terminology applicable to the
calculations will be discussed.

Learning outcomes

After studying this module, you should be able to:

Unit 1
■■ Explain the concepts and terms: a) Properties of water, b) Density,
c) Relative density, d) Fluid pressure on a surface, e) Pressure
intensity, f) Pressure head, and g) Atmospheric pressure.
Unit 2
■■ Explain the following: flow rate (Q) mass flow and continuity
of flow.
Unit 3
■■ Explain the concepts: potential energy, kinetic energy,
pressure energy.
Unit 4
■■ Describe Bernoulli’s theorem.
■■ Calculate potential, kinetic, and pressure energy.
■■ List the three variations of Bernoulli’s theorem.
Unit 5
■■ Describe friction losses in pipelines.
■■ Apply Darcy’s principle to calculate the flow of fluids in pipes.
■■ Apply Chezy’s principle to calculate the flow of fluids in an
open channel.
Unit 6
■■ Explain and describe the calculation processes for: a) Nozzles
and orifices, b) Theoretical velocity, c) Theoretical area,
d) Theoretical quantity, e) Actual velocity, f) Actual area,
g) Actual quantity, h) Coefficient of velocity, i) Coefficient of
contraction, j) Coefficient of discharge, k) General formula,
l) Distance travelled by a water jet, and m) Energy loss at
an orifice.
Unit 7
■■ Explain how a Venturi meter is used to measure the flow rate
of fluids through pipelines.
■■ Calculate energy losses for a Venturi meter.
■■ Draw and label a Venturi meter.

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 Unit 1 Basic principles of fluid statics

LEARNING OUTCOME
■■ Explain the concepts and terms: a) Properties of water, b) Density,
c) Relative density, d) Fluid pressure on a surface, e) Pressure intensity,
f) Pressure head, and g) Atmospheric pressure.

Introduction
In this section, you will learn about hydraulic fluid systems and their importance
through industrial application. It will cover elementary calculations concerning
hydraulic systems using Bernoulli’s theorem. Hydraulic systems are power
transmission systems that transfer power through the operation of fluid, with the
ability to do more with minimal energy input. Pascal’s law states that ‘an external
force exerted on a unit area of an enclosed liquid container will be transferred
unreduced to every unit area inside the container’, and applies to the functioning
of any hydraulic device. This basic principle of the transmissibility of fluid pressure
maintains that the pressure exerted at any point of a liquid surface at rest is equally
transported without loss.

Concepts and terms

Basic properties of water
Water exists in the three states, or phases of matter – namely liquid, solid, and gas –
as water, ice, and water vapour. It is in a dynamic balance between its liquid and gas
states at 273 kelvin, at an atmospheric pressure of 101,3 kPa. At room temperature
(around 25 degrees Celsius or 298 K), it is a colourless liquid with no taste or smell.
Because so many substances dissolve in water, it is known as the ‘universal solvent’. One
molecule of water has two hydrogen atoms covalently bonded with a single oxygen atom.

Density
The density of a substance is defined as its weight for a specific volume. The density
of pure water at a temperature of 4 ºC is 1 000 kg/m3, however this density varies
with temperature. Liquid water expands when it freezes, making ice less dense
and explaining why ice cubes float in a glass of water. Water density is therefore a
significant water quality.

Relative density
Relative density is defined as the density of any liquid substance compared to
the density of water. Assuming that the density of water is 999 kg/m3 and that
of mercury is 13 600 kg/m3, you can use the density of copper (9 000 ) kg/m3 to
illustrate the relative density of mercury, i.e. relative to water.

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 copper cube

Module 7
(ρ = 9 000 kg/m3)

water mercury
(ρ = 999 kg/m3) (ρ = 13 600 kg/m3)
mass of fixed volume of substance ρ____
relative density (ρ) = __________________________
Liquid

mass of an equal volume of water = ρWater

Figure 7.1 Relative density of water compared to mercury using a copper cube

Fluid Pressure on a surface

When an object is submerged in a fluid, forces develop on its surface due to the
surrounding fluid and its depth; a pressure, p = ρgh, then acts over the object’s Keywords
surface area. An example is a person swimming under the sea – the deeper the submerged is
when something is
person goes, the greater the pressure pressing on them. In contrast, hydrostatic
under water – like a
pressure is the pressure that is exerted by a fluid, at equilibrium and at a given submarine
point within the fluid, due to the force of gravity.
hydrostatic pressure
is the strength exerted
Pressure intensity by a liquid on an object
that depends on how
Pressure intensity is simply defined as the pressure exerted on the surface of a fluid;
deep the object is
moreover, it is the pressure acting per unit square. submerged

force of 1 N

1 m unit area
1m
Figure 7.2 One Pascal is equivalent to a force of 1 N spread over 1 square metre

Pressure head
volume = Ah
Also known as hydraulic head, static pressure head, or just static head,
pressure head is a measurement of the height of a column of liquid
that exerts a certain amount of pressure on the base of the column.
w = mg
h
Atmospheric pressure
Atmospheric pressure is the weight of the air surrounding us. It is
defined as the force exerted by the air, due to the force of gravity, and A
measures 101,3 kPa at sea level. Figure 7.3 Pressure exerted on the base
of the container

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 Unit 2 Basic principles of fluid dynamics

LEARNING OUTCOMES
■ Explain the following: flow rate (Q), mass flow, and continuity of flow.

Introduction
Fluid dynamics is a section of fluid mechanics that focuses on the flow of fluids in
pipes. It comprises a wide range of applications that involve the calculation of mass
fluid flow rates in pipes.

1. Flow rate (Q)

In fluid dynamics particularly, the volumetric flow rate (also known as the rate
of fluid flow) is generally defined as the product of the speed of the fluid and the
pipe area; likewise, it is the volume of fluid flowing through a pipe per
. unit of
time. It is commonly represented by the symbol Q (and sometimes V ), with the
standard units of m3/s.

Keywords
culvert usually a
low flow velocity high flow velocity
reinforced concrete-
(slower) (faster)
bounded channel
that permits water
to stream beneath a
road, railroad, trail,
or similar obstruction,
from one side to
Figure 7.4 Flow rate of fluid flowing through a pipe
the other

2. Mass flow rate

In physical science and engineering studies, mass flow rate (m• ) is the quantity of a
A2 fluid substance which passes through a pipe per unit of time, with standard units of
V2 • = ρ × V.
kilogram per second. The mass flow rate is related to volumetric flow rate: m

3. Continuity of flow
A1
The most significant measure used in the investigation of constant fluid flow in pipes
V1
is identified as the continuity of flow. For instance, when the fluid flowing through
a culvert is uniform and the water velocity increases due to a decrease in pipe
Figure 7.5 Continuity of flow roughness, then the flow area must decrease.

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 Module 7
Unit 3 Energy stored in fluids

LEARNING OUTCOME
■■ Explain the concepts: potential energy, kinetic energy, pressure energy.

Introduction
This section explores the energy formulae, symbols and units, regarding each type of
energy discussed.

The concept of conservation of stored energy in

a fluid
The concept of the conservation of stored energy in a fluid explains that energy can
be neither created nor destroyed, but can be changed from one form of energy to
another. For example, when a pump is driven by a motor (electrical energy), some
of the energy is converted by friction to heat energy. The pump forces the water to
start moving, thereby giving the water kinetic energy. The water may be lifted to a
higher elevation, thus giving it potential energy. However, the total energy remains
constant, as it has simply transformed to other forms of energy. When you add all
the different forms of energies together, the sum is the total energy.

Potential energy
Potential energy is the energy stored in an object (or liquid) due to its position
relative to the ground.
potential energy = m × g × h (joules)
where: m = mass of water (in kg)
g = constant gravitational acceleration = 9,81 m/s2
h = height or head of water (in m).
If we consider the mass of water as 1 kg, then:
V2
pressure energy = __​​  Pρ ​​, where ρ = (rho), kinetic energy = __ ​​  2 ​​ (joules), potential energy =
gh (joules).
So the total energy in flowing water = pressure energy + kinetic energy + potential energy
V2
∴ total energy in flowing water = __ ​​  Pρ ​​ + __
​​  2 ​​ + gh.

Kinetic energy
Fluid in motion possesses kinetic energy, or energy in motion.
m × v2
pressure energy = ______
​​  2 ​​ (joules)
where: m = mass of the water (in kg)
v = velocity of the water (in m/s).

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 Pressure energy
Any fluid confined in a container (such as a pipe under pressure) contains
pressure energy.
pressure energy = g × h (in joules)
​​  ρ P
but h = ____ × g ​​
P
then pressure energy = ​​ __
ρ ​​
where: P = pressure (in Pa)
h = head of water (in m)
(rho) or ρ = water density (1 000 kg/m3)
g = constant gravitational acceleration of 9,81 m/s2.

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 Module 7
Unit 4 Bernoulli’s theorem

LEARNING OUTCOMES
■■ Describe Bernoulli’s theorem.
■■ Calculate potential, kinetic, and pressure energy.
■■ List the three variations of Bernoulli’s theorem.

Introduction
In any system of fluid flow, the total energy in the system at any two points is the
Keywords
same as long as energy is neither added nor removed from the system. In contrast,
theorem a general
Bernoulli’s theorem states that if we disregard frictional and other losses, then the proposition that is
total energy will remain constant. For Bernoulli’s theorem to be valid, the following not self-evident, but
must be met (refer to Figure 7.6 for Bernoulli’s theorem): proved by a link of
reasoning; a truth
■■ Steady-flow velocity
established by means
■■ Density (incompressible) must remain constant, even with pressure changes of accepted truths
■■ Negligible friction from viscous forces.
viscous a degree
of fluid resistance to
P2A2
deformation at a given
v2 rate. For liquids, it
Y relates to the concept
of ‘thickness of a
fluid’; for example,
syrups have a higher
P1A1 viscosity than water
h2
v1

X
h1

ground level

Figure 7.6 Bernoulli’s theorem

From figure 7.6:

__ P (v )2 P (v )2
​​  ρ1 ​​ + ____
​​  21 ​​ + gh1 = __
​​  ρ2 ​​ + ____
​​  22 ​​ + gh2 where: P = the measure of pressure
(in Pa or kPa)
h = head of water (in m)
(rho) or ρ = water density (1 000 kg/m3)
g = constant gravitational
acceleration (9.81 m/s2).
Also: Q = v × A
where: Q = flow rate of water (in m3/s or ℓ/s)
v = velocity of the water (in m/s)
A = cross sectional area of the pipe (in m2).

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 Variations on Bernoulli’s equation
We can use Bernoulli’s’ theorem with three variations. These concern:
Energy per unit mass:
P1 ____
__ (v1)2 P2 ____
__ (v2)2
ρ + 2 + gh1 = ρ + 2 + gh2
Energy per unit volume:
ρ × (v )2 ρ × (v )2
P1 + _______
2
1
+ ρgh1 = P2 + _______
2
2
+ ρgh2
Energy per unit weight:
P1
____ (v1)2
____ P2
____ (v2)2
____
ρ × g + 2g + h1 = ρ × g + 2g + h2.

Having looked at the variations of Bernoulli’s theorem, calculations related to the

flow of fluid through tapered pipes are described in the Worked examples that follow.

Worked example 7.1 Water pressure in a tapered pipe

Water with a density of 1 000 kg/m3 flows through a tapered pipe, which has a large
diameter of 0,65 m and a small diameter of 0,45 m. The pressure gauge at the smaller
diameter of the pipe reads 16 kPa, and the flow velocity is 20 m/s. Find the pressure
reading at the larger diameter of the pipe.

P1 = ? A1
P2 = 16 kPa
A2 V2 = 20 m/s

V1

V2

h1 1 h2

Figure 7.7 Tapered pipe

Solution
Data given:
ρ = 1 000 kg/m3
D = 0,65 m
d = 0,45 m
P2 = 16 kPa = 16 000 Pa
V2 = 20 m/s.
Finding V1:
Take the flow of water through the pipe to be the same.
Q1 = Q2 π × D2
where: Q = A × V and A = _____
4
π × D2 π × d2
A1 × V1= A2 × V2 A1 = _____
4
= A2 = _____
4
.
A ×V
V1 = ______
2
A
2

1
V2 × d2
V1 = ______
D2
20 × (0,45)2
_________
V1 = = 9,586 m/s.
(0,65)2

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 Finding P1:

Module 7
take h1 = h2
P (v )2 P (v )2
∴ ____ ___ ____ ___
ρ × g + 2g + h1 = ρ × g + 2g + h2
1 1 2 2

P1
__________ (9,586)2 16 000 (20)2
+ _______ = __________ + _______
1 000 × 9,81 2 × 9,81 1 000 × 9,81 2 × 9,81
0,000102P1 + 4,684 = 1,631 + 20,387
22,018 − 4,684
P1 = ____________
0,000102
= 169 941,177 Pa
P1 = 169 941 kPa.

Worked example 7.2 Calculating flow rate in a tapered pipe

A1
P1 = 150 kN/m2
P2 = 125 kN/m2
A2
V1
V2

h1 1
h2

Figure 7.8 Tapered pipe

Figure 7.8 shows water with a density of 1 000 kg/m3 flowing through a tapered pipe.
The larger diameter of the pipe is 130 mm, while the smaller diameter is 105 mm. For the
smaller diameter, the water pressure reading is 125 kN/m2; for the larger diameter, the
reading is 150 kN/m2. Calculate the flow rate in ℓ/s.

Solution
Data given:
ρ = 1 000 kg/m3
D = 130 mm = 0,13 m
d = 105 mm = 0,105 m
P1 = 150 kN/m2 = 150 kpa = 150 000 Pa
P2 = 125 kN/m2 = 125 kpa = 125 000 Pa.
Finding Q:
take the flow of water through the pipe to be the same.
Q1 = Q2 π × D2
where Q = A × V and A = _____
4
π × D2 π × d2
A1 × V1 = A2 × V2 A1 = _____
4
= A2 = _____
4
A ×V
V1 = ______
2
A
2

1
V2 × d2
V1 = ______
D2
V2 × (0,105)2
V1 = __________
(0,13)2
∴ V1 = 0,65V2
take h1 = h2
P (v )2 P (v )2
∴ ____ ___ ____ ___
ρ × g + 2g + h1 = ρ × g + 2g + h2
1 1 2 2

150 000
__________ (v1)2 125 000 (v2)2
+ _______ = __________ + _______
1 000 × 9,81 2 × 9,81 1 000 × 9,81 2 × 9,81
15,29 + 0,051(v1)2 = 12,742 + 0,051(v2)2
15,29 − 12,742 = 0,051[(v2)2 − (v1)2]
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 substitute the value of V1 = 0,65V2
2,584
(v2)2 − (0,65v2)2 = ​​_____
0,051
​​ = 49,961
______

√ 49,961
v2 = ​​ ______
​ 0,65 ​​​ = 8,767 m/s
Q2 = A2 × V2
π × 0,1052 × 8,767
Q = ______________
​​
  
4
​​ = 0,723 m3/s = 72,3 ℓ/s.

Worked example 7.3 Calculating water pressure in an angled tapered pipe

V2 D = 0,25 m
P2 = ?

3m
d = 0,12 m V1
P1 = 12 kPa
V = 15 m/s
Figure 7.9 Tapered pipe with one end higher than the other

Figure 7.9 shows a tapered pipe with one end higher than the other. Water with a density
of 1 000 kg/m3 flows into the smaller 0,12 m diameter end with a velocity of 15 m/s under
12 kPa of pressure; and flows out of the larger end of the pipe with a diameter of 0,25 m.
The inlet side of the pipe is 3 m higher than the outlet side of the pipe. Calculate the
pressure exerted at the outlet end of the pipe.

Solution
Data given:
ρ = 1 000 kg/m3
D = 0,25 m
d = 0,12 m
P1 = 12 kPa = 12 000 Pa
V1 = 15 m/s.
Finding V2:
take the flow of water through the pipe to be the same.
​​ π ×4 D ​​.
Q1 = Q2, where Q = A × V, and A = _____
2

π×d
​​ π ×4 D ​​ = A2 = ​​_____
A1 = _____
2 2
A1 × V1 = A2 × V2 4
​​
A ×V
V2 = ​​______
1
A2
1
​​
V × d2
V2 = ​​______
1
D2
​​
15 × (0,12)2
V2 = ​​_________​​ = 3,456 m/s.
(0,25)
2

Finding P2:
take h2 = 3 m
P (v )2 P (v )2
∴ ____
​​ ρ ×1 g ​​ + ___
​​ 2g
1
​​ + h1 = ____
​​ ρ ×2 g ​​ + ___
​​ 2g
2
​​ + h2
12 000
__________ (15)2 P (3,456)2
​​ 1 000 ​​ + _______
​​
× 9,81 2 × 9,81
​​ + 0 = __________
​​ 1 000 ×2 9,81 ​​ + ​​_______
2 × 9,81
​​ + 3
1,223 + 11,468 = 0,0001P2 + 0,609 + 3
12,691 − 3,609
____________​​ = 90 820 Pa
P2 = ​​   0,0001
P2 = 90 820 kPa.

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 Module 7
Worked example 7.4 Calculating water pressure in a vertical tapered pipe

Water with a density of 1 000 kg/m3 is being pumped through a tapered vertical pipe that
is 12 m long. The bottom inlet has a diameter of 98 mm, and the diameter at the top
outlet is 176 mm. When water with a flow rate of 85 ℓ/s is pumped through the pipe, a
pressure gauge on the inlet side registers 225 kPa. Find the pressure reading at the top of
the pipe.
D = 176 mm
P2 = ?

Q = 85 ℓ/s
12 m

d = 98 mm
P1 = 225 kPa

Figure 7.10 Vertical tapered pipe

Solution
Data given:
ρ = 1 000 kg/m3 h2 = 12
D = 176 mm = 0,176 m d = 98 mm = 0,098 m
P1 = 225 kPa = 225 000 Pa Q = 85 ℓ/s = 0,085 m3/s.
Finding V1 and V2:
The flow rate of water inside the pipe is the same; the velocity is dependant on the pipe area.
​​ π ×4 D ​​
where A = _____
2
Q1 = Q2
Q1 = A1 × V1
Q2 = A2 × V2
Q Q ×4 0,085 × 4
V1 = ​​___
A1
1
​​ = ______
​​ 1 2 ​​ = ________
​​ π × 0,0982 ​​ = 11,269 m/s
π×d
Q Q ×4 0,085 × 4
V2 = ​​___
A2
2
​​ = ______
​​ π2× D2 ​​ = ________
​​ π × 0,1762 ​​ = 3,494 m/s.

Finding pressure reading P2:

take h2 = 12 m
P (v )2 P (v )2
∴ ____
​​ ρ ×1 g ​​ + ___
​​ 2g
1
​​ + h1 = ____
​​ ρ ×2 g ​​ + ___
​​ 2g
2
​​ + h2
225 000
__________ (11,269)2 P (3,494)2
​​ 1 000 ​​ + _______
​​
× 9,81 2 × 9.81
​​ + 0 = __________
​​ 1 000 ×2 9,81 ​​ + ​​_______
2 × 9,81
​​ + 12
22,936 + 6,472 = 0,000102P2 + 0,622 + 12
29,408 − 12,622
P2 = _____________
​​ 0,000102 ​​ = 164 568,6275 Pa
  

P2 = 165,569 kPa.

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 Worked example 7.5 Calculating flow rate in a horizontal tapered pipe

A1
P1 = 650 kPa P2 = 600 kPa
A2
V1
V2

h1 1
h2

Figure 7.11 Horizontal tapered pipe

A horizontal tapered pipe conveying water with a density of 1 000 kg/m3 has diameters
of 150 mm and 75 mm respectively. The pressure gauge at the inlet shows a pressure
reading of 650 kPa, and at the outlet diameter it shows 600 kPa. Find the flow rate in ℓ/s.
Solution
Data given:
ρ = 1 000 kg/m3 P1 = 650 kPa P2 = 600 kPa
D = 150 mm = 0,15 m d = 75 mm = 0,075 m h1 = h2.
Finding Q:
Take the flow of water through the pipe to be the same.
Q1 = Q2 π × D2
where Q = A × V and A = _____
4
π × D2 π × d2
A1 × V1 = A2 × V2 A1 = _____
4
= A2 = _____
4
A ×V
V2 = ______
1
A
1

V1 × D2
V2 = ______
d2
V × (0,15)2
V2 = _________
2
(0,075)2
∴ V2 = 4V1
so V1 = __14 V2
take h1 = h2
P (v )2 P (v )2
∴ ____ ___ ____ ___
ρ × g + 2g + h1 = ρ × g + 2g + h2
1 1 2 2

650 000
__________ (v1)2 600 000 (4v1)2
1 000 × 9,81
+ ___
2
× 9,81 = __________ + _______
1 000 × 9,81 2 × 9,81
66,259 + 0,051(v1)2 = 61,162 + 0,8155(v1)2
66,259 − 61,162 = 0,8155(v1)2 − 0,051(v1)2
0,7645(v1)2 = 5,097
______
v1 = √ ______
5,097
0,7645
= 2,582 m/s
∴ v2 = 10,328 m/s
Q2 = A2 × V2
π × 0,0752 × 10,328 π × 0,152 × 2,582
Q = _______________
4
= 0,04563 m3/s = 45,63 ℓ/s , or Q = _____________
4
= 0,04563 m3/s = 45,63 ℓ/s.
(The flow should be the same irrespective of the side of the pipe.)

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 Module 7
ACTIVITY 7.1  Calculating outlet pressure for a tapered pipe

Water with a density of 1 000 kg/m3 flows into the smaller diameter (0,15 m) end of
a 10,5 m tapered pipe, with a velocity of 20 m/s under 15 kPa of pressure. The water
flows out of the bigger diameter (0,3 m) end of the pipe. If the inlet side of the pipe is
3,5 m higher than the outlet side, calculate the pressure exerted at the outlet end of the
tapered pipe.

ACTIVITY 7.2 Calculating kinetic energy change and pressure in a

tapered pipe

The centre line of a 10.5 m tapered pipe is at 35º to the horizontal. The taper diameter
decreases from 350 mm at the raised end of the pipe to 300 mm at the lower end. Water
with a density of 1 000 kg/m3 flows from the lower end to the upper end at 130 ℓ/s, and
the pressure gauge at the lower end registers a reading of 125 kPa.
Calculate the following:
1. The pressure at the upper end of the pipe
2. The change in kinetic energy per unit mass over the length of the pipe.

ACTIVITY 7.3  Calculating pressure in a tapered pipe

Water with a density of 1 000 kg/m3 flows through a tapered pipe, which has a large
diameter of 0,5 m and a small diameter of 0,3 m. The reading on the pressure gauge at
the smaller diameter end of the pipe is 18 kPa, and the flow velocity is 25 m/s. Find the
pressure reading at the larger diameter end of the pipe.

ACTIVITY 7.4  Calculating pressure in a tapered pipe

Water with a density of 1 000 kg/m3 is being pumped through a vertical pipe that is 15 m
long. The tapered pipe has a diameter of 100 mm at the bottom inlet, and 180 mm at the
top outlet. When water with a flow rate of 90 ℓ/s is pumped into the pipe, the inlet side
registers a pressure of 230 kPa. Find the pressure gauge reading at the top of the pipe.

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 Unit 5 Friction losses in pipes

LEARNING OUTCOMES
■ Describe frictional losses in pipelines.
■ Apply Darcy’s formula to calculate the flow of fluids in pipes.
■ Apply Chezy’s formula to calculate the flow of fluids in an open channel.

Introduction
Fluid flowing through a pipeline is subjected to frictional resistance – depending on
the flow velocity, the dimensions of the wetted plane or area, and the basic qualities of
that plane or surface. Frictional resistance differs in long pipes compared to short pipes;
in long pipes, it is so large that all the other losses become minor by comparison. The
energy lost in overcoming frictional resistance is expressed in metres, and is described
as the head lost due to friction, or the friction head. Figure 7.12 shows the friction head
for the flow of fluid between point 1 and point 2 in a pipe, represented by hf.

hf

h1
h2

pipe diameter (D) flow velocity (u)

length
(L)
point 1 point 2
Figure 7.12 Friction in a pipe due to the flow of fluid

1. Darcy’s formula
When a liquid flows slowly and steadily through a pipe, the layer of the liquid closest
to the pipe wall is almost stationary, while the central part of the liquid moves
relatively quickly. As in the case of two solid surfaces moving over each other, a
frictional force is exerted between the two liquid layers. Refer to the derivation of
Darcy’s equation.
___
Vflow = C√mi
∴ V2flow = C2 × m × i
h h
and i = __l f substitute __l f in place of i:
C2 × m × h
V2flow = _________
l
f

V2flow × l
hf = _______
C2 × m

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 d d
and m = __
​​  4 ​​ substitute __
​​  4 ​​ in place of m:

Module 7
V2flow × 4
hf = _______
​​  C2 × d ​​
2×g 2×g
C2 = ____
​​  f ​​, where ____
​​  f ​​ is a constant, and is called the coefficient of resistance.
V2 × l × 4 × f
Then, hf = ___________
​​  2 × g × d ​​
where: hf = pressure head of fluid (in m)
f = coefficient of friction
l = length of the pipe (in m)
V = velocity of flow through the pipe (in m/s)
g = constant gravitational acceleration (= 9,81 m/s2)
d = pipe diameter (in m).

1.1 Using Darcy’s formula

You can use Darcy’s formula in the following form:
Q=A×V
Q2 π × d2
if V2 = ___
​​  A2 ​​ and Apipe = _____
​​  4 ​​
π2 × d4 π2 × d4
then A2 = ______
​​  42 ​​ = ______
​​  16 ​​
Q2 Q2 Q2 × 16
∴ V2 = ___
​​  A2 ​​ = _____ _______
π2 × d4 ​​ = ​​  π2 × d4 ,​​ substitute in place of V in the hf equation:
​​  ______ 2
​ 16 ​
4 × f × l × Q2 × 16
_______________
∴ hf =   
​​  2  
× g × d × π2 × d4 ​​
where 2 × g × π2 can be treated as a number representing these constants:
2 × 9,81 × π2 = 193,64
4 × f × l × Q2 × 16 f × l × Q2
then hf = _______________
​​    
   193,64 × d5
________
​​ = ​​  3,026 × d5 ​​
where: hf = pressure head or friction head (in m)
f = coefficient of friction
Q = flow rate of fluid (in m3/s)
d = diameter of pipe (in m).
Having looked at Darcy’s formula, calculations related to steel piping connecting
two reservoirs are explained in the Worked examples that follow.

Worked example 7.6 Calculating flow rate through an inclined pipeline

The steel pipeline connecting the two reservoirs A and B in Figure 7.13 is 1 700 m long,
and has a diameter of 266 mm. Assume that the water levels of the two reservoirs differ
by 55 mm and that the coefficient of friction in the pipe is 0,005. Find the flow rate
through the pipe in m3/s.

A
55 m

B
diameter = 266 mm
length of pipe = 1 700 m

Figure 7.13 Steel pipe connecting reservoirs A and B

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 Solution
Data Given:
d = 266 = 0,266 m
hf = 55 m
f = 0,005
l = 1 700 m.
Q = ?
Darcy’s method 1:
​​ V × l × 4 × f ​​
hf = __________
2

2×g×d
___________ __________________

√ hf × 2 × g × d
V = ​​ ​__________
4×l×f
​​​ = ​​ √ ________________
55 × 2 × 9,81 × 0,266
​    ​​​ = 2,906 m/s
  
4 × 1 700 × 0,005
then Q = V × A
π × 0,2662
∴ Q = 2,906 × ​​________
4
​​ = 0,161 m3/s.

Darcy’s method 2:
f × l × Q2
hf = ​​________5 ​​
3,026 ×d
____________ ________________
∴ Q = ​​ √ hf × 3,026 × d5
___________
​  
  
f×l √ ​  
​​​ = ​​
55 × 3,026 × 0,266
_______________ 5
  ​​​ = 0,161 m /s.
  
0,005 × 1 700
3

Worked example 7.7 Pipeline calculations

Refer to Figure 7.14, which shows a pipe connecting two reservoirs, A and B.

40 m

diameter = ?
length of pipe = 3,5 km

Figure 7.14 A pipe connecting two reservoirs, A and B

The pipe is 3,5 km long. The difference in water levels between the reservoirs is 40 m.
Assume that the flow rate of water in the pipe is 0,75 m3/s and that the coefficient of
friction as 0,005. Calculate:
1. The diameter of the pipe
2. The hydraulic gradient.

Solution
Data given:
Q = 0,75 m3/s, hf = 40 m, f = 0,005, l = 3,5 km = 3 500 m.
d = ?, i = ?

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 1. Finding diameter of the pipe, d:

Module 7
f × l × Q2
hf = ​​________5 ​​
3,026 × d
_________ _________

√ f × l × Q2
√ f×l×Q
0.005 3 2500
​​​ × 0,75 ​​ = 0,605 m = 605 mm.
2
∴d = 5
​​ ​________
​________​​​ = 5​​ ​​________________
     
3,026 × hf 3,026 × hf × 40
3,026
2. Finding hydraulic gradient, i:
h
​​  3 40
i = ​​ __f ​​ = _____ 500
​​ = 0,0114 m.
l

Worked example 7.8 Friction factors in pipeline calculations

Two reservoirs are connected by a horizontal pipeline that is 1 100 m long and has a diameter
of 140 mm. The coefficient of friction is 0,008. Take the flow rate of the water in the pipe
to be 15 ℓ/s. Due to the friction between inlet point A and outlet point B, calculate:
1. The loss of head, hf, between point A and point B.
2. The difference in pressure (in kPa) between points A and B.
Solution
Data Given:
hf = ?, f = 0,008, l = 1 100 m, Q = 15 ℓ/s = 0,015 m3/s, d = 140 mm = 0,14 m.
1. Finding friction head, hf:
f × l × Q2 0,008 × 1 100 × 0,0152
hf = ________
​​  5 ​​
= __________________
​​ 
     
3,026 × 0,145 ​​ = 12,166 m.
3,026 × d
2. Finding pressure difference P1 − P2:
​​  ρ ×P g ​​
hf = _____
P P
∴ difference in hf = _____
​​  ρ ×1 g ​​ − _____
​​  ρ ×2 g ​​
P −P
∴ 12,166 = ​​ _____
ρ × g ​​
1 2

and P1 − P2 = 12,166 × 1 000 × 9,81 = 119,348 kPa.

Worked example 7.9 Calculating head loss due to friction

Water is flowing through a 50 m length of steel pipe with a velocity of 2,5 m/s. The pipe’s
diameter is 25 mm. Use Darcy’s formula to find the head loss due to friction. Assume that the
coefficient of friction has a value of 0,005. Test your answer using Chezy’s formula.
Solution
Data Given:
hf = ?, f = 0,005, l = 50 m, v = 2,5 m/s, d = 25 mm = 0,025 m.
​1. Finding friction head, hf, using Darcy’s formula:
2,52 × 50 × 4 × 0,005
​​  V × l × 4 × f ​​ = _________________
hf = __________
2
​​    
  
2 × 9,81 × 0,025
​​ = 12,742 m.
2×g×d
2. Testing the answer using Chezy’s formula:
___
Vflow = C​​√mi ​​
_____ _______

√ 2×g
C = ​​ _____
​ 
f √ 2 × 9,81
​ ​​ = ​​ _______
​  0,005 ​ ​​ = 62,642
0,025
​​  d4 ​​ = _____
m = __ ​​  4 ​​ = 0,00625 m
V2 × l 2,52 × 50
hf = ​​ ______
flow
​​ = _______________
​​  62,642
      ​​ = 12.742 m
C ×m
2 2 × 0,00625

∴ Darcy’s hf = Chezy’s hf = 12,742 m.

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 2. Chezy’s formula
In any pipe filled with a moving fluid, the pressure head needed to overcome fluid
friction is directly proportionate to the length of the pipe and inversely correlated
to the mean hydraulic depth of the pipe. In this section we shall consider Chezy’s
formula, and then look at some Worked examples in applying it.
k × l × v2
hf = ________
​​  m ​​ Equation 1
where: hf = pressure head or friction head (in m)
k = a constant, depending on the nature and texture of the wetted area of the pipe
l = length of the pipe between two points (in m)
V = velocity of fluid flow (in m/s)
m = hydraulic mean depth of the pipe (in m).
cross-sectional area of pipe
______________________ ________ __ π × d2 d
Also (Equation 2): m = ​​    
   
wetted circumference of pipe ​​ = ​​  4 × π × d ​​ = ​​  4 ​​ (applicable to round
pipes filled with fluids)
hf
i = ​​ __l ​​
where: i = hydraulic gradient
hf = pressure head or friction head = h1 − h2 (in m), and l = length of the pipe (in m).

Refer to Figure 7.15, showing a pipe fitted with riser pipes and carrying water a
distance AB. When there is no water flow in the pipe, the water levels in the riser
pipes are equal. When water does flow in the pipe, the pressure at riser pipe A
exceeds the pressure at riser pipe B by a margin equal to the pressure required to
overcome the friction in the pipe. The head lost = h1 – h2, and the line CD indicates
a hydraulic gradient.
k × l × v2
From equation 1: hf = ________
​​  m ​​
m × hf hf
v2 = _____
​​  k × l ​​, where i = __
​​  l ​​
_____
m×i
then v2 = ​​ _____
m×i
_____
√ __ 1
k ​​, so v = ​​ ​  k ​ ​​ , and C = ​​  k ​​
_____
∴ v = C​​√m × i ​​ . This formula is known as Chezy’s formula, particularly suitable for
calculating the flow in pipes.
C is a constant known as Chezy’s coefficient
i = hydraulic gradient
m = hydraulic mean depth of the pipe (in m)
k is a constant that we define according to the nature and texture of the pipe surface
with which the fluid is in contact.

h1 head lost

D
h2

A B
length

Figure 7.15 Water-carrying pipe fitted with riser pipes

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 Having looked at Chezy’s formula, the following Worked examples describe the

Module 7
flow rate calculations related to steel pipes connecting two reservoirs.

Worked example 7.10 Calculating flow rate using Chezy’s formula

A steel pipe has a diameter of 450 mm. It is 1,3 km long and connects two reservoirs,
A and B. The water levels in the reservoirs differ by 25 m. Take Chezy’s coefficient (C) to
be 65 and calculate the flow rate through the pipe in ℓ/s.

A
25 m

diameter = 450 mm
length of pipe = 1,3 km

Figure 7.16 Steel pipe connecting reservoirs A and B

Solution
Data given: d = 450 mm, l = 1,3 km, hf = 24 m, C = 65, Q = ?
Finding Q:
Q=A×V
π × 0,452
​​ π ×4 d ​​ = _______
Apipe = _____
2
​​ 4 ​​ = 0,159 m2
___
Vflow = C​​√ mi ​​
0,45
​​ d4 ​​ = ____
so, m = __ ​​ 4 ​​ = 0,112 m
h
and i = __ ​​ 1 24
​​ f ​​ = _____300
​​ = 0,0185 m
l ___ ______________
Vflow = C​​√ mi ​​ = 65​​√ 0,112
   × 0,0185 ​​ = 2,959 m/s
Q=A×V
Q = 0,159 × 2,959 = 0,470 m3/ s
Q = 470,481 ℓ/ s.

Worked example 7.11 Calculating friction head loss using Chezy’s formula

Calculate the friction head loss in a 45 m steel pipe with a diameter of 77 mm if it delivers
0,025 m3/s. Consider Chezy’s coefficient (C) to be 56.

Solution
Data given: d = 77 mm = 0,077 m, l = 45 m, hf = ?, C = 56, Q = 0,025 m3/ s
Finding friction head, hf:
Q=A×V
Q Q×4 0,025 × 4
Vflow = __
​ ​A ​​ = _____
​ ​π × d2 ​​ = ________
​ ​π × 0,0772 ​​ = 5,369 m/s
0,077
​​ d4 ​​ = _____
m = __ ​​ 4 ​​ = 0,0193 m
___
Vflow = C​​√ mi ​​

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 V2flow
∴ ​ ​____
C2 ​​ = m × i
V2 5,3692
i = ​​______
flow
​​ = __________
​​ 562 × 0,0193 ​​ = 0,476 m
C ×m2

h
and i = __
​​ f ​​
l
hf = l × i
∴ friction head, hf = 45 × 0,476 = 21,42 m.

ACTIVITY 7.5  Pipeline calculations

Two reservoirs, the water levels of which differ by 30 m, are joined together by a pipe that
is 1,5 km long. Assume that the flow of water through the pipe is 0,85 m3/s, and that the
coefficient of friction is 0,006. Calculate the following:
1. The diameter of the pipeline
2. The hydraulic gradient.

ACTIVITY 7.6 Calculating pressure head losses to friction using Darcy’s formula

Water flows through a pipe, which is 30 mm in diameter and 55 m long, at 2,75 m/s,
Using Darcy’s formula, find the loss of pressure head due to friction, assuming the
coefficient of friction is 0,006. Test the answer using Chezy’s formula.

ACTIVITY 7.7  Calculating flow rate

A steel pipe, having a diameter of 450 mm and a length of 2,5 km, connects two
reservoirs with a water level difference of 30 m. Consider Chezy’s coefficient (C) to be 65,
and calculate the flow rate of the water through the pipe in ℓ/s.

ACTIVITY 7.8  Calculating friction head loss

Find the friction head loss in a pipe of 85 mm in diameter and 60 m long, assuming the
delivery is 0,03 m3/s and Chezy’s coefficient is 56.

ACTIVITY 7.9  Calculating pressure head losses due to friction

A pipeline of 170 mm diameter and 1 750 m long connects two reservoirs. The pipeline is
horizontal. Assume the coefficient of friction is 0,008 and the flow rate of water through
the pipe is 30 ℓ/s. Calculate the following:
1. The loss of pressure head between the inlet point A and the outlet point B of the
pipe due to friction.
2. The difference in pressure in kPa between inlet A and outlet B, due to friction in
the pipe.

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 Module 7
Unit 6 Measurement of flow

LEARNING OUTCOMES
■■ Explain and describe the calculation processes for: a) Nozzles and orifices, b)
Theoretical velocity, c) Theoretical area, d) Theoretical quantity, e) Actual velocity,
f) Actual area, g) Actual quantity, h) Coefficient of velocity, i) Coefficient of
contraction, j) Coefficient of discharge, k) General formula, l) Distance travelled
by a water jet, and m) Energy loss at orifice.

Introduction
In this section, we consider water flowing through drilled holes called orifices.

1. Flow of water through orifices

We first discuss the theoretical velocity of water jets, and then cover the actual
velocity of water jets. This involves considering the formulae and symbols required
for calculating the coefficients of velocity, contraction, and delivery. We will then use
the formulae to perform calculations in the Worked examples.

2. Theoretical velocity of a water jet, Vt

V1 PA

h1
A

PA

h2 V2

Figure 7.17 An orifice in the side of a tank

Figure 7.17 shows an orifice in the side of a tank. Water, under static head
(h), is flowing through the orifice. The hole/orifice diameter is relatively small
in comparison to the size of the tank. The pressure on the water surface, A, is
atmospheric pressure (PA). Due to the size of the tank, the flow velocity at the
surface of the water, V1, is insignificant and is regarded as zero.

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 The pressure immediately outside the orifice is also atmospheric, so PA at A = PA
at B. The velocity of the jet just outside the orifice is V2. The datum line for potential
energy runs through the centre line of the orifice, and is equivalent to h2; the height
of the water level is h1.
P1
____ (v1)2
____ P2
____ (v2)2
____
ρ × g + 2g + h1 = ρ × g + 2g + h2
PA = PA (atmospheric pressure), h = h1 − h2.
V2
Then, from Bernoulli’s equation: h = __
2g
V1 = 0, V2 = theoretical velocity
____
∴ Vt (theoretical velocity) = √2gh .

3. Vena contracta and velocity of a water jet, VA

Figure 7.18 shows a jet of water spurting from a sharp-edged orifice, and the
vena contracta.
Water in the tank moves through the orifice so that each particle of the liquid has
a velocity component perpendicular to the centre line of the jet at the orifice. This
narrowing is called the vena contracta, or actual diameter of the jet. Figure 7.19
shows a water jet spurting from an orifice in the side of a tank.

vena contracta
Figure 7.18 Jet of water h
squirting from a sharp-
edged orifice (showing the
vena contracta)
H
distance Y

distance X

Figure 7.19 Jet squirting from an orifice in the side of a tank

Consider X to be the horizontal distance that the jet covers.

Then, distance = velocity × time
X = VA × t
where: VA = actual velocity (in m/s)
t = time (in s)
X = horizontal distance of the jet (in m)
X
∴ VA = __
t Equation 1
Consider Y to be the vertical distance that the jet covers:
1 2
Y = μt + __
2 gt
1 2
where μ = 0, then Y = __
2 gt Equation 2
where g = gravitational acceleration = m/s2 ___ ___

√ √2Y
2Y ____
___
making t the subject of the formula in order to substitute into Equation 1: t = g = √__g
X
from equation 1: VA = __
t
__ ____
X√g
VA = ____ √
gX2
___ = ___ (This is the actual velocity of the jet stream.)
√2Y 2Y
where: VA = actual velocity of the jet stream (in m/s)
g = constant gravitational acceleration (= 9,81 m/s2)
X = horizontal distance of the jet (in m)
Y = vertical distance of the jet (in m).
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 4. Formulae applicable to the three coefficients:

Module 7
CV, CC, and Cd
4.1 Coefficient of velocity, Cv
The coefficient of velocity is the ratio of the actual velocity, compared to the
theoretical velocity of the jet. The actual jet velocity will be much less when
compared with the theoretical one, because of fluid resistance.
VActual V
CV = ______
V = ___
V
A

Theoretical t

where: CV = coefficient of velocity

VA = actual jet velocity (in m/s)
Vt = theoretical jet velocity (in m/s).

4.2 Coefficient of contraction, CC

To measure the actual flow emerging from the orifice, the diameter of water or vena
contracta is used since this reflects the true area of the jet. The orifice diameter is
then considered to be theoretical one. The ratio of the actual area to the theoretical
area is known as the coefficient of contraction.
AActual A
CC = ______
A = ___
A
A

Theoretical t

Where: CC = coefficient of contraction

AA = actual area of jet (in m2)
At = theoretical area of jet (in m2).

4.3 Coefficient of discharge, Cd

The ratio of the true discharge from the orifice to its theoretical discharge1, is called
the coefficient of discharge.
QActual Q
Cd = ______
Q = ___
Q
A

Theoretical t

where: CV = coefficient of discharge or delivery

QA = actual delivery of jet (in m3/s)
Qt = theoretical delivery of jet (in m3/s).
So QA = VA × AA
Qt = Vt × At
Cd = CV × CC.

Worked example 7.12 Water jet calculations

Figure 7.20 shows a sharp-edged orifice in the side of a

large tank.
The orifice discharges water under a constant 4m
pressure head of 4 m. The orifice diameter on the side
of the tank is 50 mm, while the vena contracta has a
diameter of 40 mm. The horizontal distance of the water H
jet is 2,25 m and the jet falls 330 mm vertically. Calculate Y = 0,33 m
the following:
1. The theoretical area of the jet
2. The actual area of the jet X = 2,25 m
3. The theoretical velocity of the water
4. The actual velocity of the water Figure 7.20 A sharp-edged orifice in the side of a large tank

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 5. The theoretical delivery of the water through the orifice
6. The actual delivery of water through the orifice
7. The coefficient of delivery, Cd
8. The coefficient of contraction, Cc
9. The coefficient of velocity, Cv.

Solution
π × D2 π × 0,052
1. ATheoretical = ​​ ________
4
Orifice
​​ = _______
​​  4
​​ = 0,00196 m2
π × d2 π × 0,042
2. AActual = ________
​​  4
Actual
​​ = _______
​​  4
​​ = 0,00126 m2
____ ___________
3. VTheoretical = √
​​ 2gh ​​ = √
​​ 2
  × 9,81 × 4 ​​ = 8,859 m/s
___ ___________

√
gX2
4. VActual = ​​ ___ √9,81 × (2,25)2
​  2Y ​ ​​ = ​​ ___________
​   
   2 × 0,33
​ ​​ = 8,675 m/s
5. Qt = Vt × At
Qt = 8,859 × 0,00196 = 0,0174 m3/s.
6. QA = VA × AA
QA = 8,675 × 0,00126 = 0,0109 m3/s
Q Q 0,0109
7. Cd = _______
​​  Actual ​​ = ___
​​  A ​​ = ______
​​  ​​ = 0,626
QTheoretical Qt 0,0174
AActual
______ AA _______
__ 0,00126
8. CC = ​​  A ​​ = ​​  ​​ = ​​  ​​ = 0,642
Theoretical At 0,00196
V V 8,675
9. CV = ______
​​  V Actual ​​ = __ ​​  VA ​​ = _____
​​  8,859 ​​ = 0,979.
Theoretical t

Worked example 7.13 Calculating flow rate from an orifice

There is an orifice with a diameter of 55 mm in the side of a tank, 5,5 m below the
surface of the water. Assume that the coefficient of delivery (Cd) is 0,637. Calculate the
flow rate of water from the tank in litres per second.

Solution
Finding the actual flow rate:
Data given: D = 55 mm, h = 5,5 m, Cd = 0,637
Q
Cd = ______
​​ Actual ​​
QTheoretical
π × D2Orifice ________
π × 0,0552
ATheoretical = ​​________
4
​​ = ​​ 4
​​ = 0,00238 m2
____ _____________
VTheoretical = √
​​ 2gh ​​ = √
​​ 2
  × 9,81 × 5,5 ​​ = 10,388 m/s
Qt = Vt × At
Qt = 10,388 × 0,00238 = 0,0247 m3/s
∴ QActual = Cd × QTheoretical
Qt = 0,637 × 0,0247 = 0,0157 m3/s = 15,7 ℓ/s.

Worked example 7.14 Calculating flow coefficients for an orifice

The following particulars apply to an orifice in the side of a tank: diameter of the orifice
is 30 mm, the delivery of water is 0,75 m3/min, the diameter of the vena contracta is 25
mm, and the pressure head is 34,5 m. Calculate the following:
1. The coefficient of delivery (C d).
2. The coefficient of contraction (Cc).
3. The coefficient of velocity (Cv).
4. The loss of pressure head due to fluid resistance.

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 Solution

Module 7
0,75
Data given: DTheoretical = 30 mm, dActual = 25 mm, QActual = ____
60
= 0,0125 m3/s
1. Finding the coefficient of delivery, Cd:
Q
Cd = ______
Actual
QTheoretical
Qt = Vt × At
π × D2 π × 0,032
ATheoretical = ________
4
Orifice
= _______
4
= 0,000707 m2
____ ______________
VTheoretical = √2gh = √2 × 9,81 × 34,5 = 26,017 m/s
Qt = 26,017 × 0,000707 = 0,0184 m3/s
0,0125
Cd = ______
0,0184
= 0,679.
2. Finding the coefficient of contraction, CC:
AActual π × d2Actual π × 0,0252
CC = ______
A
where: ATheoretical = 0,000707 m2, and AActual = ________
4
= ________
4
=
Theoretical

0,000491 m2
0,000491
CC = _______
0,000707
= 0,694.
3. Finding the coefficient of velocity, CV:
V ____ ______________
CV = ______
V
Actual
where VTheoretical = √2gh = √2 × 9,81 × 34,5 = 26,017 m/s
Theoretical
Q 0,0125
∴ VActual = ____
A
Actual
= _______
0,000491
= 25,458 m/s
Actual
25,458
CV = ______
26,017
= 0,979.
4. Finding the loss of pressure head:
(V )2 (25,454)2
hf = h1 − h2 where h1 = 34,5 m, and h2 = ____
2
2×g
= v _______
2 × 9,81
= 33,023 m
hf = 34,5 − 33,023 = 1,447 m.

Worked example 7.15 Determining flow coefficients

Figure 7.21 shows water flowing at a rate of 0,85 ℓ/s passing through a 20 mm diameter
orifice in the side of a tank, with a pressure head of 1,25 m.

1,25 m

H
Y = 75 mm

X = 600 mm

Figure 7.21 Water flowing through a 20 mm diameter orifice

The water jet from the orifice spills out of the tank and falls 75 mm below to the ground.
Assume that the horizontal distance of the jet before it strikes the ground is 600 mm.
Find the three coefficients of flow.
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 1. Finding the coefficient of delivery Cd:
Q π × D2 π × 0,022
Cd = ______
​​ Actual ​​ where: ATheoretical = ​​________
4
Orifice
​​ = ​​_______
4
​​ = 0,0003142 m2
QTheoretical
Qt = Vt × At
____ ______________
VTheoretical = √
​​ 2gh ​​ = √
​​   
2 × 9,81 × 1,25 ​​ = 4,952 m/s
Qt = 4,952 × 0,0003142 = 0,00156 m3/s
where QActual = 0,95 ℓ/s = 0,00095 m3/ s
0,00095
Cd = _______
​​ 0,00156 ​​ = 0,609.
2. Finding the coefficient of velocity, CV:
V ____ ______________
CV = ______
​​ V Actual ​​ where VTheoretical = √
​​ 2gh ​​ = √
​​ 2
  × 9,81 × 1,25 ​​ = 4,952 m/s
Theoretical
___ __________

√
∴ VActual = ​​ ___
gX2
√ 9,81 × (0,6)2
​2Y ​​​ = ​​ ​_________
2 × 0,075
​​​ = 4,852 m/s
4,852
CV = _____
​​ 4,952 ​​ = 0,98.
3. Finding the coefficient of contraction, CC:
C 0,609
CC = __
​​ d ​​ = _____
​​ ​​ = 0,621.
CV 0,98

ACTIVITY 7.10  Calculating coefficients

The following particulars apply to an orifice on the side of a tank: the orifice diameter
is 32 mm, the delivery of water is 0,77 m3/min, the diameter of the vena contracta is
27 mm, and the pressure head is 35,5 m. Calculate the following:
1. The coefficient of delivery (Cd)
2. The coefficient of contraction (Cc)
3. The coefficient of velocity (Cv)
4. The loss of pressure head due to fluid resistance.

ACTIVITY 7.11  Calculating actual and theoretical values

An orifice discharges water under a constant pressure head of 4,5 m. The diameter of
the orifice in the side of the tank is 52 mm, while the vena contracta has a diameter
of 41 mm. The horizontal distance of the water jet is 2,15 m, and the jet falls 327 mm
vertically. Calculate the following:
1. The theoretical area of the jet
2. The actual area of the jet
3. The theoretical velocity of the water
4. The actual velocity of the water
5. The theoretical delivery of the water through the orifice
6. The actual delivery of water through the orifice
7. The coefficient of delivery, Cd
8. The coefficient of contraction, Cc
9. The coefficient of velocity, Cv.

ACTIVITY 7.12  Calculating flow rate

There is an orifice with a diameter of 54 mm in the side of a tank, 5,3 m below the
surface of the water. Assume that the coefficient of delivery (Cd) is 0,637. Calculate the
flow rate of the water from the tank in litres per second.

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 Module 7
Unit 7: Venturi meters

LEARNING OUTCOMES
■ Explain how a Venturi meter is used to measure the flow rate of fluids through
pipelines.
■ Calculate energy loss for a Venturi meter.
■ Draw and label a Venturi meter.

Introduction
In this section, you will learn about Venturi meters and how they are used to measure
the flow of water in pipes. Venturi meters use the differences in pressure between
the entrance and the throat to determine flow rates in pipelines. As fluid moves from
the pipe into the converging unit, the velocity of the fluid increases steadily until it
reaches a maximum at the throat. The Venturi meter measures the equivalent drop in
pressure to accurately measure the flow with a minimal loss of energy.
We will consider the formulae and symbols used for Venturi meters, and then
apply them to calculations through the Worked examples. Refer to a Venturi meter
shown in Figure 7.22.

meter meter
entrance exit
v
A A
a
V
2
pipe 1 pipe
throat

manometer

Figure 7.22 Venturi meter

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 In its simplest form, a Venturi meter is made up of a short, converging pipe linked to
a short cylindrical pipe, called a throat, which is in turn linked to a diverging pipe. The
diameters of the converging meter entrance, or inlet pipe, and the diverging meter exit,
or outlet pipe, are the same as the diameter of the pipeline in which the Venturi meter is
fitted. Pressure readings between the inlet and the throat can then be obtained.
The kinetic energy in the throat will exceed the kinetic energy at the inlet of
the meter. According to Bernoulli’s theorem for total energies, the total energy at
the inlet of the converging pipe and the throat will be the same. Thus, the increase
in kinetic energy in the throat will cause a decrease in pressure energy at the inlet.
The measurement of the flow rate of the liquid in the pipeline is then based on the
difference in pressure energy between the inlet and the throat.

Formulae and symbols

Let us consider the formulae and symbols used for Venturi meters.

Horizontal Pipes
If the pipeline is placed horizontally, we use this formula from Bernoulli’s equation:
(V )2 (V )2
h1 + ____
​​  2g1 ​​ = h2 + ____
​​  2g2 ​​
(V )2 (V )2
then h1 − h2 = ____
​​  2g2 ​​ − ____
​​  2g1 ​​ (let h1 − h2 be h)
then 2gh = (V2)2 − (V1)2 Equation 1
let the inlet area of the Venturi meter = A m2
let the throat area of the Venturi meter = a m2
QInlet = QThroat
then QInlet = A × V1
QThroat = a × V2
a×V
∴ V1 = _____
​​  A 2 ​​. Substitute this into Equation 1:
a2 × (V )2
2gh = (V2)2 − ________
​​  A2 2 ​​
a2
2gh = (V2)2 × (1 − __
​​  A2 ​​)
A2 − a2
2gh = (V2)2 × (​​ ______
A2 ​​)
​​  A2A− a2 ​​ = (V2)2
2gh × ______
2

____
A
​​​​​ 2gh ​​ ​​​ × ​​​ ​​ _______
then V2 = √ _______
√ 2 ​​ ​  ​​​
​ A − a  ​
2

QThroat = a × V2
____
A×a
∴ Q = _______
​​  √_______ ​​ × ​​√2gh ​​.
​ A − a  ​
2 2

Slight energy loss

In practice, there is a slight energy loss, which means that an adjustment to the flow
rate must be applied by a coefficient of delivery, Cd.
____
A×a
So: Q = Cd × ​​ _______
_______ ​​ × ​​√2gh ​​
√ 2 2 ​ A − a  ​
where: h1 = pressure head at inlet of the venturi meter (in m)
h2 = pressure head at throat of the Venturi meter (in m)
V1 = velocity of the liquid at the inlet of the Venturi meter (in m/s)
V2 = velocity of the liquid at the throat of the Venturi meter (in m/s)
A = area of the pipe due to its diameter at the inlet of the Venturi meter (in m2)
a = diameter area of the throat of the Venturi meter (in m2)
Cd = coefficient of energy loss.
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 Module 7
Worked example 7.16 Calculating pressure head differences for a
Venturi meter

A horizontal pipe, 300 mm in diameter and discharging water at 11 m3/min, has a Venturi
meter with a throat diameter of 160 mm. Use the loss coefficient of Cd of 0,95. Find the
difference in pressure head between the inlet and the throat of the Venturi meter.
Solution
Data given: D = 300 mm, d = 160 mm, Q = 11 m3/min = 0,183 m/s, Cd = 0,95, h = ?
Note
Finding h:
π × 0,32 π × 0,162 In practice, to physically
​​ π ×4 D ​​ = ______
A = _____ ​​ π ×4 d ​​ = ​​_______
​​ 4 ​​ = 0,0707 m2, and a = _____
2 2

4
​​ = 0,0201 m2 measure the pressure
____
A×a
Q = Cd × _______
​​ _______ ​​ × √
​​ 2gh ​​ head difference of
​√ A − a ​
2 2
____ 4,306 m calculated in
0,0707 × 0,0201 _____ ________
0,183 = 0,95 × ________________
_________________ ​​ × √
​​   
   ​​ 2gh ​​ where ​​√ 2 × g ​​ = √
​​ 2 × 9,81 ​​ = 4,429 Worked example 7.16,
​√ 0,0707
2
   2− 0,0201 ​ it is much easier to
__
0,0707 × 0,0201
___________________ × 4,429
_________________ ​​ × √ find the difference
0,183 = 0,95 ×    ​​    ​​ h ​​
√
​   0,07072 − 0,02012 ​ in head by using a
__
0,00598
0,183 = _______
​​ 0,0678 ​​ × √​​ h ​​ U-tube manometer
__ containing mercury.
​​√ h ​​ = 2,075
h = 4,306 m.
Referring back to figure 7.22, which shows a Venturi meter with a mercury manometer, the
pressure at the throat and at the diverging side of the pipe will be equal. The pressure at the
entrance will exceed the pressure at the converging side of the pipe by an amount equal to the
difference in pressure due to the mercury column h1 plus an equal column of water. Therefore:
■■ When water with a density of 1 kg/m3 is flowing through the pipe

■■ The tube contains mercury with a density of 13,6 kg/m3

■■ Then the difference in head h is equal to a water level of h = 13,6h – 1h = 12,6h .

1 1 1 1

Take h as the head of water and h1 as the head of mercury.

If the Venturi meter in Worked example 7.16 had a mercury manometer fitted within, the
mercury head in the manometer would have shown the following reading:
h (water) = 12,6 h1(mercury)
h (water) 4,306
h1(mercury) = _______
​​ 12,6 ​​ = _____
​​ 12,6 ​​ = 0,342 m = 342 mm.

Worked example 7.17 Manometer calculation

A Venturi meter with a throat diameter of 150 mm is fitted in a pipe with a diameter of
250 mm. The discharge rate of the pipe is 125 ℓ/s. Assume that the Venturi meter has a
mercury manometer, and use a coefficient of delivery of 0,97. Calculate the mercury head Note
​​  D4 ​​ with m2,
By equating __
4
in the manometer. d
Solution we can simplify the
formula for finding Q to
Data given: D = 250 mm, d = 150 mm, Q = 125 ℓ / s = 0,125 m3/ s, Cd = 0,97, h = ? ______

Finding h: √2gh
Q = Cd × A × ​​ ​ _____
m2 − 1
​ ​​
π × 0,252 π × d2 _______ π × 0,152
​​ π ×4 D ​​ = ​​_______
A = _____ 2, and a = ​​_____
2

4
​​ = 0,0491 m 4
​​ = ​​ 4
​​ = 0,0177 m2
____
A×a
Q = Cd × _______
​​ _______ ​​ × √
​​ 2gh ​​
​√ A2 − a2 ​ ____ _____ ________
0,0491
________________ × 0,0177
_________________ ​​ × √
0,125 = 0,97 ×    ​​    ​​ 2gh ​​, where ​​√ 2 × g ​​ = √ ​​ 2 × 9,81 ​​ = 4,429
√
​ 0,0491
   2 − 0,0177 ​2

__
0,0491 ×
___________________ 0,0177 × 4,429
_________________ ​​ × √
0,125 = 0,97 ×    ​​    ​​ h ​​
√
​ 0,0491
   2 − 0,0177 ​
2
__
0,00373
_______
0,125 = ​​ 0,0458 ​​ × ​​ h ​​ √ h (water) = 12,6h1 (mercury)
h (water) 2,356
h = 2,356 m h1 (mercury) = _______​​ 12,6 ​​ = _____​​ 12,6 ​​ = 0,187 m = 187 mm.

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 Worked example 7.18 Flow rate calculation involving a mercury
manometer

Find the flow rate, in ℓ/s, flowing through a 200 diameter pipe fitted with a Venturi meter
that has a throat diameter of 130 mm. The coefficient of delivery is 0,97, and the mercury
manometer shows a reading of 880 mm.

Solution
Data given: D = 200 mm = 0,2 m, d = 130 mm = 0,13 m, Cd = 0,97,
mercury head, h1 = 880 mm = 0.88 m, Q = ?
Finding the flow rate:
π × 0,22
​​ π ×4 D ​​ = ______
A = _____
2
​​ 4 ​​ = 0,03142 m2
0,24
​​ D4 ​​ = ____
m2 = __
4
​​ 0,134 ​​ = 5,602
d
h = 12,6 × h1
therefore h = 12,6 × 0,88 = 11,088 m
______
2gh
Q = Cd × A × ​​ _____ √
​m2 − 1 ​​​
_______________
Q = 0,97 × 0,0314 × ​​ √ ______________
2 × 9,81 × 11,088
​    
5,602 − 1
​​​ = 0,209 m / s = 209 ℓ/s.
3

ACTIVITY 7.13  Calculating flow rate

Find the flow rate of water, in ℓ/s, through a 220 mm diameter pipe, which has a Venturi
meter with a throat diameter of 140 mm. Take the coefficient of delivery as 0,97. The mercury
manometer reading shows 900 mm.

Note
Remember that in a ACTIVITY 7.14  Calculating a mercury head
tapered pipe with a
bigger diameter, the There is a Venturi meter with a throat diameter of 145 mm installed in a pipe, 245 mm in
greater the pressure
diameter. The pipe discharges at 135 ℓ/s. Assuming that the coefficient of delivery is 0,97
but the slower the
flow velocity; in a and that the Venturi meter has a mercury manometer. Calculate the mercury head in
tapered pipe with a the manometer.
smaller diameter, the
greater the velocity
but the less the
pressure compared ACTIVITY 7.15 Calculating pressure head differences with a Venturi meter
to the pipe with the
bigger diameter. A horizontal pipe having a diameter of 350 mm discharges water at a flow rate of 12 m3/min,
and has a Venturi meter with a throat diameter of 175 mm. Use the loss coefficient, Cd,
Also remember that
the flow of water in a of 0,97.
tapered pipe remains 1. Draw and label the Venturi meter in this situation.
the same. 2. Calculate the difference in pressure heads between the inlet and the throat of the
Venturi meter.

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 Module 7
Module summary
■■ This module has covered explanations of the terms and dimensions relating
to hydrostatics, the application of Bernoulli’s theorem to fluid flow
through tapered pipes, and the flow of water through orifices. You have
learnt how to:
■■ Explain the basic concepts and principles of fluid statics and dynamics.
■■ Describe Bernoulli’s theorem and explain the concepts of potential,
kinetic, and pressure energies.
■■ Do elementary calculations applying Bernoulli’s theorem to the flow
of water.
■■ Describe losses due to friction in pipes.
■■ Do basic calculations of friction losses in pipelines through the
application of Darcy’s and Chezy’s formulae.
■■ Explain and calculate flow process measurements.
■■ Explain the application of Venturi meters to measuring the flow rate
of fluids through pipelines.
■■ Perform calculations with respect to energy losses with a Venturi meter.
■■ Construct and label a Venturi meter.

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 Exam questions
1. Water flows through a pipe with a diameter of 25 mm and a length of 50 m
at a velocity of 2,5 m/s. Assume that the coefficient of friction has a value of
0,005. Use Darcy’s formula to determine the loss of head due to friction.
Then test the answer by using the Chezy’s formula. (9)
2. A horizontal pipeline with a diameter of 75 mm conveys water at a rate
of 0,015 m/s with a pressure drop of 50 kPa for every 30 metres of pipe
length. Calculate the value of the coefficient of friction (ƒ) for the situation
described above by using Darcy’s formula. (5)
3. Water is in steady motion in a pipe that is inclined downwards.
The diameter at the upper end is 100 mm and the pressure is 55 kPa.
The diameter at the lower end is 63 mm and the pressure is 35 kPa.
The difference in vertical heights between the two points is 3 m.
4. Determine the rate of flow in litres/second. Assume that there are NO losses
due to friction in the pipe. (14)
Total = 28 Marks

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 Module

8 Bearings

What is covered?
This module will first cover the different types of bearings by
discussing their advantages and disadvantages, as well as their uses.
It will later cover the different types of loads that can act on a shaft,
including dead load of the rotator, load created when the machine
performs work, and load created by transmission of dynamic forces.
The different types of equivalent loads will be discussed: dynamic
equivalent radial load, dynamic equivalent axial load, and static
equivalent axial load. The module will also cover calculations
pertaining to parallel shaft gears and cross-shaft gears being
subjected to loads, as well as to bearing rating life and load.

Learning outcomes

After studying this module, you should be able to:

■■ Explain different types of bearings and their uses.
■■ Explain the advantages of journal bearings compared to rolling
bearings. (Revision from N3.)
Unit 1
■■ Explain different types of loads which act on a shaft, including dead
load of the rotator, load produced when the machine performs
work, and load produced by transmission of dynamic forces.
■■ Calculate loads acting on a parallel shaft gears and
cross-shaft gears.
Unit 2
■■ Calculate applied bearing loads.
Unit 3
■■ Explain the concept of mean load.
■■ Draw graphs to depict: fluctuating stepped load, continuously
fluctuating load, Linear fluctuating load, and sinusoidal
fluctuating load.
Unit 4
■■ Discuss the following types of equivalent load: dynamic
equivalent radial load, dynamic equivalent axial load, and
static equivalent axial load.
■■ Compare the following types of static equivalent axial load:
static equivalent axial load, and static equivalent radial load.
■■ Calculate the load for angular contact ball bearings, and
tapered ball bearings.
■■ Calculate bearing rating life and load.

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 Unit 1: Loads acting on shafts

Keywords
radial load radial LEARNING OUTCOMES
loads are loads acting at
right angles to a shaft ■ Explain different types of loads which act on a shaft, including dead load
axial load axial of the rotator, load produced when the machine performs work, and load
loads are loads acting produced by transmission of dynamic forces.
parallel to an axis ■ Calculate loads acting on parallel shaft gears and cross-shaft gears.
of rotation

Introduction
force R
Bearings support a shaft or casing to allow its
(radial)
radial plane + free motion about an axis of rotation. Bearings
+ can be subjected to loads from either of two
force T Sr
basic directions. An axial load, or thrust,
(thrust)
is applied parallel to the axis of rotation.
axis of Radial loads are applied at right angles to the
rotation shaft – the bearing’s axis of rotation. In some
applications, there are two radial loads acting at
St
90 degrees apart. The Pythagorean theorem is
then used to calculate the resultant radial load.
■ Bearings are classified as two main types:
journal bearings, which are also known as
resultant M
(moment) plain bearings
Figure 8.1 Axial load, radial load, and the resultant moment ■ anti-friction bearings, which are also
load on a bearing known as rolling bearings.

Keyword 1. Journal bearings

anti-friction against In their most basic form, journal bearings are basically machined bushes with finely
friction
finished inside and outside diameters – there are no balls or rollers to assist the
rotation. The relative sliding movement between the shaft and this type of bearing
requires lubrication to separate the surfaces to reduce friction.

There are three main groups of journal bearings:

■ radial bearings
■ thrust bearings
■ guide bearings.

1.1 Radial bearings

Radial bearings accommodate loads that act at right angles to the shaft. A radial
Figure 8.2 A single row load simply puts weight on the bearing, causing the bearing to rotate due to the
radial ball bearing applied force.

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 1.2 Thrust bearings

Module 8
Thrust bearings that are used when the load applied is axial, or parallel to the centre
of the shaft.

compressor turbine
axial forces

Keyword
Reciprocating part
of a machine
moving backwards
and forwards in a
straight line

thrust bearings journal bearings

Figure 8.3 Thrust bearing supporting axial forces

1.3 Guide bearings

One of the functions of a guide bearing is to support and guide machine parts that
perform sliding or reciprocating movements. They are used mostly in machining
Figure 8.4 A u-groove
dovetails on lathes, and for the moving tables of milling machines.
track guide bearing

1.4 Advantages and disadvantages of journal bearings

The advantages of journal bearings are:
■ They can handle high loads and moderate velocities because there is minimal
metal-on-metal friction with the use of lubrication.
■ They are durable and last longer.
■ They run smoothly and quietly during operation.

The disadvantages of journal bearings are:

■ They need large quantities of lubricating oil.
■ They are appropriate only for relatively low temperatures and speeds.
■ The initial resistance is much greater than the running resistance due to the
slow build-up of lubricant over the bearing surface.

2. Anti-friction bearings outer ring outer ring

inner ring
Anti-friction bearings make use of
the rolling action of balls or rollers to
prevent friction. These bearings consist
of three components, namely: the balls or
rollers, an outer ring, and an inner ring.
rolling element
These bearings are mostly used where (roller or ball)
low to moderate radial and axial loads
roller bearing ball bearing
are involved.
Figure 8.5 Anti-friction bearing parts

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 2.1 Advantages and disadvantages of anti-friction bearings
Anti-friction, or rolling bearings, have the following advantages compared to
journal bearings:
■■ Low frictional torque at start-up
■■ Easy to lubricate
■■ Require little axial space
■■ Some rolling elements can support both radial and axial loads
■■ Easy to replace
■■ Can maintain high rotational speeds
■■ Require little maintenance
■■ Make noises when starting to fail
■■ Can handle heavy loads for short periods of time
■■ Bearings can be pre-packed and sealed with a lubricant.

Rolling bearings, compared to journal bearings, have the following disadvantages:

■■ Cannot stand shock
■■ Cannot be repaired
■■ Become noisier at high speeds.

Anti-friction or rolling bearings can fail if they are not maintained properly, due to:
■■ Rust or corrosion – can be caused by incorrect lubricant
■■ Cage failure – can be caused by poor lubrication
■■ Indentation of parts – when bearing is not protected against dirt
■■ Flaking – when bearing is used incorrectly
■■ Abnormal noise – when bearing is damaged or worn
■■ Cracks and fractures – may result due to incorrect mounting
■■ Overheating – may be due to the fact that bearing is too tight in the sleeve.

ACTIVITY 8.1  Bearing characteristics

1. Give three advantages and three disadvantages of journal bearings.

2. List ten advantages that rolling bearings have over journal bearings.
3. List and discuss seven of the faults that rolling bearings, both ball and roller, can
develop if not maintained properly.
4. Give three types of journal bearings, and state where each type can be used.

3. Loads acting on shafts

3.1 Load factor
There are many cases where the actual operational shaft load is much more than the
theoretically calculated load, due to machine vibration and shock. This actual shaft
load can be calculated by using the formula:
K = fw × Kc
where: K= actual shaft load (N)
fw = load factor (See Table 8.1)
Kc = theoretical calculated value (N).
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 Table 8.1: Load factor (fw)

Module 8
Amount of shock Load factor (fw) Application

Very little or no shock 1,0 – 1,2 Electric machines, machine tools, measuring
instruments.

Light shock 1,2 – 2,0 Railway trucks, vehicles, rolling mills,

metal-working machinery, paper-making
machinery, printing machinery, airplanes,
textiles machinery, electrical components,
office machinery.

Heavy shock 2,0 – 3,0 Crushers, agricultural equipment,

construction equipment, cranes.

3.2 Gear load

Forces acting on gears can be classified as three main types, according to the
direction in which the load is applied:
■■ tangential (Kt)
■■ radial (Ks)
■■ axial (Ka).

The magnitude and direction of these forces vary according to the types of gears
involved. The load calculation techniques covered in this unit are for two general-use
gear and shaft arrangements – parallel shaft gears and cross shaft gears.

4. Loads acting on parallel shafts

Loads acting on spur gears and helical gears are illustrated in Figure 8.6.

Ks Ks Ka

Kt
Kt
spur gear load helical gear load
Figure 8.6 Loads acting on helical and spur gears

The magnitudes of loads acting on spur and helical gears can be found by using the
following formulae:
19,1 × 106 × H
____________
Kt =   
​​  D ×n ​​
p
Ks = Kt × tan α (for spur gear)
Ks = Kt × tan α/cos β (for helical gear)
__________
Kr = √
​​ (Kt2 + Ks2) ​​
Ka = Kt × tan α (for helical gear)

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 where: Kt = tangential gear load (N)
Ks = radial gear load (N)
Kr = resultant load (N)
Ka = parallel load on shaft (N)
H = transmission force (kW)
n = rotational speed (rpm or r/min)
DP = gear pitch circle diameter (mm)
α = gear pressure angle
β = gear helix angle.

Since the actual gear loads have vibration and shock loads as well, the theoretical
load found using the above formula should also be attuned by the gear factor, fz, as
shown in Table 8.2.
Table 8.2: Gear factor (fz)

Gear type fz

Precision ground gears (pitch and tooth profile errors of less than 0,02 mm ) 1,05 – 1,1

Ordinary machined gears (pitch and tooth profile errors of less than 0,1 mm) 1,1 – 1,3

5. Forces acting on cross shafts

Gear forces applied on straight tooth bevel gears and spiral bevel gears on cross
shafts can be calculated using the following formulae:
19,1 × 106 × H
____________
Kt =   
​​  D × n ​​..................... (for counter clockwise loads and helix direction is left)
Pm

1,95 × 106 × H
____________
​​  D × n ​​..................... (for clockwise loads and helix direction is left)
Kt =   
Pm
cos δ
Ks = Kt[tan α____
​​  cos β ​​ + tan β sin δ].... (for driving side)
cos δ
Ks = Kt[tan α____
​​  cos β ​​ − tan β sin δ].... (for driven side)
sinδ
Ka = Kt[tan α____
​​  cos β ​​ − tan β cos δ]... (for driving side)
sin δ
Ka = Kt[tan α____
​​  cos β ​​ + tan β sin δ].... (for driven side)
where: Kt = tangential gear load (N)
Ks = radial gear load (N)
Ka = parallel load on shaft (N)
H = Transmission force (kW)
n = rotational speed (rpm or r/min)
DPm = mean pitch circle diameter (mm)
α = gear pressure angle
β = gear helix angle
δ = pitch cone angle.

Since the two shafts intersect, the relationships of the pinion and gear loads are
as follows:
Ksp = Kag
Kap = Ksg
where: Ksp, Ksg: pinion and gear separating forces
Kap, Kag: pinion and gear axial loads.

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 5.1 Chain and belt shaft load

Module 8
The tangential forces on sprockets or pulleys when power is transmitted by means of
chains or belts can be found using the following formula:
Keyword
19,1 × 10 × H
6 tangential load force
____________
Kt =   
​​  ​​
D ×n which acts on a
P
moving body in the
where: Kt = sprocket or pulley tangential load (N)
direction of a tangent
H = transmitted force (kW) to the path of the body
DPm = sprocket or pulley diameter (mm).

In belt drives, an initial tension is applied to give adequate persistent operating

tension on the belt and pulley. Taking this tension into consideration, radial loads
acting on the pulley are calculated using the formula below. For chain drives, a
similar formula can also be used if vibration and shock loads are taken into account:
Kr = fb × Kt
where: Kt = sprocket or pulley radial load
fb = chain or belt factor that can be taken from Table 8.3.
Table 8.3: Chain or belt factor fb (NB take the larger numbers for fc and fb for low speed
operation)

Chain or belt type ​fb​

Chain (single) 1,25 – 1,5

V-belt 2,0 – 2,5
Timing belt 1,1 – 1,3
Flat belt (w/tension pulley) 2,5 – 3,0
Flat belt 3,0 – 4,0

The loads acting on chains or belts are shown in Figure 8.7.

ide
F1 loose s

Dp

Kr

F2 te
nsion side

Figure 8.7 Chain and belt loads

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 Unit 2: Bearing load distribution

LEARNING OUTCOME
■■ Calculate applied bearing loads.

Introduction
When calculating bearing loads, you need to calculate the forces applied on the
shaft being supported by the bearing. Loads that act on the shaft and its correlating
parts – including the dead load of the rotator, the load created when the machine
is working, and the loads created by the transmission of dynamic forces – can
theoretically be calculated; but in many cases, the calculations are problematic.
A technique for calculating the loads that convey the dynamic forces that act upon
shafts and requiring the application of bearings is described here.

Bearing load distribution

For shafts, you need to take into account the static tension that needs to be
supported by the bearings, and any loads applied on the shafts that need to be
spread to the bearings.
For instance, for the gear shaft assembly illustrated in Figure 8.8, the loads
applied to the bearings can be calculated using the following formulae:
a+b d
FrA = ____
​​  b ​​FI + ____
​​  c + d ​​FII
a d
FrB = − __
​​  b ​​FI + ____
​​  c + d ​​FII

where: FrA = radial load on bearing A

FrB = radial load on bearing B
FI, FII = radial loads on shaft.

If the directions of the radial loads differ, the vector sum of the respective loads must
be determined.

a b
bearing A bearing B

FrA FrB

FI FII

c d
Figure 8.8 Applied bearing loads

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 Module 8
Unit 3: Mean load

LEARNING OUTCOMES
■■ Explain the concept of mean load.
■■ Draw graphs to depict: fluctuating stepped load, continuously fluctuating
load, Linear fluctuating load, and sinusoidal fluctuating load.

Introduction
In this unit, we shall consider mean load graphs. Learners need to be able to draw
the graphs shown.

The concept
The load on bearings used in machines under normal circumstances will, in many
instances, vary according to a fixed time period or planned operation plan. The
forces on bearings operating under such conditions can be converted to a mean
load (Fm) This is a load which gives bearings the equivalent lifespan they would have
.
under conditions of constant operation.
The figures that follow show different mean loads (Fm) graphically:
F
F1
F
F2 Fm
F(t)
Fm

Fn

n1t1 n2t2 nntn

0 t0 2t0 t

Figure 8.9 Fluctuating stepped load Figure 8.10 Continuously fluctuating load

F F

Fmax Fmax
Fm
Fm

Fmin

t t
Figure 8.11 Linear fluctuating load Figure 8.12 Sinusoidal variable load

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 Unit 4: Equivalent load

LEARNING OUTCOMES
■■ Discuss the following types of equivalent load: dynamic equivalent radial load,
dynamic equivalent axial load, and static equivalent axial load.
■■ Compare the following types of static equivalent axial load: static equivalent
axial load, and static equivalent radial load.
■■ Calculate the load for angular contact ball bearings and tapered ball bearings.
■■ Calculate bearing rating life and load.

Introduction
Three types of equivalent loads are discussed in this section:
■■ Dynamic equivalent radial load
■■ Dynamic equivalent axial load
■■ Static equivalent loads.

1. Comparison between static equivalent axial

load and static equivalent radial load
If both dynamic radial loads and dynamic axial loads are applied on a bearing
simultaneously, the hypothetical load applied at the centre of the bearing can be
considered to be either a purely radial load or a purely axial load. The bearing is said
to be under a dynamic equivalent load.
For radial bearings, this load is treated as a pure radial load called the dynamic
equivalent radial load. For thrust bearings, it is treated as a pure axial load called the
dynamic equivalent axial load.

2. Load calculation for

angular contact ball
F
F bearings and tapered
Fa load
Fa
load
roller bearings
centre centre For angular contact ball bearings and tapered
Fr roller bearings, the pressure cone apex (load
Fr centre) is situated in Figure 8.13, and their
values are itemized in the bearings tables.

a a

angular contact ball bearings tapered roller bearings

Figure 8.13 Tapered bearing load centre

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 Module 8
Worked example 8.1  Calculating applied loads on bearings

As shown in Figure 8.14, a radial load (shaft load) of W = 500 N is applied to the shaft.
What are the applied loads on bearings A and B if the dimensions are: a = 800 and b = 400?

a b
sheave

shaft

bearing bearing shaft

load load load
A B
Figure 8.14

Solution
​​ 1 200
WB = _________− 800
800
​​ × 500 = 250 N

​​ 1800
WA = _____200
​​ × 500 = 750 N.

Worked example 8.2 Calculating bearing loads

As shown in Figure 8.15, the shaft is rotated by a V-belt with transmission power H = 7,5 kW,
shaft speed n = 500 rpm, and pulley pitch diameter d = 400 mm. What are the loads on
bearings A and B?

A B

400 mm

500

1 000
T1 T2

Figure 8.15

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 Solution
​​ Hn ​​
M = 97 400 × __
7,5
= 97 400 × ​​___
500
​​
= 1 461 Nm.
Effective transmission power P for the V-belt is:
​​ Mr ​​
P = __
​​ 1200
= _____461
​​
= 7,305 N.
​ ow, the belt factor fb for the above belt is factored in:
N
P = 2,5 × 1,2 × 7,305 = 21,915 N.
Therefore, applied forces on bearings A and B are:
​​ 1500
WA = _____000
​​ × 21,915 = 10,958 N

​​ 1500
WB = _____000
​​ × 21,915 = 10.958 N.

Worked example 8.3 Finding loads on bearings

The shaft in Figure 8.16 is rotated by a spur gear with a pitch diameter of 200 mm and
a pressure angle of α = 14º. The spur gear is situated at a distance b, which is 100 mm
to the right of bearing A, and the distance between bearings O and A is a, which is
300 mm. Assume that the spur gear transmits power H = 5,5 kW at 500 r/min, and take
fg = 1,2 and fw = 1,3. Find the bearing loads on O and A.

b
k

Fz
Fy P Fx

T
l R
O
x
A B y
M J
gear

Figure 8.16

Solution
​​ Hn ​​
M = 97 400 × __
5,5
M = 97 400 × ​​___
500
​​ = 1 071,4 Nm

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 Tangential force (P1):

Module 8
​​ Mr ​​
P1 = __
1 071,4
P1 = ______
​​ 100 ​​ = 10,71 N

Perpendicular force (P2):

P2 = P1 × tan α
= 10,71 × tan 14º
= 2,67 N.
Now, total applied force P on the gear is:
________
P=√
​​ P12 + P22 ​​
______________
P = ​​√ 10,71
   2 + 2,672
​​
P = 11,04 N.
If fg = 1,2 and fw = 1,3, then the actual applied force W on the shaft is:
W = fg × fw × P
= 1,2 × 1,3 × 11,04
= 17,22 N.
Therefore, the applied forces on bearings A and B are:
​​ 100
WA = ___300
​​ × 17,22 = 5,74 N

​​ 400
WB = ___300
​​ × 17,22 = 22,96 N.

Worked example 8.4 Calculating radial loads on bearings

A spur gear is mounted 70 mm from a left-hand bearing, where the distance between
two bearings is 170 mm. The spur gear has a pitch circle diameter (Dp) of 150 mm, and
a pressure angle (α) of 20º. The gear transmits power (H) of 150 kW at n = 2 000 rpm.
Find the radial load on each bearing.

Solution
19,1 × 106 × H
Kt = ___________
​​
  
D ×n
​​
p
19,1 × 103 × 150
_____________
Kt =   
​​ 150
   ​​ = 9,55 kN
× 2 000
Ks = Kt × tan α
Ks = 9,55 × tan 20º = 3,48 kN.
Hence:________
Kr = √
​​ Kt2 + Ks2 ​​
____________
Kr = √
​​ 9,55
   2 + 3,482
​​
Kr = 10,16 kN.
The radial loads for bearings I and II are:
​​ 100
FrI = ___170
​​ × Kr

​​ 100
KrI = ___170
​​ × 10,16 = 5,98 kN
70
KrII = ___
​​ 170 ​​ × Kr
70
KrII = ___
​​ 170 ​​ × 10,16 = 4,18kN.

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 Worked example 8.5 Calculating the total tensile load on bearings
for a belt conveyor

A belt conveyor, having a driving pulley 500 mm in diameter and rotating at 75 rpm,
Keyword
must transmit 135 kW. Assume that the tension in the tight side is two times the tension
rotating turning
about a point in the slack side. Calculate the total tensile load on the bearings if the driving pulley is
mounted in the middle of the two bearings.

Solution
P = (T1 − T2) × V
but
V = π × D × __ N ​​
​​ 60
75
V = μ × 0,5 × ​​__
60
​​
V = 1,963 m/s
also
T1 = 2T2
therefore
P = (T1 − T2) × V
135 × 103 = (2T2 − T2) × 1,963
135 × 10
T2 = ​​________
3

1,963
​​
T2 = 68 772,3 N
also
T1 = 2T2
T1 = 2(68 772,3)
T1 = 137 544,6 N.
So total tensile load on bearings = T1 + T2
= 137 544,6 + 68 772,3
= 206,3 kN.

ACTIVITY 8.2 Applied loads on bearings

As shown in Figure 8.17, a radial load (shaft load) W = 300 N is applied to the shaft. What are
the applied loads on bearings A and B if the dimensions are a = 700 mm and b = 300 mm?
a b
sheave

shaft

bearing bearing
shaft
load load
load
A B
Figure 8.17

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 Module 8
ACTIVITY 8.3 Loads on bearings

As shown in Figure 8.18, the shaft is rotated by a V-belt with transmission power H = 8,5 kW,
shaft speed n = 400 rpm, and pulley pitch diameter d = 400 mm. What are the loads on
bearings A and B?

A B

400 mm

500

1 000
T1 T2=0
Figure 8.18

ACTIVITY 8.4 Calculating bearing loads

The shaft in Figure 8.19 is rotated by a spur gear with a pitch diameter of 250 mm and
a pressure angle of α = 13º. The spur gear is situated at a distance b, which is 150 mm
to the right of bearing A; the distance between bearings O and A is a, which is 400 mm.
Assuming that the spur gear transmits power H = 6,5 kW at 400 r/min and taking fg = 1,2
and fw = 1,3, find the bearing loads on bearings O and A.

b
k

Fz
Fy P Fx

T
l R
O
x
A B y
M J
gear

Figure 8.19

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 ACTIVITY 8.5 Bearing loads

A spur gear mounted between two bearings has a pitch circle diameter (Dp ) of 250 mm
and pressure angle (α) of 15º. The gear transmits power (H) of 200 kW at n = 1 500 rpm.
Find the radial load on each bearing if the spur gear is mounted 80 mm from the left-
hand bearing, and the distance between the two bearings is 180 mm.

ACTIVITY 8.6 Calculating bearing loads for a belt conveyor

A belt conveyor having a driving pulley 450 mm in diameter and rotating at 70 rpm must
transmit 150 kW. Assume that the tension on the tight side is three times the tension
on the slack side. Calculate the total tensile load on the bearings if the driving pulley is
mounted in the middle of the two bearings.

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 Module 8
Module summary
■■ This module has covered the different types of bearings and the loads
acting on shafts.
■■ It explained the different types of loads which can act on a shaft, including
the dead load of a rotator, the load created when the machine is working,
as well as the load created by the transmission of dynamic forces.
■■ Calculations of the loads applied on bearings were also covered.
■■ The differences between equivalent loads were discussed.
■■ Static equivalent axial and static equivalent radial loads were compared.

Exam questions
1. As shown in Figure 8.20, the shaft is rotated by a V-belt with transmission power
H = 8 kW, shaft speed n = 350 rpm, and pulley pitch diameter d = 400 mm.
What are the loads on bearings A and B? (10)

A B

400 mm

500

1 000
T1 T2
Figure 8.20

2. A shaft is rotated by a spur gear (see Figure 8.21) with a pitch diameter
of 200 mm and a pressure angle of α = 14º. The spur gear is situated at a
distance b, which is 130 mm to the right of bearing A. The distance between
bearings O and A is a, which is 3 500 mm. Assuming that the spur gear
transmits power H = 6 kW at 450 r/min, and taking fg = 1,2 and fw= 1,3,
find the bearing loads on bearings O and A. (10)
z

b
k

Fz
Fy P Fx

T
l R
O
x
A B y
M J
gear

Figure 8.21

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 3. A belt conveyor having a driving pulley 400 mm in diameter and rotating at
75 rpm must transmit 140 kW. Assume that the tension on the tight side is
two times the tension on the slack side. Calculate the total tensile load on the
bearings if the driving pulley is mounted in the middle of the two bearings. (10)
4. A spur gear mounted between two bearings has a pitch circle diameter (Dp)
of 200 mm and a pressure angle (α) of 11º. The gear transmits power (H)
of 250 kW at n = 1 000 rpm. Find the radial load on each bearing if the
spur gear is mounted 70 mm from the left-hand bearing, and the distance
between the two bearings is 170 mm. (10)
Total: 40 marks

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 Module

9 Metal cutting machines

What is covered?
This module will give you an introduction to metal cutting
machines, where different types of cutting machines will be
listed and their uses identified. Calculations regarding the forces
involved with machine cutting tools are also covered.

Learning outcomes

After studying this module, you should be able to:

Unit 1
■■ List the different types of cutting machines and identify
their uses.
Unit 2
■■ Calculate power, moment of force, circumferential speed,
torque, efficiency, coefficient of friction, cutting pressure, and
cutting area.

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 Unit 1: Introduction to metal cutting machines

LEARNING OUTCOME
■■ List the different types of cutting machines and their uses

Keywords Introduction
metal cutting Metal cutting machines are machines that use cutting tools for trimming, shaping,
machines these and processing a variety of different materials in producing an end product. These
are machines used
machines and tools can be operated manually, or be externally powered by electricity,
for cutting through
materials to shape for both industrial and domestic applications. Electric power tools can produce a
them according to more refined and accurate product, and are therefore used widely in industry.
the requirements of Metal cutting machines that are used for cutting metal, specifically, use hardened
their application steel bits as cutting tools in machines such as lathes, drill presses, milling and shaping
cutting tools machines, and so on. Because of the forces involved at the cutting points of power tools,
hardened steel bits clamping screws can be used to secure and stabilise the workpieces being machined.
that are used to cut
various types of metal
Types of metal cutting machines and their uses
lathe a machine
designed for precisely Lathe machine
machining relatively
hard materials A metal lathe, or metal working lathe, is a huge class of lathes designed for accurately
machining relatively hard materials. They were initially designed for machining metals;
however, with the appearance of plastics and other materials and with their natural
flexibility, they are used in a wide range of applications for a wide range of materials.

headstock compound rest

spindle chuck
tool post
cross slide

hand wheel

tailstock
guide ways

bed

lead screw

feed rod
leg
apron carriage

chip pan saddle

Figure 9.1 The different parts of a lathe machine

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 In machining terminology, where the larger context is already understood, they are

Module 9
generally called lathes, or otherwise referred to by more-specific subtype names
such as tool room, turret lathe, etc. These sturdy machine tools trim material from
a rotating workpiece utilising the typically linear movements of cutting tools such as
tool bits and drill bits.
■■ Clamping screws are used to keep cutting machines stable by counteracting the
forces applied through the tip of the cutting tool.

Keyword
milling the process
of machining using
rotary cutters to
remove material by
advancing a cutter into
a workpiece
Figure 9.2 Clamping screws for holding cutting tools in place on the tool post

Milling machine
Milling is a method of machining workpieces using rotating
cutters to trim and remove material. This is done in varying
directions through different axes, and applying different
cutter head speeds and pressure. Milling processes and
machines range across a broad scale, from crafting small
individual parts to large, heavy-duty gang milling operations.
It is one of the most frequently used processes for machining
traditional parts to exact tolerances.
Milling can be done with a wide variety of machine
tools. The initial class of machine tools used was the milling
machine (often called a mill). After the arrival of computer
numerical control (CNC) in the 1960s, milling machines
developed into machining centres – milling machines
enhanced by automatic tool changers, tool magazines or
drums, CNC proficiency, coolant systems, and enclosures.
Milling centres are normally categorized as vertical machining
centres (VMCs), or horizontal machining centres (HMCs). Figure 9.3 A milling machine

Shaping machines Keyword

shaper a form of
A shaper is a type of machine tool that makes use of linear relative motion machine tool that
between the workpiece and a single-point-cutting tool to skilfully machine an uses relative motion
accurate linear tool path. Other applications are smoothing uneven surfaces, and between workpiece
machining keyways in pulleys or gears. Its cut is similar to that of a lathe, except and a single-point
that it is linear instead of helical. The working principle of a shaper is that a single- cutting tool to machine
a linear tool path
point cutting tool is firmly held in the tool holder, which is attached to the ram.

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 The workpiece is firmly held in a vice, or clamped directly onto the table. The table
itself may be supported at its outer edges. The ram moves interchangeably to move
the cutting tool held in the tool holder forwards and backwards over the workpiece.
In a standard shaper, the trimming of material occurs during the forward stroke of
the ram; during the backward stroke, the cutting tool remains idle and the process
can be facilitated by a ’quick return mechanism’. The depth of the cut can be
determined by adjusting the penetration of the cutting tip.
Shapers most commonly employ a horizontal mechanism, but other categories
include: standard, draw-cut, horizontal, universal, vertical, geared, crank, hydraulic,
contour, and travelling head shapers. Vertical shapers are normally fitted with a
rotary table, to allow curved surfaces to be machined (using the principle as in
helical planing). A vertical shaper is basically the same as a slotter (slotting machine),
although technically a difference is that a true vertical shaper describes a machine
where the vertical slide is not fixed, as it is for a slotter.

feed hand wheel

tool head ram locking handle

clapper box ram

tool

vice
table

elevating screw cross feed driving pulley

Figure 9.4 Shaper Machine components

Drilling machines
Drilling machines are metal cutting machines used to bore holes in metal or wood,
although they can also perform tasks such as countersinking, counterboring, spot
facing, reaming, and tapping large or small holes. They are available in many shapes and
sizes, from small hand-held power drills, to bench-mounted, to floor-mounted models.

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 Drilling machines are either hand-fed or power-fed across their range of uses for

Module 9
maintenance work through to parts manufacture. Variations of drilling machines
include radial drill presses, numerically-controlled drilling machines, multiple-
spindle drilling machines, gang drilling machines, and turret drill presses. The
cutting tools or points used are held in the drill press by a chuck, and rotated and
fed into the work at high, adjustable speeds. Drilling depth is controlled by a depth-
stop mechanism, situated on the side of the spindle. The operator needs to work
by feel, and is able to set the speed and provide coolant. The operator must be
vigilant and alert in the event that the bit breaks during operation. There is also a
tendency for the drill to snatch or catch a workpiece, pulling it free from its securing
mechanism. Safety considerations therefore play a major part in operating these
power tools. Due to the high speeds of these machines, operations requiring fewer
than 450 revolutions per minute cannot be achieved.
All drilling machines have the following features: a spindle, a sleeve or quill, a
column, head, worktable, and base. The spindle clamps the drill or cutting tool, and
revolves in a secure position in a sleeve. In many drilling machines, the spindle is
vertical and the work is supported on a horizontal table. The sleeve or quill assembly
does not rotate, but can slide in its bearing in a direction parallel to its axis. When
the sleeve carrying the spindle with a cutting tool is lowered, the cutting tool is fed
into the work; when it is moved upwards, the cutting tool is disengaged. When the
sleeve is subjected to pressure by hand or by power, the revolving drill bit cuts its
way into the workpiece a few thousandths of an inch per revolution. The pillar of
most drill presses is round and robustly built. The pillar supports the head and the
sleeve, or quill assembly. The head of the drill press consist of the sleeve, a spindle,
electric motor, and feed mechanism. The head is bolted to the column.

head

sleeve

chuck

drill bit column

table
base

Figure 9.5 The parts of a drilling machine

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 The worktable is supported on an arm fixed to the column. The worktable can be
adjusted vertically to accommodate various heights of workpiece, or it may be taken
out of the way. It may be slanted up to 90º in either direction, to permit long pieces
to bend.
The base of the drilling machine supports the entire machine, and when bolted
to the floor offers vibration-free operation and machining accuracy. The top of the
base is the same as a worktable, and may be fitted with T-slots for mounting work
that is too big for the table.

Grinding machines
A surface grinder is a tool used to deliver accurately ground surfaces, either to
Keywords a critical size or for the surface finish. The typical accuracy of a surface grinder
surface grinder depends on the type and application, however ±0,002 mm (±0,0001 in) should
a machine tool used
to offer accurately
be attainable with most surface grinders. The machine comprises a table that
ground surfaces, either crosses both longitudinally and across the face of the wheel. The longitudinal feed
to a critical size or for is ordinarily powered by hydraulics, as is the cross feed; nonetheless, any mixture
the surface finish of hand, electrical or hydraulic power may be applied, depending on the final
deployment (i.e., production, workshop, cost, etc.). The grinding wheel revolves
in the spindle head and is height adjustable. Modern surface grinders are semi-
automated, the depth of cut and spark-out may be fixed as to the number of passes
and, once set up, the machining process requires very little operator involvement.
Depending on the material, the workpiece is normally held by means of a magnetic
chuck. This may be either an electromagnetic chuck, or a manually operated,
permanent magnet-type chuck. The machine setup caters for the application of
coolant, as well as the extraction of metal and grinding particles.

Types of surface grinders

Horizontal-spindle (peripheral) surface grinders
The periphery (flat edge) of the grinding wheel interacts with the workpiece to
produce a smooth flat surface. Marginal grinding is used in high-precision work on
simple flat surfaces, tapers or angled surfaces, slots, flat surfaces next to shoulders,
recessed surfaces, and profiles.

Vertical-spindle (wheel-face) grinders

The grinding face of a wheel (cup, cylinder, disc, or segmental wheel) is applied to
the flat surface. Wheel-face grinding is usually used for rapid material removal, but
some machines can produce high-precision work. Depending on the requirement, the
workpiece can be worked on either a reciprocating table or on a rotary table machine.

Disc grinders and double-disc grinders

Disc grinding is similar to surface grinding, but with a bigger contact area between
the disc and the workpiece. Disc grinders can utilise both vertical and horizontal
spindle types. Double-disc grinders work both sides of a workpiece simultaneously.
Disc grinders are able to attain fine tolerances.

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 Module 9
head crossfeed handwheel
power control unit

column

grinding wheel wheel guard

table traverse handwheel

table trip dog

crossfeed selection lever

vertical feed handwheel
base

Figure 9.6 The different parts of a surface grinding machine

Activity 9.1 Metal cutting machines

1. List different types of metal cutting machines and their uses.

2. Give three types of surface grinding machines.
3. Drilling machines have some construction characteristics. Give five of these.

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 Unit 2: Metal cutting machine calculations

LEARNING OUTCOME
■■ Calculate power, moment of force, circumferential speed, torque, efficiency,
coefficient of friction, cutting pressure, and cutting area.

Introduction
This section will cover the calculations needed for dealing with metal cutting machines.
The formulae symbols and units must be fully understood, and those that don’t
appear on the formulae sheet need to be memorised.

Formulae, symbols, and units

Power
The symbol used for power is P
The unit is the watt (W)
There are three formulae that can be used to calculate power, depending on the
nature of the query:
work done
P = ________
​​  time ​​
P=F×v
2×π×N×T
___________
P =   
​​  60 ​​
where: P = power (in W)
N = revolutions (in r/min)
T = torque (in Nm)
F = applied force (in N)
V = circumferential speed (in s).

Moment of a force
■■ A moment of a force is force times its perpendicular distance. For a vertical
force, the perpendicular distance is horizontal; whereas in a horizontal force, the
perpendicular distance is vertical.
■■ Because a moment is force multiplied by perpendicular distance, the unit is N?m.

Circumferential speed
The symbol for circumferential speed is v
The unit for circumferential speed is metres per second (m/s)
The formula that can be used to find circumferential speed is:
π×d×N
v = ________
​​  60 ​​
where: v = circumferential speed (in m/s)
d = diameter (in m)
N = revolutions in revolutions per minute (in r/m, or r/min).

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 Torque

Module 9
The symbol used for torque is T
The unit for torque is N?m
The formula for torque is:
T=F×r
where: T = torque (in W)
F = force applied (in N)
r = radius at which force acts (in m).

Coefficient of friction
The symbol for the coefficient of friction is µ
It does not have units
The following formula is used to calculate the coefficient of friction:
horizontal force (fμ)
_______________
μ = ​​   
  
normal reaction ​​
​where: µ = coefficient of friction = frictional force.

Cutting pressure
The formula for calculating cutting pressure is:
applied force
CP = __________
​​  cutting area ​​
where: CP = cutting pressure (in pascal, or Pa)

Cutting area
The formula to calculate cutting area is:
cutting area = depth of cut (in m) × feed per revolution.

Worked example 9.1 Calculating power loss to friction

A shaft, 200 mm in diameter, is revolving in a bearing and exerting a force of 70 kN on

the bearing. Calculate the power which is lost due to friction if the coefficient of friction
between the shaft and the bearing is 0,03 and the shaft rotates at 300 r/min.

Solution
Data given: Wanted:
D = 200 mm Pf = ?
F = 70 000 N
µ = 0,03
N = 300 r/min
fμ
μ = ​​__F ​​
fμ = μ × F
fμ = 0,03 × 70 000
fμ = 2 100 N.
Now find frictional torque:
Tμ = Fμ × r
0,2
Tμ = 2 100 × ___
​​ 2 ​​
Tμ = 210 N∙m

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 but
2 × π × N × Tμ
P = ​​___________
60
​​

​​ 2 × π × 60
300 × 210
P = ______________
   ​​
P = 6,597 kW.

Worked example 9.2 Calculating power consumption

Calculate the power consumed by:

1. A shaper that is operating with a cutting force of 950 N and with stroke lengths of
140 mm. It takes 5 s to complete the process.
2. A lathe in which a cutting force of 850 N is applied to the tool for a workpiece
with a diameter of 250 mm and a rotational speed of 200 r/min.

Solution

Shaper machine Lathe machine

F = 950 N F = 850 N

Stroke length = 140 mm N = 200 r/min

Time = 5 s D = 250 mm

To calculate power:
1. P = F × V
0,14
P = 950 × ​​ ____
5
​​
P = 0,026 kW.
2. P = F × v
​​  π × 60
P = 850 × ________d×N
​​
π × 0,25 × 200
P = 850 × ​​ ____________
   ​​
60
P = 2,225 kW.

Worked example 9.3 Calculating torque at maximum power

A lathe is being driven by a motor providing a maximum input of 3,5 kW at 1 600 r/min.
At maximum power, the machine efficiency is 80%. The maximum and minimum
velocities of the lathe spindle are 3 000 r/min and 25 r/min respectively. Find the
torque at maximum power:
1. at the driving shaft of the motor
2. at the driving spindle of the lathe at maximum speed
3. at the driving spindle of the lathe at minimum speed.

Solution
2×π×N×T
1. Pi = _____________
​​ 
  
60
motor
​​
P × 60
Tmotor = ​​ __________
i
2 × π × Nmotor
​​
3 500 × 60
Tmotor = ​​ ___________
  ​​
2 × π × 1 600
Tmotor = 20,89 N?m.

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 P
2. efficiency (ŋ) = __
​​  Po ​​

Module 9
i
Po = ŋ × Pi
Po = 0,8 × 3 500
Po = 2,800 kW
P × 60
T(spindle) = ​​ ___________
  ​​
o
2 × π × 3 000
2 800 × 60
T(spindle) = ​​ ___________
  ​​
2 × π × 3 000
T(spindle) = 8,9127 N?m.
​​  22 800
3. T(spindle min) = _________ × 60
× π × 25
​​
T(spindle min) = 676,4 N?m.

Worked example 9.4 Calculating cutting force

A 6 kW motor in a machining operation is driving a milling machine. The milling cutter

being used has a diameter of 120 mm and rotates at 120 r/min. Take the efficiency of the
drive as 70%. Calculate the tangential cutting force exerted by the milling cutter.
Solution
Data given: Wanted:
P = 6 000 W F=?
d = 120 mm
N = 120 r/min
= 70% = 0,7
P
ŋ = ​​__o ​​
Pi
Po = 0,7 × 6 000
Po = 4 200 W.
Now to find torque:
2×π×N×T
Po = ​​___________
60
o
​​

but
P × 60
To = _________
​​ 2 × oπ × 120 ​​

​​ 24 ×200
To = _________ × 60
π × 120
​​
To = 334,23 N?m
then
To = F × r
T
F = ​​__
r ​​
o

334,23 × 2
F = ​​________
0,12
​​
F = 5 570,5 N.

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 Worked example 9.5 Cutting tool calculations

Figure 9.7 shows the setup of a cutting tool held in the tool holder of a shaping
machine. The ram of the shaping machine has a mass of 110 kg, and operates with
a cutting stroke length of 250 mm. The total work done during each cutting stroke is
equal to 120 J, and the coefficient of friction between the ram and the slides is 0,3.
Calculate the following:
1. The work done to overcome friction between the ram and slides
2. The cutting force exerted on the cutting tool
3. The forces exerted on the two contact points, A and B, if the clamping force of the
clamping screw is 1 000 N.

1 000 N
clamping screw

cutting force F1 cutting tool

A B

60 50 50

Figure 9.7 Cutting tool held in the tool holder of a shaping machine for
Worked example 9.5

Solution
Fμ
1. μ = ​ ____________
​  ​​
normal reaction
Fμ = μ × m × g
Fμ = 0,3 × 110 × 9,81
Fμ = 323,73 N
therefore
WD = Fμ × S
WD = 323,73 × 0,25
WD = 80,93 J.
W
2. F1 = ​ ____________
​   T
​​
distance moved
120 − 80,93
F1 = _________
​​ 0,25 ​​
F1 = 156,28 N.
3. Take moments about point B to find A:
sum of clockwise moments = sum of anti-clockwise moments
100 × A = (1 000 × 50) + (156,28 × 160)
100A = 50 000 + 25 004,8
75 004,8
A = ​​_______
100
​​
A = 750,05 N.

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 Take moments about point A to find B:

Module 9
sum of clockwise moments = sum of anti-clockwise moments
1 000 × 50 = (100 × B) + (156,28 × 60)
50 000 = 100B + 9 376,8
50 000 − 9 376,8
______________
B =   
​​ 100
​​
B = 406,23 N.
Test for correctness:
upward forces = downward forces
406,23 + 750,5 = 1 000 + 156,28
1 156,732 N = 1 156,28 N
Forces are in equilibrium.

Worked example 9.6 Calculating output power and efficiency

A workpiece 400 mm in diameter is being machined on a lathe. The spindle speed of the
lathe is 30 r/min, and the input power is 1 500 W. Take the cutting pressure as 900 MPa,
the cutting depth of the cutting tool as 3,5 mm, and the cutting feed of the cutting tool
as 0,76 mm per revolution. Calculate the following:
1. The output power at the cutting tool
2. The efficiency of the drive.

Solution
Data given: Data wanted:
d = 400 mm 1. PO = ?
N = 30 r/min 2. ŋ = ?
cutting pressure = 900 r/min
cutting depth = 3,5 mm
feed/revolution = 0,76
Po = Fo × V
and
Fo = cutting pressure × cutting area
cutting area = cutting depth × feed/revolution
Fo = 900 × 106 × 0,0035 × 0,00076
Fo = 2 394 N
also
​​ π × 60
v = _______d×N
​​
π × 0,4 × 30
v = _________
​​ 60
​​
v = 0,628 m/s
therefore
Po = Fo × V
Po = 2 394 × 0,628
Po = 1 504,2 W
P
ŋ = ​​__o ​​ × 100%
Pi
1 504,2
ŋ = ​​______
1 600
​​ × 100%
ŋ = 0,9401 × 100%
ŋ = 94%.

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 Worked example 9.7 Calculating frictional forces for a shaper

The ram of a shaper has a mass of 300 kg and moves on slides. Take the coefficient of
friction between the ram and the slides as 0.07.
Calculate the following:
1. The horizontal force needed to move the ram
2. The coefficient of friction, if the force moving the ram is reduced by 30%.

Solution
Data given: Data wanted:
mass = 300 kg 1. Fµ = ?
coefficient of friction = 0.07 2. µ = ?
power reduction = 30%.
Fμ
1. μ = ​ ____________
​  ​​
normal reaction
Fμ = μ × normal reaction
Fμ = μ×m×g
Fμ = 0,07 × 300 × 9,81
Fμ = 206,01 N.
Fμ
2. μ = ​ ____________
​  ​​
normal reaction
and Fu is reduced by 30%
Fμ = 100% − 30%
Fμ = 70%
70
Fμ = ​​ ____
100
​​
Fμ = 0,7
therefore
Fμ = 206 × 0,7
Fμ = 144,2

and
144,2
μ = ​​ _________
300 × 9,81
​​
μ = 0,05.

Worked example 9.8 Calculating magnetic force under friction

The horizontal cutting force exerted on a workpiece is 950 N. The workpiece has a mass
of 12 kg, while the coefficient of friction between the surfaces of the magnetic chuck and
the workpiece is 0.4.
Find the minimum magnetic force needed from the magnetic table to hold the workpiece.

Solution
Data given: Data wanted:
horizontal cutting force = 950 N magnetic force F2 = ?
mass of workpiece = 10 kg
coefficient of friction = 0,4.
F
μ = ____________
​​    1
​​
normal reaction

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 a​ nd

Module 9
normal reaction = magnetic force + (mass × 9,81)
normal reaction = F2 + (12 × 9,81)
F
therefore 0,4 = ​​__________
1
​​
(F2 + 117,72)
0,4 × (F2 + 117,72) = 950
0,4F2 + 47,1 = 950
950 − 47,1
F2 = ________
​​ 0,4 ​​
F2 = 2 257,3 N.

ACTIVITY 9.2 Calculating power lost to friction

A shaft 250 mm in diameter is revolving and exerting a force of 75 kN on a bearing.

Calculate the power which is lost due to friction if the coefficient of friction between
the shaft and the bearing is 0,02, and the shaft rotates at 350 r/min.

ACTIVITY 9.3 Calculating power consumption

Calculate the power consumed by:

1. A shaper that is operating with a cutting force of 850 N and a stroke length of
150 mm. It takes 6 s to complete the process.
2. A lathe applying a cutting force of 750 N to a tool for machining a workpiece with
a diameter of 300 mm and rotating at 250 r/min.

ACTIVITY 9.4 Calculating torque power provision

A lathe is being driven by a motor providing a maximum input of 2,5 kW at 1 500 r/min.
At maximum power, the machine’s efficiency is 85%. The maximum and minimum
velocities of the lathe spindle are 3 500 r/min and 30 r/min respectively. Find the torque
for maximum power:
1. at the driving shaft of the motor
2. at the driving spindle of the lathe at maximum speed
3. at the driving spindle of the lathe at minimum speed.

ACTIVITY 9.5 Calculating cutting force

A 5 kW motor in a machining operation is driving a milling machine. The milling cutter

has a diameter of 150 mm and rotates at 125 r/min. Take the efficiency of the drive as
75%. Calculate the tangential cutting force exerted by the milling cutter.

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 ACTIVITY 9.6 Work and power calculations for a shaping machine

Figure 9.8 shows the setup of a cutting tool held in the tool holder of a shaping machine.
The ram of the shaping machine has a mass of 100 kg and is operating with a cutting
stroke length of 250 mm. The total work done during each cutting stroke is equal to
125 J, and the coefficient of friction between the ram and the slides is 0,2.

1 000 N
clamping screw

cutting force F1 cutting tool

A B

60 50 50

Figure 9.8 Shaping machine for calculating forces in ACTIVITY 9.6

Calculate the following:

1. The work done to overcome friction between the ram and the slides
2. The cutting force exerted on the cutting tool
3. The forces exerted on the two contact points, A and B, if the clamping force in the
clamping screw is 1 000 N.

ACTIVITY 9.7 Calculating lathe power

A workpiece 500 mm in diameter is being machined in a lathe. The spindle speed of the
lathe is 20 r/min, and the input power is 1 500 W. Take the cutting pressure as 950 MPa,
and the cutting depth of the cutting tool as 3,5 mm. If the cutting feed of the cutting
tool is 0,75 mm per revolution, calculate the following:
1. The output power at the cutting tool
2. The efficiency of the drive.

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 Module 9
ACTIVITY 9.8 Calculating frictional forces for a shaper

The ram of a shaper has a mass of 200 kg and is moving on slides. The coefficient of
friction between the ram and the slides may be taken to be 0,08.
Calculate the following:
1. The horizontal force needed to move the ram
2. The coefficient of friction, if the force moving the ram is reduced by 25%.

ACTIVITY 9.9 Magnetic force to overcome friction

The horizontal cutting force exerted on a workpiece is 950 N. The workpiece has a mass
of 10 kg, while the coefficient of friction between the surfaces of the magnetic chuck and
the workpiece is 0,3.
Find the minimum magnetic force needed from the magnetic table to hold the workpiece.

Module summary
■■ This module covered the different types of metal cutting machines and
their uses.
■■ There are several different types of cutting machines that can scale from
residential to industrial applications.
■■ Electrical power-driven cutting machines are ideal for industrial use, as
they guarantee accuracy and quality results.
■■ The module also covered calculations pertaining to power, moment of
a force, circumferential speed, torque, coefficient of friction, cutting
pressure, as well as cutting area.

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 Exam questions
1. Calculate the power consumed by:
a) A shaper that is operating with a cutting force of 650 N and a stroke
length of 130 mm, and takes 4 s to complete a process (10)
b) A lathe in which the cutting force applied to the tool is 700 N, and
the rotational speed of the workpiece with a diameter of 350 mm is
200 r/min. (7)
2. A lathe is being driven by a motor providing a maximum input of 2 kW at
1 000 r/min. At maximum power, the machine efficiency is 80%. The maximum
and minimum velocities of the lathe spindle are 3 000 r/min and 25 r/min
respectively. Find the torque at maximum power:
a) at the driving shaft of the motor  (3)
b) at the driving spindle of the lathe at maximum speed  (3)
c) at the driving spindle of the lathe at minimum speed.  (2)
3. A 6 kW motor in a machining operation is driving a milling machine. The
milling cutter being used has a diameter of 130 mm and rotates at 120 r/min.
Take the efficiency of the drive as 70%. Calculate the tangential cutting force
exerted by the milling cutter. (7)
4. Figure 9.9 shows the setup of the cutting tool held in the tool holder of
a shaping machine. The ram of the shaper has a mass of 150 kg and is
operating with a cutting stroke length of 200 mm. The total work done
during each cutting stroke is equal to 130 J, and the coefficient of friction
between the ram and the slides is 0,3.

1 000 N
clamping screw

cutting force F1 cutting tool

A B

60 50 50

Figure 9.9 Shaping machine for calculating forces in Exam question 4

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 Calculate the following:

Module 9
a) The work done to overcome friction between the ram and the slides (4)
b) The cutting force exerted on the cutting tool (2)
c) The forces exerted on the two contact points, A and B, if the clamping
force in the clamping screw is 1 000 N.  (4)
5. A workpiece 450 mm in diameter is being machined with a lathe. The spindle
speed of the lathe is 25 r/min and the input power is 1 000 W. Take the
cutting pressure as 900 MPa and the cutting depth of the cutting tool
as 3 mm. The cutting feed of the cutting tool is 0,65 mm per revolution.
Calculate the following:
a) The output power at the cutting tool (5)
b) The efficiency of the drive.  (2)
6. The ram of a shaper has a mass of 150 kg and is moving on slides. The
coefficient of friction between the ram and the slides can be taken as 0,07.
Calculate the following:
a) The horizontal force needed to move the ram (3)
b) The coefficient of friction, if the force moving the ram is reduced
by 26%. (4)
7. The horizontal cutting force exerted on the workpiece is 900 N. The workpiece
has a mass of 12 kg, while the coefficient of friction between the surface of
the magnetic chuck and the workpiece is 0,25. Find the minimum magnetic
force needed from the magnetic table to hold the workpiece. (4)
Total: 60 marks

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 Glossary
A F
accuracy relates to how close certain measurements are to a fabrication making or creation
specific given true value or benchmark
G
adverse of weather conditions; meaning harsh, e.g. high
grade the distance between surfaces
temperatures or humidity
aesthetic factors visual qualities such as colour, shape, and H
beauty hydrostatic pressure is the strength exerted by a liquid
alignment an arrangement of pulleys in a straight line, or in on an object that depends on how deep the object is
the required relative positions submerged
angle of contact in the case of belt drives, refers to the
I
angle made by the portion of the belt in contact with
individual incentive additional rewards on top of a salary
the pulley; given in degrees, but expressed as radians in
or wages
calculations
inert of the environment, meaning chemically inactive
anti-friction against friction
interlocking tight meshing of gear wheel teeth
atomise break into fine particles or droplets
inventory all the different kinds of stock in the workshop
automation use of machines in a workshop
lathe a machine designed for precisely machining relatively
axial load axial loads are loads acting parallel to an axis of
hard materials
rotation
bottleneck hold-up or congestion M
capital-intensive lots of money is needed to buy maximum allowable tension the total of the starting and
machines and equipment operating tensions. In the average belt, this is considered
to be the same as the tight side tension
C
mechanical using physical force
catastrophic failure total failure, which cannot be repaired
metal cutting machines these are machines used for
centrifugal forces the tension caused in a running belt by
cutting through materials to shape them according to the
the centrifugal force is known as centrifugal tension.
requirements of their application
Whenever a particle of mass m is rotated in a circular
milling the process of machining using rotary cutters to
path of radius r at a uniform velocity v, a centrifugal
remove material by advancing a cutter into a workpiece
force is acting radially outward
mineral oil from natural crude oil
compact arranged closely together
culvert usually a reinforced concrete bounded channel that O
permits water to stream beneath a road, railroad, trail, or optimum best possible way to reach success
similar obstruction, from one side to the other
P
cutting tools hardened steel bits that are used to cut various
physiological relating to the body and its functions
types of metal
power transmission the transfer of energy from the point
D of generation to the point of its application as useful
defect fault or flaw work
precise exact and accurate
E
precision relates to how close two or more measurements
effective diameter often called the pitch diameter, this
are to each other
is the diameter of the imaginary co-axial cylinder that
psychological relating to the mental and emotional state of
intersects the surface of the belt in such a manner that it
being
matches the intercept on the pulley
epicyclic gear one gear wheel axis which itself rotates about
another fixed axis

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 R T
radial load radial loads are loads acting at right angles to a tangential load force which acts on a moving body in the
shaft direction of a tangent to the path of the body
Reciprocating part of a machine moving backwards and theorem a general proposition that is not self-evident, but
forwards in a straight line proved by a link of reasoning; a truth established by
rotating turning about a point means of accepted truths
RPM revolutions per minute, or r/min; are the number of full tolerance the allowed movement between surfaces
turns, or rotations (360º), an object makes in one minute torque the measure of a force that tends to cause rotation
of an object about an axis
S
traction the grip of the belt material on a pulley, reducing
shaper a form of machine tool that uses relative motion
the chances of the belt slipping
between workpiece and a single-point cutting tool to
machine a linear tool path U
simulate imitate the properties of unconducive atmosphere not leading to desired
space utilisation how space is used outcome
spur gear a type of gear that is widely used in most torque
V
transfer systems, like spin dryers and washing machines
velocity ratio the ratio of the distance through which a
standards a level of quality to be met
driven gear moves to the distance which the driving gear
standards relates to an established requirement for a
moves over the same timeframe
repeatable technical task that is performed to check for
velocity ratio the ratio of the distance through which a
quality
driven pulley moves, to the distance the driving pulley
stock turn how frequently stock is sold and replaced
moves during the same timeframe
submerged is when something is under water – like a
viscous a degree of fluid resistance to deformation at
submarine
a given rate. For liquids, it relates to the concept of
subscription fee paid to access a product
‘thickness of a fluid’; for example, syrups have a higher
surface grinder a machine tool used to offer accurately
viscosity than water
ground surfaces, either to a critical size or for the surface
finish W
synthetic oil from man-made hydrocarbons work-in-progress goods not yet fully processed

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