Unit 1 – Computer Fundamentals

Evolution of Computers
Abacus
• Invented by the Mesopotamians around 3000 BC.
• Consisted of beads on movable rods divided into two parts Heaven and Earth. The bar
that divides Heaven and Earth is called Divider. Each rod in Heaven has 2 beads and
the Earth has 5 beads.
• Used for addition and multiplication by moving beads.
• The Chinese further improved the abacus to make calculations easier.
Napier’s Logs and Bones
• The idea of logarithm was developed by John Napier in 1617.
• A set of rods called Napier’s Bones used for multiplication and division.
• Simplified calculations using logarithmic principles.
• Multiplication was done by arranging rods representing digits of numbers.
Pascaline
• Blaise Pascal, a French mathematician invented an adding machine in 1642.
• A mechanical adding machine made of gears and toothed wheels.
• Could perform addition and subtraction with carry-over.
• Operated on the principle of clockwork mechanisms.
Leibnitz’s Calculator
• Developed by Gottfried Leibnitz a German mathematician in 1673.
• Extended Pascal’s machine to perform multiplication and division.
• Used a stepped cylinder to achieve repeated addition for multiplication.
Jacquard’s Loom
• Invented by Joseph Marie Jacquard in 1801.
• Used punched cards to automate weaving patterns in looms.
• Introduced the concept of programmable machines with stored instructions.
• Inspired later computer programming with punched cards.
Difference Engine and Analytical Engine
• Charles Babbage, an English mathematician developed a machine called Difference
Engine in 1822 which could calculate various mathematical functions, perform
polynomial evaluation (by finite difference) and theoretically could also solve
differential equations.
• Thereafter in 1833, Charles Babbage designed the Analytical Engine which later on
proved to be the basis of modern computers. This machine could perform all the four
arithmetic operations as well as comparison. It included the concept of central
 processor, memory storage and input-output devices. Even the stored information could
be modified. Both these great inventions earned him the title of Father of Modern
Computers.
Mark 1
• In 1944, Prof. Howard Aiken in collaboration with IBM constructed an
electromechanical computer named Mark 1.
• An electromechanical computer capable of multiplying two 10-digit numbers in 5
seconds.
• Based on Babbage’s Analytical Engine concept.
• First operational general-purpose computer executing preprogrammed instructions.
Von-Neumann Architecture (1945)
• Proposed by Dr. John Von Neumann.
• Introduced the concept of a stored program computer: storing program and data in the
same memory.
• Processor fetches instructions and data sequentially.
• Limitation - Only one data or instruction can be fetched at a time.
• First stored program computer based on this was EDVAC in 1952.
ENIAC-ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator) was the first electronic
computer invented in 1946.
EDVAC-EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer) was the first stored
program computer developed in 1952.

Generations of Computers
First Generation (1940–1956)
• Technology: Vacuum Tubes
• Features:
o Very large machines, consumed lots of electricity, generated heat
o Unreliable, frequent failures
o Programming in machine language (binary 0s and 1s)
o Needed continuous air conditioning
• Examples: ENIAC, UNIVAC, EDVAC
• Note: ENIAC weighed 27 tons and consumed ~150 kW power
Second Generation (1956–1964)
• Technology: Transistors
• Features:
o Smaller, faster, more reliable, less power consumption
 o Introduced magnetic core memories and magnetic disks
o First operating systems developed
o Programming in assembly and early high-level languages (FORTRAN,
COBOL)
• Examples: IBM 1401, IBM 7094, IBM 1620, UNIVAC 1108
Third Generation (1964–1975)
• Technology: Integrated Circuits (ICs)
• Features:
o Smaller, faster, more reliable, energy-efficient
o Supported multiprogramming and multitasking OS
o Use of high-level languages like COBOL, FORTRAN
o Widely used in education, business, and industry
• Examples: IBM 360 series, Honeywell 6000 series
Fourth Generation (1971 – Present)
• Technology: Microprocessors, LSI and VLSI
• Features:
o Entire CPU on a single chip (microprocessor)
o Portable, powerful, reliable, low cost
o Advanced OS, microprogramming, virtual memory, application software
o Rise of GUIs, PCs, networking, and data communication
• Examples: Intel 4004, IBM PC
Fifth Generation (Present & Future)
• Technology: Artificial Intelligence (AI), Parallel Processing, Superconductivity
• Features:
o Computers with human-like intelligence
o Voice and visual recognition, robotics, natural language processing
o Capable of learning from experience and making decisions
• Goal: Develop machines that think, learn, and behave like humans
Summary: -
Generation Technology Used Key Features
1st Vacuum Tubes Large, slow, machine language only
2nd Transistors Smaller, faster, assembly language
3rd Integrated Circuits (ICs) High-level languages, more reliable
4th Microprocessors PCs, GUIs, portable, faster processing
5th AI & Advanced Chips Smart systems, learning, autonomous
Definition of a Computer
A computer is an electronic device that can be programmed to accept data (input), process the
data according to a set of instructions (program) and generate result (output).
This cycle is called the IPO Cycle, which stands for:
• Input – Entering data into the computer
• Processing – Performing operations on the data
• Output – Displaying the results
It is also known as a data processor because it processes data to give information.
Data and Information
• The word “data” is the plural form of “datum”.
• It can be defined as raw and unorganized facts that are processed to get meaningful
information.
• It can be a number, symbol, character, word, codes, graphs, image etc.
• Data when processed and represented in useful and meaningful form is known as
information.
Information is the result of data processing where data is organized and arranged in an order.

Hardware and Software

Hardware - Hardware refers to the physical components of a computer system that can be seen
and touched. These are the tangible parts that make up the computer.
Examples: Keyboard, Mouse, Monitor, Printer
Software - Software is a set of instructions or programs that tell the hardware what to do and
helps the hardware perform specific tasks. It is intangible (cannot be touched).
Examples: Operating System, MS Word, Web Browser

Characteristics of a Computer
• Speed: A computer can work very fast. It can execute millions of instructions at a very
high speed.
• Accuracy: In addition to being fast, computers are very accurate. The degree of accuracy
of the computer is very high and every calculation is performed with the same accuracy
for all the inputs.
• Reliability: Computer is are reliable as it gives consistent results for similar sets of data
i.e., if we give the same set of input any number of times, we will get the same result.
• Storage: It can store large amounts of data and make it accessible immediately and
correctly as and when desired. The various storage devices like HDDs, CDs, DVDs, Pen
drives, etc. are used to store the data.
• Diligence: A computer is free from tiredness, lack of concentration, fatigue, etc. It can
work for hours without creating any error.
 • Versatility: Versatility refers to the capability of a computer to perform different kinds
of works with same accuracy and efficiency. For example, on a computer we can play
games, watch movies, perform calculations, surf the internet, send emails, draw pictures
etc.
• Reduction in manpower: The work which was done by many persons in an office can
be done by one computer with more accuracy and efficiency.
• No IQ: A computer cannot make its own decision. It cannot do any work without
instructions.
• No Feeling: It does not have feelings, emotions, taste, etc.

Functions of a Computer
1. Input- It is the process of entering data and instructions into the computer system from
input devices like a keyboard, mouse, scanner, etc.
2. Processing-The CPU processes the input data based on the instructions given. It
performs calculations and comparisons to convert raw data into useful information.
3. Store-The computer can store data and instructions temporarily (in RAM) or
permanently (in hard disk, SSD, etc.) for future use.
4. Output-After processing, the computer produces results (information) that are
displayed to the user through output devices like monitors, printers, or speakers.
5. Retrieve-The computer can retrieve stored data and programs from memory whenever
needed to reuse or continue processing.
Block diagram of a Computer System

Functional Components of Computer

Input Unit
The Input Unit is the part of a computer system that is responsible for accepting data and
instructions from the user and converting them into a form (binary form) that the computer can
understand.
Functions of the Input Unit
1. Accepts data and instructions from the user.
2. Converts the data into binary format (0s and 1s).
3. Sends the converted data to the main memory (RAM) of the computer for further
processing.
Examples:
• Keyboard – For typing text and commands.
• Mouse – For selecting and pointing.
• Scanner – For digitizing physical documents.
• Touchscreen – For direct interaction through touch.
• Microphone – For voice input.

Output Unit
The Output Unit is the part of a computer system that is responsible for displaying or presenting
the result of the computer’s processing to the user in a human-readable form.
Functions of the Output Unit
1. Receives processed data (output) from the CPU.
2. Converts the data from binary (digital form) into a human-understandable form (text,
image, sound, etc.).
3. Delivers the result to the user through an output device.
Examples
• Monitor (VDU) – Displays text, images, and videos.
• Printer – Produces hard copies of documents or images.
• Speakers – Output sound (music, alerts, voice).
• Projector – Projects display onto a screen.

Central Processing Unit

The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is the brain of the computer. It is the part of the computer
that carries out all the processing by following the instructions given by the user through
programs.
It is also called the processor or microprocessor.
Functions of the CPU
1. Fetches instructions from memory.
2. Decodes the instructions.
 3. Executes them using arithmetic and logical operations.
4. Sends the result back to memory or output devices.
Main Components of CPU are ALU, CU and Registers
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
• Performs all arithmetic operations (addition, subtraction, etc.)
• Performs logical operations (comparisons like greater than, equal to)
Control Unit (CU)
• Directs and controls the working of the CPU
• Executes instructions in a sequence
• Manages data flow between memory, ALU, and I/O devices
Registers
• Small, high-speed storage locations inside the CPU.
• Temporarily hold data, instructions, or intermediate results.

Storage Unit (Memory Unit)

The Storage Unit of a computer is responsible for storing data, instructions, and results for
current or future use. It holds data temporarily or permanently, depending on the type of
memory used.
Functions of the Storage Unit
1. Stores data and instructions before processing.
2. Stores intermediate results during processing.
3. Stores final results after processing for future use.
Types of Storage
Primary Memory
Primary memory is the main memory of the computer. It is used to store data and instructions
that the computer is currently using.
• It is fast and directly accessible by the CPU.
• It is usually volatile, which means data is lost when the power is turned off.
Examples: RAM (Random Access Memory), ROM (Read Only Memory), Cache Memory
Secondary Memory
Secondary memory is the permanent storage of the computer. It is used to store data and
programs for long-term use.
• It is non-volatile, so the data remains safe even when the power is off.
• It is slower than primary memory but has larger storage capacity.
Examples: Hard Disk Drive (HDD), Pen Drive, CD/DVD, Memory Card

Random Access Memory (RAM)

It is a volatile memory as the data loses when the power is turned OFF. It is used to store the
programs and data being used by the CPU in real time. It is called “random” because we can
read/store data randomly at any time and from any physical location. The data on the RAM
can be read, written, and erased any number of times.
It is further classified into two types – Static RAM and Dynamic RAM.
Static RAM (SRAM): It is a type of memory that requires a constant power supply in order to
hold the data and information. It is a group of flip flops that holds each bit of data. It does not
need to be refreshed constantly like DRAM. It is faster, expensive and consumes more power.
Dynamic RAM (DRAM): It is another form of RAM used as main memory. The term dynamic
indicates that the memory must be constantly refreshed, otherwise, it will lose its contents. It
stores each bit in a storage cell consisting of a capacitor and a transistor. It is slower, less
expensive and consumes less power as compared to SRAM.

Read Only Memory (ROM)

It is a non-volatile memory which could retain the data even when power is turned OFF. It is
most commonly used to store system-level programs that are essential to operate the computer
system, like the program essential to boot the computer. It is used in embedded systems or
where the programming needs no change.
It is further classified as- PROM, EPROM, and EEPROM.
PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory) – It can be programmed by user. But, once
programmed, the data and instructions in it cannot be changed. To write data onto a PROM
chip, we need a special device called a PROM burner.
EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory) – It can be reprogrammed. To erase
data from it, it is exposed to ultraviolet rays of a specific frequency. To write and erase data
onto an EPROM chip, we need a special device called an EPROM burner.
EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory) – It is chip that can
be erased and reprogrammed by applying electric field. There is no need of ultraviolet light.
We can erase only portions of the chip.

Cache Memory
Cache Memory is an extremely fast memory which is placed between main memory and CPU.
It is made of high-speed Static RAM (SRAM) and is very expensive. It consumes less access
time as compared to main memory. It is used to reduce the speed mismatch between CPU and
main memory. It acts like a buffer that stores frequently requested data and instructions so that
they are immediately available to the CPU when needed.
The steps to access the data from cache memory are:
● A request is made by the CPU.
● Cache is checked for data.
● If the data is found in the cache, it is returned to the CPU (this is called a cache hit)
● If the data is not found in the cache, then it will be fetched from the main memory.

The following are the different levels of cache memory: -

Level 1 (L1) cache - It is also called primary or internal cache. It is integrated with the
processor core that is used to store information recently accessed by a processor.
Level 2 (L2) cache - It is also called secondary cache or external cache. It may be embedded
on a separate chip on the motherboard and have a high-speed alternate system bus connecting
the cache and CPU.

Hard Disk Drive (HDD)

A Hard Disk Drive is a non-volatile, random access digital storage device for computers. It is
made up of a series of circular disks called platters arranged one over the other and housed
inside an air-sealed casing. Data is written to the platters using a magnetic head, which moves
rapidly over them as they spin. Each side of each platter has a read/write head that floats over
the surface of the rapidly spinning disk and picks up (reads) magnetically stored data, or records
(writes) data onto the disk. It also consists of a spindle that holds all platers. Each platter has
the same number of tracks which are further divided into sectors. The capacity of a hard drive
is usually measured in gigabytes (GB), however hard disk capacity can also be measured in
terabytes when the capacity is over 1000 gigabytes.

Compact Disk (CD)

It is a flat, round, optical storage medium invented by James Russell. It can store software
programs, save files for backup or transfer to another computer, as well as hold audio or video
in digital form. Laser beam technology is used for recording/reading of data on the disk. It is
also known as optical laser disk. It is relatively cheap, small and portable. It can store
approximately 700MB of data. It is categorized into various types like CD-R, CD-RW etc.
Digital Video Disk (DVD)
It is also known as Digital Versatile Disc. It is a digital optical disc storage media used to store
high-capacity data like high quality videos and movies. It has high density. It is capable of
storing more data than a standard compact disc while having the same dimensions. Physically,
a DVD and CD look the same. It has a capacity of 4.7GB to 8.5GB. It comes into different
varieties like DVD-R, DVD-RW etc.
Pen drive
It is a data storage device that consists of flash memory with an integrated Universal Serial Bus
interface (USB). It is also referred to as a USB flash drive, data stick or thumb drive. It is a
portable storage device that contains only an integrated circuit memory chip which is used to
store data. It connects to a computer via a USB port. Pen drives are an easy way
to store and transfer information between computers. It is available in various storage
capacities as 1GB, 2GB, 4GB, 8GB, 16GB, 32GB, 64GB etc.

Units of Memory
Unit Size
1 bit Smallest unit: 0 or 1
1 nibble 4 bits
1 byte 8 bits
1 kilobyte (KB) 1024 bytes
1 megabyte (MB) 1024 KB
1 gigabyte (GB) 1024 MB
1 terabyte (TB) 1024 GB
1 petabyte (PB) 1024 TB
1 exabyte (EB) 1024 PB
1 zettabyte (ZB) 1024 EB
1 yottabyte (YB) 1024 ZB

Booting
Booting is the process of starting a computer and loading the operating system into the main
memory so that the computer can begin to operate.
When you switch on the computer, it performs a series of checks and then loads the operating
system automatically to make the computer ready for use.
Steps in Booting Process
1. Power on → Boot program loaded from ROM to RAM.
2. CPU executes BIOS.
3. BIOS runs POST (self-tests).
4. BIOS locates bootable drive and loads boot sector.
5. Boot Strap Loader loads OS.
Types of Booting
1. Cold Booting (Hard Booting)
This happens when you switch on the computer from a completely off state. The
computer performs all the initial checks and starts fresh.
2. Warm Booting (Soft Booting)
This happens when the computer restarts without turning off the power, like when you
press the Reset button. The system skips some initial checks and starts faster.