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YOUR NOTES
AS Physics Edexcel 

5. Waves & Particle Nature of Light

CONTENTS
Transverse & Longitudinal Waves
5.1 Properties of Waves
5.2 The Wave Equation
5.3 Longitudinal Waves
5.4 Transverse Waves

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5.5 Representing Waves on Graphs

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5.6 Core Practical 6: Investigating the Speed of Sound

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Interference & Stationary Waves

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5.7 Interference & Superposition of Waves

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5.8 Phase & Path Difference
5.9 Stationary Waves er
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5.10 Wave Speed on a Stretched String
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5.11 Core Practical 7: Investigating Stationary Waves

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Refraction, Reflection & Polarisation

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5.12 Equation for the Intensity of Radiation

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5.13 Refraction & Refractive Index

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5.14 Critical Angle

5.15 Total Internal Reflection
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5.16 Measuring Refractive Index

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5.17 Converging & Diverging Lenses

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5.18 Using Ray Diagrams

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5.19 Power of a Lens

5.20 Thin Lenses in Combination
5.21 Real & Virtual Images
5.22 The Lens Equation
5.23 Magnification
5.24 Plane Polarisation
Waves, Electrons & Photons
5.25 Diffraction
5.26 The Diffraction Grating Equation
5.27 Core Practical 8: Investigating Diffraction Gratings
5.28 The Wave Nature of Electrons

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5.29 The de Broglie Equation YOUR NOTES

5.30 Transmission & Reflection of Waves 
5.31 Pulse-Echo Technique
5.32 Wave-Particle Duality
5.33 Energy of a Photon
The Photoelectric Effect & Atomic Spectra
5.34 The Photoelectric Effect
5.35 The Photoelectric Equation
5.36 The Electronvolt
5.37 The Particle Nature of EM Radiation
5.38 Atomic Line Spectra

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Transverse & Longitudinal Waves YOUR NOTES


5.1 Properties of Waves
Properties of Waves
Waves are generated by oscillating sources
These oscillations travel away from the source
Oscillations can propagate through a medium (e.g. air, water) or in a vacuum (i.e.
no particles), depending on the wave type
Wave Features
In order to describe the properties of travelling waves, the following keywords
need to be defined:

g
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Wavelength λ (m) is the distance between a point on a wave and the same
point on the next cycle of the wave, e.g. two crests, or two troughs

s.
Amplitude A (m) is the magnitude of the maximum displacement reached by

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an oscillation in the wave

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Period T (s) is the time taken for one complete oscillation at one point on the
wave
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Frequency f (Hz) is the number of complete wave cycles per second
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Wave speed c (m s-1) is the rate of movement of the wave
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Diagram showing the amplitude and wavelength of a transverse wave

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The frequency f and the period T of a travelling wave are related to each other by YOUR NOTES
the equation 

 Worked Example
The graph below shows a travelling wave.

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Determine:
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(i) The amplitude A of the wave in metres (m)

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(ii) The frequency f of the wave in hertz (Hz)

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(i) Identify the amplitude A of the wave on the graph

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The amplitude is defined as the maximum displacement from the equilibrium

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position (x = 0)
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The amplitude must be converted from centimetres (cm) into metres (m)
A = 0.1 m
(ii) Calculate the frequency of the wave
Step 1: Identify the period T of the wave on the graph

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The period is defined as the time taken for one complete oscillation to occur YOUR NOTES


The period must be converted from milliseconds (ms) into seconds (s)

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T = 1 × 10–3 s

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Step 2: Write down the relationship between the frequency f and the period T

s.
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1
f= T

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Step 3: Substitute the value of the period determined in Step 1 er
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1
f=
.p

1 × 10−3
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f = 1000 Hz
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 Exam Tip
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Every question about waves uses the vocabulary on this page. Many
questions start by asking you to define one of them.
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So your job is to learn the definitions to the point where you have them
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memorised.
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5.2 The Wave Equation YOUR NOTES


The Wave Equation
The Wave Equation
This equation links wave speed, frequency and wavelength

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Where:

s.
v = velocity of the wave (m s–1)

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f = frequency of the wave (Hz)
λ = wavelength (m)

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The wave equation tells us that for a wave of constant speed:
As the wavelength increases, the frequency decreases er
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As the wavelength decreases, the frequency increases
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The relationship between frequency and wavelength of a wave

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Worked Example YOUR NOTES

 A travelling wave has a period of 1.0 μs and travels at a velocity

of 100 cm s–1. Calculate the wavelength of the wave. Give your answer in
metres (m).

Step 1: Write down the known quantities

Period, T = 1.0 μs = 1.0 × 10–6 s

Velocity, c = 100 cm s–1 = 1.0 m s–1
Note the conversions:
The period must be converted from microseconds (μs) into seconds (s)
The velocity must be converted from cm s–1 into m s–1

g
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Step 2: Write down the relationship between the frequency f and the period T

s.
1

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f= T

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er
Step 3: Substitute the value of the period into the above equation to calculate
the frequency
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1
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f=
1 × 10−6
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f = 1.0 × 106 Hz
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Step 4: Write down the wave equation

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c = fλ
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Step 5: Rearrange the wave equation to calculate the wavelength λ

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c
λ=
lle

f
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Step 6: Substitute the numbers into the above equation

1.0
λ=
1 × 106
λ = 1 × 10–6 m

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YOUR NOTES
 Exam Tip
This is an important equation that comes up in many other topics. Get really 
familiar with using it and rearranging it.
Be ready to use prefixes with values, for example, nanometres (nm = m ×
10−9) or MHz (MHz = Hz × 106).

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5.3 Longitudinal Waves YOUR NOTES


Longitudinal Waves
Longitudinal Waves
A longitudinal wave is one where the particles oscillate parallel to the;
Propagation of the wave
Direction of energy transfer
Longitudinal waves show areas of
High pressure, called compressions
Low pressure, called rarefactions

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Diagram of a longitudinal wave

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Examples of longitudinal waves are:

Sound waves
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Ultrasound waves
P-waves caused by earthquakes
Longitudinal waves cannot be polarised
Labelling Longitudinal Waves
You learned how to describe the properties of a wave, such as amplitude and
wavelength at the start of this topic
The diagram shows a wavelength on a longitudinal wave

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YOUR NOTES


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Wavelength is shown on a longitudinal wave
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 Exam Tip
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Questions about longitudinal waves typically start by asking for a definition,

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so be ready with a statement about areas of high and low pressure and the
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keywords compression and rarefaction.

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Be careful with graphs of waves and don't assume a sinusoidal-shaped

graph represents a transverse wave. Longitudinal waves can also look
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sinusoidal when plotted on a graph - make sure you read the question and
look for whether the wave travels parallel (longitudinal) or perpendicular
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(transverse) to the direction of travel to confirm which type of wave it is.

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5.4 Transverse Waves YOUR NOTES


Transverse Waves
Transverse Waves
A transverse wave is one where the particles oscillate perpendicular to the
direction of the
Propagation of the wave
Direction of energy transfer
Transverse waves show areas of crests (peaks) and troughs

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Diagram of a transverse wave

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Examples of transverse waves are:

Electromagnetic waves e.g. radio, visible light, UV
Vibrations on a guitar string
Waves on a rope or slinky
Transverse waves can be polarised

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YOUR NOTES
 Exam Tip
Questions about transverse waves typically start by asking for a definition, 
so be ready with a statement about vibrations or oscillations being
perpendicular to the travel of the wave.

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5.5 Representing Waves on Graphs YOUR NOTES


Graphs of Transverse & Longitudinal Waves
Graphs of Transverse Waves
There are two common graphs transverse waves;
Displacement against distance
Displacement against time
These are:
Similar because they produce a sinusoidal shaped curve
Different because displacement against distance is showing displacement of a
point on the wave, but displacement against time is showing the wave itself
moving along a line
On the displacement-distance graph:

g
Movement upwards from the centre line is given a positive sign and movement

or
downwards a negative

s.
The amplitude and wavelength can be found as shown below

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On the displacement-time graph:

The time period can be taken directly as shown
This means that frequency can be found indirectly as f = 1/T
To determine the next position of a point on the wave
Sketch the full wave after time has passed by looking at the direction of travel
Each point oscillates perpendicular to the wave, so remains on the normal line
wherever the wave intersects, this is shown in red below

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YOUR NOTES


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Graphs of Longitudinal Waves
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Plotting displacement against distance also produces a sinusoidal shaped graph

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This can be used to show where the compressions and rarefactions will be
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found
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Worked Example YOUR NOTES

 The graph shows how the displacement of a particle in a wave varies with

time.

g
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Which statement is correct?

s.
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A. The wave has an amplitude of 2 cm and could be either transverse or
longitudinal.

lo
B. er
The wave has an amplitude of 2 cm and has a time period of 6 s.
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C. The wave has an amplitude of 4 cm and has a time period of 4 s.
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D. The wave has an amplitude of 4 cm and must be transverse.

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ANSWER: A
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Graphs of Stationary Waves YOUR NOTES

Stationary waves occur when a wave is reflected with a 180o
phase difference, 
creating a wave with a series of nodes and antinodes
Stationary waves can be transverse or longitudinal
They are represented graphically in the same way as progressive (travelling)
waves
Graphs of standing waves can also be used to determine the position of nodes and
antinodes

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L is the length of the string

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1 wavelength λ is only a portion of the length of the string

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 Exam Tip
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Both transverse and longitudinal waves can look like transverse waves when
plotted on a graph - make sure you read the question and look for whether
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the wave travels parallel (longitudinal) or perpendicular (transverse) to the

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direction of travel to confirm which type of wave it is.

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5.6 Core Practical 6: Investigating the Speed of Sound YOUR NOTES


Core Practical 6: Investigating the Speed of Sound
Aim of the Experiment
To measure the speed of sound in air using an oscilloscope and a signal generator
Variables

Independent variable = Distance

Dependent variable = Phase of received signals
Control variables:
Same location to carry out the experiment
For each set of readings, the same frequency of sound
Equipment

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Signal generator with loudspeaker
Oscilloscope with 2-beam facility

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Microphone

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2 metre rulers or 1 measuring tape of at least 2 m length

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Connecting leads
Method er
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1. Connect the microphone and signal generator to an oscilloscope, and set up the
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signal generator about 50 cm from the microphone

2. Set the signal to about 4 kHz
3. The oscilloscope should trigger when the microphone detects a sound, adjust the
time base so that the signal from the generator and the microphone can be on the
screen with about three cycles visible
4. Adjust the separation so a trough on the upper trace coincides with a peak on the
lower trace (this makes judging the point where the waves coincide easier)
5. Record the distance between the microphone and signal generator (call this
distance 1, d1)
6. Move the microphone further away, watch the traces on the screen
7. When the next trough and peak coincide record the new distance (call this distance
2, d2)

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8. Repeat steps 6 and 7 as many times as possible in the available space (numbering YOUR NOTES
the distances as required) 
9. Calculate the mean wavelength of the sound
10. Using the oscilloscope trace find the frequency of the sound
11. Reduce the frequency to around 2 kHz (or half of the original value) and repeat
steps 4-10.
Table of Results:

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Analysis of Results
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The speed of sound can be calculated using the equation:

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v = fλ
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Frequency is found from the time base of the oscilloscope by using

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1
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f=
T
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Evaluating the Experiment

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Systematic Errors:
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Ensure the scale of the time base is accounted for correctly

The scale is likely to be small (e.g. milliseconds) so ensure this is taken into
account when calculating frequency
Use the oscilloscope signal trace to find frequency to avoid relying on the dial of
the signal generator
Random errors:
Random errors in taking measurements can be reduced by doing repeat readings
and taking an average
The time interval is small so make the distance between the microphone and
signal generator as large as is practical
Safety Considerations
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The voltage and current are low, so normal care with electrical equipment is YOUR NOTES
sufficient (including checking the leads for any signs of damage) 
Keep sound at a normal listening volume to avoid damage to hearing

 Exam Tip
When you are answering questions about methods to measure waves, the
question could ask you to comment on the accuracy of the measurements
When measuring the speed of sound, this experiment is very accurate
because the timing is done automatically so reaction time is not a factor

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Interference & Stationary Waves YOUR NOTES


5.7 Interference & Superposition of Waves
Interference & Superposition of Waves
Interference occurs whenever two or more waves combine to produce a resultant
wave with a new amplitude
Superposition literally means to be positioned over something
When waves interfere and combine, they do so according to the principle of
superposition

If two wavefronts are travelling towards each other they will combine by
superposition and then pass through
The wavefronts will emerge unchanged on the other side

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Interference due to superposition can be constructive or destructive

Constructive interference happens when the resultant wave has a larger
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amplitude than any of the individual waves

Destructive interference happens when the resultant wave has a smaller
amplitude than the individual waves
Coherence
Interference is only observable if produced by a coherent source
Waves are said to be coherent if they have:
A constant phase difference
The same frequency

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YOUR NOTES


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Coherent waves (on the left) and non-coherent waves (on the right). The abrupt
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change in phase creates an inconsistent phase difference

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For example, in light, a coherent beam of light contains light waves that are
monochromatic and have a constant phase difference
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Monochromatic light consists of light waves of a single frequency

Laser light is an example of a coherent light source
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Filament lamps produce incoherent light waves

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 Exam Tip
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It can sometimes be tricky to identify whether constructive or destructive

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interference is taking place. If two waves meet at the same point on each
wave e.g. two crests then the interference will be constructive, if not it will
be destructive.

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5.8 Phase & Path Difference YOUR NOTES


Phase & Path Difference
Waves are said to be coherent if they have:
The same frequency
A constant phase difference
Phase Difference
Two points on a wave, or on different waves, are in phase when they are the same
point in their wave cycle
The angle between their wave cycles is the phase difference

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Path Difference
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The type of interference occurring at a given point (i.e. constructive or destructive)

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depends on the path difference of the overlapping waves

Path difference is defined as:
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The difference in distance travelled by two waves from their sources to the point
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where they meet

Path difference is generally expressed in multiples of wavelength

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YOUR NOTES


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s.
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At point P2 the waves have a path difference of a whole number of wavelengths
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resulting in constructive interference. At point P1 the waves have a path difference of
ap
an odd number of half wavelengths resulting in destructive interference
.p

In the diagram above, the number of wavelengths between:

w

S1 ➜ P1 = 6λ
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S2 ➜ P1 = 6.5λ
S1 ➜ P2 = 7λ
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S2 ➜ P2 = 6λ
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The path difference at point P1 is 6.5λ – 6λ = λ / 2

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The path difference at point P2 is 7λ – 6λ = λ

In general:
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The condition for constructive interference is a path difference of nλ

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The condition for destructive interference is a path difference of (n + ½)λ

In this case, n is an integer i.e. 0, 1, 2, 3...
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Hence:
Destructive interference occurs at point P1
Constructive interference occurs at point P2

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YOUR NOTES


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At point P the waves have a path difference of a whole number of wavelengths

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resulting in constructive interference

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Another way to represent waves spreading out from two sources is shown in the
ap
diagram above
At point P, the number of crests from:
.p

Source S1 = 4λ
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Source S2 = 6λ
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The path difference at P is 6λ – 4λ = 2λ

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This is a whole number of wavelengths, hence constructive interference occurs at

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point P
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Worked Example YOUR NOTES

 The diagram shows the interferences of coherent waves from two point

sources.

Which row in the table correctly identifies the type of interference at points
X, Yand Z.

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ANSWER: B
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At point X:
Both peaks of the waves are overlapping
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Path difference = 5.5λ – 4.5λ = λ

This is constructive interference and rules out options C and D
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At point Y:
Both troughs are overlapping
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Path difference = 3.5λ – 3.5λ = 0

Therefore constructive interference occurs
At point Z:
A peak of one of the waves meets the trough of the other
Path difference = 4λ – 3.5λ = λ / 2
This is destructive interference

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YOUR NOTES
 Exam Tip
Phase difference and path difference are easy to confuse because the names 
sound similar. However they are very different concepts.
Phase difference tells us how far apart the waves are when comparing their
phases (you can think of this as their peaks and troughs).

Path difference is how much further along one wave is than another. Think
of it as how much further along the path it has travelled.

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5.9 Stationary Waves YOUR NOTES


Stationary Waves
Stationary waves, or standing waves, are produced by the superposition of two
waves of the same frequency and amplitude travelling in opposite directions
This is usually achieved by a travelling wave and its reflection. The superposition
produces a wave pattern where the peaks and troughs do not move

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Formation of a stationary wave on a stretched spring fixed at one end

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In this section, we will look at a few experiments that demonstrate stationary

waves in everyday life

Stretched Strings
Vibrations caused by stationary waves on a stretched string produce sound
This is how stringed instruments, such as guitars or violins, work
This can be demonstrated by an oscillator vibrating a length of string under
tension fixed at one end:

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YOUR NOTES


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or
s.
Stationary wave on a stretched string

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As the frequency of the oscillator changes, standing waves with different numbers
of minima (nodes) and maxima (antinodes) form er
ap
.p

Microwaves
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A microwave source is placed in line with a reflecting plate and a small detector
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between the two

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The reflector can be moved to and from the source to vary the stationary wave
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pattern formed
By moving the detector, it can pick up the minima (nodes) and maxima (antinodes)
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of the stationary wave pattern

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YOUR NOTES


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or
s.
rd
Using microwaves to demonstrate stationary waves

lo
Air Columns er
ap
The formation of stationary waves inside an air column can be produced by sound
.p

waves
This is how musical instruments, such as clarinets and organs, work
w
w

This can be demonstrated by placing a fine powder inside the air column and a
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loudspeaker at the open end

At certain frequencies, the powder forms evenly spaced heaps along the tube,
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showing where there is zero disturbance as a result of the nodes of the stationary
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wave
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Stationary wave in an air column YOUR NOTES



In order to produce a stationary wave, there must be a minima (node) at one end
and a maxima (antinode) at the end with the loudspeaker

Nodes and Antinodes

A stationary wave is made up nodes and antinodes
Nodes are where there is no vibration
Antinodes are where the vibrations are at their maximum amplitude

The nodes and antinodes do not move along the string. Nodes are fixed and
antinodes only move in the vertical direction

g
Between nodes, all points along the stationary wave are in phase

or
The image below shows the nodes and antinodes on a snapshot of a stationary

s.
wave at a point in time

rd
lo
er
ap
.p
w
w
w
by
ed
ct
lle

L is the length of the string

1 wavelength λ is only a portion of the length of the string
co

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Worked Example YOUR NOTES

 A stretched string is used to demonstrate a stationary wave, as shown in

the diagram.

Which row in the table correctly describes the length of L and the name of X
and Y?

g
or
s.
rd
lo
er
ap
.p
w
w

ANSWER: C
w
by
ed
ct
lle
co

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YOUR NOTES


g
or
s.
rd
lo
er
ap
.p

 Exam Tip
w

Always refer back to the experiment or scenario in an exam question e.g.

w

the wave produced by a loudspeaker reflects at the end of a tube. This

w

reflected wave, with the same frequency, overlaps the initial wave to create a
stationary wave.
by

Can't remember which is the node and which is the anti-node? Nodes occur
ed

at areas of NO Disturbance!
ct
lle
co

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5.10 Wave Speed on a Stretched String YOUR NOTES


Wave Speed on a Stretched String
The speed of a wave travelling along a string with two fixed ends is given by:

Where:
T = tension in the string (N)
μ = mass per unit length of the string (kg m–1)

g
or
At the fundamental frequency, f0 of a stationary wave of length L, the wavelength,
λ = 2L

s.
Therefore, according to the wave equation, the speed of the stationary wave is:

rd
lo
v = fλ = f × 2 L

er
Combining these two equations leads to the equation for the fundamental
ap
frequency (sometimes referred to as the first harmonic):
.p
w
w
w

Where:
by

f = frequency (Hz)
L = the length of the string (m)
ed

T = the tension in the string (N)

µ = mass per unit length (kg m-1)
ct
lle

Mass per unit length, µ can be calculated by dividing the mass of the string by the
length of the string
co

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YOUR NOTES


g
or
s.
rd
lo
er
ap
.p
w
w
w
by
ed
ct
lle

Diagram showing the first three modes of vibration of a stretched string with
co

corresponding frequencies

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Worked Example YOUR NOTES

 A guitar string of mass 3.2 g and length 90 cm is fixed onto a guitar.


The string is tightened to a tension of 65 N between two bridges at a

distance of 75 cm.

Calculate the
a) speed of the waves on the string

g
or
b) fundamental frequency of the string

s.
rd
Part (a)

lo
Step 1: Write the known quantities in S.I. units

Tension, T = 65 N er
ap
Mass, m = 3.2 g = 3.2 × 10−3 kg
.p

Length of string, L = 90 cm = 0.90 m

w

m 3 . 2 × 10−3
Mass per unit length, μ = L = = 3.56 × 10−3 kg m−1
w

0.9
w

Step 2: Write the equation for speed on a string and calculate

by

1 T
v = fλ = f × 2L AND f =
ed

2L μ
ct

1 T T
So, v = 2L × 2L =
lle

μ μ
co

T 65
v=
μ
= = 135
3 . 56 × 10−3
Step 3: Write the answer to the correct significant figures and include units

The speed of the wave on the string, v = 140 m s−1

Part (b)
Step 1: Write the known quantities in S.I. units

Tension, T = 65 N
Length of string under tension, L = 75 cm = 0.75 m
Mass per unit length, μ = 3.56 × 10−3 kg m−1 (from part (a))
Step 2: Identify the length of one wavelength at the fundamental frequency, f0

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YOUR NOTES


Step 3: Write the equation for fundamental frequency and calculate

1 T v 135
f0 =
2L μ
=
2L
=
(2 × 0 . 75)
= 90.1

Step 3: Write the answer to the correct significant figures and include units

The fundamental frequency, f0 = 90 Hz

g
or
 Exam Tip

s.
Go through solutions step by step, showing all your working. Questions like

rd
this one will be very similar so you can rely on using your tried and tested

lo
method to get the answer.
er
ap
.p
w
w
w
by
ed
ct
lle
co

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5.11 Core Practical 7: Investigating Stationary Waves YOUR NOTES


Core Practical 7: Investigating Stationary Waves
Aims of the Experiment
The overall aim of the experiment is to measure how the frequency of the first
harmonic is affected by changing one of the following variables:
The length of the string
The tension in the string
Strings with different values of mass per unit length
Variables
Independent variable = either length, tension, or mass per unit length
Dependent variable = frequency of the first harmonic

g
Control variables

or
If length is varied = same masses attached (tension), same string (mass per

s.
unit length)
If tension is varied = same length of the string, same string (mass per unit

rd
length)

lo
If mass per unit length is varied = same masses attached (tension), same
length of the string er
ap
Equipment List
.p
w
w
w
by
ed
ct
lle
co

Resolution of measuring equipment:

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Metre ruler = 1 mm YOUR NOTES

Signal generator ~ 10 nHz 
Top-pan balance = 0.005 g
Method

g
or
s.
rd
lo
er
ap
.p
w
w

The setup of apparatus required to measure the frequency of the first harmonic at
w

different values of length, tension, or mass per unit length

by

This method is an example of the procedure for varying the length of the string with
the frequency – this is just one possible relationship that can be tested
ed

1. Set up the apparatus by attaching one end of the string to the vibration generator
ct

and pass the other end over the bench pulley and secure to the mass hanger
lle

2. Adjust the position of the bridge so that the length L is measured from the
co

vibration generator to the bridge using a metre ruler

3. Turn on the signal generator to set the string oscillating
4. Increase the frequency of the vibration generator until the first harmonic (nodes
at both ends and an antinode in the middle) is observed and read the frequency
that this occurs at
5. Repeat the procedure with different lengths of L
6. Repeat the frequency readings at least two more times and take the average of
these measurements
7. Measure the tension in the string using T = mg
Where m is the mass attached to the string and g is the gravitational field
strength on Earth (9.81 N kg–1)
8. Measure the mass per unit length of the string, μ = mass of string ÷ length of
string

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Simply take a known length of the string (1 m is ideal) and measure its mass YOUR NOTES
on a balance 
An example of a table with some possible string lengths might look like this:

g
or
s.
rd
lo
er
ap
.p
w

Before conducting an experiment, a table must be set up to detail of what

w

measurements are to be made

w

Analysing the Results

by

For the first harmonic, wavelength, λ = 2L

So, the speed of the stationary wave is:
ed

v = fλ = f × 2 L
ct

Rearranging for frequency, f:

lle
co

Comparing this to the equation of a straight line: y = mx

y = f (Hz)
x = 1/L (m–1)
Gradient = v/2 (m s–1)
1. Plot a graph of the mean values of f against 1/L
2. Draw a line of best fit and calculate the gradient
3. Work out the wave speed, which will be 2 × gradient

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YOUR NOTES


g
or
s.
rd
If the frequency is plotted against the inverse of the length, the velocity is twice the

lo
gradient of the graph

Verify the wave speed of the travelling waves using the equation: er
ap
.p
w
w
w

Where:
T = tension (N)
by

μ = mass per unit length (kg m−1)

ed

Assess the uncertainties in the measurements of length and frequency, and carry
out calculations to determine the uncertainty in the wave speed
ct
lle

Evaluating the Experiment

co

Systematic errors:

An oscilloscope can be used to verify the signal generator’s readings

The signal generator should be left for about 20 minutes to stabilise
The measurements would have a greater resolution if the length used is as large
as possible, or as many half-wavelengths as possible
This means measurements should span a suitable range, for example, 20 cm
intervals over at least 1.0 m
Random errors:

The sharpness of resonance leads to the biggest problem in deciding when the
first harmonic is achieved
This can be resolved by adjusting the frequency while looking closely at a
node. This is a technique to gain the largest response

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Looking at the amplitude is likely to be less reliable since the wave will be YOUR NOTES
moving very fast 
When taking repeat measurements of the frequency, the best procedure is as
follows:
Determine the frequency of the first harmonic when the largest vibration is
observed and note down the frequency at this point
Increase the frequency and then gradually reduce it until the first harmonic is
observed again and note down this frequency
If taking three repeat readings, repeat this procedure again
Average the three readings and move on to the next measurement
Safety Considerations
Use a rubber string instead of a metal wire, in case it snaps under tension
If using a metal wire, wear goggles to protect the eyes

g
Stand well away from the masses in case they fall onto the floor

or
Place a crash mat or a soft surface under the masses to break their fall

s.
rd
lo
er
ap
.p
w
w
w
by
ed
ct
lle
co

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Worked Example YOUR NOTES

 A student investigates the relationship between the frequency of the

stationary waves on a wire and the tension in the wire. The tension is varied
by adding masses to a hanger, which is attached to a pulley over one end of
a table. The student records the following data:
Mass of the wire, m = 0.16 g
Length of the wire weighed, l = 1.0 m
Distance between the fixed ends, L = 0.4 m

g
or
s.
rd
lo
er
ap
.p
w
w
w
by

Calculate the frequency using the relation between frequency, length,

tension and mass per unit length. Evaluate the percentage uncertainty in
ed

these values.
ct
lle
co

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YOUR NOTES


g
or
s.
rd
lo
er
ap
.p
w
w
w
by
ed
ct
lle
co

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YOUR NOTES


g
or
s.
rd
lo
er
ap
.p
w
w
w
by
ed
ct
lle
co

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Refraction, Reflection & Polarisation YOUR NOTES


5.12 Equation for the Intensity of Radiation
Equation for the Intensity of Radiation
Progressive waves transfer energy
The amount of energy passing through a unit area per unit time is the intensity of
the wave
Therefore, the intensity is defined as power per unit area

g
or
s.
rd
lo
er
ap
Intensity is equal to the power per unit area

The area the wave passes through is perpendicular to the direction of its velocity
.p

The intensity of a progressive wave is also proportional to its amplitude squared

w

and frequency squared

w
w
by
ed
ct
lle
co

Intensity is proportional to the amplitude2 and frequency2

This means, if the frequency or the amplitude is doubled, the intensity increases
by a factor of 4 (22)
Spherical Waves
A spherical wave is a wave from a point source that spreads out equally in all
directions
The area the wave passes through is the surface area of a sphere: 4πr2
As the wave travels further from the source, the energy it carries passes through
increasingly larger areas as shown in the diagram below:

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YOUR NOTES


g
or
s.
rd
lo
er
ap
.p

Intensity is proportional to the amplitude squared

w
w
w

Assuming there’s no absorption of the wave energy, the intensity I decreases with
increasing distance from the source
by

Note the intensity is proportional to 1/r2

This means when the source is twice as far away, the intensity is 4 times less
ed

The 1/r2 relationship is known in physics as the inverse square law

ct
lle
co

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Worked Example YOUR NOTES

 The intensity of a progressive wave is proportional to the square of the

amplitude of the wave. It is also proportional to the square of the
frequency. The variation with time t of displacement x of particles when two
progressive waves Q and P pass separately through a medium are shown on
the graphs

g
The intensity of wave Q is I0. What is the intensity of wave P?

or
s.
rd
lo
er
ap
.p
w
w
w
by
ed
ct
lle
co

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YOUR NOTES


g
or
s.
rd
lo
er
ap
.p
w
w
w
by
ed
ct
lle
co

 Exam Tip
The key concept with intensity is that it has an inverse square relationship
with distance (not a linear one). This means the energy of a wave decreases
very rapidly with increasing distance

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5.13 Refraction & Refractive Index YOUR NOTES


Refraction & Refractive Index
Refraction occurs when light passes a boundary between two different transparent
media
At the boundary, the rays of light undergo a change in direction and a change in
speed
The change in direction is caused by the change in speed
Entering a more dense medium slows the light down and it bends towards the
normal
In the denser medium there are more particles closer together providing
more friction to the passing of the light through the material
Entering a less dense medium speeds the light up and it bends away from the
normal

g
When passing along the normal (perpendicular) the light does not change

or
speed or direction

s.
rd
lo
er
ap
.p
w
w
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by
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Refraction of light through a glass block

Calculating Refractive Index

The refractive index, n, is a property of a material which measures how much light
slows down when passing through it

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Where: YOUR NOTES

c = the speed of light in a vacuum (m s–1) 
v = the speed of light in a substance (m s–1)
Light travels at different speeds within different substances depending on their
refractive index
A material with a high refractive index is called optically dense, such material
causes light to travel slower
Since the speed of light in a substance will always be less than the speed of light in
a vacuum, the value of the n is always greater than 1
In calculations, the refractive index of air can be taken to be approximately 1
This is because light does not slow down significantly when travelling through
air (as opposed to travelling through a vacuum)
Snell's Law

g
or
Snell’s law relates the angle of incidence to the angle of refraction, it is given by:

s.
n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2

rd
Where:

lo
n1 = the refractive index of material 1
n2 = the refractive index of material 2 er
ap
θ1 = the angle of incidence of the ray in material 1 (°)
θ2 = the angle of refraction of the ray in material 2 (°)
.p
w
w
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by
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lle
co

Snell's Law is used to find the refractive indices or the angles to the normal at a
boundary

θ1 and θ2 are always taken from the normal

Material 1 is always the material in which the ray goes through first

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Material 2 is always the material in which the ray goes through second YOUR NOTES

 Worked Example
A light ray is directed at a vertical face of a glass cube. The angle of
incidence at the vertical face is 39° and the angle of refraction is 25° as
shown in the diagram.

g
or
s.
rd
lo
Show that the refractive index of the glass is about 1.5.
er
ap
.p
w
w
w
by
ed
ct
lle
co

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YOUR NOTES
 Exam Tip
Always double-check if your calculations for the refractive index are greater 
than 1. Otherwise, something has definitely gone wrong in your calculation!
The refractive index of air will not be given in the question. Always assume
that nair = 1.
Always check that the angle of incidence and refraction are the angles
between the normal and the light ray. Remember the normal line is not
really there - it has been drawn in to give you a place to measure from.

g
or
s.
rd
lo
er
ap
.p
w
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by
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5.14 Critical Angle YOUR NOTES


Critical Angle
As the angle of incidence is increased, the angle of refraction also increases until
it gets to 90°
When the angle of refraction is exactly 90° the light is refracted along the
boundary
At this point, the angle of incidence is known as the critical angle C
This angle can be found using the formula:

g
This can easily be derived from Snell’s law where:

or
θ1 = C

s.
θ2 = 90°

rd
n1 = n
n2 = 1 (air)

lo
 Worked Example er
ap
A glass cube is held in contact with a liquid and a light ray is directed at the
.p

vertical face of the cube. The angle of incidence at the vertical face is 39°
w

and the angle of refraction is 25° as shown in the diagram. The light ray is
w

totally internally reflected at X.

w
by
ed
ct
lle
co

Complete the diagram to show the path of the ray beyond X to the air and
calculate the critical angle for the glass-liquid boundary.

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YOUR NOTES


g
or
Step 1: Draw the reflected angle at the glass-liquid boundary

s.
When a light ray is reflected, the angle of incidence = angle of reflection

rd
Therefore, the angle of incidence (and reflection) is 90° – 25° = 65°

lo
Step 2: Draw the refracted angle at the glass-air boundary
er
At the glass-air boundary, the light ray refracts away from the normal
ap
Due to the reflection, the light rays are symmetrical to the other side
.p

Step 3: Calculate the critical angle

w
w

The question states the ray is “totally internally reflected for the first time”
w

meaning that this is the lowest angle at which TIR occurs

Therefore, 65° is the critical angle
by

 Exam Tip
ed

Always draw ray diagrams with a ruler, and make sure you're comfortable
ct

calculating unknown angles. The main rules to remember are:

lle

Angles in a right angle add up to 90°

co

Angles on a straight line add up to 180°

Angles in any triangle add up to 180°
For angles in parallel lines, such as alternate and opposite angles, take a
look at the OCR GCSE maths revision notes '7.1.1 Angles in Parallel Lines'

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5.15 Total Internal Reflection YOUR NOTES


Total Internal Reflection
Total internal reflection (TIR) occurs when:
The angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle and the incident
refractive index n1 is greater than the refractive index of the material at the
boundary n2

Therefore, the two conditions for total internal reflection are:

The angle of incidence, θ1 > the critical angle, C
Refractive index n1 > refractive index n2 (air)

g
or
s.
rd
lo
er
ap
.p
w
w
w

Diagram showing refraction, the critical angle and total internal reflection
by

Two conditions are necessary for total internal reflection to occur:

ed

The light must be going from a more dense medium into a less dense one
The angle of incidence must be greater than the critical angle
ct
lle
co

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YOUR NOTES
 Exam Tip
If asked to name the phenomena make sure you give the whole name - 
Total Internal Reflection. Remember: Total Internal Reflection occurs when
going from a more dense to a less dense material and ALL of the light is
reflected. If asked to explain what is meant by the critical angle, you can
draw the diagram above (showing the three semi-circular blocks).

g
or
s.
rd
lo
er
ap
.p
w
w
w
by
ed
ct
lle
co

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5.16 Measuring Refractive Index YOUR NOTES


Measuring Refractive Index
Aim of the Experiment
To investigate the refraction of light through a perspex block
Equipment
Ray Box - to provide a narrow beam of light to refract through the perspex box
Protractor - to measure the light beam angles
Sheet of paper - to mark with lines for angle measurement
Pencil - to make perpendicular line and angle lines on paper
Ruler - to draw straight lines on the paper
Perspex block - to refract the light beam

g
Variables

or
Dependent variable = angle of refraction , r

s.
Control variables:

rd
Use of the same perspex block

lo
Width of the light beam
Same frequency / wavelength of the light er
ap
Method
.p
w
w
w
by
ed
ct
lle
co

Apparatus to investigate refraction

1. Place the perspex block on a sheet of paper, and draw around it using a pencil
2. Switch on the ray box and direct a beam of light at the side face of the block
3. Mark on the paper with a small 'x':
A point on the ray close to the ray box
The point where the ray enters the block
The point where the ray exits the block
A point on the exit light ray which is a distance of about 5 cm away from the
block
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4. Draw a dashed line normal (at right angles) to the outline of the block YOUR NOTES
5. Remove the block and join the points marked 'x' with three straight lines 
6. Replace the block within its outline and repeat the above process for a ray striking
the block at different angles of incidence
An example of the data collection table is shown below:

g
or
s.
rd
lo
Analysis of Results er
ap
i and r are always measured from the normal
.p

For light rays entering perspex block, the light ray refracts towards the central
line:
w
w

i>r
w

For light rays exiting the perspex block, the light ray refracts away from the
by

central line:
ed

i<r
ct

When the angle of incidence is 90° to the perspex block, the light ray does not
refract, it passes straight through the block:
lle
co

i=r

If the experiment was carried out correctly, the angles should follow the pattern,
as shown below:

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YOUR NOTES


g
How to measure the angle of incidence and angle of refraction

or
Safety Considerations

s.
The ray box light gets hot and could burn if touched

rd
Run burns under cold running water for at least five minutes

lo
Looking directly into the light may damage the eyes
Avoid looking directly at the light er
ap
Stand behind the ray box during the experiment
.p

Keep all liquids away from the electrical equipment and paper
w

Take care using the perspex

w

Damage to the perspex block can affect the outcome of the experiment
w

 Exam Tip
by

In your examination you could be asked about the method for this
ed

experiment or given a set of results and asked how accurate they are or how
they can be improved.
ct
lle
co

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5.17 Converging & Diverging Lenses YOUR NOTES


Converging & Diverging Lenses
A lens is a piece of equipment that forms an image by refracting light
There are two types of lens:
Convex
Concave
Convex Lenses
In a convex lens, parallel rays of light are brought to a focus by refraction
This point is called the principal focus
This lens is sometimes referred to as a converging lens
The distance from the lens to the principal focus is called the focal length

g
This depends on how curved the lens is

or
The more curved the lens, the shorter the focal length

s.
rd
lo
er
ap
.p
w
w
w
by
ed

The focal length is the distance from the lens to the principal focus
ct

Concave Lenses
lle

In a concave lens, parallel rays of light are made to diverge (spread out) from a
co

point
This lens is sometimes referred to as a diverging lens
The principal focus is now the point from which the rays appear to diverge from

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YOUR NOTES


g
or
s.
Parallel rays from a concave lens appear to come from the principal focus

rd
 Exam Tip

lo
er
To remember which lens is converging or diverging, think of the following:
Convex lens = Converging
ap
To remember which lens is which, a concave lens goes in at the middle, like
.p

a cave. Okay, not a very exciting cave, but all the same...
w
w
w
by
ed
ct
lle
co

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5.18 Using Ray Diagrams YOUR NOTES


Using Ray Diagrams
Describing images formed by lenses
Images are described using three concepts
They are either:
Real or virtual
Bigger than, the same size as or smaller than the object
Inverted or the same way up as the object
A real image is one formed by the convergence of rays of light (the rays meet)
A real image can be projected onto a screen
A virtual image is seen but not formed on a screen
The rays of light have not met, they have been perceived by the eye
An image viewed through a magnifying glass is a virtual image

g
or
Lenses can be used to form images of objects placed in front of them
The location (and nature) of the image can be found by drawing a ray diagram:

s.
rd
lo
er
ap
.p
w
w
w
by
ed
ct

Diagram showing the formation of a real image by a lens

lle

Drawing a Ray Diagram

co

1. Start by drawing a ray going from the top of the object through the centre of the
lens. This ray will continue to travel in a straight line
2. Next draw a ray going from the top of the object, travelling parallel to the axis to
the lens. When this ray emerges from the lens it will travel directly towards the
principal focus
3. The image is found at the point where the two rays meet
The above diagram shows the image that is formed when the object is placed at a
distance between one focal length (f) and two focal lengths (2f) from the lens
In this case, the image is:
Real
Enlarged
Inverted

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The following diagram shows what happens when the object is more distanced – YOUR NOTES
further than twice the focal length (2f) from the lens: 

g
or
Diagram showing the formation of a real image by a lens with the object at distance

s.
In this case the image is:

rd
Real

lo
Diminished (smaller)
Inverted
er
ap
If the object is placed at exactly twice the focal length (2f) from the lens:
.p
w
w
w
by
ed
ct
lle
co

Diagram showing the formation of a real image with the object at 2f

In this case the image is:

Real
Same size as the object
Inverted

Magnifying glasses
If the object is placed closer to the lens than the focal length, the emerging rays
diverge and a virtual image is formed

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When viewed from the right-hand side of the lens, the emerging rays appear to YOUR NOTES
come from a point on the left. This point can be found by extending the rays 
backwards (creating virtual rays)
A virtual image will be seen at the point where these virtual rays cross

g
or
s.
rd
lo
er
ap
.p
w
w

A virtual image is formed by the divergence of rays from a point

w

In this case the image is:

by

Virtual
Enlarged
ed

Upright
ct

Using a lens in this way allows it to be used as a magnifying glass

lle

When using a magnifying glass, the lens should always be held close to the object
co

 Exam Tip
It is important to understand how the images are formed in both examples,
as well as the type of image formed. You should practice drawing accurate
lens diagrams. They are harder than they look!

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5.19 Power of a Lens YOUR NOTES


Power of a Lens
The power of a lens is a measure of its ability to refract light
The more refraction a lens causes, the higher its power
The power of a lens measures how strongly it focuses the light
The more curved the lens, the shorter the focal length
The shorter the focal length, the greater the power of the lens
The power of a lens is related to:
The focal length of the lens
The shape of the lens

g
or
s.
rd
lo
er
ap
.p
w
w
w

The power of a lens depends on its focal length

Calculate the power of a lens

by

The power of a lens, P is calculated using the following equation:

ed

1
ct

P= f
lle

Where:
co

P = power (dioptres, D)
f = focal length of the lens (m)
Power is inversely proportional to focal length
For a concave mirror, where the focal length is negative, power has a negative
value

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Worked Example YOUR NOTES

 A lens is set up between an object candle and a screen. All the equipment is

arranged perpendicular to the desk. The image of the candle is in focus
when the screen is positioned 60 cm from the lens.

Determine the power of the lens.

g
or
s.
Step 1: Write the known quantities in S.I. units

rd
Image is in focus, so the screen is at the focal point

lo
Focal length, f = 60 cm = 0.6 m
Step 2: Write the equation for power and substitute the values er
ap
1 1
.p

P= = = 1 . 67
f 0.6
w
w

Step 3: Give the full answer, to correct significant figures and with units
w

The power of the lens, P = 1.7 D

by

 Exam Tip
ed

The explanations above relate to life in a common sense way. Stronger,

more powerful reading glasses are used by people who have the weakest
ct

eye sight. They need lenses to do more of the focusing for them.
lle
co

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5.20 Thin Lenses in Combination YOUR NOTES


Thin Lenses in Combination
When multiple lenses are used in series (one after the other) this is called a
compound lens
To find the total power of a compound lens, find the sum of the powers of the
individual lenses

PTotal = P 1 + P 2 + .... Pn

Where:
PTotal = Total power of all the lenses (dioptre, D)
P1 = power of lens 1 (dioptre, D)
P2 = power of lens 2 (dioptre, D)

g
or
s.
rd
lo
er
ap
.p
w
w
w

In this case the image is:

by

Virtual
Diminished
ed

Upright
ct

The lenses should be:

Arranged so that their principle axes line up
lle

Touching or very close

co

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5.21 Real & Virtual Images YOUR NOTES


Real & Virtual Images
Real Images
Are formed when light rays from a point on an object pass through another point
in space
The light rays are really there
Can be formed on a screen
Are seen in ray diagrams at the point where rays cross
Examples include:
Pictures projected onto a wall or screen
The image formed on the retina

g
or
s.
rd
lo
er
ap
.p
w
w
w
by
ed

A real image can be projected onto a screen

Virtual Images
ct

Virtual images are formed when light rays from a point on an object appear to
lle

have come from another point in

co

space
The light rays are not really where the image appears to be
The image cannot be formed on a screen
Examples include:
Images seen through a magnifying glass
All images formed by a diverging (concave) lens
Reflections in a mirror

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YOUR NOTES


g
or
s.
rd
A reflection in a mirror is an example of a virtual image

lo
er
ap
Ray diagrams
Ray diagrams can be used to show whether an image will be real or virtual
.p

If the rays from the object naturally cross the image will be real
w

If the rays have to be extended backwards to make them cross, the image is virtual
w

To signal virtual rays they are drawn as dashed lines rather than solid ones
w

Ray diagram for a real image in a converging lens

by

1. Start by drawing a ray going from the top of the object through the centre of the
ed

lens. This ray will continue to travel in a straight line

2. Next draw a ray going from the top of the object, travelling parallel to the axis to
ct

the lens. When this ray emerges from the lens it will travel directly towards the
lle

principal focus
3. The image is found at the point where the above two rays meet
co

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YOUR NOTES


g
Diagram showing the formation of a real image by a lens

or
The above diagram shows the image that is formed when the object is placed at a

s.
distance between one focal length (f) and two focal lengths (2f) from the lens

rd
In this case, the image is:

lo
Real

er
Enlarged
Inverted
ap
Ray diagram for a virtual image in a converging lens
.p

If the object is placed closer to the lens than the focal length, the emerging rays
w

diverge and a real image is no longer formed

w

When viewed from the right-hand side of the lens, the emerging rays appear to
w

come from a point on the left. This point can be found by extending the rays
backwards (creating virtual rays)
by

A virtual image will be seen at the point where these virtual rays cross
ed
ct
lle
co

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YOUR NOTES


g
or
s.
rd
lo
er
A virtual image is formed by the divergence of rays from a point
ap
In this case the image is:
.p

Virtual
w

Enlarged
w

Upright
w

Using a lens in this way allows it to be used as a magnifying glass

by

When using a magnifying glass, the lens should always be held close to the object
Ray diagram for a virtual image in a diverging lens
ed

The image formed by a diverging lens is always virtual

ct

To draw this diagram draw two rays from the top of the object
lle

One ray passes through the centre of the lens with no refraction
co

The second is drawn parallel to the principal axis until it meets the centre of
the lens
The ray refracts through the principal focus
To make the rays cross the line will need to be extended, forming a virtual
meeting point

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YOUR NOTES


g
Concave lenses only produce virtual images

or
In this case the image is:

s.
Virtual

rd
Diminished

lo
Upright

er
ap
.p
w
w
w
by
ed
ct
lle
co

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5.22 The Lens Equation YOUR NOTES


The Lens Equation
This equation can be applied to all thin converging and diverging lenses
The equation relates the focal length of the lens to the distances from the lens to
the image and the object
1 1 1
= +
f u v
Where:
f = focal length (m)
v = image distance from lens (m)
u = object distance from lens (m)

g
or
s.
rd
lo
er
ap
.p
w
w
w
by
ed
ct
lle
co

This equation only works for thin converging or diverging lenses

The values are positive if the image is real

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Worked Example YOUR NOTES

 A student investigates the focal length of a thin lens by using it to project

and image onto a screen.
The object is set 50.0 cm from the centre of the lens and the screen moved
back and forth until the inverted image is sharp. This position is found to
be 75.0 cm from the lens.
Determine the focal length of the lens.

Step 1: Write the known values

Distance from object to lens, u = 50.0 cm

Distance from image to lens, v = 75.0 cm

g
or
Step 2: Write the equation and substitute in the values

s.
1 1 1 1 1 1

rd
= + = + =
f u v 50 75 30

lo
f = 30 cm
er
ap
 Exam Tip
.p

It is easy to forget the last step in a calculation like this one. Remember that
you are calculating not f, and that you need to take the reciprocal of your
w

answer.
w
w
by
ed
ct
lle
co

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5.23 Magnification YOUR NOTES


Magnification
Magnification as a Ratio of Heights
Magnification means how much larger the image is than the object
This is the ratio of the image/object height
hi
m=
ho

Where:
m = magnification
hi = image height (m)
ho = object height (m)

g
or
Magnification as a Ratio of Distances

s.
A diagram of an object and its real image will produce similar triangles

rd
Therefore, the ratio of magnification is also represented by comparing

lo
distance from the lens to the object and the image
er
ap
.p
w
w
w
by
ed

This also works for virtual images

ct
lle
co

v
m=
u
Where:
m = magnification
v = distance from lens to object (m)
u = distance from lens to image (m)
Since magnification is a ratio, it has no units
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Worked Example YOUR NOTES

 A magnifying glass has a focal length of 15 cm. It is held 5 cm away from a

component which is being examined.
Determine the magnification of the image.

Step 1: Write the known values

Focal length, f = 15 cm
Distance between object and lens, u = 5 cm
Step 2: Use the lens formula and rearrange to make v the subject

1 1 1
= +

g
f u v

or
⎛ 1 1 ⎞ −1 ⎛⎜ 1 1 ⎞⎟ −1

s.
v = ⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟ ⎜ − ⎟ = − 7 . 5 cm
⎝f u⎠ ⎝ 15 5

rd
⎠
The negative sign indicates a virtual image (expected for a magnifying glass)

lo
and is ignored for the next step
er
ap
Step 3: Use the magnification formula to find the magnification of the image
.p

v 7.5
m= = = 1.5
w

u 5
w
w
by
ed
ct
lle
co

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Worked Example YOUR NOTES

 A person sees an image from a magnifying glass.


g
or
s.
rd
lo
er
Calculate the magnification of this image. Clearly show your working on the
diagram.
ap
.p
w
w
w
by
ed
ct
lle
co

Step 1: Measure the height of the object from the scale

The object is 10 cm

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Step 2: Measure the height of image from the scale YOUR NOTES
The image is 20 cm 

Step 3: Substitute values into the magnification equation

 Exam Tip
The most common mistake with magnification calculations is to get the
formula upside down.
Do a 'sanity check' by looking at the answer to make sure that magnified
objects have got bigger (m > 1) and diminished ones smaller (m < 1).

g
Since we are working with ratios (so the units get cancelled out) this is one

or
of those rare times when you don't need to convert everything to SI units,

s.
but do check that your units are all the same - for example all distances in

rd
cm.

lo
er
ap
.p
w
w
w
by
ed
ct
lle
co

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5.24 Plane Polarisation YOUR NOTES


Plane Polarisation
Transverse waves can oscillate in any plane perpendicular to the direction of
motion (and energy transfer) of the wave
Such waves are said to be unpolarised
Polarisation occurs when

Particles are only allowed to oscillate in one of the directions perpendicular

to the direction of wave propagation

When a transverse wave is polarised, its electric field is only allowed to oscillate in
one fixed plane perpendicular to the direction of motion of the wave
For EM waves it is the plane of the electric fields oscillation that defines its

g
plane of polarisation

or
A transverse wave can be vertically polarised, horizontally polarised, or polarised

s.
in any direction in between

rd
lo
er
ap
.p
w
w
w
by
ed
ct
lle
co

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YOUR NOTES


g
or
s.
rd
lo
er
ap
.p
w
w
w
by
ed
ct
lle
co

Diagram showing the displacement of unpolarised and polarised transverse waves

Since longitudinal waves oscillate in the same direction as the direction of motion
of the wave, polarisation of longitudinal waves cannot occur
Methods of polarisation include polarising filters and reflection from a non-
metallic plane surface
Polarising Filters
Light waves can be polarised by making them pass through a polarising filter (also
known as a polariser)
The filter imposes its plane of polarisation on the incident light wave

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A polariser with a vertical transmission axis only allows vertical oscillations to be YOUR NOTES
transmitted through the filter (A) 
If vertically polarised light is incident on a filter with a horizontal transmission
axis, no transmission occurs (B), and the wave is blocked completely

g
or
s.
rd
lo
er
ap
.p
w
w
w
by
ed
ct
lle
co

Diagram showing an unpolarised and polarised wave travelling through polarisers

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Waves, Electrons & Photons YOUR NOTES


5.25 Diffraction
Diffraction
Diffraction is the spreading out of waves when they pass an obstruction
Diffraction through a gap
This obstruction is typically a narrow gap (a slit, or aperture)

g
or
s.
rd
lo
er
ap
.p
w

Diffraction is usually represented by a wavefront as shown by the vertical lines in

w

the diagrams above

w

The only property of a wave that changes when its diffracted is its amplitude
by

This is because some energy is dissipated when a wave is diffracted through a

gap
ed

Diffraction around an obstacle

ct

The diffraction pattern for a large slit can be thought of as a wave passing two
lle

completely separate obstacles

This shows that when a wave meets an obstacle a diffraction pattern forms
co

around the edges.

Behind the obstacle a ‘shadow’ forms where no part of the wave reaches
Factors that affect diffraction
The effects of diffraction are most prominent when the gap size or obstacle is
approximately the same or smaller than the wavelength of the wave
As the size of the gap or obstacle increases, the effect gradually gets less
pronounced
When the gap is much larger than the wavelength, the waves are no longer
spread out

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YOUR NOTES


The size of the gap (compared to the wavelength) affects how much the waves spread

g
out

or
Explaining diffraction

s.
Huygens developed a model for wave propagation which suggested that every

rd
point on a wavefront can be considered to be a point source of secondary waves

lo
(which he called wavelets)
er
This leads to a diagram, called Huygens’ construction, which shows that new
wavefronts are tangential to the secondary wavelets
ap
The tangents create the curve of the new wavefront emerging either through
.p

the gap or around the obstacle

w
w
w
by
ed
ct
lle
co

When a wave meets an obstacle a diffraction pattern forms around the edges, with a
‘shadow’ created behind the obstacle where no part of the wave reaches

Huygens' Construction for Diffraction Through a Gap

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YOUR NOTES


g
or
s.
rd
lo
er
ap
.p

Those point sources which pass through the gap create new wavelets on the other
w

side, leading to the characteristic curved shape of the diffracted wave

w

Huygens' Construction for Diffraction Around an Obstacle

w
by
ed
ct
lle
co

Those point sources which pass around the obstacle create new wavelets on the
other side, leaving empty space where the 'shadow' is seen

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Worked Example YOUR NOTES

 When a wave is travelling through air, which scenario best demonstrates

diffraction?
A. UV radiation through a gate post
B. Sound waves passing a steel rod
C. Radio waves passing between human hair
D. X-rays passing through atoms in a crystalline solid

Answer: D

Diffraction is most prominent when the wavelength is close to the aperture size

g
UV waves have a wavelength between 4 × 10-7 – 1 × 10-8 m so won’t be diffracted

or
by a gate post

s.
Sound waves have a wavelength of 1.72 × 10-2 – 17 m so would not be diffracted

rd
by the diffraction grating

lo
Radio waves have a wavelength of 0.1 – 106 m so would not be diffracted by
human hair
er
X-rays have a wavelength of 1 × 10-8 – 4 × 10-13 m which is roughly the gap
ap
between atoms in a crystalline solid
.p

Therefore, the correct answer is D

w

 Exam Tip
w
w

When drawing diffracted waves, take care to keep the wavelength constant. It
is only the amplitude of the wave that changes when diffracted.
by

Huygen's diagrams can be tricky to draw, so are definitely worth practicing.

ed
ct
lle
co

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5.26 The Diffraction Grating Equation YOUR NOTES


The Diffraction Grating Equation
A diffraction grating is a plate on which there is a very large number of parallel,
identical, close-spaced slits
When monochromatic light is incident on a grating, a pattern of narrow bright
fringes is produced on a screen

g
or
s.
rd
lo
er
ap
.p
w

Diagram of diffraction grating used to obtain a fringe pattern

w
w

The angles at which the maxima of intensity (constructive interference) are

by

produced can be deduced by the diffraction grating equation

ed
ct
lle
co

Diffraction grating equation for the angle of bright fringes

Exam questions sometime state the lines per m (or per mm, per nm etc.) on the
grating which is represented by the symbol N
d can be calculated from N using the equation

Angular Separation
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The angular separation of each maxima is calculated by rearranging the grating YOUR NOTES
equation to make θ the subject 
The angle θ is taken from the centre meaning the higher orders are at greater
angles

g
or
s.
rd
lo
Angular separation
er
ap
The angular separation between two angles is found by subtracting the smaller
.p

angle from the larger one

w

The angular separation between the first and second maxima n1 and n2 is θ2 – θ1
w
w

Orders of Maxima
by

The maximum angle to see orders of maxima is when the beam is at right angles
to the diffraction grating
ed

This means θ = 90o and sin θ = 1

ct

The highest order of maxima visible is therefore calculated by the equation:

lle
co

Note that since n must be an integer, if the value is a decimal it must be rounded
down
E.g If n is calculated as 2.7 then n = 2 is the highest order visible

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Worked Example YOUR NOTES

 An experiment was set up to investigate light passing through a diffraction

grating with a slit spacing of 1.7 µm. The fringe pattern was observed on a
screen. The wavelength of the light is 550 nm.

g
or
s.
Calculate the angle α between the two second-order lines.

rd
lo
er
ap
.p
w
w
w
by
ed
ct
lle
co

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YOUR NOTES
 Exam Tip
Take care that the angle θ is the correct angle taken from the centre and not 
the angle taken between two orders of maxima.

g
or
s.
rd
lo
er
ap
.p
w
w
w
by
ed
ct
lle
co

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5.27 Core Practical 8: Investigating Diffraction Gratings YOUR NOTES


Core Practical 8: Investigating Diffraction Gratings
Aim of the Experiment
To find the wavelength of light using a diffraction grating
Variables

Independent variable = Distance between maxima, h

Dependent variable = The angle between the normal and each order, θn (where n =
1, 2, 3 etc)
Control variables
Distance between the slits and the screen, D
Laser wavelength λ

g
Slit separation, d

or
Equipment List

s.
rd
lo
er
ap
.p
w
w
w
by
ed
ct
lle
co

Resolution of measuring equipment:

Metre ruler = 1 mm
Vernier Callipers = 0.01 mm
Method

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YOUR NOTES


g
or
s.
rd
lo
The setup of apparatus required to measure the distance between maxima h at
different angles θ
er
1. Place the laser on a retort stand and the diffraction grating in front of it
ap
2. Use a set square to ensure the beam passes through the grating at normal
.p

incidence and meets the screen perpendicularly

w

3. Set the distance D between the grating and the screen to be 1.0 m using a metre
w

ruler
w

4. Darken the room and turn on the laser

5. Identify the zero-order maximum (the central beam)
by

6. Measure the distance h to the nearest two first-order maxima (i.e. n = 1, n = 2)

using a vernier calliper
ed

7. Calculate the mean of these two values

8. Measure distance h for increasing orders
ct

9. Repeat with a diffraction grating with a different number of slits per mm

lle

An example table might look like this:

co

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YOUR NOTES


g
or
Analysing the Results

s.
rd
The diffraction grating equation is given by:

lo
nλ = d sin θ

Where: er
ap
n = the order of the diffraction pattern
.p

λ = the wavelength of the laser light (m)

d = the distance between the slits (m)
w

θ = the angle between the normal and the maxima

w
w

The distance between the slits is equal to:

by
ed

Where
ct

N = the number of slits per metre (m–1)

lle

Since the angle is not small, it must be calculated using trigonometry with the
co

measurements for the distance between maxima, h, and the distance between the
slits and the screen, D

Calculate a mean θ value for each order

Calculate a mean value for the wavelength of the laser light and compare the value
with the accepted wavelength
This is usually 635 nm for a standard school red laser
Evaluating the Experiments
Systematic errors:

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Ensure the use of the set square to avoid parallax error in the measurement of the YOUR NOTES
fringe width 
Using a grating with more lines per mm will result in greater values of h. This
lowers its percentage uncertainty
Random errors:
The fringe spacing can be subjective depending on its intensity on the screen,
therefore, take multiple measurements of w and h (between 3-8) and find the
average
Use a Vernier scale to record distances w and h to reduce percentage uncertainty
Reduce the uncertainty in w and h by measuring across all visible fringes and
dividing by the number of fringes
Increase the grating to screen distance D to increase the fringe separation
(although this may decrease the intensity of light reaching the screen)
Conduct the experiment in a darkened room, so the fringes are clear

g
or
Safety Considerations

s.
Lasers should be Class 2 and have a maximum output of no more than 1 mW

rd
Do not allow laser beams to shine into anyone’s eyes
Remove reflective surfaces from the room to ensure no laser light is reflected into

lo
anyone’s eyes
er
ap
.p
w
w
w
by
ed
ct
lle
co

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Worked Example YOUR NOTES

 A student investigates the interference patterns produced by two different

diffraction gratings. One grating used was marked 100 slits / mm, and the
other was marked 300 slits / mm. The distance between the grating and the
screen is measured to be 3.75 m.
The student recorded the distance between adjacent maxima after passing
a monochromatic laser source through each grating. These results are
shown in the tables below.

g
or
s.
rd
lo
er
ap
.p
w
w

Calculate the mean wavelength of the laser light and compare it with the
w

accepted value of 635 nm. Assess the percentage uncertainty in this result.
by
ed
ct
lle
co

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YOUR NOTES


g
or
s.
rd
lo
er
ap
.p
w
w
w
by
ed
ct
lle
co

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YOUR NOTES


g
or
s.
rd
lo
er
ap
.p
w
w
w
by
ed
ct
lle
co

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5.28 The Wave Nature of Electrons YOUR NOTES


The Wave Nature of Electrons
Electron diffraction was the first clear evidence that matter can behave like light
and has wave properties
This is demonstrated using the electron diffraction tube
The electrons are accelerated in an electron gun to a high potential, such as 5000
V, and are then directed through a thin film of graphite
The lattice structure of the graphite acts like the slits in a diffraction grating
The electrons diffract from the gaps between carbon atoms and produce a circular
pattern on a fluorescent screen made from phosphor

g
or
s.
rd
lo
er
ap
.p
w
w
w
by
ed

Electrons accelerated through a high potential difference demonstrate wave-particle

ct

duality
lle

In order to observe the diffraction of electrons, they must be focused through a

gap similar to their size, such as an atomic lattice
co

Graphite film is ideal for this purpose because of its crystalline structure
The gaps between neighbouring planes of the atoms in the crystals act as slits,
allowing the electron waves to spread out and create a diffraction pattern
The diffraction pattern is observed on the screen as a series of concentric rings
This phenomenon is similar to the diffraction pattern produced when light
passes through a diffraction grating
If the electrons acted as particles, a pattern would not be observed, instead,
the particles would be distributed uniformly across the screen
It is observed that a larger accelerating voltage reduces the diameter of a given
ring, while a lower accelerating voltage increases the diameter of the rings

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5.29 The de Broglie Equation YOUR NOTES


The de Broglie Equation
Using ideas based upon the quantum theory and Einstein’s theory of relativity, de
Broglie theorised that not only do EM waves sometimes behave as particles, but
that very small, fast moving particles like electrons could also behave as waves
He called these matter waves
The Broglie equation relates the wavelength of some particles to their mass and
velocity, which combine to give their momentum
Hence:
h h
λ= =
mv p

g
λ = the de Broglie wavelength (m)

or
h = Planck's Constant (J s)
m = mass (kg)

s.
v = velocity (m s-1)

rd
p = momentum (kg m s-1)

lo
 Worked Example er
ap
Determine the de Broglie wavelength of a person of mass 70 kg moving at 2
ms-1 and comment on your answer.
.p
w
w

Step 1: Write the known values

w

Mass, m = 70 kg
by

Velocity, v = 2 m s−1
Planck's constant, h = 6.63 × 10−34 Js
ed

Step 2: Write the equation and substitute the values

ct
lle

h (6 . 63 × 10−34 )
λ= = = 4 . 74 × 10−36
mv 70 × 2
co

Step 4: Write the answer to the correct number of significant figures and include
units

de Broglie wavelength of a moving person, λ = 4.7 × 10−36 m

Step 5: think about the magnitude of the result and comment on it

The person does have a de Broglie wavelength but since it is about 1020 times
smaller than a nucleus, it can be ignored
People behave like particles, not waves

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YOUR NOTES
 Exam Tip
If you've not been given the mass of a particle in a question, make sure to 
look at your data sheet which includes the rest mass of various particles

g
or
s.
rd
lo
er
ap
.p
w
w
w
by
ed
ct
lle
co

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5.30 Transmission & Reflection of Waves YOUR NOTES


Transmission & Reflection of Waves
When waves are incident on the interface between two different media, they are
either transmitted or reflected
'Incident on' simply means 'to meet'
The interface is also called the boundary between media
Transmitted means to pass through

g
or
s.
rd
lo
er
ap
.p
w

When the media have similar densities the energy of the wave is mostly
w

transmitted
w

When the media have different densities most of the energy is reflected
by

Reflected waves in use

Uses of reflected waves include:
ed

Medical x-rays
ct

Sonar
lle

Ultrasound scans
co

Transmitted waves in use

In the above examples the waves have to be transmitted through one medium first,
before they are reflected
X-rays are transmitted through soft tissue
Sonar is transmitted through air or water
Ultrasound is transmitted through a gel of similar density to the skin so that it
reaches the tissues inside the body

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YOUR NOTES


g
Reflection

or
Reflection occurs when:

s.
rd
A wave hits a boundary between two media and does not pass through, but

lo
instead stays in the original medium

The law of reflection states:

er
ap
The angle of incidence = The angle of reflection
.p
w
w
w
by
ed
ct
lle
co

Reflection of a wave at a boundary

Some of the wave may also be absorbed or transmitted

Echos are examples of sound waves being reflected off a surface
Flat surfaces are the most reflective
The smoother the surface, the stronger the reflected wave is
Rough surfaces are the least reflective

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This is because the light scatters in all directions YOUR NOTES

Opaque surfaces will reflect light which is not absorbed by the material 
The electrons will absorb the light energy, then reemit it as a reflected wave
Transmission
Transmission occurs when:
A wave passes through a substance

For light waves, the more transparent the material, the more light will pass
through
Transmission can involve refraction but it is not exactly the same
For the process to count as transmission, the wave must pass through the
material and emerge from the other side

g
When passing through a material, waves are usually partially absorbed

or
The transmitted wave may have a lower amplitude because of some

s.
absorption
For example, sound waves are quieter after they pass through a wall

rd
lo
er
ap
.p
w
w
w

When a wave passes through a boundary it may be absorbed and transmitted

by
ed
ct
lle
co

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5.31 Pulse-Echo Technique YOUR NOTES


Pulse-Echo Technique
Foetal Scanning
In medicine, ultrasound can be used to construct images of a foetus in the womb
An ultrasound detector is made up of a transducer that produces and detects
a beam of ultrasound waves into the body
The ultrasound waves are reflected back to the transducer by different
boundaries between tissues in the path of the beam
For example, the boundary between fluid and soft tissue or tissue and bone
Using the speed of sound and the time of each echo’s return, the detector
calculates the distance from the transducer to the tissue boundary
Gel is put onto the scanner so that the boundary between the instrument and the

g
skin is of the same density as the skin, this allows the signal to be easily

or
transmitted

s.
By taking a series of ultrasound measurements, sweeping across an area, the time

rd
measurements may be used to build up an image
Unlike many other medical imaging techniques, ultrasound is non-invasive

lo
and harmless
er
ap
.p
w
w
w
by
ed
ct
lle
co

Ultrasound can be used to construct an image of a foetus in the womb

Sonar
Sonar uses ultrasound to detect objects underwater
The sound wave is reflected off the object being tracked
Examples include;
Finding fish by fishing fleets
Military uses looking for underwater vessels
Mapping the ocean bottom

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YOUR NOTES


The time it takes for the sound wave to return is used to calculate the depth of the
water
The distance the wave travels is twice the depth of the ocean

g
or
This is the distance to the ocean floor plus the distance for the wave to return

s.
Pulse Duration and Wavelength

rd
The amount of detail which can be captured (the resolution) of pulse-echo

lo
techniques depends on the wavelength
Shorter wavelengths have smaller (better) resolution
More detail can be seen since they diffract (spread out) less
er
ap
More energy is needed as short wavelength waves have higher frequency
.p

Wavelength is chosen to be similar in size to the object that is being resolved

w

This makes best use of diffraction effects

w

Pulse duration is a consideration because ultrasound transducers cannot transmit

w

and receive pulses at the same time.

by

If incoming and outgoing pulses overlap the information is lost and image
quality suffers
ed

This affects the range since a longer wait time for pulses to return reduces the
amount of information which can be collected
ct
lle
co

Ultrasound pulses are very short, only a few microseconds, to reduce reflections
from nearby interfaces
The gap between pulses is relatively long, measured in milliseconds, to prevent
overlapping signals
This combination of short pulses with relatively large spaces between them
produces the clearest images

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Worked Example YOUR NOTES

 A sonar system uses ultrasound with frequency of 3.2 kHz to map the ocean

floor. The speed of sound in water is 1 500 m s−1.
An echo is detected 3.6 s after the pulse is transmitted.
a) Determine the depth of the sea at this point.
b) Suggest a resolution for this ultrasound survey of the seafloor

Part (a)
Step 1: Write the known values from the question

Frequency, f = 3.2 kHz = 3 200 Hz

g
Speed of sound, v = 1 500 m s−1

or
Time, t = 3.6 s

s.
rd
Step 2: Write the correct equation and substitute the values

lo
Distance;
d = vt = 1 500 × 3.6 = 5 400 m er
ap
Step 3: Account for the received signal being an echo
.p

Total distance travelled by the signal = 5 400 m

w

Depth of the sea floor = 1/2 × 5 400 = 2 700 m

w
w

Part (b)
by

Step 1: Write the wave equation and rearrange to make wavelength the subject
ed

v = fλ
ct

f
→λ =
lle

v
co

Step 2: Calculate to find wavelength

3200
λ= = 2 . 13
1500
Step 3: Write the final answer to correct significant figures and giving units

The resolution of the signal is similar to the wavelength, and λ = 2.1 m

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5.32 Wave-Particle Duality YOUR NOTES


Wave-Particle Duality
Light can behave as a particle (i.e. photons) and a wave
This phenomenon is called the wave-particle nature of light or wave-particle
duality
Light interacts with matter, such as electrons, as a particle
The evidence for this is provided by the photoelectric effect
Light propagates through space as a wave
The evidence for this comes from the diffraction and interference of light in
Young’s Double Slit experiment
Light as a Particle

g
Einstein proposed that light can be described as a quanta of energy that behave as

or
particles, called photons

s.
The photon model of light explains that:

rd
Electromagnetic waves carry energy in discrete packets called photons
The energy of the photons are quantised according to the equation E = hf

lo
In the photoelectric effect, each electron can absorb only a single photon - this
er
means only the frequencies of light above the threshold frequency will emit a
ap
photoelectron
.p

The wave theory of light does not support the idea of a threshold frequency
w

The wave theory suggests any frequency of light can give rise to photoelectric
w

emission if the exposure time is long enough

w

This is because the wave theory suggests the energy absorbed by each
electron will increase gradually with each wave
by

Furthermore, the kinetic energy of the emitted electrons should increase with
radiation intensity
ed

However, in the photoelectric effect, this is not what is observed

ct

If the frequency of the incident light is above the threshold and the intensity of the
lle

light is increased, more photoelectrons are emitted per second

co

Although the wave theory provides good explanations for phenomena such as
interference and diffraction, it fails to explain the photoelectric effect
Compare wave theory and particulate nature of light

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YOUR NOTES


g
or
Development of the Theory of Wave-Particle Duality

s.
Ideas about the nature of light were contested by modern science for around 300

rd
years

lo
The evidence to prove both theories was available
Some prominent scientists argued light was a wave
Others contested that light was a particle er
ap
It was not until the early 20th century that scientists settled on a theory of duality
.p
w
w
w
by
ed
ct
lle
co

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YOUR NOTES


g
or
s.
rd
lo
er
ap
.p
w
w
w
by
ed
ct
lle
co

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5.33 Energy of a Photon YOUR NOTES


Energy of a Photon
Photons are fundamental particles which make up all forms of electromagnetic
radiation
A photon is a massless “packet” or a “quantum” of electromagnetic energy
What this means is that the energy is not transferred continuously, but as discrete
packets of energy
In other words, each photon carries a specific amount of energy, and transfers this
energy all in one go, rather than supplying a consistent amount of energy
Calculating Photon Energy
The energy of a photon can be calculated using the formula:

g
or
s.
rd
lo
er
ap
Using the wave equation, energy can also be equal to:
.p
w
w
w
by
ed
ct

Where:
lle

E = energy of the photon (J)

h = Planck's constant (J s)
co

c = the speed of light (m s-1)

f = frequency (Hz)
λ = wavelength (m)
This equation tells us:
The higher the frequency of EM radiation, the higher the energy of the photon
The energy of a photon is inversely proportional to the wavelength
A long-wavelength photon of light has a lower energy than a shorter-
wavelength photon

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Worked Example YOUR NOTES

 Light of wavelength 490 nm is incident normally on a surface, as shown in


the diagram.

The power of the light is 3.6 mW. The light is completely absorbed by the
surface.Calculate the number of photons incident on the surface in 2.0 s.

g
or
s.
rd
lo
er
ap
.p
w
w
w
by
ed
ct
lle
co

 Exam Tip
Make sure you learn the definition for a photon: discrete quantity / packet /
quantum of electromagnetic energy are all acceptable definitions.
The values of Planck’s constant and the speed of light will always be
available on the datasheet, however, it helps to memorise them to speed up
calculation questions!

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The Photoelectric Effect & Atomic Spectra YOUR NOTES


5.34 The Photoelectric Effect
The Photoelectric Effect
The photoelectric effect is the phenomena in which electrons are emitted from the
surface of a metal upon the absorption of electromagnetic radiation
Electrons removed from a metal in this manner are known as photoelectrons
The photoelectric effect provides important evidence that light is quantised, or
carried in discrete packets
This is shown by the fact each electron can absorb only a single photon
This means only the frequencies of light above a threshold frequency will
emit a photoelectron

g
or
s.
rd
lo
er
ap
.p
w
w
w
by
ed

Photoelectrons are emitted from the surface of metal when light shines onto it
ct

The photoelectric effect can be observed on a gold leaf electroscope

lle

A plate of metal, usually zinc, is attached to a gold leaf, which initially has a
negative charge, causing it to be repelled by a central negatively charged rod
co

This causes negative charge, or electrons, to build up on the zinc plate

UV light is shone onto the metal plate, leading to the emission of photoelectrons
This causes the extra electrons on the central rod and gold leaf to be removed, so,
the gold leaf begins to fall back towards the central rod
This is because they become less negatively charged, and hence repel less

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YOUR NOTES


g
or
s.
rd
lo
er
ap
.p
w
w
w
by
ed
ct
lle
co

Typical set-up of the gold leaf electroscope experiment

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5.35 The Photoelectric Equation YOUR NOTES


The Photoelectric Equation
Since energy is always conserved, the energy of an incident photon is equal to:
The work function + the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectron

The energy within a photon is equal to hf

This energy is transferred to the electron to release it from a material (the work
function) and the remaining amount is given as kinetic energy to the emitted
photoelectron
This equation is known as the photoelectric equation:
E = hf = Φ + ½ mv2max

g
Where:

or
h = Planck's constant (J s)

s.
f = the frequency of the incident radiation (Hz)

rd
Φ = the work function of the material (J)
½ mv2max= KEmax = the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons (J)

lo
This equation demonstrates:
er
If the incident photons do not have a high enough frequency and energy to
ap
overcome the work function (Φ), then no electrons will be emitted
.p

hf0 = Φ, where f0 = threshold frequency, photoelectric emission only just

w

occurs
w

KEmax depends only on the frequency of the incident photon, and not the
intensity of the radiation
w

The majority of photoelectrons will have kinetic energies less than KEmax
by

Work Function
ed

The work function Φ, or threshold energy, of a material, is defined as:

ct

The minimum energy required to release a photoelectron from the surface

lle

of a metal
co

Consider the electrons in a metal as trapped inside an ‘energy well’ where the
energy between the surface and the top of the well is equal to the work function Φ
A single electron absorbs one photon
Therefore, an electron can only escape from the surface of the metal if it absorbs a
photon which has an energy equal to Φ or higher

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YOUR NOTES


g
or
s.
rd
lo
er
ap
.p
w
w
w
by
ed
ct
lle
co

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In the photoelectric effect, a single photon may cause a surface electron to be YOUR NOTES
released if it has sufficient energy

Graphical Representation of Work Function
The photoelectric equation can be rearranged into the straight line equation:
y = mx + c

Comparing this to the photoelectric equation:

KEmax = hf - Φ

A graph of maximum kinetic energy KEmax against frequency f can be obtained

g
or
s.
rd
lo
er
ap
.p
w
w
w

The key elements of the graph:

by

The work function Φ is the y-intercept

The threshold frequency f0 is the x-intercept
ed

The gradient is equal to Planck's constant h

ct

There are no electrons emitted below the threshold frequency f0

lle

Threshold Frequency
co

The threshold frequency is defined as:

The minimum frequency of incident electromagnetic radiation required to
remove a photoelectron from the surface of a metal

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Worked Example YOUR NOTES

 The graph below shows how the maximum kinetic energy Ek of electrons

emitted from the surface of sodium metal varies with the frequency f of the
incident radiation.

Calculate the

g
or
s.
rd
work function of sodium in eV.

lo
er
ap
Step 1: Write out the photoelectric equation and rearrange to fit the equation of a
straight line
.p
w

E = hf = Φ + ½ mv2max → KEmax = hf - Φ
w

y = mx + c
w

Identify the threshold frequency from the x-axis of the graph

by

Step 2:

When Ek = 0, f = f0
ed

Therefore, the threshold frequency is f0 = 4 × 10 14 Hz

ct

Calculate the work function

lle

Step 3:
co

From the graph at f0, ½ mvmax2 = 0

Φ = hf0 = (6.63 × 10 -34) × (4 × 1014) = 2.652 × 10-19 J

Step 4: Convert the work function into eV

1 eV = 1.6 × 10-19 J J → eV: divide by 1.6 × 10-19
−19
2 . 652 × 10
E= = 1 . 66 eV
1 . 6 × 10−19

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YOUR NOTES
 Exam Tip
When using the photoelectric effect equation, hf, Φ and KE must all have 
max
the same units, and that the S.I. unit of energy is Joules.
But the energy involved in these interactions is tiny, which is why we use a
different unit for it, the electron volt. Make sure to convert any values given
in eV into Joules before starting to calculate.
Remember that the eV is much smaller than the Joule, so your value of eV
will be high in comparison. This is why we often use MeV when describing
these energies.

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5.36 The Electronvolt YOUR NOTES


The Electronvolt
The electronvolt is a unit which is commonly used to express very small energies
This is because quantum energies tend to be much smaller than 1 Joule
The electronvolt is derived from the definition of potential difference:

When an electron travels through a potential difference, energy is transferred

between two points in a circuit, or electric field
If an electron, with a charge of 1.6 × 10-19 C, travels through a potential difference
of 1 V, the energy transferred is equal to:

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or
E = QV = 1.6 × 10 -19 C × 1 V = 1.6 × 10-19 J

s.
Therefore, an electronvolt is defined as:

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The energy gained by an electron travelling through a potential difference of one

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volt

1 eV = 1.6 × 10-19 J er
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Relation to kinetic energy
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When a charged particle is accelerated through a potential difference, it gains

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kinetic energy
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If an electron accelerates from rest, an electronvolt is equal to the kinetic energy

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gained:
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eV = ½ mv2
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Rearranging the equation gives the speed of the electron:

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 Worked Example
Show that the photon energy of light with wavelength 700nm is about 1.8
eV.

Step 1: Write the equations for wave speed and photon energy

Step 2: Calculate the photon energy in Joules

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YOUR NOTES

Step 3: Convert the photon energy into electronvolts

1 eV = 1.6 × 10-19 J J → eV: divide by 1.6 × 10-19

 Exam Tip
To convert between eV and J:
eV → J: multiply by 1.6 × 10-19
J → eV: divide by 1.6 × 10-19

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5.37 The Particle Nature of EM Radiation YOUR NOTES


The Particle Nature of EM Radiation
The Particle Nature of Light
In classical wave theory, electromagnetic (EM) radiation is assumed to behave as a
wave
This is demonstrated by the fact EM radiation exhibits phenomena such as
diffraction and interference
However, experiments from the last century, such as the photoelectric effect and
atomic line spectra, can only be explained if EM radiation is assumed to behave as
particles
Evidence for the Particle Nature of Light

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The best evidence for the particle nature of light comes from the photoelectric

or
effect

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This is demonstrated using the Gold-leaf Electroscope

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Observations of the Gold Leaf Experiment

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The explanation for these observations supports the theory of light as a particle,
specifically a discrete packet (or photon) of energy er
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Placing the UV light source closer to the metal plate causes the gold leaf to
fall more quickly
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Using a higher frequency light source does not change how quickly the gold
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leaf falls
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Using a filament light source causes no change in the gold leaf’s position
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Using a positively charged plate causes no change in the gold leaf’s position
Emission of photoelectrons happens as soon as the radiation is incident on
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the surface of the metal

Each of the observations is explained below
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YOUR NOTES


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Typical set-up of the gold leaf electroscope experiment
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Placing the UV light source closer to the metal plate causes the gold leaf
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to fall more quickly

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Placing the UV source closer to the plate increases the intensity incident on the
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surface of the metal

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Increasing the intensity, or brightness, of the incident radiation increases the

number of photoelectrons emitted per second
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Therefore, the gold leaf loses negative charge more rapidly

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Using a higher frequency light source does not change how quickly the
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gold leaf falls

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The maximum kinetic energy of the emitted electrons increases with the frequency
of the incident radiation
In the case of the photoelectric effect, energy and frequency are independent
of the intensity of the radiation
So, the intensity of the incident radiation affects how quickly the gold leaf
falls, not the frequency
Using a filament light source causes no change in the gold leaf’s position
If the incident frequency is below a certain threshold frequency, no electrons are
emitted, no matter the intensity of the radiation
A filament light source has a frequency below the threshold frequency of the
metal, so, no photoelectrons are released

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Using a positively charged plate causes no change in the gold leaf’s YOUR NOTES
position 
If the plate is positively charged, that means there is an excess of positive charge
on the surface of the metal plate
Electrons are negatively charged, so they will not be emitted unless they are
on the surface of the metal
Any electrons emitted will be attracted back by positive charges on the surface
of the metal
Emission of photoelectrons happens as soon as the radiation is incident
on the surface of the metal
A single photon interacts with a single electron
If the energy of the photon is equal to the work function of the metal,
photoelectrons will be released instantaneously

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5.38 Atomic Line Spectra YOUR NOTES


Atomic Line Spectra
An emission line spectrum is produced when:
An excited electron in an atom moves from a higher to a lower energy level
and emits a photon with an energy corresponding to the difference between
these energy levels

Each element produces a unique emission line spectrum due to its unique set of
energy levels
Hot gases produce emission line spectra, such as stars
When the atoms of a gas are excited, electrons gain energy and move to higher
energy levels

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When an electron moves from a higher energy level to a lower energy level, a photon
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is released
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Electrons cannot stay in a continuous state of excitation, so they will move back to
lower energy levels through de-excitation
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During de-excitation, energy must be conserved, so transitions result in an

emission of photons with discrete frequencies (or wavelengths) specific to
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that element
Since there are many possible electron transitions for each atom, there are
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many different radiated wavelengths

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This creates a line spectrum consisting of a series of bright lines against a

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dark background
An emission line spectrum acts as a fingerprint of the element

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An example of the emission line spectrum of hydrogen YOUR NOTES

Each line of the emission spectrum corresponds to a different energy level 
transition within the atom
Electrons can transition between energy levels absorbing or emitting a
discrete amount of energy
An excited electron can transition down to the next energy level or move to a
further level closer to the ground state
For example, if an atom has six energy levels:
At low temperatures, most electrons will occupy the ground state n = 1
At high temperatures, electrons may be excited to the most excited state n = 6

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Energy and frequency of a photon are directly proportional

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The energy of a photon is given by the equation:
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E = hf
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Using energy can be written as:

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hc
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E= λ
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Where:
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E = energy of the photon (J)

h = Planck's constant(J s)
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c = speed of light (m s-1)

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f = frequency (Hz)
λ = wavelength (m)
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The energy required to move from one energy level to another is given by the
difference of energy between the two energy levels:
ΔE = E1 – E2
Where:
E1 = energy associated with the level that the electron has left (eV)
E2 = energy associated with the level that the electron moves to (eV)
The difference of energy corresponds to the energy of the absorbed (or emitted)
photon:
hc
ΔE = E1 – E2 = hf = λ

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For each transition, a photon will be emitted with a specific wavelength YOUR NOTES
In the case of hydrogen, all wavelengths are in the visible range: 
From n = 6 to n = 2 - violet
From n = 5 to n = 2 - blue
From n = 4 to n = 2 - light blue
From n = 3 to n = 2 - red

If the emitted photons are in the visible range, wavelengths can be represented as
lines of the respective colour against a black background

Emitted photons can have a range of wavelengths spanning the whole

electromagnetic spectrum

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The wavelength is inversely proportional to the energy level transition

or
associated with the emitted photon

s.
For example, the transitions for hydrogen will be as follows:

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To n = 1 (ground level) – ultraviolet, highest energy, high frequency, short

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wavelength
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To n = 2 – visible light, violet is the highest energy, red is the lowest energy
To n = 3 – infrared light, lowest energy, low frequency, longest wavelength
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The larger the energy transition, the

longer the wavelength of the emitted
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photon
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 Exam Tip
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Although the difference in energy

ΔE = E1 – E2 can be expressed in
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eV, you need to convert this value

in Joules when you are asked to
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calculate either the frequency or

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wavelength of the emitted photon.

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You are expected to be able to

calculate the frequency or the
wavelength of a photon, given a
specific transition on an energy
levels diagram or to identify a
specific transition on a given
diagram when provided with the value of frequency or wavelength.
You are not expected to know the Bohr formula as given in the worked
example - this is just an example of an unfamiliar context you could be
given that you have to apply your knowledge to.

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