1.

Explain 6 key assumptions of Human Relations Theory in

management practices

Introduction Human Relations Theory emerged in the

early 20 century as a response to the limitations of classical
th

management theories, which focused mainly on structure, efficiency, and

productivity while neglecting the human element of work. Developed
largely through the Hawthorne Studies by Elton Mayo, this theory
emphasizes the importance of social factors, communication, and
employee well-being in the workplace. According to the Human Relations
approach, employees are not merely economic beings driven by wages
but are social beings whose satisfaction and motivation are strongly
influenced by interpersonal relationships and working conditions.

The following are the 6 key assumptions of Human Relations

Theory in management practices

Employees are motivated by social needs, not just

money;Human Relations Theory argues that workers are not purely
economic beings. Their productivity increases when their social and
emotional needs such as recognition, belonging, and companionship are
met. People want to feel valued and connected to others in the workplace.
In Tanzania, many organizations use social programs to build a sense of
community.Example: At NMB Bank, staff outings and team-building
events are organized to strengthen social bonds and improve employee
morale, which in turn enhances performance.

Informal workgroups significantly influence behavior;The

theory emphasizes the role of informal relationships in the workplace.
Employees often create social groups or cliques that influence attitudes,
motivation, and productivity. These groups help workers solve problems
and support each other emotionally. In Tanzanian workplaces, informal
groups are common and often more effective than formal
teams.Example: At Tanzania Railways Corporation, engineers and
technicians form informal teams to share tools and knowledge, improving
workflow even without formal instruction.

Communication is essential for effective management;Open

and honest communication between managers and employees fosters
trust, reduces misunderstandings, and boosts morale. Human Relations
Theory suggests that downward and upward communication are equally
important. Employees should be allowed to voice opinions and receive
feedback.Example: At Tanzania Electric Supply Company (TANESCO),
regional offices hold monthly open forums where employees can air
concerns and contribute ideas for operational improvements.
 Employee involvement improves job satisfaction;When
employees are allowed to participate in decision-making processes, they
feel empowered and respected. This leads to higher job satisfaction and
loyalty. Human Relations Theory encourages participatory management
styles.Example: At Bakhresa Food Products Ltd., production staff are
involved in weekly meetings where they suggest process improvements,
leading to fewer production errors and a more motivated workforce.

Recognition and appreciation increase motivation;Employees

want to feel that their work is appreciated. Verbal praise, awards, or even
informal recognition can significantly raise morale. Human Relations
Theory highlights the emotional impact of recognition.Example: At
Vodacom Tanzania, employees of the month are recognized publicly, often
receiving certificates and small bonuses, leading to a culture of positive
competition and high morale.

Leadership style affects employee performance;Human

Relations Theory supports democratic and participatory leadership over
authoritarian styles. Leaders who engage, consult, and support their
teams get better results. Tanzanian firms are shifting toward inclusive
leadership models to enhance collaboration.Example: At University of Dar
es Salaam (UDSM), departmental heads involve faculty in strategic
decisions, improving cooperation and academic productivity.

In conclusion, the Human Relations Theory has greatly influenced

modern management by shifting the focus from purely technical and
financial aspects to the social and emotional needs of employees. The
theory’s core assumptions such as the importance of social interactions,
effective communication, group dynamics, recognition, participation, and
leadership style are essential for building a motivated and productive
workforce. In Tanzania, both public and private organizations are
increasingly adopting these principles to improve employee satisfaction
and organizational performance. Institutions like NMB Bank, TANESCO,
Vodacom, and UDSM have demonstrated that when workers feel
respected, included, and appreciated, they are more likely to contribute
positively to organizational goals. Therefore, understanding and applying
Human Relations Theory is not only beneficial but necessary for
sustainable management in today’s competitive and human-centered
business environment.
Question 2: Explain 6 key assumptions of Behavioural Science Theory in
relation to today’s management practices

Introduction;Behavioural Science Theory in management builds

upon Human Relations Theory by applying insights from psychology,
sociology, and anthropology to better understand human behavior in
organizational settings. This theory assumes that employees are complex
individuals influenced by various personal, social, and environmental
factors. It encourages management to make decisions based on a
scientific understanding of behavior, motivation, and group dynamics,
rather than intuition or rigid rules. In modern Tanzanian organizations, this
theory is reflected in practices such as personality-based hiring, team-
building, job enrichment, and adaptive leadership. By focusing on how
individuals and groups behave within the workplace, Behavioural Science
Theory helps managers create strategies that enhance both employee
well-being and organizational efficiency.

The following are key assumptions of this theory,

Understanding human behavior improves management

effectiveness;Managers who understand why employees behave in
certain ways can better lead, motivate, and support them. Behavioural
science relies on studying factors like attitudes, perception, and
personality. It encourages evidence-based decisions rather than
guesswork.Example: At Tanzania Breweries Limited (TBL), management
uses behavioral assessments during hiring to ensure new staff fit well into
the company’s culture, which reduces turnover and improves job
satisfaction.

People have individual differences that affect

performance;Every employee has a unique background, personality, and
value system, which influence how they work. Behavioural science
encourages managers to recognize these differences rather than use a
“one-size-fits-all” approach.Example: At Serengeti Breweries Ltd, new
employees undergo personalized onboarding programs based on their
experience and skill levels, leading to faster integration and better job
performance.

Group behavior and dynamics influence organizational

outcomes;People are social beings, and their behavior in groups differs
from when they act alone. Understanding group dynamics such as roles,
leadership, and peer pressure helps managers foster
cooperation.Example: At Tanzania Ports Authority (TPA), port workers are
organized into teams with clearly defined roles. This enhances efficiency
in unloading cargo, especially during high-volume periods.

Motivation is a complex, multi-faceted

process;Employees are motivated not just by money but also by
recognition, personal growth, and work-life balance. Behavioural Science
Theory encourages managers to consider both intrinsic and extrinsic
motivators.Example: National Microfinance Bank (NMB) offers career
development plans and internal promotions as motivation tools, beyond
just salary raises, to retain skilled employees.

Leadership is a social and behavioral processLeadership

is not only about authority but also about influence, communication, and
empathy. Behavioural science encourages leaders to develop soft skills
like active listening and conflict resolution.Example: At Vodacom
Tanzania, leadership development programs focus on emotional
intelligence, enabling managers to lead teams more effectively and
handle interpersonal issues constructively.

Managing change requires understanding employee

behavior;People often resist organizational change, and behavioral
science helps managers guide employees through transitions.
Understanding stress responses and communication strategies is
crucial.Example: During the rollout of electronic tax systems, Tanzania
Revenue Authority (TRA) provided behavioral support and training to help
employees adjust to the new technology without fear or resistance.

Conclusion , Behavioural Science Theory has transformed

modern management by offering scientific insights into individual and
group behavior in the workplace. Its emphasis on understanding
psychological and social dynamics enables managers to better lead,
motivate, and support their teams. Tanzanian organizations like TBL, TRA,
Vodacom, and TPA have shown that integrating behavioral knowledge into
HR practices, leadership development, and change management leads to
improved employee satisfaction and performance. As the workforce
becomes more diverse and dynamic, applying the principles of
Behavioural Science Theory becomes even more critical in ensuring
organizational success and sustainability.
Question 3: Describe 6 principles of Quantitative Management Theory

Introduction;Quantitative Management Theory applies

mathematical, statistical, and computational tools to solve management
problems and improve decision-making. It assumes that business
challenges such as resource allocation, scheduling, inventory control, and
forecasting can be addressed using objective, data-driven techniques.
Originating during World War II for military logistics, this theory has since
been adopted widely in the business world to enhance planning and
efficiency. In Tanzania, many organizations apply quantitative methods for
budgeting, inventory planning, transport scheduling, and performance
analysis. Institutions such as the Tanzania Revenue Authority (TRA), CRDB
Bank, and Tanzania National Roads Agency (TANROADS) use these tools to
make informed and effective decisions.

The following are the core principles of Quantitative

Management Theory
Mathematical Models in Decision Making;Quantitative theory
promotes using models to simulate real-world situations. These models
help managers predict outcomes and test different strategies before
implementing them. They reduce guesswork and improve precision in
decisions.Example: At the Tanzania Revenue Authority (TRA),
mathematical models are used to forecast monthly and annual tax
collections, allowing better resource planning and policy formulation.

Operations Research Techniques Optimize

Efficiency;Operations Research (OR) tools such as linear programming,
queuing theory, and network analysis help organizations allocate limited
resources efficiently. These tools are crucial for logistics, production, and
service delivery.Example: Tanzania International Container Terminal
Services (TICTS) uses queuing models to reduce waiting times for ships,
enhancing port productivity and customer satisfaction.
 Decision Theory Helps Evaluate Alternatives;This
principle involves selecting the best course of action from several
alternatives using data and probabilities. Decision trees and payoff
matrices are commonly used tools.Example: CRDB Bank uses decision
analysis to evaluate various investment options, balancing potential risks
and returns to choose the most profitable path for their portfolios.

Simulation Techniques Predict Outcomes

Safely;Simulations allow managers to test different scenarios and
measure possible results without risking actual losses. It is helpful in high-
risk industries like aviation, logistics, and finance.Example: Precision Air
uses flight simulation software to test route efficiency, fuel consumption,
and crew scheduling before launching new flight routes or services.

Statistical Analysis Supports Performance

Measurement;Statistical toolsare used to analyze trends, measure
performance, and support quality control. This helps organizations identify
patterns and make improvements based on facts.Example: National
Bureau of Statistics (NBS) uses statistical techniques to analyze national
census data, providing insights for government policy decisions and
resource allocation.

Inventory Management Models Improve Stock

Control;Inventory models such as Economic Order Quantity (EOQ) and
Just-in-Time (JIT) reduce storage costs and prevent overstocking or
stockouts. These models help maintain a balance between demand and
supply.Example: Bakhresa Food Products Ltd. Uses the EOQ model to
manage raw material purchases for production, minimizing holding costs
while ensuring steady operations.

Conclusion, Quantitative Management Theory empowers

managers to make informed, logical, and effective decisions using
scientific methods and numerical data. Its principlesranging from
modeling and simulation to statistical analysishelp organizations solve
complex problems, allocate resources, and improve productivity. In
Tanzania, various sectors such as banking, aviation, logistics, and
government institutions are increasingly adopting these methods to
enhance operational efficiency and accountability. As organizations
continue to face resource constraints and competitive pressures, the
relevance and importance of Quantitative Management Theory will only
grow.
Question 4: Explain 6 principles of Systems Theory in relation to today’s
management practices

Introduction;Systems Theory views an organization as a

unified, coordinated system made up of interrelated parts working toward
a common goal. Unlike earlier management theories that treated
departments as separate units, Systems Theory emphasizes integration,
cooperation, and how different parts affect the whole. The organization is
considered an open system, interacting with both its internal environment
(employees, processes) and external environment (customers, suppliers,
regulators). In Tanzania, Systems Theory is widely used in large
institutions where departments must coordinate such as hospitals,
universities, and government agencies. This approach ensures better
communication, teamwork, and efficiency across departments.

The following are six key principles of Systems

Theory

Organizations are Made Up of Interrelated

Subsystems;Every organization consists of various departments or units
that must work together. If one unit fails, it affects the entire system.
Managers must ensure smooth coordination.Example: At Muhimbili
National Hospital, departments like pharmacy, radiology, and surgery
must coordinate to deliver quality patient care. A delay in one unit (e.g.,
lab results) affects the entire treatment process.

Organizations Interact with Their External

Environment;Systems Theory sees organizations as “open systems” that
must respond to external factors such as market trends, regulations, and
customer needs.Example: Tanzania Telecommunications Corporation
(TTCL) adapts its services and pricing structures based on customer
feedback, technological changes, and government policy to remain
competitive

A Change in One Part Affects the Whole System;When

changes occur in one area, they often trigger adjustments in other areas.
Managers must consider system-wide impacts before implementing
decisions.Example: When University of Dar es Salaam (UDSM) updated
its online admission system, it required coordination with IT services,
student affairs, finance, and faculties to ensure a smooth rollout and avoid
disruptions.

Feedback is Essential for System Improvement;Feedback

allows managers to assess system performance and make necessary
improvements. Both positive and negative feedback help organizations
adjust and grow.Example: TRA (Tanzania Revenue Authority) gathers
taxpayer feedback through surveys to improve online tax filing systems,
reduce bottlenecks, and increase compliance.

Synergy: The Whole is Greater than the Sum of Its PartsSystems

Theory promotes synergy, where combined departmental efforts lead to
greater effectiveness than isolated individual efforts.Example: At
Tanzania Electric Supply Company (TANESCO), coordination between
technical, customer service, and billing departments leads to more
efficient power delivery and customer satisfaction.

System Boundaries Define the Scope and Control;Every

system has boundaries that determine what is internal and what is
external. Managers need to monitor these boundaries to protect the
system from risks while enabling useful interactions.Example: Bank of
Tanzania (BOT) operates within strict legal and financial boundaries to
protect the national economy while still interacting with global financial
institutions and markets.

conclusion, Systems Theory provides a holistic framework for

managing organizations by focusing on integration, communication,
feedback, and environmental interaction. It helps managers in Tanzania
understand that no department or decision exists in isolation. Real-life
examples from institutions like Muhimbili Hospital, UDSM, TRA, and
TANESCO show how effective coordination among departments leads to
improved service delivery and organizational performance. As Tanzanian
organizations grow in complexity, Systems Theory becomes increasingly
vital in ensuring that all parts of the organization work harmoniously to
achieve strategic goals.
Question 5: Explain 6 principles of Contingency Theory in relation to
today’s management practices

Introduction ;Contingency Theory argues that there is

no single best way to manage an organization. Instead, the most effective
management approach depends on internal and external factors such as
the business environment, organizational size, technology, and workforce
characteristics. Managers must be flexible and adaptive, tailoring their
decisions and leadership styles to fit the situation. In Tanzania, where
businesses face diverse challenges such as regulatory changes, resource
constraints, and market instability Contingency Theory offers a practical
framework for decision-making. Organizations like TRA, TBC, and CRDB
Bank use contingency-based strategies to remain competitive and
relevant.

The following are six key principles of Contingency

Theory

There is No One Best Way to Manage;Contingency Theory

rejects the idea of a universal management approach. Managers must
adapt their style depending on the context.Example: CRDB Bank uses a
centralized decision-making approach in its head office but allows branch
managers in remote regions to make independent decisions due to
differing local market conditions.
 Management Style Should Fit the Situation;Different
situations call for different leadership or communication styles. Managers
must assess their environment before choosing how to act.Example: At
Tanzania Broadcasting Corporation (TBC), during breaking news or
emergencies, managers adopt an authoritative style to ensure quick
decisions, while during regular operations, they use a participative style
for team input.

Organizational Structure Depends on Size and

Technology;The larger or more technologically complex the organization,
the more flexible or decentralized its structure needs to be.Example:
Vodacom Tanzania uses decentralized teams to manage its technology
and customer service departments efficiently, enabling faster decision-
making and service innovation.

Environment Determines Strategy;Organizations must align

their strategies with external conditions such as competition, market
demand, and government policy.Example: When fuel prices rose sharply,
Tanzania Petroleum Development Corporation (TPDC) adjusted its pricing
and distribution strategy to maintain customer affordability and
government compliance.

Task Requirements Influence Team Behavior;The nature of a

task whether routine or complex should determine how teams are
structured and managed. Example: In Tanzania Airports Authority (TAA),
routine maintenance tasks are managed with strict procedures, while
emergency response teams are given flexibility to make rapid decisions
during crises.

Effective Leadership Depends on Context;The success of a

leader depends not only on personal traits but also on how well their
leadership style fits the situation.Example: During the COVID-19
outbreak, Ministry of Health Tanzania required directive leadership to
enforce emergency health protocols, while post-pandemic, leadership
shifted toward collaboration and policy review.

Conclusion, Contingency Theory offers a flexible and realistic

approach to management by recognizing that organizational effectiveness
depends on matching strategies, structures, and leadership styles to
specific circumstances. Tanzanian organizations such as CRDB Bank, TBC,
Vodacom, and TPDC have successfully applied contingency principles to
navigate diverse challenges. As markets become more dynamic and
unpredictable, the ability of managers to adapt their approach based on
changing conditions becomes increasingly important. Contingency Theory
empowers managers to stay agile and make practical decisions that suit
both internal and external realities.

Question 6: Clarify six common methods of performance appraisal

Introduction;Performance appraisal is a formal process used by

organizations to evaluate employee performance over a specific period.
The goal is to assess strengths, weaknesses, and areas for development,
helping both the employee and organization improve. Different methods
are used depending on the organization’s size, objectives, and culture. In
Tanzania, institutions like the Tanzania Revenue Authority (TRA), Tanesco,
and private companies such as CRDB Bank and Vodacom apply various
appraisal methods to improve productivity, accountability, and employee
satisfaction.

Below are six commonly used performance appraisal

methods.

Rating Scale Method;This method involves rating employees on

a scale (e.g., 1 to 5) across several performance criteria such as
punctuality, teamwork, and job knowledge. It’s simple and easy to
implement.Example: TRA uses rating forms during annual reviews where
supervisors score staff in categories like customer service, accuracy in
work, and attendance, helping to determine bonuses or training needs.

360-Degree Feedback;Employees are evaluated not only by

supervisors but also by peers, subordinates, and sometimes even
customers. This provides a well-rounded view of performance.Example:
Vodacom Tanzania uses 360-degree feedback for managerial roles, where
team members, peers, and department heads contribute feedback on
leadership, communication, and innovation.

Management by Objectives (MBO);MBO involves setting

specific, measurable goals for each employee at the beginning of the
period, and performance is evaluated based on how well these goals are
achieved.Example: At CRDB Bank, sales staff are given monthly or
quarterly targets for new accounts and loans. At review time, their
performance is measured against these goals.

Checklist Method;In this method, the supervisor uses a

checklist of performance-related statements and marks items that
describe the employee’s behavior or achievements.Example: Tanzania
Electric Supply Company (TANESCO) uses checklists during routine
inspections to assess field engineers on safety compliance, job
completion, and equipment handling.

Critical Incident Method;This method focuses on

recording specific events or incidents where the employee performed
exceptionally well or poorly. These incidents are used during
evaluation.Example: At Muhimbili National Hospital, if a nurse handles a
medical emergency very effectively (or poorly), the incident is
documented and included in their performance review.

Self-Appraisal;Employees evaluate their own performance

based on given criteria. This method promotes reflection and allows staff
to express views on their contributions and challenges.Example: In
universities like UDSM, lecturers complete self-appraisal forms where they
reflect on teaching quality, research output, and student engagement
before departmental reviews.

Conclusion;performance appraisal is a vital tool in modern

management that helps identify employee strengths, training needs, and
areas for development. The six common methods Rating Scale, 360-
Degree Feedback, MBO, Checklist, Critical Incident, and Self-Appraisal
offer flexibility for organizations to choose the most appropriate strategy
for their goals. Tanzanian organizations such as TRA, Vodacom, TANESCO,
and CRDB are applying these methods to enhance accountability,
transparency, and employee motivation. When conducted fairly and
consistently, performance appraisals contribute to both individual and
institutional success.

Question 7; Analyze the performance appraisal process

Introduction; The performance appraisal process is a

systematic evaluation of an employee’s job performance over a specific
period. It helps in understanding an employee’s contributions, identifying
strengths and weaknesses, and planning for future development. A well-
structured appraisal process promotes fairness, accountability, and
productivity. In Tanzania, both public and private organizations such as
Tanzania Revenue Authority (TRA), Vodacom, Muhimbili National Hospital,
and CRDB Bank use structured appraisal systems to guide promotions,
training, and compensation decisions. Below is an analysis of the key
stages involved in the performance appraisal process.

Setting Performance Standards;In this first stage, the

employer and employee agree on clear and measurable performance
expectations or goals. These standards should align with the
organization’s objectives.Example: At CRDB Bank, sales officers may be
given monthly targets for new accounts or loan disbursements. The
standards act as a benchmark for later evaluation.

Communicating Expectations;Employees must clearly

understand what is expected of them. This includes key performance
indicators (KPIs), deadlines, and quality standards. Communication must
be continuous and two-way.Example: At TRA, team leaders hold
onboarding and regular briefing sessions to explain performance
expectations and update staff on any changes to revenue collection goals.

Measuring Actual Performance In this stage, the manager

collects data on how the employee is actually performing. This may
involve observations, reports, customer feedback, or productivity
records.Example: Vodacom Tanzania tracks customer service agents’
performance using call center data such as number of calls handled,
resolution rates, and customer satisfaction ratings.

Comparing Performance with Standards;The actual

performance is then compared with the pre-set goals or benchmarks. The
aim is to determine if the employee met, exceeded, or fell short of
expectations.Example: At Muhimbili National Hospital, nurse supervisors
compare individual nurse records (e.g., patient care quality, punctuality,
and emergency response) with established performance criteria.

Discussing the Appraisal (Feedback Session);This stage

involves a formal meeting between the supervisor and employee to
discuss the findings. The discussion should be honest, constructive, and
two-way.Example: In Tanzania Electric Supply Company (TANESCO),
annual appraisal meetings allow employees to raise concerns, reflect on
their performance, and set new goals collaboratively.
 Taking Corrective Action and Planning Development;If
there are performance gaps, corrective measures like training, mentoring,
or even disciplinary action are taken. For high performers, rewards or
promotions may be considered.Example: After appraisals at NMB Bank,
underperforming staff may be enrolled in targeted training programs,
while top performers are recommended for promotion or bonuses.

Conclusion;The performance appraisal process is a critical

management tool that ensures individual efforts align with organizational
goals. When properly implemented, it promotes transparency, motivation,
and continuous improvement. Tanzanian organizations like CRDB, TRA,
and Muhimbili Hospital effectively use appraisal processes to make
informed decisions about promotions, training, and rewards. However, for
the process to be effective, it must be consistent, fair, and inclusive of
employee feedback. Ultimately, performance appraisals drive both
employee development and organizational excellence.