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FIFTH EDITION

Precalculus
A Right Triangle Approach

J. S. Ratti
University of South Florida

Marcus McWaters
University of South Florida

Lesław A. Skrzypek
University of South Florida

Jessica Bernards
Portland Community College

Wendy Fresh
Portland Community College
Content Development: Eric Gregg
Content Management: Brian Fisher, Jonathan Krebs, Jeff Weidenaar
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Rights and Permissions: Anjali Singh
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Foreword

We’re pleased to present the fifth edition of Precalculus: A Right Triangle Approach. Our experi-
ence in teaching this material has been exceptionally rewarding. Because students are accustomed
to information being delivered by electronic media, the introduction of MyLab™ Math into our
courses was, and remains, seamless. With the addition of Jessica Bernards and Wendy Fresh to the
author team, the MyLab course has been given a fresh redesign that aligns with the Ratti philoso-
phy. You will now find author created videos over every objective as well as author created assign-
ments, quizzes, and exams. Additionally, we have included interactive figures in both the print and
electronic version of the text that will allow students to get a hands on exploration of the topics.
Today’s precalculus students and instructors face many challenges. Students arrive with vari-
ous levels of comprehension from their previous courses. Instead of really learning the concepts
presented, students often resort to memorization to pass the course. As a result, a course needs to
establish a common starting point for students and engage them in becoming active learners,
without sacrificing the solid mathematics essential for conceptual understanding. Instructors in
this course must take on the task of providing students with an understanding of precalculus, pre-
paring them for the next step, and ensuring that they find mathematics useful and interesting. Our
efforts in this direction have been aided considerably by the many suggestions we have received
from users of the previous editions of this text.
Mathematics owes it current identity to contributions from diverse cultures across the world and
throughout the ages. In this text we provide references to significant improvements and achieve-
ments in mathematics and related areas from sources both ancient and modern. We place a strong
emphasis on both concept development and real-life applications. Topics such as functions, graph-
ing, the difference quotient, and limiting processes provide thorough preparation for the study of
calculus and will improve students’ comprehension of algebra. Just-in-time review throughout the
text ensures that all students are brought to the same level before being introduced to new concepts.
Numerous applications motivate students to apply the concepts and skills they learn in precalculus
to other courses, including the physical and biological sciences, engineering, and economics, and to
on-the-job and everyday problem solving. Students are given ample opportunities in this course to
think about important mathematical ideas and to practice and apply algebraic skills.
Throughout the text, we emphasize why the material being covered is important and how it can
be applied. By thoroughly developing mathematical concepts with clearly defined terminology, stu-
dents see the “why” behind those concepts, paving the way for a deeper understanding, better reten-
tion, less reliance on rote memorization, and ultimately more success. The level of exposition was
selected so that the material is accessible to students and provides them with an opportunity to grow.
It is our hope that once you have read through our text, you will see that we were able to
fulfill the initial goals of writing for today’s students and for you, the instructor.

Marcus McWaters Lesław Skrzypek J. S. Ratti

Jessica Bernards Wendy Fresh

iii
 Contents

Foreword iii
Preface xiii
Pearson’s Commitment to Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion xx
Dedication xxi

P Basic Concepts of Algebra 1

P.1 The Real Numbers and Their Properties 2

Classifying Numbers ■ Equality of Numbers ■ Classifying Sets of Numbers ■
Rational Numbers ■ Irrational Numbers ■ Integer Exponents ■ The
Real Number Line ■ Inequalities ■ Sets ■ Definition of Union and
Intersection ■ Intervals ■ Absolute Value ■ Distance Between Two Points
on a Real Number Line ■ Order of Operations ■ Properties of the Real
Numbers ■ Subtraction and Division of Real Numbers ■ Algebraic Expressions

P.2 Integer Exponents and Scientific Notation 19

Integer Exponents ■ Rules of Exponents ■ Simplifying Exponential
Expressions ■ Scientific Notation

P.3 Polynomials 29
Polynomial Vocabulary ■ Adding and Subtracting Polynomials ■ Multiplying
Polynomials ■ Special Products ■ Squaring a Binomial Sum or Difference ■
The Product of the Sum and Difference of Terms

P.4 Factoring Polynomials 39

The Greatest Common Monomial Factor ■ Factoring Out a Monomial ■ Factoring
Trinomials of the Form x 2 + Bx + C ■ Factoring Formulas ■ Perfect-Square
Trinomials ■ Difference of Squares ■ Difference and Sum of Cubes ■ Factoring by
Grouping ■ Factoring Trinomials of the Form Ax 2 + Bx + C

P.5 Rational Expressions 49

Rational Expressions ■ Lowest Terms for a Rational Expression ■ Multiplication
and Division of Rational Expressions ■ Addition and Subtraction of Rational
Expressions ■ Complex Fractions

P.6 Rational Exponents and Radicals 60

Square Roots ■ Simplifying Square Roots ■ Other Roots ■ Like
Radicals ■ Radicals with Different Indexes ■ Rationalizing Radical
Expressions ■ Conjugates ■ Rational Exponents

Chapter P Review and Tests, 73 Review Exercises, 76

Practice Test, 78

iv
 Contents v

1 Equations and Inequalities 79

1.1 Linear Equations in One Variable 80

Definitions ■ Identities, Conditional Equations, and Inconsistent Equations ■
Equivalent Equations ■ Solving Linear Equations in One Variable ■ Formulas

1.2 Applications of Linear Equations: Modeling 90

Solving Applied Problems ■ Geometry ■ Finance ■ Uniform Motion ■ Work
Rate ■ Mixtures

1.3 Quadratic Equations 102

Factoring Method ■ The Square Root Method ■ Completing the Square ■ The
Quadratic Formula ■ The Discriminant ■ Applications ■ Golden Rectangle

1.4 Complex Numbers: Quadratic Equations with Complex

Solutions 117
Complex Numbers ■ Addition and Subtraction ■ Multiplying Complex
Numbers ■ Complex Conjugates and Division ■ Quadratic Equations with
Complex Solutions ■ The Discriminant

1.5 Solving Other Types of Equations 127

Solving Equations by Factoring ■ Rational Equations ■ Equations Involving Radicals ■
Equations with Rational Exponents ■ Equations That Are Quadratic in Form

1.6 Inequalities 141

Inequalities ■ Linear Inequalities ■ Combining Two Inequalities ■ Using Test Points
to Solve Inequalities

1.7 Equations and Inequalities Involving Absolute Value 154

Equations Involving Absolute Value ■ Inequalities Involving Absolute Value

Key Ideas At a Glance, 162 Chapter 1 Review and Tests, 163

Review Exercises, 166 Practice Test A*, 168

2 Graphs and Functions 169

2.1 The Coordinate Plane 170

The Coordinate Plane Scales on a Graphing Utility
■ ■ Distance
Formula ■ Midpoint Formula

2.2 Graphs of Equations 179

Graph of an Equation ■ Intercepts ■ Symmetry ■ Circles ■ Semicircles

2.3 Lines 192

Slope of a Line ■ Point–Slope Form ■ Slope–Intercept Form ■ Equations of
Horizontal and Vertical Lines ■ General Form of the Equation of a Line ■ Parallel
and Perpendicular Lines ■ Modeling Data Using Linear Regression
*Practice Test B can be found in the eText.
vi Contents

2.4 Functions 209

Functions ■ Function Notation ■ Representations of Functions ■ The Domain of a
Function ■ The Range of a Function ■ Graphs of Functions ■ Function Information
from Its Graph ■ Building Functions ■ Functions in Economics

2.5 Properties of Functions 229

Increasing and Decreasing Functions ■ Relative Maximum and Minimum
Values ■ Even–Odd Functions and Symmetry ■ Average Rate of Change

2.6 A Library of Functions 243

Linear Functions ■ Square Root and Cube Root Functions ■ Piecewise
Functions ■ Graphing Piecewise Functions ■ Basic Functions

2.7 Transformations of Functions 257

Transformations ■ Vertical and Horizontal Shifts ■ Reflections ■ Stretching or
Compressing ■ Multiple Transformations in Sequence

2.8 Combining Functions; Composite Functions 274

Combining Functions ■ Composition of Functions ■ Domain of Composite
Functions ■ Decomposition of a Function ■ Applications of Composite Functions

2.9 Inverse Functions 287

Inverses ■ Finding the Inverse Function ■ Finding the Range of a One-to-One
Function ■ Applications

Key Ideas At a Glance, 300 Chapter 2 Review and Tests, 301

Review Exercises, 305 Practice Test A*, 308 Cumulative Review
Exercises Chapters P–2, 309

3 Polynomial and Rational Functions 310

3.1 Quadratic Functions 311

Quadratic Functions ■ Standard Form of a Quadratic Function ■ Graphing a
Quadratic Function f ( x ) = ax 2 + bx + c ■ Applications

3.2 Polynomial Functions 325

Polynomial Functions ■ Power Functions ■ End Behavior of Polynomial
Functions ■ Zeros of a Function ■ Zeros and Turning Points ■ Graphing a
Polynomial Function

3.3 Dividing Polynomials 345

The Division Algorithm ■ Synthetic Division ■ The Remainder and Factor Theorems

3.4 The Real Zeros of a Polynomial Function 356

Real Zeros of a Polynomial Function ■ Rational Zeros Theorem ■ Descartes’s
Rule of Signs ■ Bounds on the Real Zeros ■ Find the Real Zeros of a Polynomial
Function

3.5 The Complex Zeros of a Polynomial Function 367

Conjugate Pairs Theorem
 Contents vii

3.6 Rational Functions 375

1■
Rational Functions ■ Vertical and Horizontal Asymptotes ■ Translations of f ( x ) =
x
Graphing Rational Functions ■ Oblique Asymptotes ■ Graph of a Revenue Curve

3.7 Variation 393

Direct Variation ■ Inverse Variation ■ Joint and Combined Variation

Key Ideas At a Glance, 403 Chapter 3 Review and Tests, 404

Review Exercises, 407 Practice Test A*, 409 Cumulative Review
Exercises Chapters P–3, 410

4 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions 411

4.1 Exponential Functions 412

Exponential Functions ■ Evaluate Exponential Functions ■ Graphing Exponential
Functions ■ Transformations on Exponential Functions ■ Simple Interest ■ Compound
Interest ■ Continuous Compound Interest Formula ■ The Natural Exponential
Function ■ Exponential Growth and Decay

4.2 Logarithmic Functions 432

Logarithmic Functions ■ Evaluating Logarithms ■ Basic Properties of Logarithms ■
Domains of Logarithmic Functions ■ Graphs of Logarithmic Functions ■ Common
Logarithm ■ Natural Logarithm ■ Investments ■ Newton’s Law of Cooling

4.3 Rules of Logarithms 449

Rules of Logarithms Number of Digits ■ Change of Base
■ ■ Growth and
Decay ■ Half-Life ■ Radiocarbon Dating

4.4 Exponential and Logarithmic Equations and Inequalities 462

Solving Exponential Equations ■ Applications of Exponential Equations ■
Solving Logarithmic Equations ■ Logarithmic and Exponential Inequalities

4.5 Logarithmic Scales; Modeling 475

pH Scale ■ Earthquake Intensity ■ Loudness of Sound ■ Musical Pitch ■

Star Brightness ■ Modeling

Key Ideas At a Glance, 491 Chapter 4 Review and Tests, 492

Review Exercises, 494 Practice Test A*, 497 Cumulative Review
Exercises Chapters P–4, 498

5 Trigonometric Functions 499

5.1 Angles and Their Measure 500

Angles ■ Angle Measure ■ Degree Measure ■ Radian Measure ■ Relationship
Between Degrees and Radians ■ Coterminal Angles ■ Complements and
Supplements ■ Length of an Arc of a Circle ■ Area of a Sector ■ Linear and
Angular Speed
*Practice Test B can be found in the eText.
viii Contents

5.2 Right-Triangle Trigonometry 514

Trigonometric Ratios and Functions ■ Relations between Trigonometric
Functions ■ Function Values for Some Special Angles ■ Evaluating Trigonometric
Functions Using a Calculator ■ Complements ■ Applications

5.3 Trigonometric Functions of Any Angle; The Unit Circle 528

Trigonometric Functions of Angles Quadrantal Angles Coterminal
■ ■

Angles ■ Signs of the Trigonometric Functions ■ Reference Angle ■ Using

Reference Angles ■ Circular Functions

5.4 Graphs of the Sine and Cosine Functions 542

Properties of Sine and Cosine ■ Domain and Range of Sine and Cosine ■ Zeros
of Sine and Cosine Functions ■ Even-Odd Properties of the Sine and Cosine
Functions ■ Periodic Functions ■ Graphs of Sine and Cosine Functions ■ Graph of
the Sine Function ■ Graph of the Cosine Function ■ Five Key Points ■ Symmetries
of the Sine and Cosine Functions ■ Amplitude and Period ■ Phase Shift ■ Vertical
Shifts ■ Modeling with Sinusoidal Curves ■ Simple Harmonic Motion

5.5 Graphs of the Other Trigonometric Functions 567

Tangent Function ■ Graph of y = tan x ■ Graphs of the Reciprocal Functions

5.6 Inverse Trigonometric Functions 577

The Inverse Sine Function ■ The Inverse Cosine Function ■ The Inverse Tangent
Function ■ Other Inverse Trigonometric Functions ■ Evaluating Inverse Trigonometric
Functions ■ Composition of Trigonometric and Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Key Ideas At a Glance, 593 Chapter 5 Review and Tests, 594

Review Exercises, 600 Practice Test A*, 602 Cumulative Review
Exercises Chapters P–5, 602

6 Trigonometric Identities and Equations 603

6.1 Trigonometric Identities 604

Fundamental Trigonometric Identities ■ Simplifying a Trigonometric
Expression ■ Trigonometric Equations and Identities ■ Process of
Verifying Trigonometric Identities ■ Methods of Verifying Trigonometric
Identities

6.2 Sum and Difference Formulas 616

Sum and Difference Formulas for Cosine ■ Cofunction Identities ■ Sum
and Difference Formulas for Sine ■ Sum and Difference Formulas for
Tangent ■ Reduction Formula

6.3 Double-Angle and Half-Angle Formulas 629

Double-Angle Formulas ■ Power-Reducing Formulas ■ Alternating Current ■

Half-Angle Formulas

6.4 Product-to-Sum and Sum-to-Product Formulas 640

Product-to-Sum Formulas ■ Sum-to-Product Formulas ■ Verify Trigonometric
Identities ■ Analyzing Touch-Tone Phones
 Contents ix

6.5 Trigonometric Equations I 648

Trigonometric Equations ■ Trigonometric Equations of the Form
a sin( x − c ) = k , a cos( x − c ) = k , and a tan( x − c ) = k ■ Trigonometric
Equations and the Zero-Product Property ■ Equations with More Than One
Trigonometric Function ■ Extraneous Solutions

6.6 Trigonometric Equations II 658

Equations Involving Multiple Angles ■ Using Sum-to-Product Identities ■

Equations Containing Inverse Functions

Key Ideas At a Glance, 668 Chapter 6 Review and Tests, 669

Review Exercises, 672 Practice Test A*, 674 Cumulative Review
Exercises Chapters P–6, 675

7 Applications of Trigonometric Functions 676

7.1 The Law of Sines 677

Solving Oblique Triangles ■ The Law of Sines ■ Solving AAS and ASA
Triangles ■ Solving SSA Triangles—the Ambiguous Case ■ Bearings

7.2 The Law of Cosines 693

The Law of Cosines ■ Derivation of the Law of Cosines ■ Solving SAS
Triangles ■ Solving SSS Triangles

7.3 Areas of Polygons Using Trigonometry 705

Geometry Formulas Area of SAS Triangles Area of AAS and ASA
■ ■

Triangles ■ Area of SSS Triangles ■ Applications ■ Polygons

7.4 Vectors 717

Vectors ■ Geometric Vectors ■ Equivalent Vectors ■ Adding Vectors ■ Algebraic
Vectors ■ Unit Vectors ■ Vectors in i, j Form ■ Vector in Terms of Magnitude and
Direction ■ Applications of Vectors

7.5 The Dot Product 730

The Dot Product ■ The Angle Between Two Vectors ■ Orthogonal
Vectors ■ Projection of a Vector ■ Decomposition of a Vector ■ Work

7.6 Polar Coordinates 741

Polar Coordinates ■ Multiple Representations ■ Sign of r ■ Converting Between
Polar and Rectangular Forms ■ Converting Equations Between Rectangular and
Polar Forms ■ The Graph of a Polar Equation ■ Limaçons

7.7 Polar Form of Complex Numbers; DeMoivre’s Theorem 757

Geometric Representation of Complex Numbers The Absolute Value of a
■

Complex Number ■ Polar Form of a Complex Number ■ Product and Quotient

in Polar Form ■ Powers of Complex Numbers in Polar Form ■ Roots of Complex
Numbers

Key Ideas At a Glance, 767 Chapter 7 Review and Tests, 768

Review Exercises, 772 Practice Test A*, 773 Cumulative Review
Exercises Chapters P–7, 774
*Practice Test B can be found in the eText.
x Contents

8 Systems of Equations and Inequalities 775

8.1 Systems of Linear Equations in Two Variables 776

System of Equations ■ Graphical Method ■ Substitution Method ■ Elimination
Method ■ Applications

8.2 Systems of Linear Equations in Three Variables 790

Systems of Linear Equations Number of Solutions of a Linear
■

System ■ Nonsquare Systems ■ Geometric Interpretation ■ An Application

to CAT Scans

8.3 Partial-Fraction Decomposition 802

Partial Fractions ■ Q ( x ) Has Only Distinct Linear Factors ■ Q ( x ) Has Repeated
Linear Factors ■ Q ( x ) Has Distinct Irreducible Quadratic Factors ■ Q ( x ) Has
Repeated Irreducible Quadratic Factors

8.4 Systems of Nonlinear Equations 813

Systems of Nonlinear Equations ■ Solving Systems of Nonlinear
Equations by Substitution ■ Solving Systems of Nonlinear Equations by
Elimination ■ Applications

8.5 Systems of Inequalities 820

Graph of a Linear Inequality in Two Variables ■ Systems of Linear Inequalities in
Two Variables ■ Nonlinear Inequality ■ Nonlinear Systems

8.6 Linear Programming 832

Linear Programming ■ Solving Linear Programming Problems ■ Applications

Key Ideas At a Glance, 841 Chapter 8 Review and Tests, 842

Review Exercises, 846 Practice Test A*, 848 Cumulative Review
Exercises Chapters P–8, 849

9 Matrices and Determinants 850

9.1 Matrices and Systems of Equations 851

Definition of a Matrix ■ Using Matrices to Solve Linear Systems ■ Gaussian
Elimination ■ Gauss–Jordan Elimination

9.2 Matrix Algebra 867

Equality of Matrices Matrix Addition and Scalar Multiplication
■ ■ Matrix
Multiplication ■ Computer Graphics

9.3 The Matrix Inverse 882

The Multiplicative Inverse of a Matrix ■ Finding the Inverse of a Matrix ■ A Rule
for Finding the Inverse of a 2 × 2 Matrix ■ Solving Systems of Linear Equations by
Using Matrix Inverses ■ Applications of Matrix Inverses ■ Cryptography
 Contents xi

9.4 Determinants and Cramer’s Rule 896

The Determinant of a 2 × 2 Matrix ■ Minors and Cofactors ■ The Determinant of
an n × n Matrix ■ Cramer’s Rule ■ Applications

Key Ideas At a Glance, 908 Chapter 9 Review and Tests, 909

Review Exercises, 913 Practice Test A*, 916 Cumulative Review
Exercises Chapters P–9, 917

10 Conic Sections 918

10.1 Conic Sections: Overview 919

10.2 The Parabola 921

Geometric Definition of a Parabola ■ Equation of a Parabola ■ Translations of
Parabolas ■ Reflecting Property of Parabolas

10.3 The Ellipse 935

Definition of Ellipse ■ Equation of an Ellipse ■ Translations of
Ellipses ■ Applications

10.4 The Hyperbola 948

Definition of Hyperbola ■ The Asymptotes of a Hyperbola ■ Graphing a
Hyperbola with Center (0, 0) ■ Translations of Hyperbolas ■ Applications

Key Ideas At a Glance, 965 Chapter 10 Review and Tests, 966

Review Exercises, 969 Practice Test A*, 970 Cumulative Review
Exercises Chapters P–10, 971

11 Further Topics in Algebra 972

11.1 Sequences and Series 973

Sequences ■ Recursive Formulas ■ Factorial Notation ■ Summation
Notation ■ Series

11.2 Arithmetic Sequences; Partial Sums 985

Arithmetic Sequence ■ Sum of a Finite Arithmetic Sequence

11.3 Geometric Sequences and Series 994

Geometric Sequence ■ Finding the Sum of a Finite Geometric
Sequence ■ Annuities ■ Infinite Geometric Series

11.4 Mathematical Induction 1010

Mathematical Induction ■ Determining the Statement Pk +1 from the
Statement Pk

*Practice Test B can be found in the eText.

xii Contents

11.5 The Binomial Theorem 1016

Binomial Expansions ■ Pascal’s Triangle ■ The Binomial Theorem ■ Binomial
Coefficients

11.6 Counting Principles 1024

Fundamental Counting Principle ■ Permutations ■ Combinations ■
Distinguishable Permutations ■ Deciding Whether to Use Permutations,
Combinations, or the Fundamental Counting Principle

11.7 Probability 1035

The Probability of an Event ■ The Additive Rule ■ Mutually Exclusive Events ■ The
Complement of an Event ■ Experimental Probabilities

Key Ideas At a Glance, 1045 Chapter 11 Review and Tests, 1046

Review Exercises, 1049 Practice Test A*, 1050 Cumulative Review
Exercises Chapters P–11, 1051

Answers to Selected Exercises A-1

Credits C-1
Index I-1
Practice Test B for all Chapters (available in eText) T-1
 Preface

Students begin precalculus classes with widely varying New! Key Ideas at a Glance. A new feature added to the text
backgrounds. Some haven’t taken a math course in several for this edition is a single page at the end of each chapter
years and may need to spend time reviewing prerequisite designed to highlight some key concepts for the chapter. In
topics, while others are ready to jump right into new and some chapters, this will serve as a comparison between two
challenging material. In Chapter P and in some of the early similar or parallel topics. In other chapters, this will sum up
sections of other chapters, we have provided review material many of the ideas presented in the chapter. This page can
in such a way that it can be used or omitted as appropriate serve as a reference to students to look back on when studying
for your course. In addition, students may follow several or doing exercises. There are also exercises to accompany this
paths after completing a precalculus course. Many will con- feature so that students may test their understanding of the
tinue their study of mathematics in courses such as finite ideas summarized there.
mathematics, statistics, and calculus. For others, precalculus
may be their last mathematics course. New and Revised! Exercises. We continue to improve the
Responding to the current and future needs of all these balance of exercises, providing a smooth transition from the
students was essential in creating this text. We introduce each less challenging to the more challenging exercises.
exercise set with several concept and vocabulary exercises, Overall, approximately 20% of the exercises have been
consisting of fill-in-the-blank and true-false exercises. They updated, and more than 500 brand-new exercises have been
are not computation-reliant, but rather test whether students added. These new exercises primarily consist of applications
have absorbed the basic concepts and vocabulary of the sec- that connect with students’ everyday experiences and enhance
tion. Exercises asking students to extrapolate information students’ understanding of graphing.
from a given graph now appear in much greater number and Revised! Application Exercises. Every section opens with
depth throughout the course. We continue to present our con- discussion of an application that relates to the topics intro-
tent in a systematic way that illustrates how to study and what duced in that section. This edition continues the trend of pair-
to review. We believe that if students use this material well, ing an example with this application, but we have also made
they will succeed in this course. The changes in this edition an effort to include problems in the exercise sets that also tie
result from the thoughtful feedback we have received from to this application so that students have an opportunity to
students and instructors who have used previous editions of apply the mathematics to a real world problem. The section
the text. This feedback crucially enhances our own experi- opening, example, and these exercises are easily identified by
ences, and we are extremely grateful to the many contributors an accompanying icon .
whose insights are reflected in this new edition.
New! Active Learning Exercises. In many sections through-
out the text, exercise sets will end with an Active Learning
Key Content Changes exercise. This exercise is accompanied by an Interactive Fig-
ure powered by GeoGebra, which is accessed through a bit.ly
New! Authors. We would like to welcome two new co- link or by scanning the given QR code. Students will manipu-
authors to the author team, Jessica Bernards and Wendy late the figure to explore mathematics in a new way and will
Fresh! Both Jessica and Wendy are instructors at Portland use the figure to answer the accompanying exercises.
Community College and have provided wonderful additions
to the text and the accompanying MyLab Math course. Jessica New! Videos. Videos in the MyLab course have been com-
and Wendy have had national recognition as instructors and pletely re-made by the authors. Videos can be found at the
have received several awards for excellence in teaching math- section and objective level. The videos are available in the
ematics. MyLab course within the Video & Resource Library, but can
also be accessed directly from the text. QR codes can be found
Revised! Getting Ready for the Next Section. This feature
at the beginning of each section, and users can use their phone
combines two features of previous editions, “Getting Ready
to scan the QR codes and watch the videos.
for the Next Section” exercises and “Before Starting This
We have also created videos for select exercises in each
Section, Review” objectives. The new structure lists Review
section. The text has QR codes next to the beginning of each
Concepts and Review Skills for students to brush up on before
exercise set, and users can scan the code to find the videos for
beginning the next section. Both the Review Concepts and
exercises in that section.
Review Skills contain section and page number references to
make looking up these topics easy. The Review Concepts are Revised! Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion. We conducted an
meant to be broader topics that students should understand, external review of the text’s content to determine how it could
while Review Skills give exercises from objectives that stu- be improved to address issues related to diversity, equity, and
dents will need in the upcoming section. inclusion. The results of that review informed the revision.
xiii
xiv Preface

Chapter 1. Chapter 8.
• Added a graphic to detail the process of factoring a trinomial. • Wrote all new section opener discussions for sections 8.1
• Added more Procedure by Action type examples which and 8.5.
carefully breakdown factoring trinomials. • Added a new example in section 8.5 showing an application
• Created a new section opener for section 1.5 highlighting involving cell tower triangulation.
female NASA engineers’ current Mars Exploration Program • Included new Active Learning Exercises.

Chapter 2. Chapter 9.
• Updated several examples and with newer application context. • Added a link between the section opener discussion and an
• Expanded step by step transformation of functions procedure. example in section 9.4.
• Split a Procedure in Action example into two parts to give indi- • Included new Active Learning Exercises.
vidual attention to finding a parallel line vs a perpendicular line
to a given line. Chapter 10.
• Included new Active Learning Exercises.
• Added many examples of conics seen and used in the real
Chapter 3. world.
• Included new Active Learning Exercises.
• Added more visual aid to the examples on graphing a poly-
nomial, giving a more complete picture of the behavior of
Chapter 11.
graphs of polynomials.
• Added more visual aid to the examples on graphing a ratio- • Changed terms used in the sum of the first n terms of an arith-
nal function, giving a more complete picture of the behav- metic sequence so that the derivation of the formula is clearer.
ior of graphs of rational functions. • Added graphics to demonstrate the derivation of the sum
• Included new Active Learning Exercises. of the first n terms of arithmetic and geometric sequences.
• Included new Active Learning Exercises.
Chapter 4.
• Expanded on the basic properties of logarithms to give
some derivations of these properties.
Features
• Added color to the table of logarithmic functions to make
Chapter Opener. Each chapter opener includes a descrip-
it easier to see how changes in the function change the
tion of applications (one of them illustrated) relevant to the
graph itself.
content of the chapter and the list of topics that will be cov-
• Included new Active Learning Exercises.
ered. In one page, students see what they are going to learn
and why they are learning it.
Chapter 5.
• Updated graphs for sine and cosine functions to give addi- Getting Ready for the Next Section. Each section is imme-
tional detail around key points. diately preceded by a set of concepts and skills that serve as a
• Created new graphics to show the symmetries of the sine transition from one section to the next. These sets of problems
and cosine functions. provide a review of concepts and skills that will be used in the
• Updated graphics showing stretch and compression of sine upcoming section.
and cosine graphs.
• Updated graphics showing phase shifts and vertical shifts Section Opener With Application. Each section opens
of sine and cosine graphs. with a list of clearly stated and numbered Objectives defined
• Added additional graphics for the inverse sine, cosine, and for the section. These objectives are then referenced again in
tangent functions. the margin of the lesson at the point where the objective’s topic
• Included new Active Learning Exercises. is taught. An Application containing a motivating anecdote or
an interesting problem then follows. An example later in the
Chapter 6. section relating to this application and identified by the same
• Added a graphic to demonstrate one of the Pythagorean icon ( ) is then solved using the mathematics covered in the
identities. section. These applications utilize material from a variety of
• Added graphics to support trigonometric identities using fields: the physical and biological sciences (including health
the symmetries of the sine and cosine functions. sciences), economics, art and architecture, history, and more.
• Included new Active Learning Exercises.
Examples and Practice Problems. Examples include a
Chapter 7 wide range of computational, conceptual, and modern applied
• Updated and added graphics and explanation for the problems carefully selected to build confidence, competency,
ambiguous case of SSA triangles. and understanding. Every example has a title indicating its
• Updated solution process for SSA triangles. purpose and presents a detailed solution containing annotated
• Included new Active Learning Exercises. steps. All examples are followed by a Practice Problem for
 Preface xv

students to try so that they can check their understanding of Applying the Concepts exercises use the section’s material
the concept covered. Answers to the Practice Problems are to solve real-world problems—all are titled and relevant to the
provided in the back of the book. topics of the section.
Beyond the Basics exercises provide more challenging
Procedure in Action Examples. These types of examples,
problems that give students an opportunity to reach beyond
interspersed throughout the text, present important procedures
the material covered in the section—these are generally more
in numbered steps. Special Procedure in Action examples
theoretical in nature and are suitable for honors students,
present important multistep procedures, such as the steps for
special assignments, or extra credit.
doing synthetic division, in a two-column format. The steps
of the procedure are given in the left column, and an example Critical Thinking/Discussion/Writing exercises, appearing
is worked, following these steps, in the right column. This as appropriate, are designed to develop students’ higher-level
approach provides students with a clear model with which thinking skills. Calculator problems, identified by , are
they can compare when encountering difficulty in their work. included where needed.
Active Learning exercises allow students to explore
Additional Pedagogical Features
mathematical concepts in new ways. Students have the chance
Definitions, Theorems, Properties, and Rules are all boxed
to manipulate Interactive Figures and answer accompanying
and titled for emphasis and ease of reference.
questions.
Warnings appear as appropriate throughout the text to apprise
students of common errors and pitfalls that can trip them up in Key Ideas at a Glance. This one page feature found at
their thinking or calculations. the end of each chapter highlights some key concepts in each
chapter. In some chapters, this will serve as a comparison
Summary of Main Facts boxes summarize information
between two similar or parallel topics. In other chapters,
related to equations and their graphs, such as those of the
this will sum up many of the ideas presented in the chapter.
conic sections.
This page can serve as a reference to students to look back
A Calculus Symbol appears next to information in the text on when studying or doing exercises. There are also exercises
that is essential for the study of calculus. to accompany this feature so that students may test their
understanding of the ideas summarized there.
Margin Notes
Side Notes provide hints for handling newly introduced concepts. Chapter Review and Tests. The chapter-ending material
begins with an extensive Review featuring a two-column,
Recall notes remind students of a key idea learned earlier in
section-by-section summary of the definitions, concepts,
the text that will help them work through a current problem.
and formulas covered in that chapter, with corresponding
Technology Connections give students tips on using calcula- examples. This review provides a description and examples
tors to solve problems, check answers, and reinforce concepts. of key topics indicating where the material occurs in the
Note that the use of graphing calculators is optional in this text. text, and encourages students to reread sections rather than
memorize definitions out of context. Review Exercises
Do You Know? Features provide students with additional
provide students with an opportunity to practice what they
interesting information on topics to keep them engaged in the
have learned in the chapter. Then students are given two
mathematics presented.
chapter test options. They can take Practice Test A in the
usual open-ended format and/or Practice Test B, covering
Exercises. The heart of any textbook is its exercises, so we
the same topics, in a multiple-choice format. Practice Test
have tried to ensure that the quantity, quality, and variety of
B has been moved online for this edition, and can be found
exercises meet the needs of all students. Exercises are carefully
in the eText. All tests are designed to increase student
graded to strengthen the skills developed in the section and are
comprehension and verify that students have mastered the
organized using the following categories.
skills and concepts in the chapter. Mastery of these materials
Concepts and Vocabulary exercises begin each exercise set should indicate a true comprehension of the chapter and the
with problems that assess the student’s grasp of the definitions likelihood of success on the associated in-class examination.
and ideas introduced in that section. These true-false and Cumulative Review Exercises appear at the end of every
fill-in-the-blank exercises help to rapidly identify gaps in chapter, starting with Chapter 2, to remind students that
comprehension of the material in that section. mathematics is not modular and that what is learned in the
first part of the book will be useful in later parts of the book
Building Skills exercises develop fundamental skills—each
and on the final examination.
odd-numbered exercise is closely paired with its consecutive
even-numbered exercise.
xvi Preface

MyLab Math Resources for Success

MyLab Math is available to accompany Pearson’s market- learning. The Video Notebook is available as PDFs and
leading text options, including Precalculus: A Right Triangle customizable Word files in MyLab Math. Instructors can
Approach, 5th Edition (access code required). also use the video notebook as a guide when creating
their own lecture notes in a traditional lecture class. This
MyLab™ is the teaching and learning platform that empow- way an instructor has pre-built lecture notes ready to go,
ers you to reach every student. MyLab Math combines trusted or an easily adaptable set of lecture notes ready to be
author content—including full eText and assessment with modified for the needs of their students.
immediate feedback—with digital tools and a flexible plat-
form to personalize the learning experience and improve ▼ NEW! Mathematical study skills videos, created by
results for each student. co-authors Jessica Bernards and Wendy Fresh, motivate
MyLab Math supports all learners, regardless of their students to stick with their math course and offer practical tips
ability and background, in order to provide an equal oppor- to succeed. The animated character, Polly Nomial, guides stu-
tunity for success. Accessible resources support learners for dents through topics such as How Learning Math is Different
a more equitable experience no matter their abilities. And and Having a Growth Mindset in Math that any math student
options to personalize learning and address individual gaps could benefit from watching. These ten study skills videos
help to provide each learner with the specific resources they have pre-built assignments that include assessment questions
need in order to achieve success. that test students’ understanding of the content.

Student Resources

Motivate Your Students—Students are motivated to succeed

when they’re engaged in the learning experience and understand
the relevance and power of math.

▼ NEW! Section Lecture Videos—Co-authors Jessica

Bernards and Wendy Fresh (Portland Community College)
have created all new Section videos, segmented and assignable
by objective, using their years of teaching experience for
online courses and flipped classrooms. Instructors can assign
a full objective or only the segment that is needed. The videos • NEW! Personal Inventory Assessments are a
allow students an opportunity to learn from experienced collection of online exercises designed to promote self-
master teachers breaking down complex topics in an easy-to- reflection and metacognition in students. These 33
understand manner. assessments include topics such as a Stress Management
Assessment, Diagnosing Poor Performance and Enhancing
Motivation, and Time Management Assessment.
Address Underpreparedness—Each student learns at a dif-
ferent pace. Personalized learning pinpoints the precise areas
where each student needs practice, giving all students the support
they need—when and where they need it—to be successful.
NEW! Integrated Review can be used in corequisite
courses, or simply to help students who enter Precalculus
without a full understanding of prerequisite skills and concepts.
• Integrated Review at the chapter level provides a Skills
Check assessment to pinpoint which prerequisites topics, if
any, students need to review.
• NEW! Video Notebook is a note-taking guide that • Students who require additional review proceed to a
gives students a structured place to take notes and work personalized homework assignment to remediate.
the example problems as they watch the videos.
• Integrated Review videos and worksheets provide
Definitions and important concepts are highlighted,
additional instruction.
helpful tips are pointed out along the way. Jessica
Bernards and Wendy Fresh author this supplement to Instructors who prefer to review at the section level can assign
make sure students are actively engaged with their the Enhanced Assignments instead.

Learn more at pearson.com/mylab/math

 Preface xvii

Personalized Homework—With Personalized Homework, MyLab Math Question Library is correlated to the exercises in
students take a quiz or test and receive a subsequent homework the text, reflecting each author’s approach and learning style.
assignment that is personalized based on their performance. They regenerate algorithmically to give students unlimited
This way, students can focus on just the topics they have not opportunity for practice and mastery. Below are a few exercise
yet mastered. types available to assign:
Other student resources include the following: ▼ NEW! GeoGebra Exercises are gradable graphing and
computational exercises that help students demonstrate
• NEW! Interactive Figures bring mathematical concepts
their understanding. They enable students to interact
to life, helping students see the concepts through directed
directly with the graph in a manner that reflects how
explorations and purposeful manipulation. For this revision,
students would graph on paper.
we added many more interactive figures (in editable GeoGebra
format) to the Video & Resource Library. The instructional
videos that accompany the text now include Interactive
Figures to teach key concepts. These figures are assignable in
MyLab Math and encourage active learning, critical thinking,
and conceptual understanding.
• Solution Manual—Written by Beverly Fusfield, the
Student’s Solution Manual provides detailed worked-out
solutions to the odd-numbered end-of-section and Chapter
Review exercises as well as solutions to all the Practice
Problems, Practice Tests, and Cumulative Review problems.
Available in MyLab Math.

Instructor Resources

Your course is unique. So whether you’d like to build your

own assignments, teach multiple sections, or set prerequisites,
MyLab gives you the flexibility to easily create your course to
fit your needs. • Setup & Solve Exercises require students to first describe
how they will set up and approach the problem. This
Pre-Built Assignments are designed to maximize students’ reinforces conceptual understanding of the process applied
performance. All assignments are fully editable to make your in approaching the problem, promotes long-term retention
course your own. of the skill, and mirrors what students will be expected to
• NEW! Enhanced Assignments—These section-level do on a test.
assignments have three unique properties: • Concept and Vocabulary—Each exercise section begins
1. They help keep skills fresh with spaced practice of with exercises that assess the student’s grasp of the
previously learned concepts. definitions and ideas introduced in that section. These true-
2. Learning aids are strategically turned off for some false and fill-in-the-blank exercises help to rapidly identify
exercises to ensure students understand how to work gaps in comprehension and are assignable in MyLab Math
the exercises independently. and Learning Catalytics.
3. They contain personalized prerequisite skills Learning Catalytics—With Learning Cataltyics, you’ll
exercises for gaps identified in the chapter-level Skills hear from every student when it matters most. You pose
Check Quiz. a variety of questions in class (choosing from pre-loaded
questions or your own) that help students recall ideas, apply
• NEW! Learning Assignments—Section-level assign­
concepts, and develop critical-thinking skills. Your students
ments are especially helpful for online classes or flipped
respond using their own smartphones, tablets, or laptops.
classes, where some or all learning takes place indepen-
dently. These assignments include objective-level videos Performance Analytics enable instructors to see and analyze
and interactive figures for student exploration followed by student performance across multiple courses. Based on their
corresponding MyLab questions to ensure engagement and current course progress, individuals’ performance is identified
understanding. Instructors can assign the video notebook for above, at, or below expectations through a variety of graphs
students to fill out as they complete these video assignments. and visualizations.

Learn more at pearson.com/mylab/math

xviii Preface

Now included with Performance Analytics, Early Alerts use • PowerPoint Lecture Slides feature presentations written
predictive analytics to identify struggling students—even if and designed specifically for this text, including figures and
their assignment scores are not a cause for concern. In both examples from the text. Accessible versions of the
Performance Analytics and Early Alerts, instructors can email PowerPoints are also available.
students individually or by group to provide feedback.
• TestGen enables instructors to build, edit, print, and
Accessibility—Pearson works continuously to ensure our administer tests using a computerized bank of questions
products are as accessible as possible to all students. Currently developed to cover all the objectives of the text. TestGen
we work toward achieving WCAG 2.0 AA for our existing prod- is algorithmically based, allowing instructors to create
ucts (2.1 AA for future products) and Section 508 standards, as multiple but equivalent versions of the same questions
expressed in the Pearson Guidelines for Accessible Educational or test with the click of a button. Instructors can also
Web Media (https://wps.pearsoned.com/accessibility/). modify test bank questions or add new questions. The
Other instructor resources include the following: software and test bank are available for download at
pearson.com.
• Instructor Solution Manual—Written by Bevery Fusfield,
the Instructor’s Solutions Manual provides complete • Test Bank features a printable PDF containing all the test
solutions for all end-of-section exercises, including the exercises available in TestGen. The current version
Critical Thinking/Discussion/Writing Projects, Practice contains 6 forms of tests per chapter in PDF format.
Problems, Chapter Review exercises, Practice Tests, and Forms A-D are open-ended. Forms E and F are multiple
Cumulative Review problems. choice.

Acknowledgments
We would like to express our gratitude to the reviewers of this Yvette Janecek, Coastal Bend College
fifth edition (marked with an asterisk) and previous editions, Rose M. Jenkins, Midlands Technical College
who provided such invaluable insights and comments. Their Mohammad Kazemi, University of North Carolina at
contributions helped shape the development of the text and Charlotte
carry out the vision stated in the Preface. David Keller, Kirkwood Community College
Diana Klimek, New Jersey Institute of Technology
Alison Ahlgren, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
Mile Krajcevski, University of South Florida
Mohammad Aslam, Georgia Perimeter College
*Jennifer La Fleur, Harford Community College
Mario Barrientos, Angelo State University
Lance Lana, University of Colorado–Denver
Ratan Barua, Miami-Dade College
Alexander Lavrentiev, University of Wisconsin–Fox Valley
Sam Bazzi, Henry Ford Community College
Rebecca Leefers, Michigan State University
Elizabeth Bowman, The University of Alabama at Huntsville
*Weston Loucks, Northern Arizona University
Diane Burleson, Central Piedmont Community College
Paul Morgan, College of Southern Idaho
*Christina C, Northern Arizona University
Kathy Nickell, College of DuPage
Maureen T. Carroll, University of Scranton
Catherine Pellish, Front Range Community College
Melissa Cass, State University of New York–New Paltz
Betty Peterson, Mercer County Community College
Jason Cates, Lone Star College–Montgomery
Edward K. Pigg, Southern Union Community College
Charles Conrad, Volunteer State Community College
*Carrie Quesnell, Weber State University
Irene Coriette, Cameron University
Marshall Ransom, Georgia Southern University
Douglas Culler, Midlands Technical College
Janice F. Rech, University of Nebraska–Omaha
*Ryan DeFronzo, New Hampshire Technical Institute
Traci Reed, St. Johns River Community College
Baiqiao Deng, Columbus State University
Linda Reist, Macomb Community College
Hussain Elaloui-Talibi, Tuskegee University
Jeri Rogers, Seminole Community College–Oviedo Campus
Kathleen M. Fick, Methodist University–Fayetteville
Jason Rose, College of Southern Idaho
Junko Forbes, El Camino College
Mehdi Sadatmousavi, Pima Community College–West
Gene Garza, Samford University
Christy Schmidt, Northwest Vista College
Steven Gonzales, San Antonio College
Nyeita Schult, Coastal Carolina University
Bobbie Jo Hill, Coastal Bend College
Delphy Shaulis, University of Colorado–Boulder
Fran Hopf, University of South Florida
Cindy Shaw, Moraine Valley Community College
Natalie Hutchinson, Old Dominion University
Cynthia Sikes, Georgia Southern University
Nyeita Irish, Coastal Carolina University
 Preface xix

*Mary Alice Smeal, University of Alabama at Huntsville Our sincerest thanks go to the legion of dedicated individu-
James Smith, Columbia State Community College als who worked tirelessly to make this book possible. We
Linda Snellings-Neal, Wright State University would like to express our gratitude to our typist, Beverly
Jacqueline Stone, University of Maryland–College Park DeVine-Hoffmeyer, for her amazing patience and skill. We
Kay Stroope, Phillips County Community College must also thank Dr. Praveen Rohatgi, Dr. Nalini Rohatgi,
Robert J. Strozak, Old Dominion University and Dr. Bhupinder Bedi for the consulting they provided on
Helen Timberlake, Rochester Institute of Technology all material relating to medicine. We particularly want to
Frances Tishkevich, Massachusetts Maritime Academy thank Professors Mile Krajcevski, Viktor Maymeskul, and
Jo Tucker, Tarrant County College–Southeast Scott Rimbey for many helpful discussions and suggestions,
Violeta Vasilevska, Utah Valley University particularly for improving the exercise sets. Further grati-
Roger Werbylo, Pima Community College–West tude is due to Irena Andreevska, Gokarna Aryal, Ferene
Denise Williams, Coastal Carolina University Tookos, and Christine Fitch for their assistance on the
Tom Worthing, Hutchinson Community College answers to the exercises in the text. In addition, we would
Vivian Zabrocki, Montana State University–Billings like to thank De Cook, Doug Ewert, John Samons, and Bev-
Marti Zimmerman, University of Louisville erly Fusfield, for their meticulous accuracy in checking the
text. Thanks are due as well to Sharon Cahill and Straive for
We would like to thank the following faculty members who their excellent production work. Finally, our thanks are
provided input on the MyLab Math course: extended to the professional and remarkable staff at Pearson
Education. In particular, we would like to thank Brian Fisher,
Don Busenbark
Jeff Weidenaar, and Jon Krebs for Content Management;
Mariana Durgheu
Jessica Darczuk, Product Manager; Tamela Ambush, Con-
Pamela Fails
tent Producer; Sandra Rodriguez, Managing Producer; Sta-
Yvette Janecek
cey Sveum, Product Marketing Manager; Eric Gregg,
Minsu Kim
Manager of Content Development for MathXL; Nick Swee-
Paul Kimble
ney, Media Producer; and Joe Vetere, Senior Author Support
C.J. Kish
Technology Specialist.
David Kroon
Robert Parr We invite all who use this book to send suggestions for
Brendan Santangelo improvements to Marcus McWaters at [email protected].
Curtis White
 Pearson’s Commitment
to Diversity, Equity,
and Inclusion

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xx
DEDICATION
To Our Spouses,
Lata, Debra, Leslie, Kevin, and Jon
 P Basic Concepts
of Algebra

TOPICS
P.1 The Real Numbers and
Their Properties
P.2 Integer Exponents and
Scientific Notation
P.3 Polynomials
P.4 Factoring
Polynomials
P.5 Rational Expressions
P.6 Rational Exponents
and Radicals

Many fascinating patterns in human and natural processes

can be described in the language of algebra. We investigate
events ranging from chirping crickets to the behavior of falling
objects.

1
2 Chapter P Basic Concepts of Algebra

The Real Numbers and

P.1 Their Properties
Objectives
1 Classify sets of real numbers.
2 Use exponents.
Videos for 3 Use the ordering of the real numbers.
this Section
4 Specify sets of numbers in roster or set-builder notation.
5 Use interval notation.
6 Relate absolute value and distance on the real number line.
7 Use the order of operations in arithmetic expressions.
8 Identify and use properties of real numbers.
9 Evaluate algebraic expressions.

Cricket Chirps and Temperature

Crickets are sensitive to changes in air temperature; their chirps
speed up as the temperature gets warmer and slow down as it
gets cooler. It is possible to use the chirps of the male snowy tree
cricket (Oecanthus fultoni), common throughout the United
States, to gauge temperature. (The insect is found in every U.S.
state except Hawaii, Alaska, Montana, and Florida.) By counting
the chirps of this cricket, which lives in bushes a few feet from the
ground, you can gauge temperature. Snowy tree crickets are
more accurate than most cricket species; their chirps are slow
enough to count, and they synchronize their singing. To convert
cricket chirps to degrees Fahrenheit, count the number of chirps
in 14 seconds and then add 40 to get the temperature. To convert
cricket chirps to degrees Celsius, count the number of chirps in
25 seconds, divide by 3, and then add 4 to get the temperature.
In Example 12, we evaluate algebraic expressions to learn the
temperature from the number of cricket chirps.

Objective 1 Classifying Numbers

In algebra, we use letters such as a, b, x, y, and so on, to represent numbers. A letter that is
used to represent one or more numbers is called a variable. A constant is a specific num-
1
ber such as 3 or or a letter that represents a fixed (but not necessarily specified) number.
2
Physicists use the letter c as a constant to represent the speed of light (c ≈ 300,000,000
meters per second).
 Section P.1 The Real Numbers and Their Properties 3

SIDE NOTE We use two variables, a and b, to denote the results of the operations of addition ( a + b ),
Here is one difficulty with
attempting to divide by 0: If, for (
subtraction ( a − b ), multiplication ( a × b or a ⋅ b ), and division a ÷ b or
a
b ). These
5 operations are called binary operations because each is performed on two numbers.
example, = a , then 5 = a ⋅ 0.
0 We frequently omit the multiplication sign when writing a product involving two vari-
However, a ⋅ 0 = 0 for all
ables (or a constant and a variable) so that a ⋅ b and ab indicate the same product. Both a
numbers a. So we would have
5 = 0 ; this contradiction
and b are called factors in the product a ⋅ b. This is a good time to recall that we never
demonstrates that there is no a
divide by zero. For to represent a real number, b cannot be zero.
appropriate choice for .
5 b
0
Equality of Numbers
The equal sign, = , is used much like we use the word is in English. The equal sign means
that the number or expression on the left side is equal or equivalent to the number or
expression on the right side. We write a ≠ b to indicate that a is not equal to b.

Classifying Sets of Numbers

The idea of a set is familiar to us. We regularly refer to “a set of baseball cards,” a “set of
CDs,” or “a set of dishes.” In mathematics, as in everyday life, a set is a collection of
objects. The objects in the set are called the elements, or members, of the set. Capital let-
ters are usually used to name a set. In the study of algebra, we are interested primarily in
sets of numbers.
In listing the elements of a set, it is customary to enclose the listed elements in braces,
{ }, and separate them with commas.
We distinguish among various sets of numbers.
The numbers we use to count with constitute the set N of natural numbers:
N = {1, 2, 3, 4, . . . }.
The three dots . . . (called ellipsis) may be read as “and so on” and indicate that the pattern
continues indefinitely.
The set W of whole numbers is formed by including the number 0 with the natural
numbers to obtain the set: W = { 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, . . . }.
The set Z of integers consists of the set N of natural numbers together with their oppo-
sites and 0: Z = { . . . , −4, −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, . . . } .

Rational Numbers
The rational numbers consist of all numbers that can be expressed as the quotient or ratio,
a
, of two integers, where b ≠ 0. The letter Q is often used to represent the set of rational
b
numbers.
1 5 −4 7
Examples of rational numbers are , , , and 0.07 = . Any integer a can be
2 3 17 100
a
expressed as the quotient of two integers by writing a = . Consequently, every integer is
1
0
also a rational number. In particular, 0 is a rational number because 0 = .
1
a
The rational number can be written as a decimal by using long division. When any
b
integer a is divided by an integer b, b ≠ 0, the result is always a terminating decimal
1 2
such as = 0.5 or a nonterminating repeating decimal such as = 0.666 . . . .
2 3
We sometimes place a bar over the repeating digits in a nonterminating repeating
2 141
decimal. Thus, = 0.666 . . . = 0.6 and = 1.2818181 . . . = 1.281.
3 110
4 Chapter P Basic Concepts of Algebra

EXAMPLE 1 Converting Decimal Rationals to a Quotient

Write the rational number 7.45 as the ratio of two integers in lowest terms.
Solution
Let x = 7.454545 . . . . Then
100 x = 745.4545 . . . Multiply both sides by 100.
subtract x = 7.4545 . . .
99 x = 738 100 x − x = 99 x
738
x = Divide both sides by 99.
99
82 × 9
= Common factor
11 × 9
82
x = . Reduce to lowest terms.
11
diameter

Practice Problem 1. Repeat Example 1 for 2.132132132 . . . .

p5
circumference
diameter
Irrational Numbers
Figure P.1 Definition of π An irrational number is a real number that cannot be written as a ratio of two integers.
This means that its decimal representation must be nonrepeating and nonterminating. We
can construct such a decimal using only the digits 0 and 1, such as 0.01001000100001. . . .
Because each group of zeros contains one more zero than the previous group, no group of
digits repeats. Other numbers such as π (“pi”; see Figure P.1) and 2 (the square root of 2;
see Figure P.2) can also be expressed as decimals that neither terminate nor repeat; so they
2
1 are irrational numbers as well. We can obtain an approximation of an irrational number by
using an initial portion of its decimal representation. For example, we can write
π ≈ 3.14159 or 2 ≈ 1.41421, where the symbol ≈ is read “is approximately equal to.”
No familiar process, such as long division, is available for obtaining the decimal repre-
1
sentation of an irrational number. However, your calculator can provide a useful approxi-
Figure P.2 mation for irrational numbers such as 2. (Try it!) Because a calculator displays a fixed
number of decimal places, it gives a rational approximation of an irrational number.
It is usually not easy to determine whether a specific number is irrational. One helpful
RECALL
fact in this regard is that the square root of any natural number that is not a perfect square
is irrational. So 6 is irrational but 16 = 4 2 = 4 is rational.
An integer is a perfect square if
Because rational numbers have decimal representations that either terminate or repeat,
it is a product a ⋅ a, where a is
an integer. For example, whereas irrational numbers do not have such representations, no number is both rational
9 = 3 ⋅ 3 is a perfect square. and irrational.
The rational numbers together with the irrational numbers form the set R of real numbers.
The diagram in Figure P.3 shows how various sets of numbers are related. For example,
every natural number is also a whole number, an integer, a rational number, and a real number.
Real Numbers

Rational numbers Irrational numbers

1 2 2 2, p, 2 3, 11 5
23, 2 , 0, , 3 , 5.78
2 3 5

Integers
. . ., 22, 21, 0, 1, 2, . . .
Whole numbers
0, 1, 2, 3, . . .
Natural numbers
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, . . .

Figure P.3 Relationships among sets of real numbers

 Section P.1 The Real Numbers and Their Properties 5

EXAMPLE 2 Identifying Sets of Numbers

{ 6
3
2
Let A = −17, −5, − , − , 0,
3
5 1
, ,
12 2
2, π, 35, 7, 18 .}
Identify all the elements of the set A that are
a. Natural numbers b. Whole numbers c. Integers
d. Rational numbers e. Irrational numbers f. Real numbers

Solution
a. Natural numbers: 7 and 18
b. Whole numbers: 0, 7, and 18
6
c. Integers: −17, −5, − (or −2), 0, 7, and 18
3
6 2 5 1
d. Rational numbers: −17, −5, − , − , 0, , , 7, and 18
3 3 12 2
e. Irrational numbers: 2, π, and 35
f. Real numbers: All numbers in the set A are real numbers.

Practice Problem 2. Repeat Example 2 for the following set:

{
B = −6, −
21 1
7
4
, − , 0, ,
2 3
3, 2, 17, 7 . }

Objective 2 Integer Exponents

The area of a square with sides of five feet each is 5 ⋅ 5 = 25 square feet.
The volume of a cube that has sides of 5 feet each is 5 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 5 = 125 cubic feet.

5 ft
5 ft

5 ft
5 ft 5 ft
Area 5 5.5 square feet Volume 5 5.5.5 cubic feet

A shorter notation for 5 ⋅ 5 is 5 2 and for 5 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 5 is 5 3. The number 5 is called the

base for both 5 2 and 5 3. The number 2 is called the exponent in the expression 5 2 and indicates
that the base 5 appears as a factor twice.

exponent
Positive Integer Exponent
an If a is a real number and n is a positive integer, then
base
a n = a
⋅ a ⋅.
. . ⋅a.
n factors

The number a n is called the nth power of a and is read “a to the nth power,” or “a to
the n.” The number a is called the base; n, the exponent. We adopt the convention
that a 1 = a.
6 Chapter P Basic Concepts of Algebra

EXAMPLE 3 Evaluating Expressions That Use Exponents

TECHNOLOGY CONNECTION Evaluate each expression.
Type 5^3 for5 3 on a graphing a. 5 3 b. ( −3 ) 2 c. −3 2 d. ( −2 ) 3
calculator. Any expression
on a calculator enclosed in Solution
parentheses and followed by ^n a. 5 3 = 5 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 5 = 125    5 is the base, and 3 is the exponent.
is raised to the nth power.
b. ( −3 ) 2 = ( −3 )( −3 ) = 9    (−3) 2 is the opposite of 3, squared.
A common error is to forget
parentheses when computing c. −3 2 = −3 ⋅ 3 = −9   Multiplication of 3 ⋅ 3 occurs first. (−3 2 is the opposite of 3 2.)
an expression such as ( −3 ) 2 , d. ( −2 )3 = ( −2 )( −2 )( −2 ) = −8
with the result being −3 2. Newer
graphing calculators, such as Practice Problem 3. Evaluate the following.
the TI-84 series, provide display 4
options called CLASSIC and
MATHPRINT . The MATHPRINT
a. 2 3   b. ( 3a ) 2    c. ( 12 ) 

option displays 5^3 as 5 3 but

still requires you to type 5, then In Example 3, pay careful attention to the fact (from parts b and c) that ( −3 ) 2 ≠ −3 2.
^, then 3. In ( −3 ) 2 , the parentheses indicate that the exponent 2 applies to the base −3, whereas in −3 2 ,
the absence of parentheses indicates that the exponent applies only to the base 3. When n is
even, ( −a ) n ≠ −a n for a ≠ 0.

The Real Number Line

We associate the real numbers with points on a geometric line (imagined to be extended
indefinitely in both directions) in such a way that each real number corresponds to exactly
one point and each point corresponds to exactly one real number. The point is called the
graph of the corresponding real number, and the real number is called the coordinate of
CLASSIC Mode the point. By agreement, positive numbers lie to the right of the point corresponding to 0
and negative numbers lie to the left of 0. See Figure P.4.
1 1
Notice that and − , 2 and −2, and π and −π correspond to pairs of points exactly the
2 2
same distance from 0 but on opposite sides of 0.

2p 22.25 1 unit 2.25 p

23 22 2 2 21 1 0 1 1 2 2 3
22
2
MATHPRINT Mode
Figure P.4 The real number line
In this text we will display
screens in MATHPRINT mode.
When coordinates have been assigned to points on a line in the manner just described,
the line is called a real number line, a coordinate line, a real line, or simply a number
line. The point corresponding to 0 is called the origin.

Objective 3 Inequalities
The real numbers are ordered by their size. We say that a is less than b and write a < b,
provided that b = a + c for some positive number c. We also write b > a, meaning the
same thing as a < b, and say that b is greater than a. On the real line, the numbers
increase from left to right. Consequently, a is to the left of b on the number line when
a < b. Similarly, a is to the right of b on the number line when a > b. We sometimes
want to indicate that at least one of two conditions is correct: Either a < b or a = b.
In this case, we write a ≤ b or b ≥ a. The four symbols <, >, ≤, and ≥ are called
inequality symbols.
 Section P.1 The Real Numbers and Their Properties 7

EXAMPLE 4 Identifying Inequalities

SIDE NOTE Decide whether each of the following is true or false from their position on a number line.
Notice that the inequality sign a. 5 > 0 b. −2 < −3 c. 2 ≤ 3 d. 4 ≤ 4
always points to the smaller
number. Solution
2 < 7, 2 is smaller. a. 5 > 0 is true because 5 is to the right of 0 on the number line. See Figure P.5.
5 > 1, 1 is smaller. b. −2 < −3 is false because −2 is to the right of −3 on the number line.
c. 2 ≤ 3 is true because 2 is to the left of 3 on the number line. (Recall that 2 ≤ 3 is
true if either 2 < 3 or 2 = 3.)
d. 4 ≤ 4 is true because 4 ≤ 4 is true if either 4 < 4 or 4 = 4.

22 is right of 23 2 is left of 3 4 5 4 5 is right of 0

23 22 21 0 1 2 3 4 5
Figure P.5

Practice Problem 4. Decide whether each of the following is true or false.

a. −2 < 0   b. 5 ≤ 7   c. −4 > −1 

The following properties of inequalities for real numbers are used throughout this text.
Here a, b, and c represent real numbers.
Trichotomy Property: Exactly one of the following is true:

a < b, a = b, or a > b.

Transitive Property: If a < b and b < c, then a < c.

The trichotomy property says that if two real numbers are not equal, then one is larger
than the other. The transitive property says that “less than” works like “smaller than” or
“lighter than.” Frequently, we read a > 0 as “a is positive” instead of “a is greater than 0.”
We can also read a < 0 as “a is negative.” If a ≥ 0, then either a > 0 or a = 0, and we
may say that “a is nonnegative.”

Objective 4 Sets
To specify a set, we do one of the following:
1. List the elements of the set (roster method).
2. Describe the elements of the set (often using set-builder notation).
Variables are helpful in describing sets when we use set-builder notation. The notation
{ x x is a natural number less than 6 } is in set-builder notation and describes the set
{1, 2, 3, 4, 5 } using the roster method.
We read { x x is a natural number less than 6 } as “the set of all x such that x is a
natural number less than six.” Generally, { x x has property P } designates the set of all x
such that (the vertical bar is read “such that”) x has property P.
It may happen that a description fails to describe any number. For example, consider
{ x x < 2 and x > 7 }. Of course, no number can be simultaneously less than 2 and
greater than 7, so this set has no members. We refer to a set with no elements as the empty
set, or null set, and use the special symbol ∅, or sometimes { }, to denote it.
8 Chapter P Basic Concepts of Algebra

Definition of Union and Intersection

The union of two sets A and B, denoted A ∪ B, is the set consisting of all elements that are
in A or B (or both). See Figure P.6a. The intersection of A and B, denoted A ∩ B, is the set
consisting of all elements that are in both A and B. In other words, A ∩ B consists of the
elements common to A and B. See Figure P.6b.

EXAMPLE 5 Forming Set Unions and Intersections

A B
Find A ∩ B, A ∪ B, and A ∩ C , if A = { −2, −1, 0, 1, 2 }, B = { −4, −2, 0, 2, 4 }, and
C = { −3, 3 } .
(a) A ø B
Solution
A ∩ B = { −2, 0, 2 }, the set of elements common to both A and B.
A B A ∪ B = { −4, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 4 }, the set of elements that are in A or B (or both).
A∩C = ∅
(b) A ù B
Figure P.6 Picturing union Practice Problem 5. Find A ∩ B and A ∪ B, if A = { −3, −1, 0, 1, 3 } and
and intersection B = { −4, −2, 0, 2, 4 }.

Objective 5 Intervals
We now turn our attention to graphing certain sets of numbers. That is, we graph each
number in a given set. We are particularly interested in sets of real numbers, called intervals,
whose graphs correspond to special sections of the number line.
a b If a < b, then the set of real numbers between a and b, but not including either a or b,
is called the open interval from a to b and is denoted by ( a, b ). See Figure P.7. Using
set-builder notation, we can write
Figure P.7 An open interval
( a, b ) = { x | a < x < b }.

We indicate graphically that the endpoints a and b are excluded from the open interval by
drawing a left parenthesis at a and a right parenthesis at b. These parentheses enclose the
numbers between a and b.
a b The closed interval from a to b is the set

[ a, b ] = { x | a ≤ x ≤ b }.
Figure P.8 A closed interval
The closed interval includes both endpoints a and b. We replace the parentheses with
square brackets in the interval notation and on the graph. See Figure P.8. Sometimes we
want to include only one endpoint of an interval and exclude the other. Table P.1 below
shows how this is done.
a b An alternative notation for indicating whether endpoints are included uses open circles
Open interval (a, b)
to show exclusion and closed circles to show inclusion. See Figure P.9.
(a) If an interval extends indefinitely in one or both directions, it is called an unbounded
interval. For example, the set of all numbers to the right of 2,
a b
Closed interval [a, b] { x | x > 2 },
(b)
is an unbounded interval denoted by ( 2, ∞ ). See Figure P.10.
Figure P.9 Endpoint inclusion
The symbol ∞ (“infinity”) is not a number, but is used to indicate all numbers to the
and exclusion
right of 2.
The symbol −∞ is another symbol that does not represent a number. The notation
2 ( −∞, a ) is used to indicate the set of all real numbers that are less than a. The notation
( −∞, ∞ ) represents the set of all real numbers.
Figure P.10 An unbounded Table P.1 lists various types of intervals that we use in this text. In the table, when two
interval points a and b are given, we assume that a < b. This is because if a > b, then ( a, b ) is
the empty set.
 Section P.1 The Real Numbers and Their Properties 9

TABLE P.1

Interval Notation Set Notation Graph

( a, b) { x|a < x < b } a b

SIDE NOTE
The symbols ∞ and −∞ are [ a, b] { x|a ≤ x ≤ b }
always used with parentheses, a b
not square brackets. Also note
that < and > are used with ( a, b] { x|a < x ≤ b }
parentheses and that ≤ and ≥ a b
are used with square brackets.
[ a, b) { x|a ≤ x < b } a b

( a, ∞) { x| x > a } a

[ a, ∞) { x| x ≥ a } a

( −∞, b) { x| x < b }
b

( −∞, b] { x| x ≤ b } b
( −∞, ∞) { x | x is a real number }

EXAMPLE 6 Union and Intersection of Intervals

Consider the two intervals I 1 = ( −3, 4 ) and I 2 = [ 2, 6 ].
Find: a. I 1 ∪ I 2 .    b. I 1 ∩ I 2 .

Solution Use the to ( exclude −3 . Use the ] to include 6.

a. From Figure P.11, we see that I 1 ∪ I 2 = ( −3, 6 ]. We note that every number in the
interval ( −3, 6 ] is in either I 1 or I 2 or in both I 1 and I 2 .
b. We see in Figure P.11 that I 1 ∩ I 2 = [ 2, 4 ). Every number in the interval [ 2, 4 ) is in
both I 1 and I 2 . Notice that while 4 is in I 2, 4 is not in I 1.

I1
24 23 22 21 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

I2
24 23 22 21 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Figure P.11

Practice Problem 6. Let I 1 = ( −∞, 5 ) and I 2 = [ −2, ∞ ). Find the following.

a. I 1 ∪ I 2     b. I 1 ∩ I 2 

Objective 6 Absolute Value

The absolute value of a number a, denoted by a , is the distance between the origin and the
point on the number line with coordinate a. The point with coordinate −3 is 3 units from the
origin, so we write −3 = 3 and say that the absolute value of −3 is 3. See Figure P.12.

3 units

23 22 21 0 1
Figure P.12 Absolute value
10 Chapter P Basic Concepts of Algebra

Absolute Value
For any real number a, the absolute value of a, denoted a , is defined by
a = a if a ≥ 0 and a = −a if a < 0.

SIDE NOTE EXAMPLE 7 Determining Absolute Value

Finding the absolute value Find the value of each of the following expressions.
requires knowing whether the
number or expression inside a. 4 b. −4 c. 0 d. ( −3 ) +1
the absolute value bars is
positive, zero, or negative. If it is Solution
positive or zero, you can simply
a. 4 = 4 Because the number inside the absolute value bars is 4 and 4 ≥ 0,
remove the absolute value
just remove the absolute value bars.
bars. If it is negative, you
remove the bars and change b. −4 = −( −4 ) = 4 Because the number inside the absolute value bars is −4
the sign of the number or and −4 < 0, remove the bars and change the sign.
expression inside the absolute
value bars. c. 0 = 0 Because the number inside the absolute value bars is 0 and 0 ≥ 0,
just remove the absolute value bars.
d. ( − 3 ) + 1 = −2 Because the expression inside the absolute value
= −( −2 ) = 2 bars is (−3) + 1 = −2 and −2 < 0, remove the
bars and change the sign.

Practice Problem 7. Find the value of each of the following.

a. −10 b. 3−4 c. 2 ( −3 ) + 7  

WARNING The absolute value of a number represents a distance. Because distance can never be negative,
the absolute value of a number a is never negative. So, a ≥ 0. However, if a is not 0, − a is always
negative. Thus, − 5.3 = −5.3, − −4 = −4, and − 1.18 = −1.18.

TECHNOLOGY CONNECTION
The absolute value function on Distance Between Two Points on a Real Number Line
your graphing calculator will The absolute value is used to define the distance between two points on a number line.
find the value of the expression
entered and then compute its
absolute value. The first screen Distance Formula on a Number Line
is in CLASSIC mode.
If a and b are the coordinates of two points on a number line, then the distance
between a and b, denoted by d ( a, b ), is a − b . In symbols, d ( a, b ) = a − b .

EXAMPLE 8 Finding the Distance Between Two Points

Find the distance between −3 and 4 on the number line.

Solution
Figure P.13 shows that the distance between −3 and 4 is 7 units. The distance formula gives
the same answer.
d ( −3, 4 ) = −3 − 4 = −7 = −( −7 ) = 7.

3 units 4 units

23 22 21 0 1 2 3 4
3 1 4 5 7 units
Figure P.13 Distance on the number line
 Section P.1 The Real Numbers and Their Properties 11

Notice that reversing the order of −3 and 4 in this computation gives the same answer. That
a b
is, the distance between 4 and −3 is 4 −( −3 ) = 4 + 3 = 7 = 7. It is always true
that a − b = b − a . See Figure P.14.
Figure P.14
Practice Problem 8. Find the distance between −7 and 2 on the number line.

We summarize the properties of absolute value next.

Properties of Absolute Value

If a and b are any real numbers, the following properties apply.
Property Example

1. a ≥ 0 −5 = 5 and 5 ≥ 0

2. a = −a 3 = −3

3. ab = a b 3( −5 ) = 3 −5
a a −7 −7
4. b = b , b ≠ 0 3
=
3

5. a − b = b − a 2−7 = 7−2

6. a ≤ a −2 ≤ −2 , 3 ≤ 3

7.  a + b ≤ a + b −2 + 5 ≤ −2 + 5
(the triangle inequality)

Objective 7 Order of Operations

When we write numbers in a meaningful combination of the basic operations of arithmetic,
the result is called an arithmetic expression. The real number that results from perform-
ing all operations in the expression is called the value of the expression. In arithmetic and
algebra, parentheses ( ) are grouping symbols used to indicate which operations are to be
performed first. Other common grouping symbols are square brackets [ ], braces { }, frac-
tion bars − or /, and absolute value bars .
Evaluating (finding the value of) arithmetic expressions requires carefully applying the
following conventions for the order in which the operations are performed.

SIDE NOTE The Order of Operations

You can remember the order of
operations by the acronym Step 1 Whenever a fraction bar is encountered, work separately above and below it.
PEMDAS (Please Excuse My Step 2 When parentheses or other grouping symbols are present, start inside
Dear Aunt Sally): the innermost pair of grouping symbols and work outward.
Parentheses Step 3 Do operations involving exponents.
Exponents
Multiplication Step 4 Do multiplications and divisions in the order in which they occur,
Division working from left to right.
Addition Step 5 Do additions and subtractions in the order in which they occur, working
Subtraction. from left to right.

EXAMPLE 9 Evaluating Arithmetic Expressions

Use order of operations to evaluate each of the following.
a. 3 ⋅ 2 5 + 4 b. 5 − ( 3 − 1 ) 2
12 Chapter P Basic Concepts of Algebra

TECHNOLOGY CONNECTION Solution

The order of operations is built a. 3 ⋅ 2 5 + 4 = 3 ⋅ 32 + 4 Do operations involving exponents first, 2 5 = 32.
into your graphing calculator.
= 96 + 4 Multiplication is done next, 3 ⋅ 32 = 96.
= 100 Addition is done next, 96 + 4 = 100.
b. 5 − ( 3 − 1 ) 2 = 5 − ( 2 ) 2 Work inside the parentheses first, 3 − 1 = 2.
=5−4 Next, do operations involving exponents, 2 2 = 4.
=1 Subtraction is done next, 5 − 4 = 1.

Practice Problem 9. Evaluate.

( −3 )
9−1
a. ⋅ 5 + 20 b. 5 − 12 ÷ 6 ⋅ 2 c. −5⋅7
2
4
d. −3 + ( x − 4 ) for x = 6 

Objective 8 Properties of the Real Numbers

When doing arithmetic, we intuitively use important properties of the real numbers. We
know, for example, that if we add or multiply two real numbers, the result is a real number.
This fact is known as the closure property of real numbers. For each property listed below,
a, b, and c represent real numbers.

Properties of the Real Numbers

Name Addition (A) Multiplication (M) Examples

Closure a + b is a real number a ⋅ b is a real number A: 1 + 2 is a real number.
M: 2 ⋅ π is a real number.
Commutative a + b = b + a a⋅b = b⋅a A: 4+7 = 7+4
M: 3⋅8 = 8⋅3
Associative (a + b ) + c = a + ( b + c ) ( a ⋅ b ) ⋅ c = a ⋅ ( b ⋅ c) A: (2 + 1) + 7 = 2 + (1 + 7)
M: ( 5 ⋅ 9 ) ⋅ 13 = 5 ⋅ ( 9 ⋅ 13 )
Identity There is a unique real There is a unique real number 1, A: 3 + 0 = 3 and 0 + 3 = 3
number 0, called the additive called the multiplicative M: 7 ⋅ 1 = 7 and 1 ⋅ 7 = 7
identity, such that a + 0 = a identity, such that a ⋅ 1 = a
and 0 + a = a. and 1 ⋅ a = a.
Inverse There is a unique real number If a ≠ 0, there is a unique real A: 5 + (−5) = 0 and
−a, called the opposite of a,
number , called the reciprocal    −5 + 5 = 0
1 ( )
such that a + ( −a ) = 0 and a 1 1
( −a ) + a = 0.
1 M: 4 ⋅ = 1 and ⋅ 4 = 1
of a, such that a ⋅ = 1 and 4 4
a
1
⋅ a = 1.
a

Distributive Multiplication distributes a ⋅ (b + c) = a ⋅ b + a ⋅ c 3 ⋅ ( 2 + 5) = 3 ⋅ 2 + 3 ⋅ 5

over addition. (a + b) ⋅ c = a ⋅ c + b ⋅ c (2 + 5) ⋅ 3 = 2 ⋅ 3 + 5 ⋅ 3

Two other useful properties of 0 involve multiplication rather than addition.

Zero-Product Properties

0 ⋅ a = 0 and a ⋅ 0 = 0
If a ⋅ b = 0, then a = 0 or b = 0.
 Section P.1 The Real Numbers and Their Properties 13

TECHNOLOGY CONNECTION Subtraction and Division of Real Numbers

On your graphing calculator,
You may have noticed that all of the properties discussed to this point apply to the opera-
the opposite of a is denoted
tions of addition and multiplication. What about subtraction and division? We see next that
with a shorter horizontal
subtraction and division can be defined in terms of addition and multiplication.
hyphen than that used to
denote subtraction. It is also
Subtraction of the number b from the number a is defined with the use of a and −b; to
placed somewhat higher than subtract b from a, add the opposite of b to a.
the subtraction symbol.
Subtraction
a − b = a + ( −b )

If a and b are real numbers and b ≠ 0, division of a by b is defined with the use of a
1
and ; to divide a by b, multiply a by the reciprocal of b.
b

Division
a 1
If b ≠ 0, a÷b = = a⋅
b b
a
is undefined.
0

a
For b ≠ 0, is called the quotient, “the ratio of a to b,” or the fraction with numerator
b
a and denominator b. Here are some useful properties involving opposites, subtraction,
and division.
Throughout, we assume that the denominator of each fraction is nonzero.

Properties of Opposites

( −1 ) a = −a −( −a ) = a ( −a ) b = a ( −b ) = −( ab )
( −a )( −b )
= ab −( a + b ) = −a − b −( a − b ) = b − a
−a a a −a a a ( b − c ) = ab − ac
= = − =
b −b b −b b

To combine real numbers by means of the division operation, we use the following proper-
ties. We write “x ± y” as shorthand for “x + y or x − y .”

Properties of Fractions
All denominators are assumed to be nonzero.
a b a ± b a c ad ± bc
± = ± =
c c c b d bd
a c ac a c a d
⋅ = ÷ = ⋅
b d bd b d b c
ac a a c
= = means a ⋅ d = b ⋅ c
bc b b d

ac a a ac
The property = , equivalently = , can be used to produce a common denominator
bc b b bc
when adding or subtracting fractions.
14 Chapter P Basic Concepts of Algebra

EXAMPLE 10 Adding, Subtracting, Multiplying, and Dividing Fractions

Perform the indicated operations.
2
5 3 5 2 4 15 5
a. + b. − c. ⋅ d.
3 2 6 3 3 8 9
25
SIDE NOTE Solution
Part a of Example 10 can also a. 5 + 3 = 5 ⋅ 2 + 3 ⋅ 3 Using
a
=
ac
be done as follows: 3 2 3⋅2 2⋅3 b bc
5 3
+ =
5⋅2+3⋅3 5⋅2+3⋅3 19 a b a+b
3 2 3⋅2
= = Using + =
3⋅2 6 c c c
a c ad ± bc 5 2 5 2⋅2 a ac
using ± = b.
b d bd − = − Using =
6 3 6 3⋅2 b bc
directly. Part b can be done
similarly. 5−2⋅2 1 a b a−b
= = Using − =
6 6 c c c
c. 4 ⋅ 15 = 4 ⋅ 15 a c
Using ⋅ =
a⋅c
3 8 3⋅8 b d b⋅d
4 ⋅ 3 ⋅5 5 a⋅c a
= = Using =
3 ⋅ 4 ⋅2 2 b⋅c b
2
2 25 a c a d
d.     5 = ⋅ Using ÷ = ⋅
9 5 9 b d b c
25
2 ⋅ 25 a c a⋅c
= Using ⋅ =
5⋅9 b d b⋅d
2⋅ 5 ⋅5 10 a⋅c a
= = Using =
5 ⋅9 9 b⋅c b

Practice Problem 10. Perform the indicated operations.

5
7 3 8 2 9 7 8 
a. + b. − c. ⋅ d.
4 8 3 5 14 3 15
16

Objective 9 Algebraic Expressions

In algebra, any number, constant, variable, or parenthetical group (or any product of them)
is called a term. A combination of terms using the ordinary operations of addition, sub-
traction, multiplication, and division (as well as exponentiation and roots, which are dis-
cussed later in this chapter) is called an algebraic expression, or simply an expression. If
we replace each variable in an expression with a specific number and get a real number, the
resulting number is called the value of the algebraic expression. Of course, this value
depends on the numbers we use to replace the variables in the expression. Here are some
examples of algebraic expressions:
1 10
x−2 + 7 x + y ÷5
x y+3

WARNING Incorrect Correct

5( x + 1 ) = 5 x + 1 5( x + 1 ) = 5 x + 5

( )( )
1
3
x
1
3
1
y = xy
3
( )( )
1
3
x
1
3
1
y = xy
9
x − ( 4y + 3) = x − 4y + 3 x − ( 4y + 3) = x − 4y − 3
 Section P.1 The Real Numbers and Their Properties 15

EXAMPLE 11 Evaluating an Algebraic Expression

Evaluate the following expressions for the given values of the variables.
a. [ ( 9 + x ) ÷ 7 ] ⋅ 3 − x for x = 5
2
b. x − for x = 2 and y = −2
y
Solution
a. [( 9 + x ) ÷ 7 ] ⋅ 3 − x = [( 9 + 5 ) ÷ 7 ] ⋅ 3 − 5 Replace x with 5.
= [ 14 ÷ 7 ] ⋅ 3 − 5 Work inside the parentheses.
= 2⋅3−5 Work inside the brackets.
=6−5 Multiply.
=1 The value of the expression
2 2
b. x − = 2 − Replace x with 2 and y with −2.
y −2
2
=2− Eliminate the absolute value, 2 = 2.
−2
2
= 2 − ( −1 ) = −1; division occurs before subtraction.
−2
= 2+1 −( −1 ) = 1
=3 The value of the expression

Practice Problem 11. Evaluate.

x
a. (x − 2) ÷ 3 + x for x = 3 b. 7 − for x = −1, y = 3 
y

EXAMPLE 12 Finding the Temperature from Cricket Chirps

Write an algebraic expression for converting cricket chirps to degrees Celsius. Assuming
that you count 48 chirps in 25 seconds, what is the Celsius temperature?

Solution
Recall from the introduction to this section that to convert cricket chirps to degrees
Celsius, you count the chirps in 25 seconds, divide by 3, and then add 4 to get the
temperature.

Temperature in
degrees Celsius
= ( Number of chirps3 in 25 seconds ) + 4
If we let C = temperature in degrees Celsius and N = number of chirps in 25 seconds,
we get the expression
N
C = + 4.
3
Suppose we count 48 chirps in 25 seconds. The Celsius temperature is
48
C = +4
3
= 16 + 4 = 20 degrees.

Practice Problem 12. Use the temperature expression in Example 12 to find the Celsius
temperature, assuming that 39 chirps are counted in 25 seconds.
16 Chapter P Basic Concepts of Algebra

P.1 Exercises

Concepts and Vocabulary

1. Whole numbers are formed by adding the number 35. integers 36. rational numbers
to the set of natural numbers. 37. irrational numbers 38. real numbers
2. The number −3 is an integer, but it is also a ( n )
and a ( n ) . In Exercises 39–50, each expression contains a base with an
3. If a < b, then a is to the of b on the exponent greater than 1. Name the exponent and the base and
number line. evaluate the expression.
2 3
4. If a real number is not a rational number, it is a ( n )
number.
39. 10 3 40. 5 4 41.
3
( )
4 4
5. True or False. If −x is positive, then −x > 0. 42. ( 25 ) 43. ( −2 )3 ( 12 )
44. −
−5 1
6. True or False. < −2 3
2 2
7. True or False. The sum of two rational numbers is a rational
45. 2 ⋅ 3 4 46. 5 ⋅ ( 13 ) 47. −2 ⋅ 3 4

number. 48. −3 ⋅ ( −2 ) 4 49. −3 ⋅ ( −2 ) 5 50. −5 ⋅ ( −3 ) 2

8. True or False. The sum of two irrational numbers is
always an irrational number. In Exercises 51–60, use inequality symbols to write the given
statements symbolically.
Building Skills 51. 3 is greater than −2.

In Exercises 9–16, write each of the following rational num- 52. −3 is less than −2.
bers as a decimal and state whether the decimal is repeating 1 1
53. is greater than or equal to .
or terminating. 2 2
1 2 54. x is less than x + 1.
9. 10.
3 3 55. 5 is less than or equal to 2 x.
4 3 56. x − 1 is greater than 2.
11. − 12. −
5 12
57. −x is positive.
3 11
13. 14. 58. x is negative.
11 33
95 41 59. 2 x + 7 is less than or equal to 14.
15. 16.
30 15 60. 2 x + 3 is not greater than 5.

In Exercises 17–24, convert each decimal to a quotient of two In Exercises 61–64, fill in the blank with one of the symbols
integers in lowest terms. = , <, or > to produce a true statement.
24
17. 3.75 18. −2.35 61. 4 _______ 62. −5 _______ −2
6
19. −5.3 20. 9.6 9 1
63. −4 _______ 0 64. − _______ −4
21. 2.13 22. 3.23 2 2
23. 4.523 24. 1.4235 In Exercises 65–72, find each set if A = { −4, −2, 0, 2, 4 } ,
B = { −3, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 } , and C = { −4, −3, −2, −1, 0, 2 } .
In Exercises 25–32, classify each of the following numbers as 65. A ∪ B 66. A ∩ B
rational or irrational. 67. A ∩ C 68. B ∪ C
25. −207 26. −114
69. ( B ∩ C ) ∪ A 70. ( A ∪ C ) ∩ B
27. 81 28. − 25
71. ( A ∪ B ) ∩ C 72. ( A ∪ B ) ∪ C
7 15
29. 30. −
2 12 In Exercises 73–80, find the union and the intersection of the
31. 12 32. 3 given pairs of intervals.
73. I 1 = ( −2, 3 ]; I 2 = [ 1, 5 )
In Exercises 33–38, list all the elements of the set 74. I 1 = [ 1, 7 ]; I 2 = ( 3, 5 )

{
A = −19, − , 0,
12
3
3, 2, 10,
17
4
, 11 } 75. I 1 = ( −6, 2 ); I 2 = [ 2, 10 )
76. I 1 = ( −∞, −3 ]; I 2 = ( −3, ∞ )
that are 77. I 1 = ( −∞, 5 ); I 2 = [ 2, ∞ )
33. natural numbers 34. whole numbers
 Section P.1 The Real Numbers and Their Properties 17

78. I 1 = ( −2, ∞ ); I 2 = ( 0, ∞ ) 126. x ( 2 + y ) + 0 = x ( 2 + y )

79. I 1 = ( −∞, 3) ∪ [ 5, ∞ ); I2 = [ − 1, 7] 127. (x + 5) + 2y = x + ( 5 + 2y )
80. I 1 = ( −∞, 2 ) ∪ ( 6, ∞ ); I 2 = [ −3, 0 ] 128. ( 3 + x ) + 5 = x + ( 3 + 5 )

In Exercises 81–92, rewrite each expression without absolute In Exercises 129–150, perform the indicated operations.
value bars. 3 4 7 3
129. + 130. +
81. −4 82. − −17 5 3 10 4
5 −3 6 5 9 5
83. 84. 131. + 132. +
−7 5 5 7 2 12
85. 5 − 2 86. 2−5 5 3 8 2
133. + 134. +
87. 3−2 88. 3 − π 6 10 15 9
5 9 7 1
8 −8 135. − 136. −
89. 90. 8 10 8 5
−8 8
5 7 5 7
91. 5 − −7 || 92. 4−7 137. − 138. −
9 11 8 12
In Exercises 93–100, use the absolute value to express the 2 1 1 1
139. − 140. −
distance between the points with coordinates a and b on 5 2 4 6
the number line. Then determine this distance by evaluating 3 8 9 14
the absolute value expression. 141. ⋅ 142. ⋅
4 27 7 27
93. a = 3 and b = 8 94. a = 2 and b = 14
8 5
95. a = −6 and b = 9 96. a = −12 and b = 3 5 6
143. 144.
97. a = −20 and b = −6 98. a = −14 and b = −1 16 15
15 6
22 4 16 3
99. a = and b = − 100. a = and b = − 7 3
7 7 5 5
145. 8 146. 10
In Exercises 101–108, graph each of the given intervals on a 21 7
number line and write the inequality notation for each. 16 15
101. ( −3, 1 ] 102. [ −6, −2 ) 3 1 7 3
147. 5 ⋅ − 148. 2 ⋅ −
10 2 2 2
103. [ −3, ∞ ) 104. [ 0, ∞ )
2 1 5 3
105. ( −∞, 5 ] 106. ( −∞, −1 ] 149. 3 ⋅ − 150. 2 ⋅ −
15 3 3 2
(
107. − ,
3 9
4 4
) 108. −3, −(1
2
) In Exercises 151–160, evaluate each expression for x = 3 and
y = −5.
In Exercises 109–112, use the distributive property to write 151. 2( x + y ) − 3 y 152. −2( x + y ) + 5 y
each expression without parentheses.
153. 3 x − 2 y 154. 7 x − y
109. 4 ( x + 1 ) 110. ( −3 )( 2 − x )
111. 5( x − y + 1 ) 112. 2( 3 x + 5 − y ) x − 3y y+3
155. + xy 156. − xy
2 x
In Exercises 113–116, find the additive inverse and reciprocal 2( 1 − 2 x ) ( ) 3( 2 − x ) (
157. − −x y 158. − 1 − xy )
of each number. y y
14 1 4 8
Number Additive Inverse Reciprocal + +
x 2 −y x
159. 160.
−y y
113. 5
4 2
114. − 2
3 In Exercises 161–170, correct the error in each formula.
115. 0 x x x
161. + =
y 3 ( y + 3)
116. 1.7
162. (x + 2 )( x + 3 ) = x + 2 x + 3
163. 5( x + 3 ) = 5 x + 3
In Exercises 117–128, name the property of real numbers that
justifies the given equality. All variables represent real numbers. 164. ( 25 x )( 4 x ) = 100 x
117. ( −7 ) + 7 = 0 118. 5 + ( −5 ) = 0 165. x − ( 3 y + 2 ) = x − 3 y + 2
119. ( x + 2 ) = 1 ⋅ ( x + 2 ) 120. 3a = 1 ⋅ 3a 166. 2 x − ( 4 y − 5 ) = 2 x − 4 y − 5
121. 7( xy ) = ( 7 x ) y 122. 3 ⋅ ( 6 x ) = ( 3 ⋅ 6 ) x x+ y
167. = 1+ y
x
123.
3 2
2 3
=1( ) 124. 2 ( 12 ) = 1 168.
x+ y
= 1+
y
x+ z z
125. ( 3 + x ) + 0 = 3 + x
18 Chapter P Basic Concepts of Algebra

169. (x + 1 )( y + 1 ) = xy + 1 by each of the following 20-year-old people and the ideal

1 exercise heart rate. Then evaluate that expression.
1 a. Latasha: 124 beats per minute
170. x = b. Frances: 137 beats per minute
1 xy
y c. Ignacio: 114 beats per minute
171. Let P and Q be two points on a number line with coordi- 178. Streaming music and video. Normal-quality music
nates a and b, respectively. Show that the point M on the streaming uses 72MB per hour on average, and standard
a+b definition video uses about 700MB per hour on average. Use
number line with coordinate is the midpoint of the absolute value notation to write an expression that describes
2
line segment PQ. [Hint: Show that d ( P, M ) = d ( Q, M ).] the difference between this average time and the actual time
4 7 Dewayne used to stream some music and video. Then evalu-
172. Find 100 rational numbers between − and .
13 13 ate that expression. (Source: https://www.androidcentral.com)
4 40 7 70
(Hint: − = − and = ; a. The music used 56MB per hour.
13 130 13 130 b. The video used 380MB per hour.
−40 < −31 < −30 < . . . < 0 < 1 < . . . < 69.)
179. Use the formula from Example 12 for finding the tempera-
ture in degrees Celsius from the number of cricket chirps
Applying the Concepts counted in 25 seconds to find the Celsius temperature if you
173. Media players. Let A = the set of people who own MP3 count 42 chirps in 25 seconds.
players and B = the set of people who own DVD players. 180. Use the formula from Example 12 for finding the tempera-
a. Describe the set A ∪ B. ture in degrees Celsius from the number of cricket chirps
b. Describe the set A ∩ B. counted in 25 seconds to find number of chirps that would be
174. Optional car features. The table below indicates whether counted if the Celsius temperature is 22 degrees.
certain features are offered for each of three types of 2021 cars.
Negative calories. In Exercises 181 and 182, use the fact that
Android Manual Apple eating 100 grams of broccoli (a negative calorie food) actually
Auto Transmission CarPlay results in a net loss of 55 calories.
Ford Bronco yes yes yes 181. If a cheeseburger has 522.5 calories, how many grams of
broccoli would a person have to consume to have a net gain
Honda Accord yes no yes of zero calories?
Audi A4 no no yes 182. Maria ate 600 grams of broccoli and now wants to eat just
Source: http://motortrend.com enough French fries to get a net calorie intake of zero. If a small
order of fries has 165 calories, how many orders are required?
Use the roster method to describe each of the following sets.
a. A = cars which offer Android Auto
b. B = cars which offer manual transmission
Beyond the Basics
c. C = cars which offer Apple CarPlay In Exercises 183–190, state whether each statement is true or
d. A ∩ B false. Justify your assertion.
e. A ∩ C 183. The opposite of an irrational number is also an irrational
f. A ∪ B number.
g. A ∪ C 184. The sum of a rational number and an irrational number is
175. Blood pressure. A group of college students had systolic an irrational number.
blood pressure readings that ranged from a low value of 185. a. The product of a rational number and an irrational number
119.5 to a high value of 134.5 inclusive. Let x represent the is an irrational number.
value of the systolic-blood pressure readings. Use inequali- b. If your answer to part(a) is “false,” modify the statement
ties to describe this range of values and graph the corre- to make it a true statement.
sponding interval on a number line. 186. The product of two irrational numbers is an irrational number.
176. Population projections. Population projections suggest 187. The difference of two irrational numbers is an irrational
that by 2060, the number of people 65 years and older in number.
the United States will be about 95 million. In 2020, the
number of people 65 years and older in the United States 188. The quotient of two irrational numbers is an irrational number.
was 49 million. Let x represent the number (in millions) of 189. The product of two rational numbers is a rational number.
people in the United States who are 65 years and older. Use 190. The quotient of two rational numbers is a rational number.
inequalities to describe this population range from 2020
to 2060 and graph the corresponding interval on a number In Exercises 191 and 192, use the following definition: An
line. (Source: U.S. Census Bureau) integer p is even if p = 2 n for some integer n; an integer q is
177. Heart rate. For exercise to be most beneficial, the opti- odd if q = 2 k + 1 , for some integer k.
mum heart rate for a 20-year-old person is 120 beats per 191. a. Show that if an integer a is odd, then a 2 is also an odd integer.
minute. Use absolute value notation to write an expression b. Show that if b 2 is an even integer, then b is also an even
that describes the difference between the heart rate achieved integer.
192. Show that if p 2 = 2q 2 for two integers p and q, then q is
an even integer.
 Section P.2 Integer Exponents and Scientific Notation 19

GETTING READY for the Next Section

REVIEW CONCEPTS GR3. a. ( a 2 )3 b. ( a 4 ) 2
Variables (Section P.1, page 2) c. ( a m ) n
Properties of opposites (Section P.1, page 13) GR4. a. ( ab ) 2 b. ( ab ) 4
REVIEW SKILLS c. ( ab ) n
Integer exponents (Section P.1, page 5) Arithmetic of fractions (Section P.1, pages 13 and 14)
In Exercises GR1–GR4, use the rules of exponents to simplify In Exercises GR5–GR8, perform the indicated operation.
each expression. Here a, b, m, and n are natural numbers. 7 3 3 2
GR5. + GR6. −
GR1. a. a 2 ⋅ a 3 b. a 4 ⋅ a 7 3 2 6 3
c. a m ⋅ a n 3 12 3 12
GR7. ⋅ GR8. ÷
b3 b7 2 7 5 15
GR2. a. b. 3
b b
bm
c. n
b

Integer Exponents and

P.2 Scientific Notation
Objectives
1 Use integer exponents.
2 Use the rules of exponents.

Videos for 3 Simplify exponential expressions.

this Section 4 Use scientific notation.

Coffee and Candy Consumption in America

In 2020, Americans drank about 146 billion
cups of coffee and spent more than $21 billion
on candy and snacks. The American popula-
tion at that time was about 328 million. Because
our day-to-day activities bring us into contact
with more manageable quantities, most
people find large numbers like those just cited
a bit difficult to understand. Using exponents,
the method of scientific notation allows us to
write large and small quantities in a manner
that makes comparing such quantities fairly
easy. In turn, these comparisons help us get a
better perspective on these quantities. In
Example 9 of this section, without relying on
a calculator, we see that if we distribute the
cost of the candy and snacks used in 2020
evenly among all individuals in the United
States, each person will spend over $64. Dis-
tributing the coffee used in 2020 evenly
among all individuals in the United States
gives each person about 445 cups of coffee.
20 Chapter P Basic Concepts of Algebra

Objective 1 Integer Exponents

In Section P.1, we introduced the following notation:
If a is a real number and n is a positive integer, then

a n = a
⋅ a ⋅. 
. . ⋅ a.
n factors
We now define a n when the exponent is 0 or a negative integer.

SIDE NOTE
The laws of exponents suggest Zero and Negative Integer Exponents
why, for a ≠ 0, a 0 = 1.
For any nonzero number a and any positive integer n,
2 0 = 2 1−1 = 2 ⋅ 2 −1 =
1 2 1
2⋅ = =1 a 0 = 1 and a −n = .
2 2 an

WARNING Negative exponents indicate the reciprocal of a number. Zero cannot be used as a base with a
negative exponent because zero does not have a reciprocal. Furthermore, 0 0 is not defined.
We assume throughout this text that the base is not equal to zero if any of the exponents are
negative or zero.

EXAMPLE 1 Evaluating Expressions That Use Zero or Negative Exponents

Evaluate.
−3
a. ( − 5 )−2 b. −5 −2 c. 8 0 d. ( 23 )
Solution
( − 5 )−2
1 1
a. = = The exponent −2 applies to the base −5.
( −5 ) 2 25
1 1
b. −5 −2 = − = − The exponent −2 applies to the base 5.
52 25
c. 8 0 = 1 By definition
2 −3
d. ( ) =
1 1
3 = 8 =
27 2 3 2 2 2
= ⋅ ⋅ = ( ) 8
3
( ) 2
3 27
8 3 3 3 3 27

Practice Problem 1. Evaluate.

−2
( 45 ) ( 32 )
0
a. 2 −1 b. c.  

In Example 1, we see that parts a and b give different results. In part a, the base is −5
and the exponent is −2, whereas in part b, we evaluate the opposite of the expression with
base 5 and exponent −2.

Objective 2 Rules of Exponents

We now review the rules of exponents.
Let’s see what happens when we multiply a 5 by a 3 . We have
a 5 ⋅ a 3 = (
a ⋅ a ⋅ ⋅ a ⋅ a ) ⋅ (
a  a ⋅ ⋅ a) = a
a  a ⋅ a ⋅ a ⋅ a = a 8 .
⋅ a ⋅ a ⋅ a⋅ 
5 factors 3 factors 5 + 3 = 8 factors
 Section P.2 Integer Exponents and Scientific Notation 21

Similarly, if you multiply m factors of a by n factors of a, you get m + n factors of a.

Product Rule of Exponents

RECALL If a is a real number and m and n are integers, then

When using the product rule, a m ⋅ a n = a m+ n .
remember that a must be
nonzero if the exponent is zero To multiply exponential expressions with the same base, keep the base and add
or negative. exponents.

EXAMPLE 2 Using the Product Rule of Exponents

Simplify. Use the product rule and (if necessary) the definition of a negative exponent or
reciprocal to write each answer without negative exponents.
a. 2 x 3 ⋅ x 5 b. x 7 ⋅ x −7 c. ( −4 y 2 )( 3 y 7 )

Solution
a. 2 x 3 ⋅ x 5 = 2 x 3 + 5 = 2 x 8 Add exponents: 3 + 5 = 8.
b. x ⋅ x
7 − 7 = x 7 + ( −7 )
= x = 1
0 Add exponents: 7 + ( −7 ) = 0; simplify.
c. ( −4 y )( 3 y ) = ( −4 ) 3 y y
2 7 2 7 Group the factors with variable bases.
= −12 y 2 + 7 Add exponents.
= −12 y 9 2+7 = 9

Practice Problem 2. Simplify. Write each answer without using negative exponents.
a. x 2 ⋅ 3 x 7 b. ( 2 2 x 3 )( 4 x −3 )   

Look what happens when we divide a 5 by a 3 . We have

a5 a⋅a⋅a⋅a⋅a a ⋅ a ⋅ a a⋅a
= = ⋅ = a ⋅ a = a 2.
a3 a⋅a⋅a a ⋅ a ⋅ a 1
a5 1
So = a 5 ⋅ 3 = a 5 ⋅ a −3 = a 5 − 3 = a 2 . You subtract exponents because the three
a 3 a
factors in the denominator eliminate three of the factors in the numerator.

Quotient Rule for Exponents

If a is a nonzero real number and m and n are integers, then
am
= a m− n .
an
To divide two exponential expressions with the same base, keep the base and subtract
exponents.

SIDE NOTE
Remember that if a ≠ 0, then
a 0 = 1; so it is okay for a
denominator to contain a EXAMPLE 3 Using the Quotient Rule of Exponents
nonzero base with a zero
Simplify. Use the quotient rule to write each answer without negative exponents.
exponent. For example,
3 3 510 2 −1 x −3
= = 3. a. b. c.
50 1
510 23 x5
22 Chapter P Basic Concepts of Algebra

Solution
510
a. 10 = 510 −10 = 5 0 = 1
5
2 −1 1 1
b. = 2 − 1− 3 = 2 − 4 = 4 =
23 2 16
x −3 1
c. = x −3 − 5 = x −8 = 8
x5 x

Practice Problem 3. Simplify. Write each answer without negative exponents.

34 5 2x 3
a. 0 b. −2 c.   
3 5 3 x −4

To introduce the next rule of exponents, we consider ( 2 3 ) 4 .

4
( 23 ) = 23 ⋅ 23 ⋅ 23 ⋅ 23 a 4 = a ⋅ a ⋅ a ⋅ a; here a = 2 3.
= ( 2 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 2 )( 2 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 2 )( 2 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 2 )( 2 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 2 ) 12 factors of 2
= 2 12

So ( 2 3 ) 4 = 2 3⋅4 = 2 12.
This suggests the following rule.

Power-of-a-Power Rule for Exponents

If a is a real number and m and n are integers, then
n
(am ) = a mn .
To find the power of a power, keep the base and multiply exponents.

EXAMPLE 4 Using the Power-of-a-Power Rule of Exponents

Simplify. Write each answer without negative exponents.
a. ( 5 2 ) 0 b. [ ( −3 ) 2 ]3 c. ( x 3 )−1 d. ( x −2 )−3

Solution
a. ( 5 2 ) 0 = 5 2 ⋅ 0 = 5 0 = 1
b. [ ( −3 ) 2 ]3 = ( −3 ) 2 ⋅ 3 = ( −3 )6 = 729  For ( −3 )6 , the base is − 3.
1
c. ( x 3 )−1 = x 3( −1) = x −3 = 3
x
d. ( x −2 )−3 = x ( −2 )( −3 ) = x 6

Practice Problem 4. Simplify. Write each answer without negative exponents.

a. ( 7 −5 ) 0 b. ( 7 0 )−5 c. ( x −1 )8 d. ( x −2 )−5

We now consider the power of a product.

( 2 ⋅ 3 )5 = ( 2 ⋅ 3 )( 2 ⋅ 3 )( 2 ⋅ 3 )( 2 ⋅ 3 )( 2 ⋅ 3 ) a 5 = a ⋅ a ⋅ a ⋅ a ⋅ a; here a = 2 ⋅ 3.
= ( 2 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 2 )( 3 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 3 ) Use associative and commutative properties.
= 25 ⋅ 35
So ( 2 ⋅ 3 ) 5 = 2 5 ⋅ 3 5.
 Section P.2 Integer Exponents and Scientific Notation 23

This suggests the following rule.

Power-of-a-Product Rule
If a and b are real numbers and n is an integer, then
(a ⋅ b )n = a n ⋅ b n .

EXAMPLE 5 Using the Power-of-a-Product Rule

Simplify. Use the power-of-a-product rule to write each expression without negative
exponents.
a. ( 3x )2 b. ( − 3 x )−2 c. ( −3 2 )3 d. ( xy )−4 e. ( x 2 y )3

Solution
a. ( 3 x ) 2 = 3 2 x 2 = 9 x 2   Note that ( 3 x ) 2 ≠ 3 x 2
1 1 1
b. ( −3 x )−2 = = = 2   Negative exponents denote reciprocals.
( −3 x ) 2 ( −3 ) 2 x 2 9x
c. ( −3 2 )3 = ( −1 ⋅ 3 2 )3 = ( −1 )3 ( 3 2 )3 = ( −1 )( 3 6 ) = −729
1 1
d. ( xy )−4 = = 4 4   Negative exponents denote reciprocals.
( xy ) 4 x y
e. ( x 2 y )3 = ( x 2 )3 y 3 = x 2 ⋅ 3 y 3 = x 6 y 3  Recall that ( x 2 )3 = x 2 ⋅ 3 .

Practice Problem 5. Simplify. Write each answer without negative exponents.

−1
a. ( 12 x ) b. ( 5 x −1 ) 2 c. ( xy 2 )3 d. ( x −2 y )−3  

( 32 ) . We have
5
To see the last rule, we consider

( 32 )
5
3 3 3 3 3
= ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅
2 2 2 2 2
3⋅3⋅3⋅3⋅3
=
2⋅2⋅2⋅2⋅2
35
= 5.
2
More generally, we have the following rules.

Power-of-Quotient Rules
If a and b are nonzero real numbers and n is an integer, then
n
( ab ) ( ab ) ( ba )
n −n
an bn
= = = .
bn an

EXAMPLE 6 Using the Power-of-Quotient Rules

Simplify. Use the power-of-quotient rules to write each answer without negative exponents.
2 −2
a.
5
( )
3 3
b.
3
( )
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
electric field that generally cover the audio range of frequencies.
Measurement of such waves characterizes the density and
temperature of the local plasma surrounding the spacecraft, and it
also allows remote sensing detection of distant events from the
plasma waves they produce.

The plasma wave Principal Investigator is physicist Frederick L. Scarf

of the TRW Defense and Space Systems Group of Redondo Beach,
California—he is the only Voyager Principal Investigator to come from
industry. Scarf has been associated with many particles and fields
investigations in the terrestrial magnetosphere, although he is better
known as a theorist than as an experimenter. A member of the Space
Science Board of the National Academy of Sciences, he is familiar in
Washington as an eloquent advocate of space physics—the study of
plasma-physical processes in the space environment.

The plasma wave instrument shares with the planetary radio

astronomy investigation a pair of 10-meter-long antennas. Whereas
the PRA uses these as electric antennas to detect radio radiation, the
plasma wave system uses them to detect directly the oscillations in
the plasma near the spacecraft. Waves are measured over a broad
frequency range, from 10 hertz (a bit deeper than the lowest bass
note we can hear) to 56 kilohertz (about three times higher than the
highest pitch to which the human ear responds). The instrument
electronics have a total mass of only 1.4 kilograms.

Low Energy Charged Particles

Charged particles with energies greater than a few thousand electron

volts are not easily measured by a plasma instrument such as that
designed by Herb Bridge. Instead, these faster moving particles, with
speeds up to a few percent the speed of light, are the subject of a
pair of Voyager instruments called collectively the LECP, or low energy
charged particle instrument. Like the other particles and fields
investigation, the LECP is designed to provide basic data on plasma-
physical processes in the Jovian magnetosphere and the solar wind,
and on their interactions.

The Principal Investigator for the LECP investigation is Stamatios Mike

Krimigis, a Greek-born physicist from Johns Hopkins University.
Krimigis has participated in a number of satellite studies of the
terrestrial magnetosphere, and he now serves as Head of Space
Physics and Instrumentation at the Johns Hopkins Applied Physics
Laboratory. He is joined in this investigation by one German and five
U.S. Co-Investigators.

The LECP instrument consists of two subsystems. The first, called the
low energy magnetospheric particle analyzer, is optimized for
measurement of particles within the Jovian magnetosphere, with high
sensitivity over a broad dynamic range. Measurements of electrons,
protons, and other positive ions can be carried out, determining the
energy and composition of individual particles. The total energy
ranges covered are 10 kiloelectron volts (keV) to 11 million electron
volts (MeV) for electrons and 15 keV to 150 MeV for protons and
ions.

44
Stamatios Mike Krimigis, low energy charged particle Principal
Investigator

The second LECP subsystem is a low energy charged particle

telescope, designed to operate where the density of charged particles
is low, such as in interplanetary space or the outer magnetosphere of
Jupiter. For protons and positive ions, the energy range is from 50
keV to 40 MeV per nucleon. The energy and species resolution is
again sufficient to determine the composition, both chemical and
isotopic, of many ions encountered. In order to provide directional
discrimination even on a spacecraft of fixed orientation, both LECP
subsystems are mounted on a moving platform that steps through
eight positions in a time that can be commanded to vary from 48
seconds to 48 minutes. The mass of the instrument and its platform
is 6.7 kilograms.
 Cosmic Rays

The solar system is constantly bombarded by extremely energetic

charged particles. These are called cosmic rays, although they are
particles, not photons—“rays” are only produced when the particles
strike something, such as the molecules of the Earth’s atmosphere,
and give up their energy in a flash of x-rays and gamma-rays. One of
the Voyager instruments is designed to study these galactic cosmic
rays, particularly to look from beyond the orbit of Saturn, where the
cosmic ray particles will be less affected by the solar magnetic field
and solar wind than they are near Earth.

The cosmic ray Principal Investigator is Rochus E. Vogt of the

California Institute of Technology. Vogt has measured cosmic rays
from the ground, from balloons, and from spacecraft for many years.
During 1977 and 1978 he served as Chief Scientist at JPL, and then
assumed the job of directing the physics, mathematics, and
astronomy programs at Caltech. Among his six Co-Investigators is Ed
Stone, the Voyager Project Scientist.

Because the cosmic ray instrument was not directed principally

toward measurements of the Jovian system, it is described only
briefly. Like the LECP, it is designed to determine the energy and
composition of individual electrons and positive ions. For electrons,
the energy range is from 3 to 110 MeV, and for ions from 1 to 500
MeV per nucleon; the corresponding velocities are from about 10
percent to 99 percent of the speed of light. For the positive ions,
composition can be determined for elements from hydrogen to iron.
At Jupiter, this system could be used to determine the nature of the
rare particles accelerated to very high energies in the Jovian
magnetosphere.

Radio Science

The final Voyager science investigation is in the field of radio science.

No special instrument was required for this study; rather, NASA
selected members of a Radio Science Team who proposed
investigations that could be carried out using the already existing
spacecraft telecommunication system.

The radio science Team Leader is Von R. Eshleman of the Center for
Radio Astronomy at Stanford University. Eshleman is a radar physicist
who has been interpreting spacecraft radio occultation data since the
first such probe was carried out when Mariner 4 passed behind Mars
in 1964. The Deputy Team Leader is G. Leonard Tyler, a colleague of
Eshleman’s at Stanford. There are five other radio team members,
four of them from JPL.

The radio science investigations are divided into two groups. The first
deals with the atmosphere of Jupiter. During the Voyager flybys, the
spacecraft passed behind the planet as seen from Earth, and the
radio signal was dimmed by the atmosphere before it was finally
extinguished. During an occultation, the propagation of the radio
waves is slowed down by passage through the neutral atmosphere
and is speeded up by passage through the electrically charged
ionosphere. Because of the extreme stability of the ground- 45
based and spacecraft radio transmitters, it is possible to
measure these shifts in the signal with high precision. The shifts are
proportional to electron density for the ionosphere, and to gas
density for the atmosphere. From a careful study of the interactions
of the transmitted beam with the Jovian atmosphere, Eshleman and
his colleagues can reconstruct a temperature-pressure profile of the
ionosphere and the upper atmosphere of Jupiter. The same approach
can be used to search for tenuous atmospheres on the satellites.

The second area of study is in the field of celestial mechanics. The

frequency stability of the communications system permits
measurements of the speed of the spacecraft, relative to Earth, to a
precision of one part in several million. By careful tracking,
gravitational perturbations on the spacecraft can be detected and
used to measure the gravitational fields, and hence the masses, of
Jupiter and its satellites.
Rochus E. Vogt, cosmic ray Principal Investigator
Von R. Eshleman, radio science Team Leader

These scientific instruments and their objectives were selected many

years before the first Jupiter encounter in March 1977. Because
Voyager was an exploratory mission, every effort was made to fly
versatile instruments that could yield valuable results no matter what
the nature of the Jovian system. In addition, the Voyager spacecraft
control system permitted the instruments to receive commands from
Earth to adjust their sensitivities and observing sequences in
response to new information. By the spring of 1977, all the
instruments were completed, ready to be installed in the Voyager
spacecraft for testing and launch.
46
The first picture to capture crescent Earth and crescent Moon in the same
frame was taken by Voyager 1, the second-launched spacecraft, on
September 18, 1977, at a distance of 12 million kilometers from Earth.
On the Earth eastern Asia, the western Pacific, and part of the Arctic can
be seen. Since the Moon is much less reflective than the Earth, JPL image
processors brightened the lunar image by a factor of three to ensure that
both Earth and Moon were visible on this print. [P-19891C]

47
 CHAPTER 5
THE VOYAGE TO JUPITER—GETTING
THERE

Launch

On August 20, 1977, exactly two years after the launch of the Viking
spacecraft to Mars, the first of the Voyagers—actually Voyager 2—
was boosted into space at 10:29 a.m. EDT, less than five minutes
after the launch window opened on the first day of the thirty-day
launch period. Sixteen days later, at 8:56 a.m. EDT on Labor Day,
September 5, 1977, Voyager 1 was hurled into space on a shorter,
faster trajectory than its twin, zipping past the orbit of the Moon only
ten hours after launch. Ultimately, Voyager 1 earned its title by
overtaking Voyager 2 as both spacecraft journeyed through the
asteroid belt, to arrive at Jupiter four months ahead of Voyager 2.

The Voyagers lifted off from Launch Complex 41, Air Force Eastern
Test Range, Kennedy Space Center, Cape Canaveral, Florida, atop the
giant Titan III-E/Centaur rocket. It was the last time such a launch
vehicle was scheduled to be used, as, according to plan, the Space
Shuttle would take over in the 1980s. Thus the launching of the two
Voyagers signified both an end and a beginning: a once-in-a-lifetime
opportunity to explore, in only 8½ years’ time, perhaps fifteen major
bodies of the outer solar system.

But long before even the first Voyager was to make its closest
approach to Jupiter—in fact, even before Voyager 2 was off the
launch pad—there were problems to overcome.
In early August 1977, about three weeks before launch, failures in
the attitude and articulation control subsystem (AACS) and the flight
data subsystem (FDS), two of the spacecraft’s three main computer
subsystems, prevented the VGR77-2 spacecraft, originally scheduled
for launch on August 20, from becoming Voyager 2. Instead, the
“spare” spacecraft VGR77-3 was substituted, becoming Voyager 2
upon launch August 20, and VGR77-2, after proper repairs, became
Voyager 1. Minor problems continued right up to launch. The low
energy charged particle instrument failed and had to be replaced,
and as late as T minus five minutes there was a halt in the
countdown to check on a stuck valve. Unlike a jinxed dress rehearsal,
which is said to “assure” an opening-night success, Voyager 2’s
prelaunch problems were a portent of difficulties to come.

The Voyager 2 launch was witnessed by thousands as the spacecraft

ascended gracefully into the blue Florida sky, accompanied by the
deep-throated rumblings of its rocket, echoing for miles across the
beaches and scrub forests of Cape Canaveral. The Titan-Centaur
performance was nearly flawless, and Voyager 2 quickly achieved an
accurate trajectory toward Jupiter. However, even while the engines
were still firing, the spacecraft began to experience a baffling series
of problems that would absorb the attention of hundreds of persons
from Pasadena to Washington, D.C., for the next several weeks until
they were brought under control.

During the first minutes of flight, there seemed to be two difficulties

with the AACS. The first was a problem with one of the three 48
stabilizing gyroscopes, but fortunately, the gyroscope began
operating normally without intervention from the ground. The other
problem appeared to be with one of the AACS computers; the
spacecraft switched to a backup computer during the Titan burn, and
initial data transmissions were incomplete. Early analysis seemed to
indicate that an event during the launch itself, rather than a faulty
spacecraft computer system, was the cause of the data loss. At first,
on August 23, officials suspected that perhaps the spacecraft had
been bumped by the rocket motor one hour after liftoff and again
about seventeen hours later, when telemetry signals indicated that
the spacecraft had been jolted. However, by the next day, flight
engineers determined that electronic gyrations in the AACS seemed
to have caused the difficulty.
The Titan-Centaur rocket used to launch Voyager stood as tall as a 15-
story building and weighed nearly 700 tons. Here the rocket waits for
launch at Kennedy Space Center, with the Voyager spacecraft enclosed in
the white protective shroud at the top. [P-19471A]

Within an hour after launch, Voyager 2’s science scan platform boom
was to have been fully extended and locked. Instructions to deploy
were given, and the boom moved outward; however, there was no
signal to indicate that the boom was actually locked in place. Efforts
to command the boom to move into the locked position were
thwarted by the spacecraft. The first maneuver designed to try to
lock the boom was aborted by the computer command subsystem
(CCS) when the AACS erroneously indicated that it was in trouble.
Three days later another maneuver was scheduled to reprogram the
faulty computer in the AACS, to align the Sun sensors, and to try to
lock the science boom. To provide a direct check of the boom
position, the scan platform was turned so that the TV cameras could
see the spacecraft. Careful measurement of these pictures verified
that the boom was within ½ degree of full deployment, but still there
was no indication that it was locked into place. Ultimately, it was
decided that the sensor to signal actuation of the lock was at fault,
and that the boom itself was almost certainly fully extended and
operational.

Because of the postlaunch problems of Voyager 2, the launch of

Voyager 1 was delayed twice—from September 1 to September 3 and
then to September 5—in order to inspect Voyager 1’s science boom
and to try to prevent a repetition of Voyager 2’s problems. An extra
spring was attached to the science boom to assure its full extension.
Finally, as if to make up for the troubles of the first launch, Voyager
1’s launch was both “flawless and accurate.” All launch and
postlaunch events went smoothly. The launch window opened at 8:56
a.m. EDT, and Voyager took off promptly at 8:56:01. The booms and
antennas deployed and locked in the first hours after launch; all
instruments scheduled to be on were on and working well. 49
 THE TITAN/CENTAUR LAUNCH VEHICLE

The two Voyager spacecraft were carried into space and

accelerated toward Jupiter by the Titan III-E Centaur rocket,
the largest launch vehicle in the NASA arsenal after the
retirement of the Saturn rockets in 1975. The Titan and
Centaur vehicles were originally developed separately and have
been used with other rocket stages for many NASA launches.
They were first combined for the two Viking launches to Mars
in 1975, and this powerful four-stage launch vehicle was used
again in 1977 for Voyager.

The Titan/Centaur stands nearly 50 meters tall, about the

height of a fifteen-story building. Fully fueled, it weighs nearly
700 tons. At takeoff, the thrust of the two solid-propellant
Stage-0 motors is about 10.7 million newtons. These motors,
which burn for 122 seconds, use powdered aluminum as fuel
and ammonium perchlorate as oxidizer. Together, they have a
mass of 500 tons.

The first stage of the liquid propellant core of the Titan rocket
ignites about 112 seconds after takeoff. The propellant is
hydrazine as fuel and nitrogen tetroxide as oxidizer. The first
stage is 3 meters in diameter and 20 meters tall. Fueled, it has
a mass of 130 tons. The motor provides a thrust of 2.5 million
newtons for a duration of 146 seconds.

About 4.3 minutes after takeoff the Titan Stage II liquid

propellant motor begins to fire, and the first stage is separated
and falls back into the Atlantic. The second stage is 3 meters in
diameter and more than 7 meters long, with a fueled mass of
35 tons. The single liquid fuel motor burns for 210 seconds
with a thrust of half a million newtons. During the second
stage burn, the shroud covering the Voyager spacecraft is
jettisoned.
The Centaur and Titan vehicles separate 8 minutes into the
flight, and the Centaur main engine begins its burn. The
Centaur is nearly 20 meters tall and 3 meters in diameter, with
a mass of 17 tons. The motors have a thrust of almost 200 000
newtons, operating on the most powerful chemical fuels
known: liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen. The Centaur burns
for only 1 minute and 36 seconds as it attains Earth parking
orbit; the engine then shuts down as the vehicle begins a half-
hour coasting period that carries it nearly half way around the
Earth. During this time, careful tracking of the spacecraft
supplies the data needed for Earth-based computers to
calculate the proper time to leave parking orbit and start the
long trip toward Jupiter.

About 50 minutes after liftoff, from a position high above the

Indian Ocean, the second burn of the Centaur main engine
begins. Six minutes of additional thrust provides enough
energy to break out of Earth’s orbit. The Voyager then
separates from the Centaur for a final boost toward Jupiter.
The solid rocket motor in the spacecraft propulsion module
(acting as final stage of this five-stage launch sequence) fires
for 45 seconds at a thrust of 68 000 newtons. Just an hour
after liftoff, the Voyager spacecraft is on its way, coasting on
an orbit toward Jupiter at a speed of more than 10 kilometers
per second.
The Voyager spacecraft is dominated by the large 3.7-meter-diameter
antenna used for communication with Earth. Here the spacecraft
undergoes final tests before launch. The science instrument scan
platform is folded against the spacecraft on the right; the three cylinders
on the left are the RTG power sources. [260-108BC]

50
Voyager 2 was the first of the spacecraft to be launched, on August 20,
1977, propelled into space in a Titan/Centaur rocket. [P-19450AC]
 The First Year Is the Roughest

During the autumn of 1977 Voyager 2, and to a lesser extent Voyager

1, continued to plague controllers with erratic actions. Thrusters fired
at inappropriate times, data modes shifted, instrument filter and
analyzer wheels became stuck, and the various computer control
systems occasionally overrode ground commands. Apparently, the
spacecraft hardware was working properly, but the computers on
board displayed certain traits that seemed almost humanly perverse—
and perhaps a little psychotic. In general, these reactions were the
result of programming too much sensitivity into the spacecraft
systems, resulting in panic over-reaction by the onboard computers
to minor fluctuations in the environment. Ultimately, part of the
programming had to be rewritten on Earth and then transmitted to
the Voyagers, to calm them down so that they would ignore minor
perturbations, yet still be ready to perform automatic sequences
required to protect the spacecraft from major threats. Meanwhile,
however, more serious problems were developing.

On February 23, 1978, during a series of movements or slews,

Voyager 1’s scan platform slowed and stopped before completing the
maneuver. This failure caused a great deal of concern, since the scan
platform houses the optical instruments that are crucial to the
observation of the Jovian system—the ultraviolet spectrometer, the
IRIS, the photopolarimeter, and the two TV cameras. At JPL, tests
were run on a proof-test model—an exact copy of the Voyager
spacecraft—to try to find out why Voyager 1’s scan platform had
become stuck. On March 17, Voyager 1’s scan platform was tested—
JPL engineers instructed the platform to move slowly for a short
distance, and Voyager responded as ordered. Further tests were
conducted on March 23. This time the scan platform was ordered to
execute a sequence of four slews, moving away from the part of the
sky where the original failure had occurred and ending with the
position that it would be most useful to leave the platform in—just in
case the platform should become stuck again. On April 4 the 51
scan platform was commanded to perform a sequence of 38
slews, and fifty more slews were performed on April 5. All were
successful. Yet engineers were still hesitant to force the platform to
move through the region where it had originally stuck, and extensive
discussions were held to determine if the Jupiter observations could
be carried out without risking a return to the danger area. It was
argued, however, that full mobility of the scan platform really was
required, and on May 31 commands were sent to maneuver the scan
platform through the danger region. It moved normally: The scan
platform was operating properly again. After additional slewing tests
were run in mid-June, the scan platform was pronounced fit for
operation. Engineers suspected that the material caught in the
platform gears must have been crushed or moved out of the way by
the continued slewing, allowing the platform to move once more.
Voyager 1 was launched on September 5, 1977. The launch was delayed
5 days to make last-minute adjustments to avoid the postlaunch
difficulties experienced by Voyager 2. [P-19480AC]
An even more serious crisis soon endangered the Voyager 2
spacecraft. In late November 1977, the S-band radio receiver began
losing amplifier power in its high-gain mode, so the solid-state
amplifier was switched to its low-power position. No further problems
were noted until April 5, 1978, when Voyager 2’s primary radio
receiver suddenly failed, and shocked engineers discovered that the
backup receiver was also faulty. The trouble was detected after
Voyager’s computer command subsystem directed the spacecraft to
switch from the primary radio receiver to the backup receiver. This
command was issued as part of a special protection sequence: If the
primary radio receiver receives no commands from Earth for seven
days, the backup receiver is switched on instead; if the secondary
receiver in turn receives no instructions over a twelve-hour period,
the system reverts to the main receiver. When, on April 5, Voyager 2’s
radio reception was switched from the primary to the secondary
receiver, flight engineers found that they were unable to
communicate with the spacecraft—the secondary receiver’s tracking
loop capacitor was malfunctioning. That meant that the secondary
receiver could not follow a changing signal frequency sent out from
Earth. The frequencies of signals transmitted from Earth are affected
by the Doppler effect—just as the siren on a fire engine seems first to
rise in pitch as the truck approaches, then falls as the truck speeds
away, so the frequency of signals transmitted from Earth fluctuates
with the Earth’s rotation as the Deep Space Network’s radio antennas
move toward or away from the spacecraft. The engineers had to wait
until the primary radio receiver was switched back on before they
could communicate with the spacecraft. Once the primary receiver
was on, Voyager 2 began receiving instructions from Earth, but
approximately thirty minutes later, there was an apparent power
surge in the receiver. The fuses blew. There was no recourse. 52
The main receiver had failed; its loss was permanent. It
remained for the engineers to devise a way to communicate with the
slightly deaf spacecraft.
Each Voyager spacecraft follows a billion-kilometer path to Jupiter.
Except for minor thruster firings to achieve small trajectory corrections,
each Voyager coasts from Earth to Jupiter, guided by the gravitational
pull of the Sun. At Jupiter, the powerful tug of the giant planet deflects
the spacecraft and speeds them up, imparting an extra kick to send them
on their way toward Saturn.

Voyager 1
Voyager 2
Jupiter-Saturn-Uranus
Sun
Earth 8/20/77
Earth 9/1/77
Mars 8/20/77
Jupiter 8/20/77
Jupiter 3/5/79
Jupiter 7/9/79
 Saturn 8/20/77
Saturn 11/13/80
Saturn 8/27/81
Uranus 8/20/77
Uranus 1/30/86

Because the switching of the radio receivers was still controlled by

the special protection sequence discussed earlier, flight engineers
would have to wait for seven days—until April 13—before they could
attempt communication with the spacecraft again. During that week
special procedures were established and rehearsed so that
commands could be sent to Voyager in the short time that the
backup receiver would be on. On Thursday, April 13, 1978, the seven
days were up and the spacecraft should have shifted from the dead
main receiver to the sick backup system. There was just a twelve-
hour “window” in which to restore communication. At about 3:30
a.m. PST the Madrid tracking station of the Deep Space Network sent
its first order to the spacecraft, approximately 474 million kilometers
away. Almost an hour later, word arrived from Voyager that the
command had been accepted. (One-way light time for a signal to
travel the distance from Earth to Voyager at that time was almost 27
minutes.) Elated flight controllers went ahead and transmitted nine
hours of commands to the spacecraft.

Voyager 2 was successfully commanded again on April 18 and April

26. The April 26 commands included a course change maneuver that
was executed properly on May 3. On June 23, Voyager 2 was
programmed for a backup automatic mission at Saturn in the event
that the secondary radio receiver should also fail. These backup
mission instructions would operate all the science experiments, but
only a minimum amount of data would be returned, since the scan
platform would only be programmed to move through three positions
rather than thousands as it would in normal operation. Instructions
for a backup minimum automatic encounter at Jupiter were
transmitted to Voyager 2 in two segments, the second of these on
October 12, 1978.
With the backup instructions recorded on board the spacecraft,
Voyager personnel felt their fears partially allayed. If Voyager 2’s
secondary radio receiver failed, the spacecraft would still obtain some
science data at Jupiter and Saturn. But that would mean that there
would be no mission beyond Saturn; our first opportunity to explore
Uranus, its satellites, its newly discovered ring system, and possibly
even to get a look at Neptune, would not come in this century.

Another major concern affecting both Voyager spacecraft was the

proper management of hydrazine fuel reserves. Hydrazine is used by
the thrusters on the Voyagers for stabilization of the spacecraft and
for trajectory correction maneuvers (TCM). Each Voyager was loaded
with 105 kilograms of hydrazine budgeted for use on the long flight
to Jupiter, Saturn, and beyond. Because of the excellent performance
of the launch rockets, both Voyagers required less hydrazine than
anticipated for their final boost into proper trajectory toward Jupiter,
and at first it looked as though both spacecraft would have plenty of
propellant to spare.

Charles E. Kolhase, Manager of Mission Analysis and Engineering for

the Voyager Project, later explained the situation: “Voyager 1 should
have been launched September 1. Had it been launched on
September 1—and I’m glad it wasn’t—the maneuver to correct the
trajectory for a Titan flyby would have required a change in velocity
of 100-110 meters per second—an enormous maneuver—and we
would have had a propellant margin for going on to Saturn of
perhaps 4.5 kilograms. But, by launching on the fifth of September
we increased our margin to 23 kilograms. Fortunately, for every
launch date that went by, that velocity change maneuver was
shrinking at a rate of 10 meters per second per day. Now, a 1 meter
per second change uses about a pound of hydrazine [about 0.5
kilogram]. So when we launched on the fifth of September, now we
suddenly had 40 pounds of hydrazine excess over what we would
have had if we had launched on the first of September. As a result,
Voyager 1 is in great shape as far as hydrazine is concerned.” 53
 THE DEEP SPACE NETWORK

A vital component of the Voyager Mission is the

communications system linking the spacecraft with controllers
and scientists on Earth. The ability to communicate with
spacecraft over the vast distances to the outer planets, and
particularly to return the enormous amounts of data collected
by sophisticated cameras and spectrometers, depends in large
part on the transmitters and receivers of the Deep Space
Network (DSN), operated for NASA by JPL.

The original network of these receiving stations was

established in 1958 to provide round-the-world tracking of the
first U.S. satellite, Explorer 1. By the late 1970s, the DSN had
evolved into a system of large antennas, low-noise receivers,
and high-power transmitters at sites strategically located on
three continents. From these sites the data are forwarded
(often using terrestrial communications satellites) to the
mission operations center at JPL.

The three DSN stations are located in the Mohave desert at

Goldstone, California; near Madrid, Spain; and near Canberra,
Australia. Each location is equipped with two 26-meter
steerable antennas and a single giant steerable dish 64 meters
in diameter, with approximately the collecting area of a football
field. In addition, each is equipped with transmitting, receiving,
and data handling equipment. The transmitters in Spain and
Australia have 100-kilowatt power, while the 64-meter antenna
at Goldstone has a 400-kilowatt transmitter. Most commands to
Voyager are sent from Goldstone, but all three stations require
the highest quality receivers to permit continuous recording of
the data streams pouring in from the spacecraft.

Since the mid-1960s, the DSN’s standard frequency has been

S-band (2295 megahertz). Voyager introduces a new, higher
frequency telemetry link at X-band (8418 megahertz). The X-
 band signal can carry more information than S-band with
similar power transmitters, but it requires more exact antenna
performance. In addition, the X-band signal is absorbed by
terrestrial clouds and, especially, rain. Fortunately, all three
DSN stations are in dry climates, but during encounters the
weather forecasts on Earth become items of crucial concern if
precious data are not to be lost by storm interference.

As a result of the development of larger antennas and

improved electronics, the DSN command capabilities and
telemetry data rates have increased dramatically over the
years. For example, in 1965 Mariner 4 transmitted from Mars
at a rate of only 8⅓ bits of information per second. In 1969,
Mariners 6 and 7 transmitted picture data from Mars at 16 200
bits per second. Mariner 10, in 1973, achieved 117 200 bits per
second from Mercury. Voyager operates at a similar rate from
Jupiter, about six times farther away. Many of these
improvements in data transmission result from changes in the
DSN rather than in the spacecraft transmitters.

Problems with hydrazine management developed, however. Voyager

1’s first trajectory correction maneuver achieved only 80 percent of
the required speed change. Exhaust plumes from the thrusters
apparently struck part of the spacecraft, causing a 20 percent loss in
velocity. That being the case, Voyager might require more fuel than
had been expected to complete the mission. The extra fuel
requirements did not threaten Voyager 1 itself, since it held ample
fuel to reach Saturn; the concern was for Voyager 2, where the
effective loss of fuel might be enough to jeopardize the Uranus
mission.

54
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