Republic of the Philippines

COTABATO FOUNDATION COLLEGEOF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Doroluman, Arakan, Cotabato
www.cfcst.edu.ph/[email protected]

OFFICE OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL

DOCTOR OF EDUCATION major in EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT (EdD)

Student’s Name: Salima A. Makina Year & Section:EDDK 2 - A

Course: EDD 613 – Comparative and Professor: Dr. LUMINA D. CABILO
Current Practices in Educational
Management

TOPICS:
Unit 11: Education in the United States of America
1.0Introduction
2.02.0 Objective
3.0The Content
3.2.1 Background
3.2.2 Pre- School Education
3.2.3 Elementary Education
3.2.4 Secondary Education
3.2.5 Upper Secondary Schools
3.2.6 Teacher Education
3.2.7 Adult Education
3.2.8 Special Education
3.2.9 Tertiary Education
3.2.10 Financing Education
4.0 Conclusion

I. Introduction

The roots of formal education in the United States can be traced back to
colonial times when early settlers established schools primarily for religious
instruction. Over time, the concept of education expanded beyond religious
teachings to include basic literacy and numeracy skills necessary for civic
engagement and economic advancement.

One of the most significant milestones in the history of American education was
the establishment of public education systems in the 19th century. Horace Mann,
often referred to as the "Father of American Education," played a key role in
advocating for universal public education as a means of promoting social mobility
and democratic ideals. The establishment of free, compulsory education helped
lay the groundwork for a more equitable and accessible education system.

Throughout the 20th century, education in the United States underwent

significant reforms and expansions. The landmark Brown v. Board of Education
Supreme Court decision in 1954 declared segregation in public schools
unconstitutional, marking a pivotal moment in the fight for educational equity
and civil rights.

The latter half of the 20th century saw the emergence of educational movements
such as desegregation, bilingual education, special education rights, and the
implementation of standardized testing. These developments, along with federal
initiatives such as the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) and the
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), aimed to address disparities in
educational access and outcomes among different demographic groups.

II. Objective

The objectives of education in the United States encompass a broad range of

goals aimed at preparing students to become knowledgeable, skilled, and
responsible members of society. While specific objectives may vary across
different levels and institutions of education, as well as individual philosophies
and perspectives, some common overarching goals include:

1. Academic Excellence: One of the primary objectives of education in the

United States is to foster academic excellence by providing students with a
rigorous curriculum that promotes critical thinking, problem-solving, and
intellectual growth. This objective emphasizes the importance of mastering
core academic subjects such as mathematics, science, language arts, social
studies, and the arts.
2. Preparation for College and Career: Education aims to prepare
students for success in post-secondary education, whether in colleges,
universities, vocational schools, or other training programs. Additionally,
education seeks to equip students with the knowledge, skills, and
competencies necessary to pursue fulfilling careers and adapt to the
demands of the workforce in an ever-changing global economy.
3. Personal Development: Education in the United States aims to promote
the holistic development of students by nurturing their social, emotional,
and physical well-being. This objective emphasizes the importance of
character development, interpersonal skills, empathy, resilience, and self-
awareness, fostering qualities that contribute to personal growth and
positive relationships.
4. Civic Engagement and Democracy: Education plays a vital role in
preparing students to participate actively in civic life and uphold
democratic values. This objective emphasizes the importance of civic
literacy, democratic principles, civic responsibility, and engagement in
community affairs, empowering students to become informed and engaged
citizens who contribute to the betterment of society.
5. Cultural Understanding and Diversity: Education seeks to promote
cultural understanding, appreciation, and respect for diversity. This
objective emphasizes the importance of exposing students to a variety of
perspectives, experiences, and cultures, fostering empathy, tolerance, and
cross-cultural communication skills essential for navigating an increasingly
interconnected and diverse world.
 6. Lifelong Learning: Education aims to instill a love of learning and the
skills necessary for lifelong intellectual curiosity and growth. This objective
emphasizes the importance of developing habits of inquiry, critical thinking,
creativity, and adaptability, empowering students to continue learning and
evolving throughout their lives.

III. The Content

The content of education in the United States encompasses a wide range of

subjects and topics designed to provide students with a well-rounded and
comprehensive understanding of various disciplines. While specific content may
vary across different grade levels, schools, and educational philosophies, some
common core subjects and areas of study include:

A. Background

The background of education in the United States is characterized by a

series of significant historical developments that have shaped its evolution into
the diverse and complex system it is today:

1. Colonial Period (17th and 18th centuries):

2. Early National Period (late 18th to early 19th centuries):
3. Common School Movement (mid-19th century):
4. Progressive Era (late 19th to early 20th centuries):
5. Civil Rights Movement and Beyond (mid-20th century to present):
6.
B. Pre-School Education

1. Types of Preschool Programs:

Public Preschools: Some states and school districts offer public preschool
programs, either as part of the public school system or through community-based
partnerships. These programs may be free or offered at a subsidized cost for
eligible families.

Private Preschools: Private preschools are operated by independent

organizations, including religious institutions, non-profit organizations, and for-
profit businesses. Parents typically pay tuition fees for their children to attend
private preschools.

Head Start and Early Head Start: Head Start and Early Head Start are federally
funded programs that provide comprehensive early childhood education, health,
nutrition, and family support services to low-income children and their families.

Child Care Centers and Family Child Care Homes: Many child care centers and
family child care homes offer preschool programs as part of their services. These
programs may operate on a full-day or part-day basis and provide care and
education for young children.

2. Curriculum and Learning Goals:

Preschool curriculum typically focuses on holistic development across multiple
domains, including cognitive, language, social-emotional, and physical
development.

Learning activities in preschool often incorporate play-based, hands-on

experiences that are developmentally appropriate and culturally responsive.

Common learning goals for preschool education include developing early literacy
and numeracy skills, fostering social skills and emotional regulation, promoting
creativity and problem-solving abilities, and building a positive self-concept.

3. Teacher Qualifications and Standards:

Preschool teachers may have varying levels of education and training, ranging
from Child Development Associate (CDA) credentials to bachelor's or master's
degrees in early childhood education or a related field.

Some states have established standards and licensure requirements for

preschool teachers and programs to ensure quality and accountability.

4. Parent Involvement and Family Support:

Preschool programs often emphasize the importance of parent involvement and

family engagement in children's learning and development.

Many preschools offer opportunities for parents to participate in activities,

workshops, and events, as well as to communicate regularly with teachers and
staff about their child's progress.

Family support services may include referrals to community resources, parenting

education, and assistance with accessing health and social services.

c. Elementary Education
1. Grade Levels: Elementary education typically encompasses grades
kindergarten through fifth or sixth, depending on the structure of the school
district. Some elementary schools may include grades up to eighth grade.

2. Curriculum:

The elementary curriculum is designed to provide students with a well-rounded

education across various subject areas, including language arts (reading, writing,
and communication skills), mathematics, science, social studies, and sometimes
arts and physical education.

Instruction in elementary schools often focuses on foundational skills and

concepts in each subject area, laying the groundwork for more advanced learning
in later grades.

Elementary schools may also incorporate enrichment activities, hands-on

learning experiences, and interdisciplinary projects to engage students and foster
creativity and critical thinking.

3. Teaching Methods:
Elementary education often employs a variety of teaching methods and
instructional strategies tailored to the developmental needs and learning styles
of young children.

Teachers may use a combination of whole-group instruction, small-group

activities, individualized instruction, and hands-on learning experiences to meet
the diverse needs of students.

Differentiated instruction, collaborative learning, and project-based learning are

common approaches used to accommodate students with varying abilities and
interests.

4. Assessment and Evaluation:

Assessment in elementary education involves ongoing monitoring of student

progress and understanding through a variety of formative and summative
assessments, including quizzes, tests, projects, and observations.

Standardized testing may also be used to assess student achievement and to

measure school and district performance in accordance with state and federal
accountability requirements.

5. Special Programs and Support Services:

Elementary schools may offer special programs and support services to meet the
needs of diverse learners, including students with disabilities, English language
learners, and students who are gifted and talented.

Special education services, English as a Second Language (ESL) programs, gifted

education programs, and interventions for struggling learners are examples of
services that may be available in elementary schools.

D.Secondary Education

1. Grade Levels: Secondary education typically encompasses grades 9

through 12, with students typically entering high school at age 14 or 15
and graduating at age 17 or 18.
2. Curriculum:

The secondary curriculum is designed to provide students with a comprehensive

and rigorous education across various subject areas, including English/language
arts, mathematics, science, social studies, and electives.

In addition to core academic subjects, high schools may offer a wide range of
elective courses in areas such as foreign languages, fine arts, technology, career
and technical education (CTE), and physical education.

The curriculum is structured to meet state academic standards and graduation

requirements, which may vary from state to state but generally include a certain
number of credits earned in core subjects and electives.

3. Teaching Methods:

Secondary education employs a variety of teaching methods and instructional

strategies to engage students and promote deeper learning and critical thinking.
Teachers may use a combination of lectures, discussions, hands-on activities,
group projects, and technology-enhanced learning to deliver instruction and
facilitate student learning.

Differentiated instruction and personalized learning approaches are often used to

accommodate students with varying abilities, interests, and learning styles.

4. Assessment and Evaluation:

Assessment in secondary education includes both formative and summative

assessments to measure student progress and achievement.

Formative assessments, such as quizzes, homework assignments, and class

discussions, provide ongoing feedback to inform instruction and support student
learning.

Summative assessments, such as tests, projects, and standardized exams (e.g.,

SAT, ACT), are used to evaluate student mastery of content and to measure
academic performance for purposes of grading, promotion, and college
admissions.

5. Extracurricular Activities and Support Services:

Secondary schools often offer a wide range of extracurricular activities, clubs,

and sports teams to provide students with opportunities for enrichment, personal
growth, and social development.

Support services may include counseling and guidance, college and career
planning, special education services, English as a Second Language (ESL)
support, and interventions for students who are struggling academically or
socially.

E. Upper Secondary Education

Here's an overview of upper secondary education in the United States:

1. Grade Levels: Upper secondary education typically includes grades 10

through 12, although some high schools may include ninth grade as part of
the high school experience.
2. Curriculum:

The curriculum in upper secondary education builds upon the foundation laid in
earlier grades and aims to provide students with a comprehensive and rigorous
education across various subject areas.

Core academic subjects, such as English/language arts, mathematics, science,

and social studies, continue to be emphasized, often with increasing complexity
and depth.

Upper secondary students may also have the opportunity to choose elective
courses based on their interests and career goals, such as foreign languages, fine
arts, technology, career and technical education (CTE), and Advanced Placement
(AP) or International Baccalaureate (IB) courses.

3. College and Career Readiness:

Upper secondary education places a strong emphasis on preparing students for
success beyond high school, whether they choose to pursue higher education,
enter the workforce, or pursue other post-secondary pathways.

College preparatory programs often include advanced coursework, standardized

test preparation (e.g., SAT or ACT), college and career counseling, and
opportunities for dual enrollment in college courses for high school credit.

Career and technical education (CTE) programs provide students with hands-on
training and skills development in specific vocational fields, preparing them for
entry-level employment or further education in those fields.

4. Assessment and Evaluation:

Assessment in upper secondary education includes both formative and

summative assessments to measure student progress and achievement.

Standardized tests, such as state assessments, the SAT, the ACT, and Advanced
Placement (AP) exams, may be used to evaluate student mastery of content and
to measure academic performance for purposes of grading, promotion, and
college admissions.

5. Extracurricular Activities and Support Services:

Upper secondary schools offer a wide range of extracurricular activities, clubs,

sports teams, and leadership opportunities to enhance students' social,
emotional, and personal development.

Support services, such as counseling and guidance, college and career planning,
special education services, and interventions for students who are struggling
academically or socially, are also available to help students succeed.

F. Teacher Education

Teacher education in the United States refers to the process of

preparing individuals to become licensed teachers and enter the teaching
profession. It encompasses a combination of academic coursework, field
experiences, and practical training designed to equip aspiring educators with
the knowledge, skills, and competencies needed to effectively teach and
support student learning.
1. Preparation Pathways:

Bachelor's Degree Programs: Many aspiring teachers pursue a bachelor's degree

in education or a specific subject area (e.g., English, mathematics, science) with
a focus on teacher preparation. These programs typically include coursework in
education theory, teaching methods, classroom management, child development,
and assessment, as well as supervised student teaching experiences in schools.

Alternative Certification Programs: Some individuals may enter the teaching

profession through alternative routes, such as post-baccalaureate certification
programs, Teach For America, or state-specific alternative pathways. These
programs allow individuals with a bachelor's degree in a non-education field to
become certified teachers by completing a condensed teacher preparation
program and fulfilling specific requirements set by the state or school district.
Graduate Programs: Many universities offer graduate programs in education,
including master's degrees and doctoral degrees, for individuals seeking
advanced training and expertise in teaching, educational leadership, curriculum
development, or specialized areas of education.

2. Curriculum and Coursework:

Teacher education programs typically include a combination of coursework in

education theory, pedagogy, curriculum design, assessment and evaluation,
classroom management, diversity and equity, educational psychology, and
special education.

Coursework may also cover topics such as educational technology, literacy

instruction, bilingual education, multicultural education, and inclusive practices to
prepare teachers to work effectively with diverse student populations.

3. Field Experiences and Clinical Practice:

Teacher education programs incorporate field experiences and clinical practice to

provide aspiring teachers with hands-on, practical training in real classroom
settings.

Field experiences may include observations, practicum experiences, and

internships in schools, where teacher candidates have the opportunity to observe
experienced teachers, work with students, and gradually assume teaching
responsibilities under the supervision of a mentor teacher.

Student teaching, typically conducted during the final semester or year of a

teacher preparation program, involves full-time immersion in a classroom setting,
where teacher candidates take on the role of the lead teacher and demonstrate
their ability to plan, deliver, and assess instruction effectively.

4. Teacher Certification and Licensure:

Upon completing a teacher education program, aspiring teachers must meet

state-specific requirements for teacher certification or licensure, which typically
include passing standardized tests (e.g., Praxis exams), completing a criminal
background check, and fulfilling any additional requirements set by the state
education agency.

Once certified, teachers may be required to participate in ongoing professional

development and continuing education to maintain their certification and stay
current with best practices in teaching and education.

G. Adult Education

Adult education in the United States refers to a wide range of

educational programs and services designed to meet the diverse learning
needs of adults beyond traditional K-12 schooling. Adult education
encompasses various opportunities for lifelong learning, skill development,
career advancement, personal enrichment, and community engagement.
1. Types of Programs:
Adult Basic Education (ABE): ABE programs provide foundational instruction in
basic literacy, numeracy, and English language skills for adults who have not
completed high school or who need to improve their basic skills for employment
or further education.

English as a Second Language (ESL): ESL programs offer instruction in English

language proficiency for adults who are non-native English speakers, helping
them develop speaking, listening, reading, and writing skills necessary for
everyday communication, employment, and community participation.

High School Equivalency (HSE) Preparation: HSE preparation programs help

adults prepare for and earn a high school equivalency credential, such as the
General Educational Development (GED) test or the High School Equivalency Test
(HiSET), which are recognized alternatives to a traditional high school diploma.

Career and Technical Education (CTE): CTE programs provide vocational training,
job skills development, and industry-recognized certifications in various
occupational fields, such as healthcare, information technology, construction,
manufacturing, and hospitality.

Adult Literacy and Continuing Education: Adult literacy programs offer

opportunities for ongoing learning and skill development in areas such as
computer literacy, financial literacy, health literacy, citizenship preparation, and
personal enrichment through classes, workshops, and community-based
programs.

2. Delivery Methods:

Adult education programs may be offered through a variety of delivery methods,

including traditional classroom instruction, distance learning, online courses,
blended learning (combining online and in-person instruction), and self-paced
study options.

Many adult education programs also offer flexible scheduling, evening and
weekend classes, and part-time options to accommodate the diverse needs and
schedules of adult learners, including working adults, parents, and individuals
with other responsibilities.

3. Providers:

Adult education programs and services are provided by a wide range of

organizations and institutions, including community colleges, public schools,
adult education centers, community-based organizations, nonprofit agencies,
libraries, workforce development agencies, and employers.

These providers often collaborate with each other and with local employers,
government agencies, and community organizations to develop and deliver
programs that address the specific needs of adult learners and support workforce
development initiatives.

4. Support Services:

Adult education programs may offer a variety of support services to help adult
learners succeed, such as tutoring, academic advising, counseling, career
counseling and placement assistance, financial aid and scholarships, childcare,
transportation assistance, and assistance with accessing social services.

H. Special Education

Special education in the United States refers to a range of services and

programs designed to meet the unique educational needs of students with
disabilities. These services are provided to ensure that all students, regardless
of their abilities or challenges, have access to a free and appropriate public
education that prepares them for academic success, independence, and
participation in society.
1. Legal Framework:

Special education in the United States is governed by federal laws, primarily the
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), which ensures that children
with disabilities receive a free, appropriate public education in the least
restrictive environment.

IDEA mandates that students with disabilities are entitled to an Individualized

Education Program (IEP), a personalized plan that outlines their educational
goals, services, accommodations, and modifications based on their unique needs
and abilities.

Other relevant laws include Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act and the
Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), which prohibit discrimination against
individuals with disabilities and require schools to provide accommodations and
support services to ensure equal access to education.

2. Identification and Evaluation:

The process of identifying students with disabilities begins with a comprehensive

evaluation conducted by a multidisciplinary team, which may include educators,
psychologists, speech therapists, and other specialists.
Eligibility for special education services is determined based on specific criteria
outlined in IDEA, which categorizes disabilities into 13 disability categories,
including learning disabilities, speech or language impairments, autism,
intellectual disabilities, emotional disturbances, and physical disabilities, among
others.

3. Individualized Education Program (IEP):

Once a student is determined eligible for special education services, an IEP is

developed in collaboration with parents, educators, and other relevant
professionals.

The IEP includes measurable goals and objectives tailored to the student's unique
needs, as well as descriptions of the specialized instruction, support services,
accommodations, and modifications necessary to help the student make progress
in the general education curriculum.

4. Service Delivery Models:

Special education services may be delivered in a variety of settings, including
general education classrooms, special education classrooms, resource rooms,
inclusion classrooms, and separate specialized schools or programs, depending
on the student's needs and the level of support required.

Inclusion, where students with disabilities are educated alongside their

nondisabled peers to the maximum extent appropriate, is a core principle of
special education and is supported by federal law.

5. Support Services and Interventions:

Special education services encompass a wide range of supports and

interventions, including specialized instruction, individual or small-group tutoring,
speech and language therapy, occupational therapy, physical therapy, assistive
technology, behavioral interventions, and social-emotional support.

The goal of these services is to address the unique learning needs of students
with disabilities, help them access the general education curriculum, develop
essential skills, and achieve their academic and functional goals.

I. Tertiary Education

Tertiary education in the United States, often referred to as post-secondary

or higher education, encompasses a wide range of educational opportunities
beyond high school. Tertiary education includes colleges, universities, vocational
and technical schools, and other institutions that offer certificate, diploma,
associate, bachelor's, master's, and doctoral degrees.

Degree Programs:

Tertiary education offers a variety of degree programs at different levels,

including:

1. Associate degrees typically require two years of full-time study and are
awarded by community colleges and some technical schools. They provide
foundational knowledge and skills in a specific field or discipline and can
serve as a pathway to further education or entry-level employment.
2. Bachelor's Degrees: Bachelor's degrees, also known as undergraduate
degrees, typically require four years of full-time study and are awarded by
colleges and universities. They provide a comprehensive education in a
specific academic discipline or professional field and are the most common
qualification for entry into many careers and professions.
3. Master's Degrees: Master's degrees are advanced degrees that require
additional coursework and may include a thesis or research project. They
are awarded by colleges and universities and typically take one to two
years of full-time study to complete. Master's degrees provide specialized
knowledge and skills in a particular area of study and can lead to career
advancement or further study at the doctoral level.

Doctoral Degrees: Doctoral degrees, also known as doctoral or terminal

degrees, are the highest level of academic achievement and typically require
several years of advanced study and research beyond the master's level.
Doctoral degrees are awarded by colleges and universities and include the Doctor
of Philosophy (Ph.D.), Doctor of Education (Ed.D.), Doctor of Medicine (M.D.), and
other specialized professional doctorates.

Admissions and Enrollment:

Admissions requirements and enrollment processes for tertiary education

institutions vary depending on the institution, program, and level of study. Most
colleges and universities require applicants to submit transcripts, standardized
test scores (such as the SAT or ACT), letters of recommendation, and a personal
statement or essay as part of the application process. Some programs may also
require interviews, portfolios, or auditions for admission.

Financial Aid and Scholarships:

Tertiary education can be expensive, but there are various financial aid options
available to help students finance their education, including federal and state
grants, scholarships, work-study programs, and student loans. Many colleges and
universities also offer institutional aid and merit-based scholarships to help offset
the cost of tuition and fees.

Accreditation and Quality Assurance:

Accreditation is a process by which colleges, universities, and other tertiary

education institutions undergo evaluation to ensure that they meet established
standards of quality and rigor. Accreditation is typically conducted by regional or
national accrediting agencies recognized by the U.S. Department of Education.
Accreditation ensures that students receive a high-quality education and that
their degrees are recognized and respected by employers and other institutions.

G. Financing Education

Financing education in the United States involves a complex system of

funding sources and mechanisms at the federal, state, and local levels, as well
as private sources.
1. Federal Funding:

The federal government provides funding for education through various programs
and initiatives aimed at supporting K-12 schools, colleges, universities, and other
educational institutions.

Key federal education funding programs include Title I grants for disadvantaged
students, special education grants under the Individuals with Disabilities
Education Act (IDEA), Title II grants for teacher training and professional
development, Title III grants for English language learners, Pell Grants for low-
income college students, and student loans through the federal student aid
program.

2. State Funding:

State governments are responsible for a significant portion of education funding,

particularly for K-12 public schools and community colleges.
State funding for education is typically allocated through a combination of state
appropriations, formula-based funding formulas, and categorical grants targeted
at specific programs or populations.

State funding formulas may take into account factors such as student enrollment,
attendance, poverty levels, special education needs, English language learner
populations, and local property tax revenues.

3. Local Funding:

Local funding for education primarily comes from property taxes levied by school
districts, although other local revenue sources, such as sales taxes and local
government appropriations, may also contribute to education funding.

4. Private Funding:

Private sources of funding for education include philanthropic organizations,

foundations, corporations, and individual donors who provide grants,
scholarships, endowments, and other forms of financial support to educational
institutions, students, and education-related programs and initiatives.

5. Tuition and Fees:

In higher education, tuition and fees paid by students and their families
constitute a significant source of revenue for colleges and universities,
particularly private institutions and public universities that rely less on state
funding.

J. Conclusion

In the United States, education is a multifaceted system shaped by federal,

state, and local funding sources and initiatives. From early childhood through
adulthood, a diverse array of educational opportunities exists, including public
and private institutions, vocational training, and lifelong learning programs.
Federal laws ensure equitable access to education for students with disabilities
and those from disadvantaged backgrounds. While financing education involves a
complex interplay of public and private funding, the goal remains consistent: to
provide all individuals with the knowledge, skills, and opportunities needed to
succeed academically, professionally, and personally in an ever-evolving society.
My 3 Essay Type Questions
1. How does the decentralized nature of education funding in the United
States impact the equitable distribution of resources and opportunities
across different regions and socioeconomic groups?
2. Discuss the role of federal legislation, such as the Individuals with
Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) and Title I grants, in promoting access to
quality education for students with disabilities and those from
disadvantaged backgrounds. What are some challenges and successes
associated with implementing these laws at the state and local levels?
3. Explore the evolving landscape of higher education financing in the United
States, considering the increasing reliance on tuition revenue, the rising
costs of college attendance, and the implications for access, affordability,
and student debt. What strategies can be employed to address these
challenges and ensure that higher education remains accessible to all?