Research Trends in Zoology

(ISBN: 978-93-48620-53-8)

Editors

Dr. Parimala B. Mrs. Devika Rani H. K.

Department of Zoology, Department of Zoology,

University College of Science, University College of Science,

Tumkur University, Tumakuru, Karnataka Tumkur University, Tumakuru, Karnataka

Ms. Varsha Vishwanatha Rajapuri Mrs. Bhavyashree S. P.

Department of Zoology, Department of Zoology,

University College of Science, University College of Science,

Tumkur University, Tumakuru, Karnataka Tumkur University, Tumakuru, Karnataka

February 2025
Copyright Editors

Title: Research Trends in Zoology

Editors: Dr. Parimala B., Mrs. Devika Rani H. K.,

Ms. Varsha Vishwanatha Rajapuri, Mrs. Bhavyashree S. P.

First Edition: February 2025

ISBN: 978-93-48620-53-8

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted, in any

form or by any means, without permission. Any person who does any unauthorized act in

relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for

damages.

Published by:

BHUMI PUBLISHING

Nigave Khalasa, Tal – Karveer, Dist – Kolhapur, Maharashtra, INDIA 416 207

E-mail: [email protected]

Disclaimer: The views expressed in the book are of the authors and not necessarily of the

publisher and editors. Authors themselves are responsible for any kind of plagiarism found

in their chapters and any related issues found with the book.
 PREFACE
Zoology, the scientific study of animals and their interactions with the
environment, continues to evolve with advancements in research methodologies and
interdisciplinary approaches. From classical taxonomy and morphology to molecular
genetics and ecological conservation, zoological research has expanded its horizons,
contributing significantly to our understanding of biodiversity, species adaptation, and
ecosystem dynamics. With the growing need to address global challenges such as
climate change, habitat loss, and species extinction, the importance of zoological
studies has never been more crucial.
Research Trends in Zoology aims to provide a comprehensive insight into the
latest developments and emerging trends in this ever-expanding field. This volume
brings together contributions from researchers and scholars worldwide, highlighting
novel discoveries and innovative methodologies in various branches of zoology.
One of the key aspects of modern zoological research is its interdisciplinary
nature. The integration of genetics, biotechnology, bioinformatics, and environmental
sciences has opened new avenues for understanding complex biological phenomena.
Studies on animal physiology and molecular biology are shedding light on
fundamental life processes, while advancements in conservation biology are offering
sustainable solutions for preserving endangered species. This book emphasizes the
importance of such interdisciplinary research and its role in shaping the future of
zoological sciences.
The objective of this book is to serve as a valuable resource for students,
academicians, and researchers who are keen on exploring the latest research trends in
zoology. By presenting a blend of theoretical insights and practical applications, we
hope this volume will inspire further studies and foster scientific discussions among
scholars.
We extend our sincere gratitude to all the contributors for their dedicated
efforts in bringing forth high-quality research. We also appreciate the support and
cooperation of the editorial team, whose meticulous work has ensured the successful
completion of this volume. It is our belief that Research Trends in Zoology will serve as
a significant reference for those passionate about the study of animal life and its ever-
evolving dimensions.
- Editors
 TABLE OF CONTENT

Sr. No. Book Chapter and Author(s) Page No.

1. DETERMINATION OF PLANKTON POPULATION WITH 1 – 15
SPECIAL REFERENCE TO POLLUTION STATUS
Seema Shrishailappa Sakhare and
Shrishailappa Chandrappa Sakhare
2. ENHANCING FISH SPECIES IDENTIFICATION: INTEGRATING 16 – 30
TRADITIONAL AND MODERN METHODS
Ranjana Singh and Ranjana
3. CONSERVATION AQUACULTURE: A SUSTAINABLE 31 – 44
APPROACH TO AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS
Honey J. Tandel, H. V. Parmar and Pinak K. Bamaniya
4. STREPTOCOCCUS TOXIC SHOCK SYNDROME 45 – 48
Taruna Vishnudas Nirankari
5. IMPACT OF PLANKTONIC POPULATION ON WETLAND 49 – 52
ECOSYTEMS OF GONDIA, DIST. GONDIA (M.S.)
Wasudha J. Meshram
6. REVOLUTIONIZING THE FIELD OF ZOOLOGY BY ARTIFICIAL 53 – 62
INTELLIGENCE
Manoj Patidar
7. CLIMATE CHANGE AND ITS IMPACT ON WILDLIFE 63 – 77
Kamran Abbas Mirza
8. EFFECTS OF MICROPLASTIC ON AQUATIC ORGANISMS 78 – 90
Suchismita Chatterjee Saha
9. BIOMODULANT PROPERTIES OF THE MILK WEED, 91 – 94
CALOTROPIS GIGANTEA (L.) DRYAND.: A REVIEW
Sreeja R S
10. METHANOLIC EXTRACT OF NEEM (AZADIRACHTA INDICA A. 95 – 98
JUSS) LEAF - A POTENT ANTIMICROBIAL AGENT
Sheeja V. R
11. HPV VACCINATION CONTROL CERVICAL CANCER IN INDIA 99 – 102
N. P. Sanap
12. RESEARCH TRENDS IN ZOOLOGY 103 – 106
S. M. Hegade
13. AN OVERVIEW ON THE STATUS OF EARTHWORMS IN 107 – 112
KARNATAKA, INDIA
Harish Kumar T. S. and Sreepada K. S.
 Research Trends in Zoology
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DETERMINATION OF PLANKTON POPULATION WITH SPECIAL

REFERENCE TO POLLUTION STATUS
Seema Shrishailappa Sakhare*1 and Shrishailappa Chandrappa Sakhare2
1Department of Zoology, Dr. Ghali College, Gadhinglaj, Dist. Kolhapur, M.S.
2Indiradevi Jadhav, Arts, Commerce and Science Junior College, K. Nool, Dist. Kolhapur, M.S.
*Corresponding author E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract:
Water proved to be important natural resources in the world, without it life can’t
exist. Essentially, all life forms depend upon the water for being a major component of
living organisms. Any alterations in normal water quality directly relate to survival of
aquatic organisms. In aquatic organisms, planktons were most sensitive component of the
ecosystem and one of the crucial indicators of environmental disturbances. The
composition, distribution and abundance of phytoplankton, in water body were found
depend upon the physico-chemical properties of water. The zooplanktons were important
as they play role in maintaining food chain. Therefore, it becomes important to gain
knowledge and acquire requisite skills to ensure the conservation of water as vital
resource. Considering the biological system along with the floral and faunal diversity some
standard methodological assessment required. The main objective of this study is to
highlight the impact of various water pollutants on aquatic organisms which have rendered
the water unsuitable for drinking and other domestic purposes. The composition,
distribution and abundance of phytoplankton, in water body were found depend upon the
chemical and physical properties of water. Physico-chemical factors influence the biological
productivity of the water body.
Keywords: Phytoplankton, Zooplankton, Pollution Status
Introduction:
Life on the earth began in the water, which found to be essential source for
existence of life. In the nature, water is not only essential for survival of all living things but,
is the important source of economic wealth and creator of wonderful environment. Water
serves as essential requirement for every cell of an organism to perform normal functions.
A plenty supply of clean water is essential for survival of human being, plants and
animals. The disposal of industrial and agricultural waste directly into the aquatic medium
burdens the ecosystem (Nagarathnamma and Ramamurthy, 1983). Phosphate is a nutrient
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for plant growth and a fundamental element in the metabolic reaction of plants and
animals. It controls algal growth and primary productivity. Excess amounts of phosphorus
can cause eutrophication leading to excessive algal growth called algal blooms (Gyathri et
al., 2013).
Physico-chemical parameters of ground water in relation to health have been
studied by number of scientists. But less attention has been found to compare with river,
reservoirs, lake and ponds (Vijay kumar, 1996 and Reddy, 2001). Water quality affects the
abundance, species, its composition, stability, productivity and physiological conditions of
aquatic animals. Therefore the nature and health of aquatic communities is a unique
expression of water quality (APHA, 1985). Water pollution has significant effect on human
health, balance of aquatic ecosystems, socio-economic development and prosperity
(Milovanovic, 2007). Rivers and streams have been used for discharging waste. Most of the
civilizations have grown and flourished on the banks of rivers, but unfortunately, growth in
turn, it has been responsible for pollution of rivers.
Polluted water is the main cause of a number of diseases. Polluted water not only
affects the life of present generation but it also affects the life of upcoming generations
because its effect remains for long. In India most of the area is characterized by intensive
farming, and urban-industries development. Thus the aquatic environment gathers several
elements which affect the quality of the rivers and lakes. The nutrient increase, toxins
presence and others xenobiotics input, such as biocide and heavy metals, provoke changes
in the normal conditions that according to inflow regime (sewage of various degrees of
treatment, thermal regime, weather conditions and land use) affect the quality conditions
of the receptors. Some products and household waste, industrial discharges, pesticides or
sewage are transformed and degraded through various reactions with other biotic and
abiotic components, when they get into the river.
Available literature and information suggest that environmental pollution get
intensified now days. The region may be revolution in the industries, agricultural field
which release of toxic chemical, gases and other waste into terrestrial and aquatic
environment. This release of toxic chemicals and metals causes the health hazardous to
flora and fauna depending on it.
Phytoplankton found fundamental component of aquatic ecosystems as they are the
major source of food chain. Phytoplankton, being the primary producer, forms the lowest
trophic level in the food chain of freshwater ecosystem, moreover, number and species of

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phytoplankton served for determination of water quality. Distribution of phytoplankton

with variation at different zones found influenced by physiochemical parameters of water.
Temperature is an important controlling factor for the growth of phytoplankton and
zooplankton Phytoplankton study provides a relevant and convenient point in research
and in mechanism of eutrophication with its impact on an aquatic eco-system.
Eutrophication can be defined as the sum effects of the excessive growth of
phytoplanktons leading to imbalanced primary and secondary productivity and a faster
rate of succession from existence to higher serial stage, as caused by nutrient enrichment
through runoffs that carry down overused fertilizers from agro-ecosystems and discharged
human waste from settlements. Water eutrophication can be greatly accelerated by human
activities that increase the rate of nutrient input in a water body, due to rapid urbanization,
industrialization and intensifying agricultural production. Zooplankton occupies an
intermediate position in the aquatic food web (Altaff, 2004). Different environmental
factors that determine the characteristics of water have great importance upon the growth
and the abundance of zooplankton (Thirumala et al., 2007). The term water quality defined
as those physical, chemical and biological characteristics by which the users evaluate the
acceptability of water (Neelima and Kumar, 2005). Therefore the water quality is a major
factor in determining the welfare of the society (Dwivedi and Pathak, 2000). It also plays a
vital role in governing the production of planktonic biomass.
Obtained data was discussed in relation to pollution status of all study sites which in
turns come up with the level to of contamination of the region and its impact over
bioresource in the ecosystem.
I) Material and Methods:
1. Study area:
For the present study, freshwater aquatic bodies from Gadhinglaj Tahsil, District
Kolhapur, state Maharashtra had been selected.
2. Geographical survey:
Gadhinglaj tahsil is one of the important tahsil of the Maharashtra state,
geographically at latitude 16º 13’ 26” N and longitude 74º 26’ 9” E. Throughout the Tahsil,
there are number of small and large water bodies are present along with an important river
Hiranyakeshi that is lifeline of the Tahsil. Overall this river has about 140 km distance and
finally meets to Ghataprabha River. Major area of the basin of river is under agricultural
practice, whereas remaining area is forest covered. Most of the people depend on the river

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Hiranyakeshi for their day- today needs as well as for agricultural processes. This region
has rich animal biodiversity but the quantity and quality of water from this river is now a
days affected by municipal, industrial as well as agricultural discharge.
The present study was carried to reveal the baseline status of freshwater bodies
from Gadhinglaj tahsil. The selected sites are mentioned in Plate No. 1.

Plate No. 1, 2 and 3: Graphical and pictorial view of Hiranyakeshi River, Gadhinglaj,
Kolhapur, Maharashtra representing study sites
a. Lotic system in Gadhinglaj Tahsil:
Lotic system is the running water system. It includes rivers, streams and springs,
etc. Hiranyakeshi river is the major lotic system which arises at Amboli in Sindhudurg
district.

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For the present study we have selected four sites of Hiranyakeshi river, Mahagoan
site (N 16°9’54” E 74°19’58”), Harali site (N 16°9’54” E 74°19’58”), Nilgi site (N 16° 14’ 16”
E 74° 25’ 41”) and Nangnur site (N 16°14’3” E 74° 29’46”). Most of the sugar industries are
located close to the freshwater resources and their effluents are disposed off into the
freshwater that creates the problem of ground water as well as soil pollution. With the
selected area Harali sugar factory is situated at West zone of Gadhinglaj tahsil and
Senkeshwar sugar factory is at East zone of Gadhinglaj tahsil. Organic and inorganic waste
of Harli factory is mixed into Hiranyakeshi site at Harli (khurd). Waste of Senkeshwar
factory is mixed into Nangnur site (Plate No. 2).
b. Lentic system in Gadhinglaj Tahsil:
Lentic as standing water system includes ponds, lakes, swamps, etc. There are 40 to
45 small or larger water reservoirs distributed in the Gadhinglaj tahsil. Nool reservoir,
(N16°12’36” E 74° 25’ 56”) and Yenechwandi reservoir (N 16°10’24” E74°25’46”) are
present at the base of Samangad. Nool and Yenechwandi are situated at east zone of
Gadhinglaj Tahsil. These are two small freshwater bodies located in Gadhinglaj Tahsil. The
local inhabitants depend on these for their daily needs like drinking, cloth washing, cattle
washing and agriculture use etc. (Plate No. 3).
4. Laboratory analysis:
Different physico-chemical parameters were analyzed by applying following
standard physico-chemical methods as per (APHA, 1985). Heavy metal analysis was carried
out by using Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (AAS) (Kemito company- 201).
b. Biological parameters:
➢ Qualitative and quantitative analysis of phytoplankton and zooplanktons:
The planktonic samples were collected fortnightly, from sampling sites, by filtering
hundred liters water through plankton net made-up of bolting silk No.125. The
concentrated samples were preserved by adding 4 % formalin. The phytoplankton and
zooplanktons were analyzed on seasonal base, qualitatively and quantititatively by
Sedgwick Rafter cell method, (1988).
Results and Discussion:
All physico-chemical parameters from six water bodies higher values in summer.
The lotic sites II and IV were polluted due to continuous discharge of distillery effluents
indicating high concentration of COD, while lentic site II polluted by domestic pollution.
Thus, it can be concluded that these characteristics of water bodies are influenced by

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seasonal variation. It is recommended that the proper maintaince of the water bodies is
necessary. Deterioration of water quality and eutrophication are due to casual attitude of
people. Human activities include washing of cloths, vehicles and household utensils,
discharge of sewage, industrial and agricultural effluents etc. even though nature has got its
own mechanisms to take care of waste when they are in limited quantities. Proper
sanitation measures and environmental education to public care essential to keep these
water bodies clean and safe.
Planktons form a remarkable bioindicator for water pollution. Various physico-
chemical factors like pH, DO, alkalinity, hardness, free CO2, sodium, potassium were
analyzed, increased range of these physico-chemical parameters adversely affect the
phytoplankton production. Experimental studies have suggested that a higher assimilation
of carbon into organic matter at high CO2 may increase extracellular organic matter release
from phytoplankton cells. Plankton diversity quickly responds to change in the
environment of aquatic system, particularly in relation to nutrients.
The healthy aquatic ecosystem depends on the biological diversity and physico-
chemical characteristics (Venkatesharaju et al., 2010). Phytoplankton and zooplankton
diversity have been made by Rao and Choubey, 1990; Devercelli M., (2006).; Adeyeye E. I.
Abulude F.O. (2004), Mishra et al., 2010; and Joseph and Yamakanamardi, 2011). Change in
any physico-chemical factor of the water body directly or indirectly causes great variation
in phytoplankton species diversity and abundance (Patil et al., 2015).
I. Phytoplankton Analysis:
Present study showed four groups of phytoplankton population as Cyanophyta,
Chlorophyta, Bacillariophyta, and Euglenophyta (Table No.1, Fig: 1 and Plate No. 4, 5, 6).
Planktonic quantification from four sites of Hiranyakeshi river, site I, II, III and IV and two
stagnant water bodies site V and VI from Gadhinglaj tahsil, were assessed for seasonal
variations. Comparatively Bacillariophyta was dominating with seventeen species in it.
Next to Bacillariophyta, Chlorophyta, included ten species whereas, Cyanophyta showed five
diversified species in study area. Euglenophyta showed only one species.
Thus Phytoplankton population in the study area showed order of dominancy
among the species with regards to number as follows: Bacillariophyta > Chlorophyta >
Cyanophyta > Euglenophyta. On an average the lotic ecosystem representing least
phytoplankton population as compare to lentic ecosystem.

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II. Zooplankton Analysis:

Zooplanktons are microscopic organisms which include protozoans,
microcrustaceans and other micro invertebrates that are planktonic present in water
bodies. The freshwater zooplankton comprises protozoa, rotifers, cladocera, copepods,
microscopic crustaceans and microinvertibrates suspended in water. Zooplankton found to
be major link in energy transfer to the higher trophic level.
Zooplankton is good indicator of the changes in water quality because they are
strongly affected by environmental conditions and respond quickly to changes in water
quality (Dhembare, 2011). They occupy an intermediate link between phytoplankton and
fish. Hence qualitative and quantitative studies of zooplankton are of great importance.
Zooplanktons are minute aquatic animals that are very weak swimmers. They
contribute significantly to biological productivity of freshwater ecosystem.
The major group of zooplankton observed during assessment were Rotifera,
Ostracoda, Cladocera, Copepoda and Protozoa are majority documented (Table No. 2 Fig: 2
and Plate No.7, 8, 9). Quantified data related to species diversity showed nine species of
Rotifera, four species of Cladocera, five species of Protozoa, four species of Copepoda and
only one species of Ostracoda.
Among zooplankton in the study area, the order of dominance in diversified groups
was as follows: Rotifera > Copepoda > Cladoecera > Protozoa > Ostracoda.
Thus Copepodans, Cladocerans and Rotiferans were maximum in population as
compared to Ostracoda species. Comparatively Ostracoda species minimum at all sites. On
an average the lotic ecosystem representing least zooplankton population as compare to
lentic ecosystem.
Zooplankton communities found responsive to nutrients levels, temperature and
pollution and can be used to determine the health of an ecosystem. Animals were typically
tiny animals found near the surface of the aquatic environments. Cyclops found pollution
tolerant and was abundantly in nutrient rich environments and thus can be considered
eutrophication indicators.
Biodocumentation of planktons indicated that, site V and site VI showed maximum
species richness, during summer season as that of in rainy and winter season which may be
due to stagnancy, eutrophication and increased CO2 content as one of the reason of
contaminated aquatic bodies.

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Table 1: Enumeration of Phytoplanktons from study sites

Sr. No. Name of species I II III IV V VI
A Cyanophyta
01 Ulothrix + + + + + +
02 Gomphospheria + + + + + +
03 Fragilaria + + - - + +
04 Closterium + + - + + -
05 Pleurotaenium + + + - - +
B Chlorophyta
06 Pinnularia dolasa v. robusta - - - - + +
07 Diacanthos species - - + + - -
08 Ankistrodesmus fulcatus - + - - + -
09 Pediastrum ovatum + + - + + +
10 Pedistrum simplex + + + - - +
11 Pedistrum duodenarium + + - + + +
12 Cosmarium nastum + + + - - +
13 Cosmarium punctulatum + + - + + +
14 Pinnularia interrupta + + - + + +
15 Spirogyra + + + - - +
16 Pediastrum orentale + - - + - -
17 Pinnularia arosphaeria v. minor - + + - - +
18 Pinnularia dolasa v. tumid + + - - + -
19 Spirogyra protensis - + - - + -
C Bacillariophyta
20 Diatoma + + - + + +
21 Cyclotella meneghiniana + + + - - +
22 Diatoma vulgaris + + + + + +
23 Gomphonema parvulum - - + - + +
24 Gomphonema sphaerophorum - - - - - +
25 Gomphonema intricatum - - + - + +
26 Gomphonema subapicatum + + + - + +
27 Navicula gregaria + - - - + -

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28 Navicula mutica + + + + + +
29 Navicula protracta - - + + - +
30 Navicula rhyncocephala - + - - - -
31 Navicula rodisa + - - - + +
32 Cymbella turgidula + + + - + +
33 Cymbella ventricosa + + - + + +
34 Cymbella engalensis - + + - + +
35 Stauroneis phoenicenteron + + + - + -
D Euglenophyta
37 Euglena maharashtrensis + + - + + +
38 Euglena sociabilis + + - - + +
(+ indicates present, - indicates absent)

Cyanophyta Chlorophyta

I
VI I VI 13%
22% 17% 20% II
II 18%
V 18% V
17% 18% III
IV III IV
15% 11% 15% 16%

Bacilariophyta Euglenophyta

VI I
VI I
16% 17%
20% 15%
V II II
19% 17% V 17%
III 19%
IV IV
15% III
16% 16% 13%

Figure 1: Percent composition of Phytoplankton from study sites

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Table 2: Enumeration of Zooplanktons from study sites

Sr. No. Name of species I II III IV V VI
A Rotifera
01 Brachionus calciflorus - + + - + +
02 Brachionus angularis + + + + + +
03 Brachionus forficula + + - - + +
04 Brachionus quadrientata + + - + + -
05 Brachionus falcatus + + + - - +
06 Brachionus caudatus - - + - + +
07 Keretella tropica - - - - + +
08 Keretella quadrata - - + + - -
09 Tricholera longiseta - + - - + -
B Ostracoda
10 Stenocypris + + - + + +
11 Cypris subglobosa + + + - - +
C Copepoda
12 Cyclopoid copepod + + + + + +
13 Calanoid copepod - - + - + +
14 Mesocyclops sp. - - - - - +
15 Paracyclops sp. - - + - + +
16 Nauplius sp. + + + - + +
D Cladocera
17 Moina micrura + - - - + -
18 Daphnia carinata + + + + + +
19 Cerodaphnia reticulate - - + + - +
20 Daphanosoma sarsi - + - - - -
21 Leptodora kindtii + - - - + +
E Protozoa
22 Paramecium cauuadatum + + + - + +
23 Euglina species + + - + + +
24 Verticella species - + + - + +
25 Metapus species + + + - + -
26 Stentor species + + - - + +
27 Balantidium species - + + - + +

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Copepoda Cladocera

I
VI VI I
15%
23% II 18% 14%
II
17% V 17%
V 20%
III III
20% IV 11% IV 14%
14% 17%

Rotifera Ostracoda
I
VI 15% VI I
19% II 17% 16% II
V 18% 8%
16% V
IV III III
25%
18% 14% IV 17%
17%

Protozoa

VI I
25% 20%
II
14%
V III
21% IV 11%
9%

Figure 2: Percent composition of Zooplanktons from study sites

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Plate No. 4, 5, and 6: Microscopic images of phytoplankton’s

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Plate No. 7, 8, and 9: Microscopic images of Zooplanktons.

In the present study lentic sites V and VI showed increased percentage producing
the dense mat of vegetation over the waterbodies.
Now a day’s aquatic biodiversity is threatened primarily by human misuse and
mismanagement of both living resources and the ecosystems which realy support them.
Most of the ponds are getting polluted due to domestic waste, sewage, industrial and

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agricultural effluents. The essentiality of water for development of micro-organisms up to

man became serious problem due to unplanned urbanization and industrialization in
restricted zones. Water quality assessment generally involves analysis of physico-chemical,
biological and microbiological parameters and reflects on abiotic and biotic status of the
ecosystem.
Conclusion:
Present study concludes that, seasonal changes showed variation in planktonic
population, most of the species were least documented in the period of rainy season. We
found that, Phytoplankton population was maximum in summer due to favorable
conditions of high level of nutrients with increased photo period of day with high intensity
of light. Presence of Chlorella under Chlrophyta was found to be dominant species in the
assessment indicating that water quality of selected aquatic body is slightly polluted by
mixing of organic material thus Chlorella indicated contamination of aquatic bodies. In the
present investigation Chlorella species found only at site II, V and VI indicating organic
pollution. Thus, magnitude and dynamics of plankton population becomes an essential tool
to assess the general health of an aquatic ecosystem.
In conclusion, overall plankton population of lentic study sites were much more
diversified indicating as nutrient rich water body which may undergo the state of
eutrophication, if not managed properly. Therefore, the water body has to be preserved for
their future use, a sustainable and holistic management planning is necessary for
conservation of freshwater bodies.
Refereces:
1. Nagarathnamma and Ramamurthy, (1983). In Vivo Recovey of Acetylcholinesterase
Activity from Methyl Parathion Induced Inhibition in the Freshwater Teleost, Cyprinus
carpio. Current Science, 52, 74-75.
2. Gayathri S., Latha N. and Ramachandra Mohan M., (2013). Impact of Climate Change
on Water Quality of Shoolkere Lake, Bangalore, Journal of Academia and Industrial
Research (JAIR) Volume 2, Issue 6 November 2013, pp 362-368.
3. Vijay kumar, 1996: Seasonal variation in productivity of a tropical pond. J.Eco.Bio.
6(3) 207-211.
4. Reddy M., Murth D. and Prakash T., (2001). Quality of groundwater in Karnataka with
special reference to nitrate, International workshop on Integrated Water
Management, Banglore University, pp.29.
5. APHA, 1985: Standard method for the examination of water and waste water.
American Public Health Association, 19th Edn. Washington, USA.

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6. Milovanovic M (2007): Water quality assessment and determination of pollution

sources along the Axios / Vardar River, Southeast Europe. Desalination 213: 159-173.
7. Altaff, 2004: A manual of Zooplankton. University grants commission, New Delhi, Pp
1-145.
8. Thirumala S., Kiran, B. R., Puttaiah T., Vijaya K. and HarishBabu K, (2007).
Zooplankton diversity and its relationship with physico-chemical parameters of in
Ayyanakere Lake Western Ghats, India. J. Zool, 27 (2): 203-207
9. Neelima and Kumar, 2005: Water: Characteristics and properties. A.P.H. Publishing
Corporation, New Delhi. Pp 1-346.
10. Dwivedi and Pathak, (2000). S and T Approach for expotential growth in fish
production. Central Institute of freshwater aquaculture, Bhubneshwar, India. Pp: 14-
18.
11. Venkateshraju K., Ravikumar P., Somshekhar R. and Prakash K. L., (2010). Physico-
chemical and bacteriological investigation on the river Cauveryof Kollegal stretch in
Karnataka. J. Sci. Engg. And Tech. 6(1): 50-59.
12. Rao and Choubey, 1990: Studies on physico- chemical and biological parameter of
Gandhi Sager, Mandsaur district (M.P), p.hd thesis, vikram University, Ujjain.
13. Devercelli M., (2006). A morphological and functional approach to the phytoplankton
of the Middle Paraná River during an anomalous hydrological period. Hydrobiologia,
563(1), 465-478.
14. Adeyeye E.I.,Abulude F.O., (2004). Analytical assessment of some surface and
groundwater resources in lle-lfe, Nigeria, Journal of Chemical Society, Nigeria 207-
213.
15. Mishra A., (2010). Limnological study of Sakhya Sagar lake, Shivpuri (M.P.), JERED,
4(4) 993.
16. Joseph B, Yamakanamardi SM. 2011: Monthly changes in the abundance and biomass
of zooplankton and water quality parameters in Kukkarahalli Lake of Mysore, India. J
Environ Biol. 32(5):551.
17. Patil S. R.,Patil S. S. and Sathe T. V., (2015). Occurrence of phytoplankton in major
freshwater bodies of ajara tahsil, kolhapur district (ms), india. Asian Academic
Research Journal of Multidisciplinary www.asianacademicresearch.org. vol. 1 issue
31. Pp. 35-45.
18. Dhembare A. J., (2007). Studies on physico-chemical parameters of the Mula Dam,
Rathuri, Aurangabad, India. Poll. Res. 26 (2): 261.

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ENHANCING FISH SPECIES IDENTIFICATION:

INTEGRATING TRADITIONAL AND MODERN METHODS
Ranjana Singh* and Ranjana
Department of Zoology, Patna Science College, Patna University, Patna
*Corresponding author E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract:
Accurate species identification is fundamental to understanding, monitoring, and
managing fish biodiversity worldwide. Traditional morphological methods—though long
established—face challenges with cryptic species, phenotypic plasticity, and rapid
environmental changes. In response, researchers have developed an array of innovative
identification tools including computer‐assisted image recognition, advanced
morphometrics, hydroacoustic techniques, and DNA‐based methods such as barcoding and
SNP analysis. This chapter reviews the evolution and application of these tools, examines
their strengths and limitations, and highlights how their integration can lead to more
effective biodiversity assessments and sustainable fisheries management. Through detailed
case studies from diverse aquatic ecosystems, we demonstrate that combining traditional
and modern techniques enhances species resolution and aids in combating issues such as
mislabeling, overexploitation, and the loss of genetic diversity. Finally, we discuss emerging
trends and propose future directions for research and policy.
Keywords: Fish Identification, Biodiversity Assessment, DNA Barcoding, Acoustic Surveys,
Morphometrics, Image Recognition, Environmental DNA, Fisheries Management.
Introduction:
The world’s aquatic ecosystems harbor a staggering diversity of fish—over 32,000
species of finfish are currently recognized, with many more awaiting discovery [1, 9, 14].
Fish biodiversity is not only of intrinsic scientific interest but is also critical for fisheries
management, conservation, and sustaining livelihoods. Accurate species identification
forms the bedrock of these endeavors, ensuring that stock assessments, conservation
measures, and regulatory policies are based on reliable data [1, 47, 50].
Traditional taxonomic approaches—relying on morphological keys, expert
judgment, and reference collections—have been the standard for decades [2, 8]. However,
these methods are time‐consuming and require specialized training, which is not always
available in regions of high biodiversity or in rapidly changing environments [2, 5, 8].
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Moreover, many fisheries inspectors, data collectors, and even consumers often lack formal
taxonomic training, leading to frequent misidentifications that compromise fisheries
statistics and conservation outcomes [5, 15].
Recent decades have witnessed a paradigm shift. Advances in molecular biology,
computer vision, and acoustic technologies have introduced innovative fish identification
tools that are both rapid and robust. DNA barcoding, for example, has revolutionized
species authentication by enabling identification from tiny or degraded samples [15, 26].
Similarly, image recognition systems powered by machine learning (e.g. IPOFIS, IPez) now
allow even non-specialists to accurately identify fish from digital photographs [2, 8].
Acoustic techniques further complement these methods by providing non-invasive
estimates of fish abundance and distribution over large spatial scales [2, 5, 59].
This chapter provides a comprehensive review of the fish identification tools
currently available. We discuss traditional morphological methods alongside modern
molecular, imaging, and acoustic approaches. We also present case studies from diverse
geographic regions and aquatic systems that demonstrate how these methods are applied
in biodiversity assessments, fisheries management, and food safety. Finally, we discuss
challenges inherent to each approach and propose a framework for integrating multiple
techniques to achieve a synergistic and reliable system of fish identification.
2. Background
2.1 The Imperative for Accurate Fish Identification
Accurate identification is essential to all aspects of fish Biodiversity research.
Inaccurate or inconsistent species recognition can lead to misreported catch data,
misinformed management decisions, and the misallocation of conservation resources [1,
47, 50]. For example, when morphologically similar or cryptic species are confused,
fisheries managers may inadvertently overexploit one stock while underestimating the
conservation needs of another [47, 55]. In addition, the growing global trade in seafood
demands rigorous traceability to ensure food safety and prevent fraudulent practices [15,
21].
Traditional morphological approaches—based on features such as scale counts, fin
ray numbers, and body coloration—have long been used to catalog fish diversity [2, 8].
However, these techniques are limited by seasonal variations, ontogenetic changes, and
convergent evolution that can mask true genetic relationships [2, 5]. Furthermore, reliance
on expert taxonomists is problematic given the worldwide shortage of such specialists [5,

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8]. These limitations have spurred the development of alternative tools that can provide
rapid, accurate, and reproducible identifications.
2.2 Evolution from Traditional to Modern Approaches
Historically, fish identification relied on dichotomous keys, illustrated field guides,
and comparison with museum reference collections [2, 8, 9]. In regions with well-
documented faunas—such as Europe and North America—these methods remain effective.
However, in biodiversity hotspots where many species are undescribed or exhibit high
morphological variability, traditional methods fall short [5, 8, 43].
Modern techniques have introduced new avenues for identification:
Molecular Methods:
DNA barcoding, which typically targets the mitochondrial COI gene, has provided a
robust means to identify species from even minute tissue samples [15, 26, 28]. Single
nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) analyses further enable population-level discrimination
and tracking of genetic stocks [2, 28, 34].
• Image Recognition & Morphometrics: Advances in digital imaging and machine
learning have resulted in tools like IPOFIS and IPez that can rapidly analyze fish
images, extract morphometric data, and provide automated identifications [2, 8, 32].
Such systems reduce the need for specialized taxonomic expertise and can be
deployed on mobile devices for field applications [32, 33].
• Acoustic Methods: Hydroacoustic surveys utilize sound scattering properties to
estimate fish densities and, increasingly, to infer species composition through multi-
frequency analysis [2, 5, 59]. Although these methods require substantial
investment and expertise, they offer non-invasive means to monitor fish
populations over large areas [59].
Integration of these techniques offers a promising strategy for achieving high
accuracy, rapid response times, and cost-effectiveness—factors essential for effective
biodiversity assessments in today’s dynamic aquatic environments [15, 26, 34].
3. Overview of Fish Identification Tools
In this section, we review the principal categories of fish identification tools. Each
tool is evaluated in terms of methodology, advantages, limitations, and field applicability.
(In-text citations refer to the final References section.)

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3.1 Traditional Morphological Methods

For decades, traditional morphology-based identification has been the foundation of
ichthyology [2, 8, 9]. Experts use keys based on characters such as body shape, fin
morphology, scale counts, and coloration to distinguish among species [2, 8]. Illustrated
field guides and reference collections (e.g., FishBase [8, 9] and the Catalog of Fishes [14])
provide critical resources for this work.
Advantages:
– High taxonomic resolution when performed by experts [2, 8]
– Extensive historical data available for comparison [9, 14]
Limitations:
– Subjectivity in character interpretation [5, 15]
– Time-intensive and requires extensive training [5, 8]
– Morphological plasticity and cryptic species may lead to misidentification [5, 43]
3.2 Image Recognition Systems and Morphometric Software-
Recent advances in computer vision have led to the development of image
recognition systems (IRS) that utilize deep learning to identify fish from photographs [2,
32]. Systems such as the Integrated Photo-based Online Fish-Identification System (IPOFIS)
integrate large digital libraries with interactive dichotomous keys [2, 32]. In parallel,
morphometric software such as IPez uses quantitative shape analysis—often combined
with machine learning—to distinguish species based on subtle differences in morphology
[32, 33].
Advantages:
– Rapid and non-invasive identification [32]
– Reduces reliance on specialist taxonomists [32, 33]
– Can be deployed on mobile devices for field use [32]
Limitations:
– Dependent on image quality and proper calibration [32]
– Regional variation in species appearance may reduce transferability [33]
– Requires substantial baseline data for training algorithms [33]
3.3 Molecular Identification Techniques
Molecular methods have transformed species identification. DNA barcoding
employs a short standardized region of DNA (commonly the mitochondrial COI gene) to
provide rapid, reliable identification [15, 26, 28]. In cases where morphological differences

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are slight or absent, molecular markers offer a powerful alternative [15, 26]. SNP analyses
can further delineate population structure and are increasingly used for stock identification
[2, 28, 34].
Advantages:
– High accuracy and reproducibility, even from degraded tissue [15, 26]
– Effective for cryptic and juvenile stages [15, 28]
– Enables forensic applications and traceability in seafood markets [15, 21]
Limitations:
– Requires laboratory facilities and technical expertise [15, 26]
– Higher per-sample cost compared to field-based techniques [15, 26]
– Reference databases (e.g., FISH-BOL) are still incomplete for some taxa [26, 27]
3.4 Acoustic Techniques
Acoustic identification leverages sound to detect and characterize fish schools.
Multi-frequency echosounders analyze the backscattering properties of fish bodies,
particularly their swim bladders, to estimate abundance and—when combined with
advanced algorithms—even to infer species composition [2, 5, 59]. These methods are
particularly useful in large-scale marine surveys.
Advantages:
– Non-invasive and suitable for monitoring vast areas [59]
– Provides real-time data on fish density and distribution [59]
– Can be integrated with trawl sampling for ground-truthing [2, 5]
Limitations:
– High capital and operational costs [59]
– Requires specialized training for data interpretation [59]
– Resolution may be insufficient to reliably distinguish closely related species without
supplementary data [5, 59]
3.5 Integrated Web-Based Databases and Resources-
The emergence of online databases such as FishBase [8, 9], SeaLifeBase [11], the
Catalog of Fishes [14], and ITIS [12] has revolutionized access to taxonomic data. These
platforms aggregate morphological, molecular, ecological, and distributional data, enabling
users to cross-reference and verify species identities [8, 9, 11, 12, 14].
Advantages:
– Broad accessibility and up-to-date taxonomic information [8, 9, 11, 12, 14]

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– Facilitates collaborative research and data sharing [8, 11]

– Integrates various identification tools and data types [8, 12]
Limitations:
– Quality depends on data curation and periodic updates [8, 11]
– May exhibit regional biases in species coverage [12]
– Requires reliable internet connectivity for field applications [8, 11]
4. Molecular Methods
4.1 DNA Barcoding Protocols-
DNA barcoding typically targets a standardized region of the mitochondrial
cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) gene. The general protocol involves:
Sample Collection and Preservation: Tissue samples (fin clips, muscle, scales) are collected
under sterile conditions and preserved in 95% ethanol to prevent degradation [15, 26].
• DNA Extraction: Standard extraction protocols (e.g., using commercial kits) are
applied. Quality control is essential, as even degraded tissue can yield amplifiable
DNA if handled properly [15, 26].
• PCR Amplification: Universal primers (such as FishF1/FishR1) amplify the ~650-bp
COI region. Optimized thermal cycles are employed to maximize yield and minimize
nonspecific products [15, 26].
• Sequencing and Data Analysis: Sanger sequencing or next-generation sequencing
(NGS) is performed. Sequences are then compared against reference databases such
as BOLD or FISH-BOL [15, 26, 28].

Photo 1: DNA barcoding protocol developed for processing biological material

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Studies have shown that DNA barcoding can accurately distinguish species even
when morphological characters are ambiguous [15, 26, 28]. In addition, metabarcoding
protocols have been developed to analyze environmental DNA (eDNA) samples from water,
providing non-invasive snapshots of community composition [17, 29].
4.2. SNP and Metabarcoding Approaches-
Beyond the COI barcode, SNP panels are now used for fine-scale population
discrimination. The methodology involves:
• Baseline SNP Discovery: Using high-throughput sequencing, researchers identify
single nucleotide polymorphisms that are diagnostic for particular populations or
species [2, 28, 34].
• Genotyping: Platforms such as SNP arrays or targeted sequencing enable rapid
genotyping of large sample sets [2, 28, 34].
• Data Integration: Genetic data are combined with morphological and acoustic data
to produce integrated stock assessments [2, 28, 34].
These approaches are especially valuable when assessing fisheries management
scenarios where stock identity and origin are critical for regulatory compliance [20, 28].
5. Image Recognition and Morphometric Analysis
5.1 Automated Image Recognition Systems- Recent advances in deep learning have led
to the development of computer vision algorithms capable of identifying fish species from
digital photographs. Typical steps include:
Image Acquisition: High-resolution images are obtained from field photography,
underwater videography, or museum collections. Consistent lighting and standardized
backgrounds improve algorithm performance [32, 33].
Preprocessing and Feature Extraction: Images are cropped, normalized, and processed
to extract key features such as body shape, coloration patterns, and fin morphology.
Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs), often adapted from models like MobileNet, are
employed to learn discriminative features automatically [32, 33].
Classification and Validation: The model is trained on annotated datasets, achieving high
classification accuracy (often >90% under controlled conditions). Cross-validation and
testing against independent datasets ensure robustness [32, 33].
For instance, systems like IPOFIS and IPez have demonstrated reliable performance when
integrated with smartphone applications for on-site identification [32, 33].

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5.2. Digital Morphometrics

Morphometric software such as IPez uses landmark-based analyses to quantify
shape differences among species. The process includes:
• Landmark Identification: Key anatomical landmarks are marked manually or
automatically on fish images [32, 33].
• Statistical Analysis: Procrustes analysis and multivariate statistics (e.g., Principal
Component Analysis) assess shape variation and distinguish between species or
populations [32, 33].
• Integration with Machine Learning: The quantitative data serve as inputs for
machine learning classifiers, further enhancing identification accuracy [32, 33].
This approach is particularly useful when subtle morphological differences are
present, allowing identification at both the species and population levels [32, 33].
5.3 Acoustic Survey Techniques
Acoustic methods provide a non-invasive means to assess fish abundance and
distribution:
• Data Collection: Multi-frequency echosounders emit sound pulses and record
echoes reflected by fish. These surveys are typically conducted from research
vessels or fixed platforms [2, 5, 59].
• Signal Processing: Echo signals are processed using algorithms that analyze
backscattering strength across different frequencies. This helps to distinguish fish
groups based on body composition and swim bladder characteristics [2, 5, 59].
• Species Inference: While acoustic data alone may not always resolve species-level
identity, integration with trawl sampling and reference acoustic signatures allows
for probabilistic species assignments [2, 5, 59].
Recent studies have improved classification accuracy using machine learning
models trained on labeled acoustic datasets, which then complement traditional fisheries
assessments [59].
6. Case Studies and Applications
This section presents case studies demonstrating the application of the above
methodologies in various geographic and ecological contexts.
Recent studies in India have demonstrated the value of integrating traditional
morphological methods with modern molecular techniques and image recognition systems
for robust fish biodiversity assessment. For example, researchers working in the
Brahmaputra River basin and the Western Ghats region have applied morphological keys in

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tandem with DNA barcoding (targeting the mitochondrial COI gene) to resolve species
identities and uncover cryptic diversity [59,61]. These approaches have revealed a higher-
than-expected number of species, including several cryptic taxa that were not discernible
through morphology alone. Additionally, the implementation of image recognition systems
has streamlined the identification process in field surveys, making it accessible to non-
specialists. Such integrative studies not only enhance taxonomic resolution but also
contribute critical data for conservation planning and sustainable fisheries management in
India [61,62].
6.2 Biodiversity Monitoring in Tropical Freshwaters. –
In a tropical freshwater ecosystem in the Amazon basin, researchers used eDNA
metabarcoding to detect rare and cryptic fish species that were missed by conventional
netting methods [17, 29].
• Methodology: Water samples were collected from multiple sites and filtered. DNA
was extracted and amplified using primers targeting the 12S rRNA gene, and the
resulting sequences were compared with reference databases [17, 29].
• Outcome: The approach revealed a higher species richness than traditional surveys,
uncovering several rare species and providing critical data for conservation
planning [17, 29].
6.3 Traceability and Food Safety in Global Seafood Markets
Accurate species identification is essential in preventing seafood fraud. In a study
conducted in New York supermarkets, DNA barcoding was applied to fillet samples to
verify species labels [15, 21].
• Methodology: Tissue samples were subjected to DNA extraction and COI sequencing,
and the sequences were compared against the Barcode of Life Database [15, 21].
• Outcome: A significant percentage of samples were mislabelled, prompting
regulatory agencies to adopt stricter traceability measures and raising consumer
awareness regarding seafood authenticity [15, 21].
6.4 Conservation of Endangered Species in Remote Marine Ecosystems
A recent expedition to the Gorringe Ridge—an underwater mountain in the
Atlantic—integrated multiple identification tools to document its unique fish biodiversity
[35].
• Methodology: Researchers deployed acoustic surveys to estimate fish densities,
used underwater cameras for image-based identification, and collected tissue

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samples for DNA barcoding. This multi-pronged approach allowed the team to
capture both large pelagic species and small, cryptic organisms [35].
• Outcome: The expedition provided robust evidence of the region’s rich biodiversity,
supporting proposals to upgrade its protection status within marine conservation
frameworks [35].
7. Data Integration and Discussion
7.1 Synergistic Use of Multiple Tools
The integration of traditional and modern identification techniques creates a robust
framework for fish biodiversity assessment. For example, combining eDNA metabarcoding
with acoustic surveys provides complementary data: molecular techniques capture species
presence, while acoustics supply real-time abundance and distribution information [15, 29,
59]. Likewise, image recognition systems—when paired with expert-verified reference
databases such as FishBase and the Catalog of Fishes—enable rapid, in situ identifications
that bridge the gap between laboratory analyses and field observations [8, 9, 14, 32].
7.2 Challenges and Limitations
Despite the progress made, several challenges remain:
• Data Quality and Completeness: Molecular and image-based methods are only as
reliable as their reference libraries. Gaps in databases (e.g., for cryptic species or
regional variants) can reduce accuracy [26, 27].
• Standardization of Protocols: Variability in sampling, extraction, and amplification
protocols for eDNA can lead to inconsistent results. Continued efforts toward
standardization are needed [15, 29].
• Cost and Accessibility: While some modern tools are becoming increasingly
affordable, high-end acoustic systems and next-generation sequencing facilities
remain costly and may not be readily accessible in developing regions [15, 26, 59].
• Integration of Multimodal Data: Effective decision-making requires seamless
integration of data from multiple sources. Developing user-friendly platforms for
merging molecular, morphological, and acoustic data is an ongoing area of research
[2, 28, 32].
Conclusions:
The rapid evolution of fish identification tools—from traditional morphological
approaches to advanced molecular, imaging, and acoustic techniques—represents a
paradigm shift in biodiversity assessment and fisheries management. Our review has
demonstrated that while classical taxonomic methods remain valuable, their limitations in

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speed, scalability, and sensitivity to cryptic diversity have spurred the development of
modern tools that are more rapid, accurate, and accessible. DNA barcoding and SNP-based
analyses have proved particularly transformative in resolving species boundaries and
verifying product labels in seafood markets [15, 26, 28]. Similarly, deep-learning–based
image recognition systems and digital morphometrics have enabled non-specialists to
achieve high identification accuracy in the field [32, 33]. Acoustic techniques, despite their
high cost and complexity, offer non-invasive means to monitor large-scale fish abundance
and distribution [2, 5, 59].
The integration of these diverse methodologies—coupled with robust online
databases such as FishBase, SeaLifeBase, ITIS, and the Catalog of Fishes—provides a
synergistic framework for comprehensive fish biodiversity assessments. This multimodal
approach not only increases identification accuracy but also enhances our ability to
monitor ecosystem health, enforce fisheries regulations, and combat seafood fraud [8, 9,
11, 14, 15]. Nevertheless, challenges remain. Incomplete reference libraries, variability in
field protocols, and the high capital investment required for certain methods (e.g., acoustic
surveys) are issues that must be addressed through further research and international
collaboration [15, 29, 59].
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38. Froese, R. (2011). The Science in FishBase. In Christensen, V. & Maclean, J. (Eds.),
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39. Robertson, R. (2008). Global Biogeographical Databases on Marine Fishes: Caveat
Emptor. Diversity and Distributions, 14(6), 891–892.
40. Nauen, C. E. (2004). A Public Electronic Archive on the World’s Fishes in Support of
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45. Pauly, D., et al. (1998). Fishing Down Marine Food Webs. Science, 279(5352), 860–
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46. Hilborn, R., & Walters, C. J. (1992). Quantitative Fisheries Stock Assessment: Choice,
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47. FAO. (2018). The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture. FAO.

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48. Myers, R. A., et al. (2007). Cascading Effects of Overfishing Marine Ecosystems.
Nature, 446(7136), 803–806.
49. Costello, C., et al. (2016). Global Fishery Discards: Magnitude, Drivers, and Solutions.
Marine Policy, 74, 54–61.
50. Worm, B., et al. (2006). Impacts of Biodiversity Loss on Ocean Ecosystem Services.
Science, 314(5800), 787–790.
51. Halpern, B. S., et al. (2008). A Global Map of Human Impact on Marine Ecosystems.
Science, 319(5865), 948–952.
52. Zeller, D., et al. (2016). Global Patterns of Marine Debris in Fish Habitats.
Environmental Pollution, 213, 336–345.
53. Jennings, S., et al. (2001). The Impact of Environmental Change on Marine Fish
Distributions. ICES Journal of Marine Science.
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Change. Global Change Biology, 15(8), 1863–1874.
55. Pinsky, M. L., et al. (2013). Marine Taxa Track Local Climate Velocities. Science,
341(6151), 1239–1242.
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from the Brahmaputra River, India.” Journal of Fish Biology

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CONSERVATION AQUACULTURE:
A SUSTAINABLE APPROACH TO AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS
Honey J. Tandel1, H. V. Parmar1 and Pinak K. Bamaniya*2
1Department of Aquaculture,
2Department of Aquatic Environmental Management,
College of Fisheries Science, Kamdhenu University, Veraval, Gujarat 362265, India
*Corresponding author E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract:
In the 21st century, aquaculture is generally characterized as a foe to conservation
efforts. A variety of conservation and restoration tools are essential to protect the structure
and function of aquatic ecosystems. While aquaculture the farming of aquatic organisms
often contributes to the pressures these ecosystems face, it also has the potential to
provide ecological benefits. The analysis identified 12 ecological benefits that aquaculture
can deliver: species recovery, habitat restoration, habitat rehabilitation, habitat protection,
bioremediation, assisted evolution, climate change mitigation, replacement of wild
harvests, coastal defense, control of overabundant species, biological control and ex situ
conservation. However, good intentions alone do not ensure positive ecological outcomes.
Therefore, it is vital to assess aquaculture activities using clear, measurable success
indicators to prevent misuse. As the fastest-growing food industry globally, it is crucial to
align aquaculture practices with conservation goals to ensure that this expansion supports
conservation efforts in the most effective and sustainable manner. Establishing consensus
on goals, terminology, and metrics is critical to aligning aquaculture-environment
interactions with standards in conservation and restoration ecology. Such alignment will
also facilitate the development of certification schemes for ecologically beneficial
aquaculture in the future.
Introduction:
Aquaculture is rapidly evolving into a key sector in the agricultural economy,
propelled by the growing need for affordable, high-quality animal protein, particularly as
the global population continues to rise (Rathore & Swain, 2024). Aquaculture, the
cultivation of aquatic organisms, is a vital component of global food production and
security, with an estimated production of 185 million tonnes in 2022 (FAO, 2024). This
sector continues to grow as one of the fastest-expanding food industries globally, offering
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significant opportunities to align its development with sustainable practices. Conservation

aquaculture, a sub-discipline of aquaculture, focuses on leveraging aquaculture
methodologies to preserve biodiversity, restore ecosystems, and mitigate environmental
degradation. Aquaculture has evolved beyond the farming of aquatic species to encompass
habitat restoration and the protection of vital species and ecosystems. Conservation-
focused aquaculture is not merely a theoretical idea; it is actively being implemented
worldwide. These efforts are primarily at the local scale but sometimes extend to broader,
regional initiatives to improve the health and status of species and ecosystems.
Conservation aquaculture is not merely a production system but a strategic
approach to managing natural resources. It integrates principles of conservation to protect
endangered species, restore habitats, and address biodiversity challenges. This chapter
explores the key dimensions of conservation aquaculture, its goals, outcomes, and its role
in tackling the challenges faced by modern aquaculture. Furthermore, aquaculture has
been, and is expected to continue to be, one of the fastest growing food sectors in the world
(FAO, 2016). Conservationists have the opportunity to steer that growth in the industry
toward sustainable practices that can benefit conservation objectives.
Present Scenario of Aquaculture
The blue revolution in India demonstrated the importance of fisheries and
aquaculture to the development of sector. Aquaculture is one of the fastest-growing sectors
within India's fisheries industry, with an annual growth rate exceeding 7%. Globally,
aquaculture production reached 94.4 million tonnes in 2022, with a per capita
consumption rate of 20.7 kilograms. Despite its growth, the aquaculture industry faces
significant challenges, including environmental pollution, overexploitation of natural
resources, habitat degradation, and biodiversity loss. These challenges highlight the need
for a sustainable approach, where conservation aquaculture emerges as a solution.
Conservation Aquaculture: Definition and Goals
According to Froehlich et al. (2017), “The use of human cultivation of an aquatic
organism for the planned management and protection of a natural resource” it
encompasses techniques aimed at preserving endangered fish populations and their gene
pools while restoring their habitats. It integrates ecosystem-level benefits through
aquaculture-based services, reducing the environmental footprint, including greenhouse
gas emissions.

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Goals of Conservation Aquaculture:

Conservation aquaculture ultimately needs to support the sustainable use (or
recovery) of natural resources, whether through mitigation, prevention, or restoration
measures. How best to achieve goal requires explicit consideration of the scale at which
conservation aquaculture is being pursued. In particular, we explore how conservation
aquaculture can protect,
1. Preservation of specific wild species through hatcheries and habitat restoration.
2. Larger system-level implications through aquaculture-based ecosystem services and
reduction in overall environmental footprint (e.g., greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions)
Scales of Conservation Aquaculture

Figure 1: Conceptual framework of how aquaculture is or can be used for

conservation at a species and ecosystem scale
Conservation aquaculture operates on two primary scales:
1. Species-Level Conservation: Focuses on reducing pressure on wild populations,
enhancing at-risk species, and restoring critical habitats.
2. Ecosystem-Level Conservation: Aims to restore ecosystems by cultivating species
that provide structural or functional benefits to degraded habitats.

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Beneficial Outcomes of Conservation Aquaculture

There are 12 distinct ecologically beneficial outcomes that can be achieved through
aquaculture (Figure 1; Table 1). The outcomes below are also not mutually exclusive; a
single aquaculture activity may deliver several. For example, native shellfish farms
operating in an area where wild counter parts have undergone historical declines may
deliver positive outcomes for species recovery and habitat restoration, especially if the
farmed shellfish carry locally adapted wild-type genes (e.g., Norrie et al., 2020).

Figure 2: Beneficial outcomes that can be achieved through aquaculture

Further, if the area is eutrophic or turbid, filtering and nutrient assimilation by
farmed shellfish can also provide a bioremediation outcome (e.g., Petersen et al., 2014).
Finally, if the shellfish is farmed in an area facing habitat loss due to coastal erosion, wave
attenuation or sediment stabilization is likely to deliver habitat protection and coastal
defense (e.g., Plew et al., 2005). Although this example shows how multiple positive
outcomes can be achieved. Therefore, evaluation of the net benefit of an aquaculture
activity is required.

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Table 1: Summary of the 12 outcomes that can be achieved through ecologically

beneficial aquaculture
Beneficial Aquaculture activities that
Outcome description
outcomes can deliver the outcome
Species recovery Targeted release of a cultivated Use of commercial or
aquatic organism of conservation conservation hatcheries or
concern to recover a lost local nurseries to produce or raise
population. biomass or stock to be released
or reintroduced to a target
area,
Habitat restoration Use of cultivated aquatic species to Reintroduction of a native
substantially or fully restore cultivated species (hatchery-,
structure and function of a nursery-, or research facility-
degraded, damaged, or destroyed produced stock) to an area
habitat where habitat is degraded,
damaged, or previously loss.
Habitat Use of native or non-native Reconciliation ecology
rehabilitation cultured organisms to reinstate techniques, such as introducing
structure or function of an cultured species on existing
ecosystem to achieve partial artificial structures that
recovery, rather than attempting to provide partial recovery of
recreate the biodiversity. ecosystem structure or
function.
Habitat protection Culture of an aquatic organism that Aquaculture and associated
results direct or indirect protection structures that prevent
of a species or the structure of an degradation or protect an
existing habitat of conservation existing habitat or species of
concern. conservation concern.
Bioremediation Use of cultivated aquatic organisms Biological process that uses
to improve or restore the quality of microorganisms to eliminate
a degraded or destroyed the contamination from
ecosystem. aquaculture waste without the
use of harmful chemicals.

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Assisted evolution Use of a selectively bred aquatic Selective breeding programs

organism of conservation concern that can include intraspecific or
with a phenotypic trait that has interspecific hybridization
been selectively bred to improve between different populations
the ability to adapt to a specified to increase tolerance or
stressor. resistance to a pathogen or
changing environmental
conditions
Biological control Release of cultivated aquatic release of cultured predator or
organism into a habitat or natural enemy to control a
ecosystem to control an target pest that has cascading
undesirable (pest) species that has trophic effects
degraded or damaged an (biomanipulation). Release of a
ecosystem cultured vector to enhance
virus or pathogen spread to an
invasive or target species.
Removal of Direct removal of an overabundant Removal of an overabundant
overabundant species from an ecosystem where it species to a level that facilitates
species is then cultured and subsequently return to a previous state as
harvested that removes pressure the system demonstrates
on a degraded, damaged, or hysteresis.
previously lost ecosystem.
Ex situ Culturing of an aquatic organism Captive breeding programs in
conservation outside of its natural range or predator free environments.
habitat where biotic stressors, Insurance population’s zoos,
abiotic stressors, or both are botanical gardens, and
reduced or eliminated aquariums.
Coastal defense Use or culture of an aquatic Aquaculture activity (including
organism that directly or indirectly associated structures; e.g.
protects coastal habitats of Shellfish cultured on long lines
conservation concern by reducing or in baskets) that reduces
abiotic stressors. abiotic stressors (e.g., wave
attenuation) and reduces or
prevents coastal erosion.

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Climate-change Use of cultivated aquatic organisms Use of aquaculture biomass to

mitigation in an ecosystem that can contribute restore aquatic vegetative
to local, regional, or global habitats (e.g., mangrove forests,
mitigation of climate change saltmarshes, sea grass
impacts. meadows) that function as
carbon sinks and enable
subsequent carbon storage.
Wild harvest Culture of an aquatic organism that Wild harvest replaced by
replacement entirely replaces wild harvest and culturing an aquatic species
does not rely on wild stock for
continued culture

Species-Level Conservation in Aquaculture

For a single species, conservation aquaculture can mean protecting wild stocks from
overexploitation, bolstering populations of animals that are vulnerable, or re-establishing
vital habitat. The primary cause of the concurrent rise in the exploitation and harvest of
wild and farmed species for food has been the expansion in human population, wealth and
seafood consumption (FAO, 2016).
Stock enhancement, are among the most prevalent instances of potential
conservation aquaculture (Costa-Pierce, 2008). Many species have been raised in
hatcheries, with the “success” of those species relying on the goals of their initial
management. There is undoubtedly a limit to population supplementation, one that may
even cause unfavourable management effects like overcompensation (Foss-Grant et al.,
2016). Indeed, if management of fishing effort and habitat for wild populations is
disregarded, hatcheries alone will not suffice. In fact, recent studies indicate that hatcheries
may be crucial to improving stocks when paired with habitat restoration (Taylor et al.,
2017).
Key Methods of Species-Level Conservation
1. Captive Breeding and Stock Enhancement
• Aquaculture facilities play a vital role in breeding endangered species in controlled
environments.
• The goal is to maximize genetic diversity, ensuring the resilience of populations
against environmental stressors.

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• For example, programs for the Kootenai River white sturgeon (Acipenser
transmontanus) use hatcheries to raise juveniles for release into the wild, combining
environmental management and harvest regulation.
2. Headstarting Programs
• Subsequent release of captive-raised hatchlings and yearlings had some success;
survival to adulthood was recorded (Bell et al., 2005).
• For instance, green turtles (Chelonia mydas) are reared in hatcheries before release
to mitigate the threats they face, such as predation or habitat loss.
3. Targeted Species Reintroduction
• Species cultivated in hatcheries or nurseries are reintroduced into areas where their
populations have been depleted.
• These efforts often coincide with habitat restoration to ensure the long-term success
of reintroduced populations.
4. Selective Breeding and Assisted Evolution
• Genetic enhancement programs focus on developing traits like disease resistance,
tolerance to environmental stressors, and adaptability to changing climates.
• For example, hybridization between different populations can produce offspring
better equipped to survive in degraded ecosystems.
5. Biological Control and Pest Management
• Cultured species can be released to control invasive or overabundant species that
threaten native biodiversity.
• For example, introducing predators or natural enemies into an ecosystem helps
restore balance without harming native species.
Benefits of Species-Level Conservation
1. Reduction of Pressure on Wild Populations By cultivating aquatic organisms,
aquaculture decreases reliance on wild stocks, allowing these populations to
recover naturally.
2. Preservation of Genetic Diversity Captive breeding programs maintain diverse
gene pools, which are critical for the long-term survival of species in the wild.
3. Support for Endangered Species Programs targeting critically endangered species,
such as the white sturgeon or green turtles; have shown success in stabilizing their
numbers.

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4. Prevention of Extinction Species-level conservation initiatives directly contribute

to preventing the extinction of vulnerable populations through planned
interventions.
Case Studies
1. Green Turtle (Chelonia mydas) Conservation programs in the Cayman Islands
involve the collection of eggs, raising hatchlings in controlled environments, and
releasing them into the wild. These efforts have increased survival rates and
improved population stability.
2. Kootenai River White Sturgeon (Acipenser transmontanus) Conservation
aquaculture techniques like hatchery rearing and habitat restoration have been
pivotal in recovering this endangered population (Schreier et al., 2012).
Challenges in Species-Level Conservation
1. Balancing conservation goals with aquaculture production objectives.
2. Managing the risk of genetic homogenization due to captive breeding.
3. Ensuring that reintroduced species adapt successfully to their natural habitats.
4. Addressing ecological impacts, such as competition with native populations or the
spread of diseases.
Ecosystem-Level Conservation in Aquaculture
Ecosystem-level conservation focuses on restoring, preserving, and enhancing
entire ecosystems to ensure their functionality and resilience. The restoration of native
biogenic habitat through conservation-focused farming is becoming more popular as a
means of achieving advantages at the ecosystem level. Even yet, it might be difficult to
quantify the ecosystem benefits that restoration brings. The enhancement of water quality,
coastal defence, carbon sequestration and vital habitat for wild species can all be achieved
by the cultivation and growth of specific oyster, seaweed, sea grass, and mangrove species.
Key Components of Ecosystem-Level Conservation
1. Habitat Restoration
• Aquaculture aids in rehabilitating habitats like coral reefs, mangroves, seagrass
beds, and oyster reefs, which are vital for biodiversity and ecosystem stability.
• Coral gardening, for instance, involves cultivating coral fragments that are later
transplanted to degraded reefs. This practice enhances reef resilience and supports
marine life.

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2. Bioremediation
• Aquatic organisms such as bivalves, algae, and plants are used to remove pollutants,
excess nutrients, and contaminants from water bodies.
• Phytoremediation (using algae) and mycoremediation (using fungi) are commonly
employed to clean degraded aquatic environments.
4. Assisted Ecosystem Functioning
• Aquaculture can reintroduce species that perform critical ecological functions, even
if they are non-native; to restore balance in degraded ecosystems.
• Example: Oyster reef restoration projects improve water quality and provide habitat
for other marine organisms.
5. Reconciliation Ecology
• Man-made structures like artificial reefs and aquaculture facilities mimic natural
habitats to enhance biodiversity.
• These structures support ecosystem functions, such as providing shelter, breeding
grounds, and feeding areas for aquatic species.
6. Coastal defense
• Cultured organisms can be used to restore or create ecosystems for the purpose of
coastal defense, which are known as living shorelines or nature based coastal
defense (Zhu et al., 2020)
• Target ecosystems that can provide coastal defense or protection include
seagrasses, mangroves, saltmarshes, coral reefs, kelp beds, and shellfish reefs
(Morris et al., 2018).
7. Carbon Sequestration
• Oceans absorb a significant amount of carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere,
acting as a vital carbon sink.
• Phytoplankton, marine plants, and other organisms play a crucial role in this
process through photosynthesis, where they absorb CO2 and release oxygen.
• Tang et al. (2011) estimate that marine culture of harvested molluscs and seaweed
in China remove 0.34–0.88 million tonnes of carbon per year
Benefits of Ecosystem-Level Conservation
1. An enhanced Biodiversity Restoring ecosystem ensures a diverse range of
species can coexist, contributing to ecological stability.
2. Improved Ecosystem Services Healthy ecosystems provide vital services like
nutrient cycling, carbon sequestration, and water purification.

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3. Climate Change Mitigation Restored habitats like mangroves and sea grass beds
act as carbon sinks, helping reduce atmospheric CO2 levels.
4. Protection against Coastal Erosion Aquaculture activities like cultivating shellfish
reduce wave energy and prevent erosion, protecting coastlines and human
settlements.
Case Studies
1. Coral Reef Restoration Coral gardening projects worldwide have successfully used
aquaculture to rehabilitate degraded coral ecosystems, supporting marine
biodiversity and fisheries.
2. Oyster Reef Recovery Hatchery-reared oysters have been used to restore reefs,
improving water quality, enhancing biodiversity, and mitigating biological stressors.
3. Mangrove Rehabilitation Integrated aquaculture-mangrove systems have been
implemented to protect shorelines, support fish populations, and sequester carbon.
Challenges in Ecosystem-Level Conservation
1. High costs and long timelines for ecosystem restoration.
2. Risks of introducing non-native species that may disrupt ecosystems.
3. Need for multidisciplinary approaches involving ecology, engineering, and socio-
economic factors.
4. Monitoring and measuring the success of restoration efforts over time.
Future Use of Aquaculture as a Conservation Tool
Aquaculture holds immense potential as a conservation tool, enabling the
sustainable management of aquatic resources while addressing environmental challenges.
As global biodiversity faces increasing threats from habitat degradation, overexploitation,
and climate change, aquaculture offers innovative solutions to mitigate these impacts and
support the recovery of ecosystems. Below are some key future directions where
aquaculture can play a significant role in conservation.
1. Sustainable Practices: The future of conservation aquaculture relies on ensuring
minimal ecological footprints and avoiding harmful practices like introducing
invasive species or causing genetic homogenization.
2. Policy Integration: Regulations must promote aquaculture systems that align with
conservation goals.
3. Collaboration and Innovation: Scientists, policymakers, and industry stakeholders
must collaborate to develop sustainable technologies and approaches.

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4. Monitoring and Evaluation: Continuous assessment of conservation aquaculture

projects is essential to measure success and address emerging challenges.
5. Smart planning: Aquaculture is certainly not a remedy for all environmental issues,
but with smart planning alongside sustainable measures and regulations,
aquaculture could play a larger role in the future of conservation.
6. Mitigation: Aquaculture will most likely not receive the benefit of the doubt when it
comes to mitigating, instead of causing, impacts. Through collaboration, strategic
planning, and monitoring practices, aquaculture can be used in the service of
conservation, so we can have our aquatic resources and protect the planet too.
7. Carbon sequestration: Integrating aquaculture into climate change mitigation
through carbon sequestration by cultivated algae and mollusks.
Conclusion:
Aquaculture is not a universal solution to environmental challenges, but with smart
planning, it can serve as a powerful tool for conservation. Its future lies in balancing
ecological preservation with sustainable food production. By addressing key conservation
goals such as restoring habitats, protecting biodiversity and mitigating climate change
conservation aquaculture can ensure a harmonious coexistence between human activities
and the natural environment. The rapid expansion of aquaculture has positioned it as a
critical player in global food security and economic development. However, the industry's
challenges necessitate the adoption of conservation aquaculture to ensure sustainable
growth. By leveraging aquaculture's potential to restore habitats, conserve species and
mitigate environmental impacts, we can align this sector with broader conservation
objectives, ensuring the sustainable use and recovery of aquatic resources.
References:
1. Rathor, G. S., & Swain, B. (2024). Advancements in fish vaccination: Current
innovations and future horizons in aquaculture health management. Applied Sciences,
14(13), 5672.
2. FAO (2016). The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture, Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations, Rome.1-200 pp.
3. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (2024). The state of world
fisheries and aquaculture 2024: Sustainability in action. Rome, Italy: FAO.
4. Froehlich, H. E., Gentry, R. R., & Halpern, B. S. (2017). Conservation aqua-culture:
Shifting the narrative and paradigm of aquaculture’s role in resource management.
Biological Conservation, 215, 162–168.

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5. Norrie, C., Dunphy, B., Roughan, M., Weppe, S., & Lundquist, C. (2020). Spill-over from
aquaculture may provide a larval subsidy for the restoration of mussel reefs.
Aquaculture Environment Interactions, 12, 231–249
6. Petersen, J. K., Hasler, B., Timmermann, K., Nielsen, P., Tørring, D. B., Larsen,M. M., &
Holmer, M. (2014). Mussels as a tool for mitigation of nutrients inthe marine
environment. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 82, 137–143
7. Plew, D. R., Stevens, C. L., Spigel, R. H., & Hartstein, N. D. (2005). Hydrody-namic
implications of large offshore mussel farms. IEEE Journal of Oceanic Engineering, 30,
95–108
8. Costa-Pierce, B. A., & Bridger, C. J. (2002). The role of marine aquaculturefacilities as
habitats and ecosystems. In R. R. Stickney & J. P. McVey (Eds.). Responsible marine
aquaculture (pp. 105–144) CABI.
9. Foss-Grant, A., Stephenson, J. F., & Savage, G. (2016). Overcompensation and its
impact on population management. Ecology and Evolution, 6(8), 2434-2443.
10. Taylor, J. E., Smith, R. T., & Johnson, P. M. (2017). Integrating hatchery practices with
habitat restoration to enhance fishery stocks. Fisheries Management and Ecology,
24(4), 356-365.
11. Bell, C. D., Solomon, J. L., Blumenthal, J. M., Austin, T. J., Ebanks-Petrie, G., & Broderick,
A. C. (2005). Dispersal and survival of captive-reared green turtle (Chelonia mydas)
hatchlings in the wild. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 285, 299-304.
12. Schreier, A. D., Mahardja, B., & May, B. (2012). Patterns of population structure vary
across the range of the white sturgeon (Acipenser transmontanus): Implications for
conservation and management. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences,
69(3), 496-509
13. Morris, R. L., Konlechner, T. M., Ghisalberti, M., & Swearer, S. E. (2018). Fromgrey to
green: Efficacy of eco-engineering solutions for nature-based coastaldefence. Global
Change Biology, 24, 1827–1842
14. Zhu, L., Huguenard, K., Zou, Q. P., Fredriksson, D. W., & Xie, D. (2020). Aqua-culture
farms as nature-based coastal protection: Random wave attenuationby suspended
and submerged canopies. Coastal Engineering, 160, 103737
15. Tang, Q., Zhang, J., & Fang, J. (2011). Shellfish and seaweed mariculture increase
atmospheric CO2 absorption by coastal ecosystems. Marine Ecology Progress Series,
424, 97–104.

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STREPTOCOCCUS TOXIC SHOCK SYNDROME

Taruna Vishnudas Nirankari
Vivekanand College, Kolhapur
Corresponding author E-mail: [email protected]

“Streptococcus Toxic Shock Syndrome”

An unparalleled number of cases of Streptococcus toxic shock syndrome [STSS] in
Japan is bringing attention to this mysterious behavior of ‘Strep A bacteria’. This year the
strep A bacteria has crossed all the unusual levels by causing the life-threatening fatal
infections at very high levels.
According to preliminary data from “Center for disease control [CDC]”, U.S
also faced the number of serious Group A strep infections -including STSS by reaching a 20
year high in 2023. This year U.S has recorded 395 cases of STSS, exceeding or surpassing
the last year’s total of 390. Not only U.S but in late 2022, at least five European nations i.e.
U.K, Netherlands, France, Ireland and Sweden reported an increase number of cases of
invasive group A strep infection cases to world health organization [WHO].
Streptococcus toxic shock syndrome [STSS] is rare, life-threatening and fatal
bacterial infection caused by the same bacteria which also causes mild infections like “strep
throat” and “scarlet fever” commonly in children’s. Streptococcus toxic shock syndrome the
name itself indicates is toxin mediated disease which is usually caused by “Streptococcus
pyogenes” also known as Group A bacteria [GAS]. The bacterium causes the disease by
releasing super antigenic toxins in blood streams or deep tissues which leads to the shock.
It is a Gram-positive bacterium which is well characterized by the beta-hemolytic activity
(Complete hemolysis in blood agar culture. Centers of disease control (CDC) in 2010 coined
the definition of STSS as a severe life-threatening condition which is associated with
invasive infections by mainly Group A Streptococcus (S. pyogenes) and less frequently due
to other streptococcal species. GAS has the capacity to penetrate through intact membranes
but they are believed to access into deeper tissues and bloodstream by rupture of an
epithelial tissue.
Occurrence:
This infection can occur to all types of age groups but individuals with higher age
group, the ones having medical conditions like Cancer, diabetes, alcohol disorder, the
individuals that recently had surgery, cuts or wounds on the body are more susceptible to
this infection. It is also to be believed that individuals who recently suffered from viral
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infections like chicken pox or shingles are more susceptible as sores from chickenpox or
shingles contract it and also viruses may make people more vulnerable to infection by
damaging their airways or weakening their immune system. Earlier the women’s using
tampons during their menstrual phase were at the higher risk but now as tampon
manufacturers have made changes in their products which are now Safer to use, the risk
now has reduced.
Epidemiology:
The Group A strep bacteria enter the body through cut or wounds or from the
sores of chickenpox or shingles. But if a patient comes with group A strep in blood, unless
they have wound, we can’t determine how the bacterium entered the body. However, the
infection is not an “airborne” disease unlike the COVID -19, tuberculosis etc. so it cannot
be transmitted by contact, but the infected person can transmit the bacteria causing the
disease through respiratory droplets by coughing, sneezing or even while taking.
Experts think that the surge of this infection is the post pandemic rebound of the
bacterial and viral infections. During pandemic as the person-to-person interaction were
avoided, we wore Masks, made use of sanitizers and took so much of precautions that the
bacteria and virus had very fewer opportunities to spread and cause infections, but now
as the socializing has resumed individuals are more susceptible to the infections. Studies
also suggest that the main surge of this current STSS can be the rise of certain more
virulent strains of strep A. Furthermore, due to quarantine, we stayed at home and were
not in contact to any of the bacteria, so our immunity has lost the ability to respond and
has become weak. As we boost our immunity, with more exposure to the bacteria. i.e.
during pandemic we didn’t build up partial protection against bad strep A infections
which comes from repeated exposure.
This year atleast 1019 cases in Japan of STSS have been recorded already
surpassing the last year’s total 941 which is an alarming clock to other countries. Now the
question arises why only Japan is facing such infections at very high levels. The answer
suggests that the reason may be due weak immune system in Japanese people or the
hygiene importance must have been neglected in Japanese society after strict preventive
measures of pandemic have ended.
Pathogenesis or Pathophysiology
The pathophysiology of STSS is nothing but a complex interplay between host
immune system and pathogen virulence. The two most common genera which are known

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to produce superantigens are Streptococci and staphylococcus. Among Streptococci,

Streptococcus pyogenes (Group A Streptococcus), S. dysgalactiae (Group C Streptococcus)
and S. equis (Group G Streptococcus) can produce exotoxins with super-antigen activity.
Super-antigens are the proteins that have the ability to trigger excessive and non-specific T
cell activation which results in the massive secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines occurs.
The arterial hypotension in patients is observed due to secretion of other mediators that
produces capillary leak. The first streptococcal pyrogenic toxin which appeared to have
super-antigenic activity was described in 1924.
S. pyogenes have been identified to have eleven different Streptococcal Super-
antigens which are also known as Streptococcal pyrogenic enterotoxins, SPE’s. All the
eleven different SPE’S produces same biological effects though they have different protein
amino acid sequence and structure. They are single-chain proteins expressed as precursor
molecules which are then cleaved to release the functional extra cellular toxins. The main
characteristics of super-antigens is their ability to bind to the Major histocompatibility
(MHC) class 2 molecules which are present outside the antigen presenting cell (APC) and to
VB region of the T cell receptor cross-linking those two receptors, bypassing the
conventional mechanism of MHC limited antigen cell activation, monoclonal lymphocyte
activation and triggers the non-specific, polyclonal lymphocyte activation which results in
pro-inflammatory activity, arterial hypotension and organ dysfunction due to shock in
patients. Upto 25% of lymphocyte activation is led by the cross linking of receptors by
super-antigens. Along with super-antigens, S. pyogenes also produces and secretes a wide
variety of exotoxins and enzymes such as hyaluronidase, streptolysins, streptokinase and
DNase such as streptodornase and chemokine protease also toxin molecules that play an
important role in pathogenicity in necrotizing fasciitis and STSS.
Clinical Presentation
Clinical presentation for STSS is described in three phases:
1. 1.The first phase involves the onset of severe hypotension in 24-48 hrs., with a severe
fever, chills, headache, just influenza-like illness. Non-specific digestive symptoms like
nausea, diarrhea, vomiting also may be present in initial phase. Roughly half of the
patient’s involve the alternation of central nervous. Patients in the initial clinical
examination are looked up for the tenderness, swelling, redness, arthritis etc. during
the follow-up which is done for four times a day. Classical symptoms of STSS i.e.
Palmar and plantar desquamation usually occurs after few days of initial symptoms

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but does not occur in all patients. Clinician gets alert for the possibility of STSS when
there’s a variance between the intensity of pain reported by the patient and a normal
or quasi-normal clinical examination. The clinical evidence becomes more obvious as
the illness progresses and when the localization of symptoms is frequently observed.
2. In second phase Patients are thoroughly searched for a Skin lesion which suggest the
entry of GAS, which may be visible in early development of invasive GAS infection,
however in half of the severe infections with STSS, such skin lesions are not found.
Patients have been reported with the pain in the limb, abdomen or the Thorax which
is disproportionate compared to the clinical findings even with deep invasive
infections such as necrotizing fasciitis. At this stage to differentiate between the skin
infection and fasciitis, Computed tomography (CT) or Magnetic resonance imaging
are considered to be very useful.
3. The third phase of clinical presentation is characterized by circulatory shock that can
be sudden and is accompanied by multiple organ failure. Many of the patient’s die
within 24-48 hours of hospitalization despite of aggressive therapy.
Treatment and Prophylaxis:
Treatment includes high dose of intravenous antibiotics like penicillin, amoxicillin
etc., IV fluids, dialysis in case of kidney failure, equipment’s like oxygen cylinder to assist
proper breathing, medications to raise blood pressure and reduce swelling if in case. Also,
as chickenpox and influenza are risk factors, so staying up to date with vaccinations
against varicella zoster virus and influenza can reduce the risk of severe infection.
However early detection can prevent the disease from becoming life threatening. So a
very useful step for primary patient consultations can be done by detection of
streptococcus pyogenes from oropharyngeal swabs which hardly requires 10 minutes
also known as Simple strep A rapid test.
Till now a proper vaccination against STSS has not been introduced but many are in
process. But proper precautions or preventive measures can be taken to reduce the risk of
infection to a greater extent.
Preventive measures include maintaining proper hand hygiene by using proper
effective handwash for washing hands after using washrooms. As Kikuchi a professor in
Japan suggested that many people may carry GAS in their intestine without showing
symptoms and can contaminate their hands through feces and can enter the body while
having food so before and after meals also washing hands appropriately with liquid soap

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and water for at least 20 seconds is necessary or else if washing facilities are not available
at that time washing hands with alcohol is must. Furthermore, while sneezing, coughing
both mouth and nose should be covered with clean napkin or tissue paper every time.
Wound and cuts on the body if can be treated at home should be washed regularly at home
with medications prescribed by doctors and should be covered with waterproof adhesive
dressing unless totally healed or else consulting your nearest doctor for wound treatment
must be done. Maintaining proper effective hygiene is the most essential preventive
measure. Replacing tampons or menstrual cups with sanitary napkins can also be
preventive measure for women’s. Also avoiding the use of items such as eating utensils, and
towels or napkins, cloths of the infected person.
But the story doesn’t end here. Just as every coin has two sides, every problem has a
solution. Recently, a new antibiotic called as GMCIDES has been developed to combat the
infection and can provide better treatment.
References:
1. Burnham, J. P., & Kollef, M. H. (2015). Understanding toxic shock syndrome. Intensive
Care Medicine, 41(9), 1707–1710.
2. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2023, January 24). Clinical guidance for
streptococcal toxic shock syndrome. Group A Strep.
3. Lappin, E., & Ferguson, A. J. (2009). Gram-positive toxic shock syndromes. The Lancet
Infectious Diseases, 9(5), 281–290.
4. Mayo Clinic. (2023, February 6). Toxic shock syndrome: Symptoms & causes.
5. Stevens, D. L. (2018). Streptococcal toxic-shock syndrome: Spectrum of disease,
pathogenesis, and new concepts in treatment. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 1(3), 69–
78.

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IMPACT OF PLANKTONIC POPULATION ON WETLAND ECOSYTEMS OF

GONDIA, DIST. GONDIA (M.S.)
Wasudha J. Meshram
Jagat Arts, Commerce and I. H. P. Science College,
Goregaon -441801, Distt. Gondia (Maharashtra)
Corresponding author E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract:
Studies on the wetlands were made on species composition of phytoplanktons,
zooplanktons of water body from June 2006 to May 2007. Among phytoplanktons,
members of Myxophyceae have shown the dominance over Chlorophyceae and
Bacillariophyceae followed by Euglenophyceae. Among the zooplanktons, rotifers are
formed the dominant on copepods, cladocerans and ostracodes. The plankton has shown
more abundance during summer season and monsoon while least number was recorded
during winter season. The pond water is getting polluted due to inflow of domestic
effluents, apart from pollution, resulting from washing of clothes, vehicles, cattle,
immersion of Idols during certain festivals etc. All these activities are deteriorating the
quality of the water in the lake resulting in the accumulation of the toxic chemicals and
other sludge leading to ecological imbalance. However there is an urgent need of an action
for conservation to reduce pollution level, to avoid ill effects on human and animal health
before it becomes unmanageable.
Plankton:
Plankton have universal occurrence in natural water and play a significant role in
the aquatic ecosystem. The plankton community consists of aquatic organisms those have
little or no resistance to current, living free, floating and suspended in the open or pelagic
waters (Raymond, 1983). Planktons constitute a vital link in the aquatic food chains. While
phytoplankton plays a phenomenal role in the biosynthesis of organic material,
zooplankton, an important component of secondary production, provides a link between
the producers and secondary consumers.
Phytoplankton:
Phytoplankton plays a vital role in nutritional cycle of an aquatic ecosystem. The
maintenance of a healthy aquatic ecosystem depends on the abiotic properties of water and
the biological diversity of the ecosystem. The planktonic study is a very useful tool in
understanding the basic nature and general economy of the lake. (Pawar, et. al, 2006).

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In the present study, Myxophyceae followed by Chlorophyceae followed by

Bacillariophyceae and Euglenophyceae. Sakhare (2006) has reported the abundance of
Chlorophyceae in May with the density of 2008/litre. Myxophyceae Bacillariophyceae have
shown the dominance over Chlorophyceae, Bacillariophyceae and followed by
Euglenophyceae during the summer season. While during winter Chlorophyceae and
Myxophyceae have shown the maximum number and Bacillariophyceae and Euglenophyceae
were recorded minimum in number. Seasonal studies on phytoplankton by (Kadam et al.,
2006) in Masoli reservoir, Parbhani have also recorded maximum phytoplankton during
summer.
Poor plankton population is due to the utilization of the nutrients by the dense
macrophytes. (Sharma et al., 2007) in urban lake system, Udaipur stated that there is an
alarming increase in nitrate and phosphate and phytoplanktons during summer which is
mainly due to release of domestic sewage in lake Pichhola. Among biotic communities
phytoplankton constitute the first stage in tropic level by virtue of their capacity to convert
radiant energy into the biological energy through photosynthesis. Also referred to as
primary productivity, the magnitude of photosynthetic energy fixation depends primarily
on diversity and biomass of phytoplankton. The planktonic photosynthesis plays a key role
in conditioning the microclimate as it helps in regulating the atmospheric level of oxygen
and carbon dioxide.
Apart from primary production, phytoplankton also plays an important role as food
for herbivorous animals. They are also considered as biological indicators of water quality
in pollution studies. To summarize, because of their definite role in cycling of energy and
matter in an ecosystem, evaluation of phytoplankton population in term of their diversity,
density, biomass, spatial and temporal distribution, periodicity and productivity and
population turnover, is of vital significance in the management of an ecosystem. Fishes
consume the phytoplankton, which is found abundantly in ponds, lakes and reservoirs.
Phytoplankton also gives green colour to the water. It is due to the presence of
chlorophyll. Growth and multiplication of phytoplankton is mainly dependent on
temperature, solar illumination and the availability of certain essential nutrient such as
nitrates, silicates and phosphate.
Zooplanktons:
Water bodies which are rich in phytoplankton are also rich in zooplankton diversity
and biomass. (Vijaykumar, 1992) stated that in an aquatic ecosystem, zooplanktons play an
important role not only in converting plant food into animal food but also provide an
important food source for other higher organisms including fish. The zooplankton because

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of their short life period respond quickly, but also because of their small size and often
their great numbers are also useful in determining the origin or recent history of given
water mass. (APHA, 1980). The physical and chemical factors play important role, which
for the most part is responsible for the distribution of the animal life in fresh water habitat.
The seasonal cycle of zooplankton is affected by the size, distribution of algae, bacterial
prey and pressure of predatory fishes. (Kalff, 2002; Chavan et al., 2006).
Zooplankton diversity is one of the most important ecological parameters in water
quality assessment. The zooplankton study has been a fascinating subject for a long time.
Water bodies rich in phytoplankton are also rich in zooplankton diversity and biomass.
Vijaykumar (1999) stated that in an aquatic ecosystem, zooplanktons play an important
role not only in converting plant food into animal food but also provide an important food
source for other higher organisms including fish.
The Zooplankton was represented Rotifera, Cladocera, Copepoda and Ostracoda in
the pond. It was recorded as Rotifera > Copepoda > Cladocera > Ostracoda during study.
(Khare, 2005) in Jagat Sagar Pond, Chhatarpur, has reported the total zooplankton showed
a single peak in the month of April. While lowest during monsoon season. The important
zooplankton recorded were- Brachionus spp., Keratella spp., Daphnia spp., Moina spp.,
Cyclops spp., and Asplanachna spp., etc. He also stated that the population of Rotifers
showed a peak in April. Patil et al. (2008) has reported minimum Cladocerans during
monsoon months and attributed to the low water temperature, dissolved oxygen, turbidity
and transparency play an important role in controlling the diversity and density of
Cladocera. In the present study, the entire three ecosystems have recorded the lowest
number of Ostracodes during the monsoon season and maximum in summer followed by
winter season. These results are supported by Ansari et al. (2007) has reported least
number of total zooplankton.
During summer season high density of rotifers might be due to high temperature
which is suitable for their growth, reproduction and development and availability of
nutrients due to bacterial decomposition. During monsoon season low density of rotifers
may be attributed to dilution effect, cloudy weather and low temperature while during
winter season, it may coincide with a substantial decrease in temperature in the pond.
(Jorge, et al., 2009) reported highest density and diversity of Rotifers during summer
months in Valle de Bravo reservoir, Mexico, due to increase in temperature.
Summary:
During the study, the results revealed well defined seasonal variations. Physico-
chemical parameters such as temperature, dissolved oxygen, total alkalinity and nutrients

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are very much favourable for flora and fauna. The plankton consisted of phytoplankters
and zooplankters. 43 species of phytoplanktons and 24 species of zooplanktons were
recorded. Among the phytoplanktons, the order of dominance is Myxophyceae >
Chlorophyceae > Bacillariophyceae > Euglenophyceae. While among the zooplankton the
order of dominance is Rotifera > Copepoda > Cladocera > Ostracoda.
References:
1. APHA. (1975). Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater (14th
ed.). APHA AWWA WPCF.
2. Ansari, S., & Raja, W. (2007). Zooplankton diversity in freshwater bodies of Aligarh
region, U.P. Limnology Souvenir, World Lake Conference, Jaipur, NSL-2007, 170–175.
3. Chavan, R. J., Mohekar, A. D., & Hiware, C. J. (2006). Ecology and behaviour of
zooplanktons in Manjara Project Reservoir, Beed in Maharashtra. In V. B. Sakhare
(Ed.), Advances in Limnology (pp. 151–162). Daya Publishing House.
4. Goldman, C. R., & Horne, A. J. (1983). Limnology (International student edition).
McGraw-Hill International Book Company.
5. Jakher, G. R., & Rawat, M. (2003). Studies on physico-chemical parameters of a
tropical lake, Jodhpur, Rajasthan, India. Journal of Aquatic Biology, 18(2), 79–83.
6. Jorge, J. C., Sarma, S. S. S., Ibarra, M. M., & Nandini, S. (2009). Seasonal changes in the
rotifer (Rotifera) diversity from a tropical high-altitude reservoir (Valle de Bravo,
Mexico). Journal of Environmental Biology, 30(2), 191–195.
7. Kadam, S. U., & Gayakwad, J. M. (2006). Ichthyofauna of Masoli reservoir, Dist.
Parbhani, M.S.: A study of inland reservoirs fishery in India. Journal of Aquatic Biology,
21(2), 59–61.
8. Khare, P. K. (2005). Physico-chemical characteristics in relation to the abundance of
plankton of Jagat Sagar Pond, Chhatarpur, India. In S. R. Mishra (Ed.), Advances in
Limnology (pp. 162–174). Daya Publishing House.
9. Patil, G. P., Kedar, G. T., & Yeole, S. M. (2008). Zooplankton biodiversity study of two
water bodies in Washim District, M.S. Journal of Aquatic Biology, 23(1), 13–17.
10. Pawar, B. A., & Mane, U. H. (2006). Hydrography of a Sadatpur lake near
Pravaranagar, Ahmadnagar District, M.S. Journal of Aquatic Biology, 21(1), 101–104.
11. Raymond, E. G. (1983). Plankton and productivity in the ocean (2nd ed., Vol. 1).
Pergamon Press.
12. Sarkare, S. (2008). Norms and the conservation of biodiversity. Resonance, Indian
Academy of Sciences, 13(7), 627–637.

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REVOLUTIONIZING THE FIELD OF ZOOLOGY BY

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
Manoj Patidar
Department of Zoology,
PM College of Excellence, Govt. PG College, Khargone
& Govt. College, Manawar, Madhya Pradesh, India
Corresponding author E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract:
The application of artificial intelligence (AI) to zoology has led to revolutionary
developments that are revolutionizing our knowledge of, approach to studying, and
conservation of the animal kingdom. AI-powered tools have greatly improved wildlife
research data gathering, analysis, and interpretation in recent years. Researchers can now
track animal populations, monitor ecosystems, and more accurately predict ecological
changes thanks to machine learning algorithms that can interpret massive volumes of data
from sources like camera traps, drones, and satellites. AI is also transforming our
knowledge of animal behavior by enabling real-time, human-free study of interactions,
movements, and communication patterns. Furthermore, new discoveries in genetic
diversity, species conservation, and evolutionary biology are being made possible by
developments in AI-driven genomic research. Scientists and environmentalists are able to
monitor biodiversity on a never-before-seen scale thanks to the automation of species
identification through picture recognition and sound analysis. AI will be a vital tool in
zoology in the future due to its capacity to reveal hitherto unnoticed patterns, enhance
conservation tactics, and provide answers to the loss of biodiversity.
Keywords: Zoology, Artificial Intelligence, Wildlife, Behavior, Species, Biodiversity
Introduction:
AI is assisting zoologists in gaining new insights that were previously hard or
impossible to obtain, from behavioral research and wildlife conservation to genetic
analysis and species identification [1]. AI-powered cameras and sensors, for example, are
making it possible to track animal movements over large, remote areas without human
intervention. Researchers can now make more precise predictions about animal
populations, behaviors, and ecosystems thanks to machine learning algorithms that are
evaluating enormous datasets, including genetic sequences and environmental variables
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[2]. By giving scientists access to strong tools that enable them to investigate the intricacy
of the animal kingdom in previously unthinkable ways, artificial intelligence is
transforming zoology. AI has the potential to improve our knowledge of animals and
provide fresh answers to problems pertaining to biodiversity preservation and wildlife
conservation as it develops [2].
Zoological research is quickly changing as a result of the incorporation of AI, which
presents previously unheard-of opportunities to tackle persistent problems. Numerous
zoological fields have advanced significantly as a result of AI's vastly superior capacity to
process enormous volumes of data and spot patterns [3]. This covers, among other things,
population estimation, behavior analysis, and species classification. For example, enormous
datasets collected from animal tracking are being successfully analyzed by AI-led
technology, supporting conservation efforts. This proof-of-concept informs next
conservation biology applications and shows how machine learning may be used to analyze
complex ecological data [4].
Although AI has several advantages for zoological study, its capacity to automate
work raises questions about the future of professions in animal science. The article
examines the ways in which AI may supplant certain conventional occupations and offers
solutions for professionals to adjust to this changing environment [5]. The ability to
analyze data, plan studies, and synthesize findings is still distinctively human and
irreplaceable, even when AI can automate some parts of the process. Additionally, the
creation and use of AI tools in zoology need the knowledge of qualified zoologists, opening
up new career paths in data science and AI development within the discipline [5].
AI is transforming research methodologies and simultaneously providing novel
approaches to engage the public with zoological collections and knowledge. Recent projects
illustrate the application of AI in developing interactive experiences, enabling visitors to
"converse" with museum specimens [6]. These initiatives utilize AI's natural language
processing abilities to facilitate informative and captivating interactions, thereby rendering
intricate zoological information more accessible to a broader audience [6]. This strategy for
public engagement holds the promise of cultivating a greater appreciation for zoology and
its critical role in conservation initiatives. The utilization of AI transcends mere species
identification and population assessment [6]. It is increasingly employed to elucidate
intricate biological mechanisms within animal models, which is particularly significant in
domains such as drug discovery, where these models play a vital role in pre-clinical

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investigations. By scrutinizing complex biological datasets, AI can aid researchers in

formulating more effective therapeutic strategies for a range of diseases. Moreover, the
application of AI encompasses various sub-disciplines of zoology, including entomology,
thereby underscoring its extensive relevance within the field [7]. Research institutions are
actively investigating the transformative potential of AI in enhancing their research
methodologies and collections. The successful implementation of AI in zoological studies
requires a robust interdisciplinary framework. It is imperative for zoologists, computer
scientists, and data analysts to collaborate in the design, execution, and interpretation of
AI-enhanced research [8]. Educational institutions are increasingly acknowledging this
necessity by embedding AI into their zoology and related academic programs. For instance,
universities are integrating AI into their curricula for animal science and biology, reflecting
the escalating significance of this technology in the discipline. The incorporation of AI into
zoology represents not merely a technological progression but a profound transformation
in research practices and the dissemination of knowledge [9].
Wildlife Conservation and AI:
AI is significantly reshaping the field of wildlife conservation by providing advanced
solutions to the challenges associated with monitoring and safeguarding animal species.
Conventional conservation techniques typically require extensive fieldwork, including the
manual tracking of animal movements and population counts, which can be both labor-
intensive and challenging in expansive or remote areas [10]. In contrast, AI enhances these
efforts through the deployment of camera traps, drones, and remote sensors that utilize
machine learning algorithms. These technologies facilitate the automatic identification and
tracking of animals, the analysis of their behaviors, and the real-time detection of threats
such as poaching and habitat loss. For instance, AI-driven image recognition systems can
efficiently process thousands of images captured by camera traps to identify various
species, enabling researchers to monitor population dynamics without causing
disturbances to wildlife [11]. Furthermore, AI is instrumental in forecasting animal
migration patterns and evaluating the effects of climate change, thereby empowering
conservationists to take proactive measures in protecting ecosystems. By leveraging AI,
wildlife conservation initiatives are becoming increasingly efficient, precise, and scalable,
ultimately aiding in the global effort to preserve biodiversity [11].

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Animal Behavior Studies and AI:

The utilization of AI transcends mere species identification and population
assessment. It is increasingly employed to elucidate intricate biological mechanisms within
animal models, which is particularly significant in domains such as drug discovery, where
these models play a vital role in pre-clinical investigations [12]. By scrutinizing complex
biological datasets, AI can aid researchers in formulating more effective therapeutic
strategies for a range of diseases. Moreover, the application of AI encompasses various sub-
disciplines of zoology, including entomology, thereby underscoring its extensive relevance
within the field. Research institutions are actively investigating the transformative
potential of AI in enhancing their research methodologies and collections. The successful
implementation of AI in zoological studies requires a robust interdisciplinary framework
[13]. It is imperative for zoologists, computer scientists, and data analysts to collaborate in
the design, execution, and interpretation of AI-enhanced research. Educational institutions
are increasingly acknowledging this necessity by embedding AI into their zoology and
related academic programs. For instance, universities are integrating AI into their curricula
for animal science and biology, reflecting the escalating significance of this technology in
the discipline. The incorporation of AI into zoology represents not merely a technological
progression but a profound transformation in research practices and the dissemination of
knowledge [14].
Genetic Research and AI:
AI is making remarkable progress in the field of genetic research, equipping
scientists with advanced tools to analyze intricate genetic data with unmatched speed and
accuracy. In the realm of zoology, comprehending the genetic composition of various
animal species is essential for investigating evolution, biodiversity, and conservation
efforts. Machine learning algorithms, a subset of AI, are capable of processing extensive
genetic datasets to uncover patterns and relationships that may otherwise remain hidden
[15]. For example, AI is employed to analyze the genomes of endangered species, enabling
researchers to assess genetic diversity, identify mutations, and pinpoint essential survival
traits. In the context of conservation, AI-based tools can facilitate the development of
breeding programs aimed at preserving genetic diversity, thereby mitigating the risks
associated with inbreeding and promoting healthier populations. Furthermore, AI
enhances our understanding of evolutionary connections by comparing genetic sequences
across different species, providing valuable insights into their common ancestry and

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adaptive characteristics [16]. By streamlining and enhancing the analysis of genetic

information, AI is not only expediting genetic research but also playing a crucial role in the
conservation of species and their long-term viability in a rapidly changing environment
[17].
Predicting Ecological Changes and AI:
AI is increasingly recognized as a crucial instrument for forecasting ecological
transformations, enabling researchers to gain deeper insights into and prepare for
alterations in ecosystems driven by factors such as climate change, habitat loss, and species
migration [18]. Through the analysis of extensive datasets—including meteorological
patterns, environmental parameters, and species behavioral data—AI models can predict
potential ecological disturbances with enhanced precision and efficiency compared to
conventional approaches. Machine learning techniques are adept at processing intricate,
multi-dimensional data to uncover latent patterns and trends, such as shifts in species
distributions or the effects of temperature variations on flora and fauna [19]. These
predictive frameworks empower conservationists to make strategic decisions regarding
their initiatives, such as prioritizing the protection of at-risk habitats or identifying regions
likely to become susceptible to invasive species. Additionally, AI can model various
environmental scenarios, offering critical insights into the potential evolution of
ecosystems over time under differing conditions. By leveraging AI for ecological
predictions, researchers and conservationists are better positioned to alleviate adverse
effects and promote the preservation of biodiversity in an era of rapid environmental
change [20].
Robotics and Biomechanics and AI:
AI is significantly contributing to the fields of robotics and biomechanics,
particularly by taking cues from the animal kingdom. Researchers are examining the
movement patterns and environmental interactions of various animals to develop robots
that replicate these biological systems, thereby enhancing their operational efficiency and
functionality [21]. AI algorithms facilitate the analysis of animal biomechanics—such as the
flight of birds, the swimming of fish, and the running of cheetahs—allowing for the
application of these insights in the design of robots that exhibit improved agility, stability,
and energy efficiency. For example, by emulating the swift and adaptable movements of a
cheetah, AI-enhanced robots can reach high velocities while preserving balance and
navigating obstacles effectively [22]. Furthermore, AI plays a crucial role in refining the

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design of prosthetics and exoskeletons by studying how animals adjust to their physical
surroundings, leading to more natural and effective solutions for individuals and animals
facing mobility challenges. Through these advancements, AI is not only deepening our
understanding of animal locomotion but also expanding the potential of robotic
technologies, resulting in innovations that are more adaptive and inspired by biological
principles [22].
Species Identification and AI:
AI is transforming the field of species identification by equipping researchers,
conservationists, and citizen scientists with advanced tools that enhance the accuracy of
animal recognition and classification. Conventional species identification methods often
necessitate specialized knowledge and manual examination, which can be time-consuming
and susceptible to inaccuracies [23]. In contrast, AI technologies, including machine
learning and computer vision, are streamlining this process. For instance, AI can evaluate
images or videos collected in natural settings, identifying distinct characteristics—such as
coloration, dimensions, and morphology—to accurately classify various species. This
capability is particularly beneficial for biodiversity monitoring, as AI can swiftly analyze
extensive datasets obtained from camera traps, smartphones, or drones [24]. Additionally,
AI is employed in audio recognition systems, enabling the classification of animal calls or
vocalizations to determine species based on auditory signals. This technological
advancement not only accelerates the identification process but also enhances accessibility,
empowering non-experts to engage in species identification. The improved efficiency in
species identification bolsters wildlife conservation initiatives, aids in tracking endangered
species, and enriches biodiversity research, ultimately fostering a deeper understanding
and safeguarding of the natural environment [25].
Integration of AI into Zoology: Limitations and Challenges
The incorporation of artificial intelligence into the field of zoology opens up a range
of promising opportunities; however, it also introduces various limitations and challenges
that must be addressed. A significant challenge is the quality and accessibility of data. AI
systems depend on extensive and precise datasets to operate effectively, yet in wildlife
research, the collection of comprehensive data can be particularly challenging, especially in
remote or hard-to-reach environments [26]. Incomplete or biased datasets can result in
erroneous predictions, highlighting the necessity for datasets that are both diverse and
representative of different species and habitats. Another limitation pertains to the

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interpretability of numerous AI models. Many algorithms, especially those based on deep

learning, function as "black boxes," rendering their decision-making processes opaque [27].
In the context of zoology, comprehending the rationale behind AI predictions is vital for
researchers, especially when making critical decisions regarding conservation strategies or
species protection. Additionally, bias remains a significant concern, as AI models may
mirror the biases present in their training data, which can lead to misidentifications or
overlooked patterns in species behavior or distribution. Moreover, the deployment of AI in
zoology frequently necessitates considerable technical expertise and computational
resources, which may not be readily available to all researchers, particularly in settings
with limited resources. Ethical considerations, such as the potential disruption of wildlife
habitats due to AI-driven monitoring tools, must also be thoughtfully evaluated. In
conclusion, while artificial intelligence holds remarkable potential within zoology, it is
imperative to address these limitations and challenges to ensure its responsible and
effective use in animal research and conservation efforts [28].
Conclusion and Future Perspective:
The incorporation of artificial intelligence into the field of zoology has already
demonstrated significant transformative potential, offering advanced methodologies for
wildlife conservation, behavioral analysis, genetic studies, and beyond [29]. By improving
the processes of data collection, analysis, and predictive modeling, AI is enabling
researchers to gain novel insights into animal behavior and optimize conservation
strategies. Nevertheless, issues such as data integrity, the interpretability of models, and
ethical implications persist, underscoring the necessity for continuous improvement in the
application of AI technologies. Looking ahead, the prospects for AI in zoology are
substantial [30]. As machine learning techniques advance and the availability of high-
quality datasets expands, AI is poised to enhance capabilities in ecosystem monitoring, the
protection of endangered species, and the forecasting of climate change effects.
Furthermore, with progress in AI transparency and the establishment of ethical
frameworks, scientists will be better prepared to navigate potential challenges. The
intersection of zoology and AI holds great promise, presenting opportunities to enrich our
comprehension of animal life and bolster global biodiversity conservation efforts. Through
sustained research and responsible application, AI is set to play a crucial role in the
evolution of zoological studies.

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Acknowledgment:
The author acknowledges the Department of Higher Education, Govt. of Madhya
Pradesh, Principal, and IQAC head, PMCoE Govt PG College Khargone and Govt. College
Manawar.
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Taxonomic Identification of Insects with Expert-Level Accuracy Using Effective
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10.36344/ccijmb.2024.v06i06.003.
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Okedoyin DO, Ugwu C, Oladapo IP, Gbadegoye JO, Akande QA, Babawale P, Rostami S
and Soetan KO (2024) The potential application of artificial intelligence in veterinary
clinical practice and biomedical research. Front. Vet. Sci. 11:1347550.

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CLIMATE CHANGE AND ITS IMPACT ON WILDLIFE

Kamran Abbas Mirza
Department of Zoology,
G.M. Momin Women’s College, Bhiwandi, Dist. Thane-421302, Maharashtra, India.
Corresponding author E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract:
Climate change has become one of the most pressing global environmental
challenges, impacting ecosystems and wildlife across the world. Rising temperatures,
changing precipitation patterns, habitat destruction, and increasing frequency of extreme
weather events threaten biodiversity at an unprecedented scale. This chapter explores the
various facets of climate change and its direct and indirect effects on wildlife, focusing on
global and Indian contexts. Case studies illustrate the severity of impacts, and potential
strategies for mitigation and adaptation are discussed.
Keywords: Climate Change, Biodiversity Loss, Wildlife Conservation, Habitat Destruction,
Adaptation Strategies, Mitigation Measures, Global Warming, India, Ecosystem Resilience.
Introduction:
Climate change refers to long-term alterations in temperature, precipitation, wind
patterns, and other elements of the Earth's climate system. These changes can occur
naturally or be driven by human activities, primarily through the release of greenhouse
gases (GHGs). These changes disrupt ecological balance, posing significant threats to
wildlife by altering their habitats, food sources, and migration patterns. This chapter aims
to examine how climate change affects wildlife globally and within India, highlighting case
studies and exploring effective management strategies to mitigate its impacts.
Causes of Climate Change
Climate change is driven by both natural and anthropogenic (human-induced)
factors.
A. Natural Causes:
1. Volcanic Activity: Volcanic activity refers to the eruption of molten rock (lava), gases,
and ash from beneath the Earth's crust. It has significant effects on the environment,
including wildlife and ecosystems. Large volcanic eruptions release aerosols and carbon
dioxide (CO₂) into the atmosphere, temporarily cooling or warming the climate.

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2. Solar Radiation Variability: Changes in the sun's energy output can affect Earth's
climate, though the impact is relatively minor compared to human-induced changes.
However, the effects of solar changes are still significant in certain contexts:
• Short-Term Variability: Changes in solar radiation over the 11-year solar cycle can
lead to slight temperature fluctuations on Earth. When solar activity is higher, the
Earth may experience a small warming, while a solar minimum can cause slight
cooling.
• Long-Term Climate Change: Over longer periods (centuries to millennia),
variations in solar radiation can have a more pronounced effect on Earth's climate.
For example, during periods of low solar activity (such as the Maunder Minimum
between 1645 and 1715), the Earth experienced cooler temperatures, contributing
to the Little Ice Age.
• Impact on Weather Patterns: Variations in solar radiation can also influence
weather patterns. For example, increased solar radiation may contribute to shifts in
atmospheric circulation, affecting precipitation and storm patterns.
3. Ocean Currents: Variations in oceanic circulation patterns, such as El Niño and La Niña,
influence regional and global climates. Ocean currents, such as El Niño and La Niña, are
variations in oceanic circulation that significantly impact global and regional climates.
• El Niño refers to a periodic warming of sea surface temperatures in the central and
eastern Pacific Ocean, leading to changes in weather patterns like warmer
temperatures, droughts, and altered precipitation in various parts of the world.
• La Niña is the opposite, characterized by cooler-than-average sea surface
temperatures in the Pacific, typically bringing cooler, wetter conditions to certain
regions and droughts to others.
Both phenomena disrupt typical ocean circulation and atmospheric patterns,
influencing weather, agriculture, and ecosystems globally.
4. Earth's Orbital Changes: Long-term shifts in Earth's orbit and axial tilt, known as
Milankovitch cycles, impact climate over thousands of years.
B. Human-Induced Causes:
1. Burning Fossil fuels:
The combustion of coal, oil, and natural gas for energy is a major source of
greenhouse gas emissions. When these fuels are burned, carbon dioxide (CO₂) is released
into the atmosphere, along with methane (CH₄) from natural gas leaks. Both gases are

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significant contributors to the greenhouse effect, trapping heat in the atmosphere and
leading to global warming.
2. Deforestation:
Cutting down forests for agriculture, urban development, or logging reduces the
planet's ability to absorb CO₂. Trees naturally capture carbon through photosynthesis, so
when forests are cleared, this carbon is released back into the atmosphere, further
increasing the levels of greenhouse gases and accelerating climate change.
3. Industrial Processes:
Manufacturing industries, especially in the chemical, cement, and metal sectors,
release various greenhouse gases, including potent fluorinated gases (e.g.,
hydrofluorocarbons or HFCs). These gases have a much higher global warming potential
than CO₂, contributing significantly to global temperature rise. Additionally, processes like
cement production release CO₂ directly from raw materials.
4. Agricultural practices:
Agriculture, particularly livestock farming, is a major source of methane emissions.
Livestock such as cows produce methane through digestion (enteric fermentation).
Furthermore, the use of synthetic fertilizers in crop production leads to the release of
nitrous oxide (N₂O), another potent greenhouse gas that can remain in the atmosphere for
a long time, trapping heat.
5. Urbanization:
As cities grow, they consume more energy for transportation, heating, and cooling,
which often comes from fossil fuels. This increases CO₂ emissions. Urban areas also create
localized warming effects, known as the "urban heat island" effect, where cities become
significantly warmer than surrounding rural areas due to dense infrastructure and human
activity. Additionally, cities tend to produce large amounts of waste, which can release
methane when it decomposes in landfills.
The Greenhouse Effect:
The greenhouse effect is a natural phenomenon that makes Earth habitable by
trapping heat from the sun within the atmosphere. However, human activities have
intensified this effect, leading to an enhanced greenhouse effect, and rising global
temperatures. Major greenhouse gases include:
• Carbon Dioxide (CO₂): Produced by burning fossil fuels and deforestation.
• Methane (CH₄): Released by agriculture, landfill sites, and fossil fuel extraction.

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• Nitrous Oxide (N₂O): Emitted from fertilizers and industrial activities.

• Fluorinated Gases: Industrial by-products with high global warming potential.
Evidence of Climate Change:
1. Rising Global temperatures:
Over the past century, Earth’s average surface temperature has risen by
approximately 1.1°C (2°F). This rise is primarily due to increased concentrations of
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, which trap heat. This warming is not uniform across
the planet, with the most significant increases seen in the polar regions, leading to various
environmental changes.
2. Melting Ice Caps and Glaciers:
Arctic sea ice, Antarctic ice sheets, and glaciers around the world are melting at
rates faster than ever recorded. The Arctic, in particular, is warming more rapidly than
other regions, a phenomenon known as "Arctic amplification." As ice melts, it reduces the
Earth's albedo (the ability to reflect sunlight), leading to further warming. This ice loss also
contributes to rising sea levels and alters ecosystems dependent on ice-covered
environments.
3. Sea Level Rise:
Rising global temperatures contribute to two primary factors driving sea level rise:
melting ice and the thermal expansion of seawater. As the planet warms, ice melts into the
ocean, adding more water, while seawater expands as it heats up. Since 1880, global sea
levels have risen by about 8 inches (20 cm), which threatens low-lying coastal areas and
islands, increasing the risk of flooding and erosion.
4. Extreme weather events:
The frequency and severity of extreme weather events, such as hurricanes,
heatwaves, droughts, and heavy rainfall, have intensified due to climate change. Warmer
air holds more moisture, leading to stronger and more frequent rainfall events, while rising
temperatures contribute to more intense heatwaves. These events are now more
unpredictable and devastating, impacting ecosystems, agriculture, and human
infrastructure.
5. Ocean Acidification:
The oceans absorb about a quarter of the CO₂ emitted into the atmosphere, leading
to a chemical reaction that lowers the water's pH, a process known as ocean acidification.
This harms marine life, particularly organisms with calcium carbonate shells or skeletons,

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such as corals, shellfish, and plankton, which are essential parts of marine food webs. As
acidity increases, marine ecosystems become less resilient, impacting biodiversity and
fisheries.
6. Shifts in Ecosystem:
Climate change has triggered observable shifts in ecosystems across the globe. For
example, seasonal patterns are changing, with earlier springs, longer summers, and altered
growing seasons. Migratory species are changing their routes or timing, and some animals
are moving to higher altitudes or latitudes in search of cooler habitats. These shifts disrupt
ecosystems, food chains, and human livelihoods, particularly in agriculture and fishing
communities.
Impacts of Climate Change:
The effects of climate change are far-reaching and affect the environment, economy,
and society in profound ways:
1. Environmental Impacts:
a. Loss of Biodiversity: Ecosystems face stress due to changing temperatures and
habitat destruction.
b. Desertification: Prolonged droughts are turning fertile lands into deserts,
threatening food security.
c. Oceanic Changes: Coral bleaching, marine species migration, and altered fish
populations are consequences of warming oceans.
2. Economic Impacts:
a. Agricultural Disruptions: Changes in growing seasons and crop yields affect food
supply chains.
b. Infrastructure Damage: Extreme weather events cause costly damages to roads,
buildings, and utilities.
c. Energy Demand: Rising temperatures increase demand for cooling, straining
power grids.
3. Social and Health Impacts:
a. Climate Refugees: Rising sea levels and natural disasters force millions to relocate.
b. Public Health Issues: Heatwaves, poor air quality, and the spread of vector-borne
diseases increase health risks.
c. Water Scarcity: Droughts and glacial melt reduce freshwater availability.

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Climate Change and Wildlife

Climate change poses significant threats to wildlife by altering habitats, food
sources, and migration patterns. Some of the key impacts include:
1. Rising Temperatures
• Impact on Metabolism, Reproduction, and Survival: Many species are highly
sensitive to temperature changes, which can affect their metabolic processes,
reproduction cycles, and overall survival. For example, amphibians, which rely on
specific temperature ranges for breeding, may face disruptions in reproductive
timing, leading to population declines. Similarly, certain species' growth rates and
feeding behaviors may be impacted, reducing their chances of survival.
• Struggling to Adapt: Species that are adapted to temperature ranges, such as those
in polar regions or high-altitude environments, may find it difficult to survive as
temperatures rise. These species might be forced to migrate or face extinction if
suitable habitats are no longer available.
2. Changes in Migration Patterns
• Shifts in Timing and Routes: Many migratory species, including birds, fish, and
mammals, depend on seasonal cues for their migration, breeding, and feeding. As
seasonal temperatures change, the timing of migration and food availability are
disrupted. For example, birds that migrate in search of food may arrive at their
breeding grounds when conditions are no longer suitable.
• Food Shortages and Population Declines: Disruptions in migration patterns can
lead to mismatches in food availability, which in turn can result in malnutrition,
reduced reproductive success, and declining populations. Animals that rely on
seasonal food sources may not find enough to sustain themselves or their offspring.
3. Increased Natural Disasters
• Destruction of Habitats and Food Sources: Extreme weather events, such as
hurricanes, droughts, and wildfires, have become more frequent and intense due to
climate change. These events can destroy vital habitats and food sources for wildlife.
For example, wildfires can decimate forests, leading to habitat loss for species like
deer, birds, and small mammals.
• Adaptation Challenges: Wildlife often struggles to adapt to these rapid and
extreme environmental changes. Species may not have enough time to relocate or
evolve in response to the altered conditions, leaving them vulnerable to extinction.

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4. Ocean Acidification
• Impact on Marine Species: The ocean absorbs a significant amount of CO₂ from the
atmosphere, leading to ocean acidification. This lowers the pH of seawater, which
can harm marine organisms, particularly those with calcium carbonate shells or
skeletons, such as corals, shellfish, and plankton.
• Disruption of Marine Ecosystems: Marine ecosystems rely on coral reefs, shellfish,
and plankton as essential parts of the food chain. As ocean acidification damages
these organisms, the entire marine food web faces major disruptions, affecting fish
populations, seabirds, and even humans who rely on these resources for food.
5. Disease and Pests
• Expansion of Diseases and Pests: Warmer climates create more favorable
conditions for disease-carrying organisms like mosquitoes and ticks, as well as
invasive pests. These can carry new pathogens to wildlife populations, exposing
species to diseases they have never encountered before.
• Vulnerability of Wildlife: Many wildlife species lack natural immunity to these
emerging pathogens, leading to population declines. For instance, diseases such as
chytridiomycosis in amphibians and white-nose syndrome in bats have devastated
certain species. Additionally, pests like ticks can spread diseases such as Lyme
disease to mammals.
6. Invasive Species
• Opportunities for Invasive Species: As the climate shifts, ecosystems become
more vulnerable to invasive species. These species, which thrive in disturbed or
altered environments, can outcompete native wildlife for resources, space, and food.
Invasive species like the Burmese python in the Florida Everglades or European red
foxes in Australia can severely disrupt local biodiversity.
• Alteration of Ecosystem Balance: Invasive species can alter ecosystem dynamics,
such as predation and competition, leading to imbalances. Native species that are
not adapted to these newcomers may be pushed to extinction or suffer significant
population declines.
7. Habitat Loss
• Shifting Ecosystems: Rising temperatures and changing precipitation patterns
affect ecosystems like forests, wetlands, and coral reefs. As these ecosystems
change, wildlife may be forced to relocate or adapt to new environments. Species

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that cannot migrate or adjust may face extinction. For instance, mountain species
might not have higher elevations to move to as temperatures rise.
• Impact on Biodiversity: Habitat loss due to climate change not only directly affects
species but can also lead to a loss of biodiversity. The shrinking of key habitats like
wetlands, forests, and coral reefs can result in the decline of numerous species that
rely on these ecosystems for food, shelter, and breeding.
8. Food Chain Disruptions
• Shifts in Temperature and Precipitation: Climate change alters the availability of
food sources across ecosystems. For example, temperature changes in freshwater
habitats can impact the life cycles of aquatic insects, which in turn affects the
animals that feed on them. Changes in precipitation patterns can also disrupt the
growth of plants, reducing food availability for herbivores.
• Cascading Effects: These disruptions can have cascading effects on entire
ecosystems. For example, the decline of primary producers like plants and plankton
can affect herbivores, which are food for carnivores. This ripple effect can lead to a
collapse of local ecosystems and a reduction in biodiversity.
Case Studies:
A. Global Case Studies
1. Polar Bears in the Arctic
• Impact: Polar bears rely on sea ice to hunt for seals, their primary food source.
Rising global temperatures are causing the Arctic ice to melt at unprecedented rates,
leaving polar bears with less access to hunting grounds.
• Consequences: As the sea ice melts, polar bears are forced to travel farther to find
food, increasing their energy expenditure. Some bears may even have to swim
longer distances, putting them at risk of exhaustion or drowning. The lack of food
has led to lower birth rates and declining populations, making polar bears a
vulnerable species in the face of climate change.
2. Great Barrier Reef (Australia)
• Impact: Rising sea temperatures and increased CO₂ levels are causing coral
bleaching, a phenomenon where corals expel the algae that provide them with
nutrients and color. Without these algae, corals lose their vibrant color and become
more susceptible to disease and death.

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• Consequences: Coral reefs are critical ecosystems that support a vast array of
marine species. The bleaching of the Great Barrier Reef leads to the loss of habitats
for thousands of marine organisms, including fish, invertebrates, and sea turtles. As
the reef deteriorates, marine biodiversity is severely impacted, disrupting food
chains and the livelihoods of local communities who depend on the reef for tourism
and fishing.
3. Amazon Rainforest (South America)
• Impact: Climate change has led to increased frequency and intensity of droughts in
the Amazon, as well as more frequent forest fires. The combination of rising
temperatures and changing rainfall patterns has made the rainforest more
susceptible to fires, which are often exacerbated by human activity.
• Consequences: Forest fires and droughts result in large-scale deforestation,
damaging critical habitats for countless species, including jaguars, monkeys, and
various bird species. As the rainforest is destroyed, biodiversity declines, and the
ecosystem’s ability to act as a carbon sink (absorbing CO₂ from the atmosphere) is
diminished, contributing to further climate change.
4. Monarch Butterflies (North America)
• Impact: Monarch butterflies migrate thousands of miles from North America to
central Mexico for the winter. Temperature fluctuations and changes in weather
patterns have disrupted their migration, particularly through alterations in the
timing of seasonal events like the blooming of flowers (their primary food source)
and the cooling of habitats in Mexico.
• Consequences: These disruptions can lead to reduced survival rates of monarch
butterflies. If the timing of migration is misaligned with the availability of food
sources or the conditions in their wintering grounds, populations may decline. The
monarch butterfly is considered a species at risk due to the combination of habitat
loss and climate change impacts.
5. African Savannas (Africa)
• Impact: Climate change is altering rainfall patterns in the African savannas, making
some regions wetter and others drier. These shifts are affecting the availability of
food and water, crucial resources for large herbivores like elephants, giraffes, and
zebras, as well as the carnivores like lions that depend on them.

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• Consequences: A decline in rainfall leads to droughts, which can result in food

scarcity for both herbivores and predators. In some areas, waterholes are drying up,
exacerbating the difficulty for wildlife to find water. As a result, populations of large
mammals are declining, and ecosystems are becoming less stable, threatening the
biodiversity of the savanna.
Each of these examples demonstrates how climate change disrupts the delicate
balance of ecosystems, affecting not only individual species but entire food webs and
habitats. Immediate action to mitigate climate change is crucial to preserving these vital
ecosystems and the wildlife that depend on them.
B. Indian Case Studies
1. Himalayan Biodiversity
• Impact: The retreat of glaciers in the Himalayas, driven by rising temperatures,
affects the availability of freshwater. These glaciers feed major rivers like the
Ganges, Indus, and Brahmaputra, which are critical for the region's water supply.
• Consequences: Changes in water flow impact local ecosystems, particularly the
alpine species that rely on stable water sources. As the glaciers retreat and rivers
change their flow patterns, the distribution of these species shifts, disrupting local
biodiversity. Some species may struggle to survive if their habitats become drier or
more unpredictable, leading to declines in certain populations.
2. Sundarbans Mangroves
• Impact: The Sundarbans, a vital mangrove forest region located in India and
Bangladesh, is being affected by rising sea levels. This causes coastal erosion and
saltwater intrusion, which disrupts the delicate balance of the mangrove ecosystem.
• Consequences: The loss of mangrove habitat due to rising seas leads to an increase
in human-wildlife conflict, especially in areas where people rely on the land for
resources. Additionally, the Sundarbans are home to the endangered Bengal tiger,
and the encroachment of human settlements, along with habitat loss, has
contributed to a decline in tiger populations. These tigers are now forced into closer
contact with humans, often resulting in conflict and further population pressures.
3. Western Ghats
• Impact: The Western Ghats, one of the world's most biodiverse regions, is facing
rising temperatures due to climate change. This affects the delicate ecosystems and
species that are uniquely adapted to the region's specific climate.

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• Consequences: As temperatures rise, the distribution of many endemic species is

shifting. Species that thrive in cooler, higher elevations are being pushed to higher
altitudes, while others may struggle to survive as their habitats change. This leads to
ecological imbalances, as species that once coexisted in specific niches are now
competing for resources in altered environments, putting stress on the ecosystem.
4. Indian Ocean Marine Life
• Impact: The Indian Ocean is facing both coral bleaching and ocean acidification due
to rising sea temperatures and increased CO₂ absorption. Coral reefs, which are
sensitive to temperature changes, are being damaged, leading to widespread
bleaching.
• Consequences: Coral reefs are vital for marine biodiversity, serving as habitats for
fish, invertebrates, and other marine life. The loss of these habitats leads to declines
in fish stocks, which many coastal communities depend on for food and income.
Additionally, ocean acidification harms marine life that relies on calcium carbonate
to form shells, further disrupting marine ecosystems and threatening fish and
shellfish populations.
5. Ranthambore Tiger Reserve
• Impact: The Ranthambore Tiger Reserve, a key wildlife sanctuary in India, is being
affected by shifting rainfall patterns due to climate change. Erratic rainfall can lead
to droughts or floods, disrupting the availability of prey species for tigers.
• Consequences: As prey populations, such as deer and wild boar, become less
predictable or decrease in number, tigers may find it harder to find food. This, in
turn, forces tigers into closer proximity to human settlements in search of food,
leading to increased human-wildlife conflict. As tigers venture into villages or farms,
the risks of poaching and retaliation grow, further endangering their population.
These ecosystems and species are just a few examples of how climate change is not
only affecting the environment but also the delicate balance of biodiversity. The
consequences of these changes are widespread, from increased human-wildlife conflicts to
severe disruptions in food chains, highlighting the urgent need for action to mitigate
climate change and protect these vital habitats and species.

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Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies

A. Mitigation:
Mitigation efforts aim to slow down global warming by reducing or preventing the
emission of greenhouse gases (GHGs) into the atmosphere. These actions focus on
addressing the root causes of climate change.
1. Transition to renewable energy:
Moving away from fossil fuels like coal, oil, and natural gas is crucial to reducing
carbon emissions. Renewable energy sources such as solar, wind, and hydropower produce
electricity without emitting CO₂ or other greenhouse gases. Investing in renewable energy
infrastructure is essential for long-term sustainability and reducing dependence on fossil
fuels.
2. Energy Efficiency:
Improving energy efficiency means using less energy to perform the same tasks.
This can be achieved in transportation, buildings, and industries. For instance, better
insulation in buildings reduces the need for heating and cooling, and more efficient engines
and vehicles reduce fuel consumption. This not only saves energy but also reduces the
environmental impact of energy use.
3. Reforestation and Afforestation:
Forests play a critical role in carbon sequestration, meaning they absorb CO₂ from
the atmosphere. Reforestation (restoring forests that were previously cleared) and
afforestation (planting new forests in areas where there were none) can significantly
increase the global capacity to absorb carbon and help mitigate climate change. These
activities also restore habitats for wildlife and improve biodiversity.
4. Carbon Capture and Storage:
CCS is a technology designed to capture carbon dioxide emissions from power
plants and other industrial processes before they can enter the atmosphere. The captured
CO₂ is then transported and stored underground or in other secure locations. This
technology holds great potential for reducing emissions from sectors that are difficult to
decarbonize, like heavy industry.
5. Sustainable Transportation:
The transportation sector is a major contributor to greenhouse gas emissions,
particularly through the burning of fossil fuels. Moving towards electric vehicles (EVs),
promoting public transit, and encouraging non-motorized transport like biking and

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walking can reduce the demand for fossil fuels and lower emissions. Investing in EV
infrastructure and expanding public transit networks are essential for shifting to more
sustainable transportation systems.
B. Adaptation: Adjusting to Climate Change Impacts
While mitigation addresses the cause of climate change, adaptation focuses on
preparing for and responding to the effects of climate change that are already happening or
are inevitable. Adaptation helps reduce vulnerability and increase resilience to climate
impacts.
1. Resilient Infrastructure:
As extreme weather events like hurricanes, floods, and heatwaves become more
frequent, it is essential to design buildings, transportation systems, and critical
infrastructure that can withstand such events. This might include building flood-resistant
structures, improving drainage systems, and using materials that can endure higher
temperatures. Adaptation in infrastructure ensures communities remain functional and
safe in the face of climate extremes.
2. Water Management:
Changes in rainfall patterns, droughts, and floods can strain water resources.
Effective water management strategies—such as conservation, efficient irrigation
techniques, and rainwater harvesting—can help ensure that water is used efficiently and
sustainably. These practices are particularly important in agriculture and urban areas that
face water scarcity or floods due to changing climate patterns.
3. Climate- Resilient Agriculture:
Agriculture is highly sensitive to climate change, with shifting weather patterns
affecting crop yields. To adapt, it is necessary to develop drought-resistant crops, improve
irrigation methods, and adopt sustainable farming practices. This could include rotating
crops, using organic fertilizers, or incorporating agroforestry techniques that help conserve
soil and water. Climate-resilient agriculture helps ensure food security in the face of
changing weather conditions.
4. Disaster Preparedness:
Preparing for extreme weather events and disasters is critical to minimizing their
impact. Early warning systems that can predict hurricanes, floods, or heatwaves allow
communities to evacuate or take preventive measures in advance. Additionally, having
emergency response plans in place ensures that resources can be quickly mobilized to

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assist affected populations. Disaster preparedness also includes the training of local
communities to respond effectively to emergencies and build resilience to future events.
Mitigation and adaptation are complementary strategies that together form a
comprehensive approach to addressing climate change. Mitigation efforts work to slow or
reverse the rate of climate change by addressing its causes, while adaptation strategies
help societies cope with the changes that are already underway or anticipated. Combining
both strategies is essential for building a sustainable, resilient future in the face of climate
challenges.
Efforts to combat climate change focus on two key strategies: mitigation and
adaptation.
International Efforts to Combat Climate Change:
Governments, organizations, and individuals worldwide have taken initiatives to
address climate change:
• Paris Agreement (2015): A global commitment to limit temperature rise to well
below 2°C, with efforts to keep it to 1.5°C.
• Kyoto Protocol (1997): Set binding targets for industrialized nations to reduce
emissions.
• United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC): Provides
a framework for international cooperation.
• Sustainable Development Goals (SDG 13): Calls for urgent action to combat
climate change and its impacts.
Role of Individuals in Combating Climate Change:
While governments and industries play a critical role, individuals can also
contribute to climate action:
• Reducing energy consumption by using energy-efficient appliances.
• Supporting sustainable products and reducing waste.
• Advocating for climate-friendly policies and awareness.
• Adopting plant-based diets to lower carbon footprints.
• Using public transportation, cycling, or walking to reduce emissions.
Challenges and Future Outlook
Despite global efforts, challenges remain in combating climate change:
• Political and Economic Barriers: Resistance from industries and governments
prioritizing economic growth over sustainability.

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• Technological Gaps: Developing affordable and scalable clean technologies.

• Global Cooperation: Ensuring all nations, especially developing countries,
participate effectively.
If action is not taken promptly, the consequences will be severe, leading to further
environmental degradation, economic instability, and social disruptions. However, with
decisive action and collective effort, a sustainable future is possible.
Conclusion:
Climate change is a critical global challenge that poses severe threats to wildlife and
biodiversity, both globally and in India. Rising temperatures, changing weather patterns,
and habitat loss are pushing species to the brink of extinction and disrupting fragile
ecosystems. To combat this, urgent and sustained action is needed—through effective
conservation strategies, supportive policies, and active community involvement. By
embracing a comprehensive approach to wildlife conservation and climate adaptation, we
can enhance the resilience of ecosystems and ensure the long-term survival of diverse
species. The time to act is now, as every effort counts in safeguarding a balanced and
sustainable planet for generations to come.
References:
1. IPCC (2021). Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Cambridge University
Press.
2. WWF (2020). Living Planet Report 2020: Bending the Curve of Biodiversity Loss.
3. NASA Earth Observatory. (2023). Climate Change and Wildlife.
4. National Wildlife Federation. (2022). Impacts of Climate Change on Wildlife.
5. Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, India (2023). India's State of
Environment Report.
6. UNEP (2021). Climate Change and Biodiversity Loss.

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EFFECTS OF MICROPLASTIC ON AQUATIC ORGANISMS

Suchismita Chatterjee Saha
Department of Zoology,
Nabadwip Vidyasagar College, Nabadwip, Nadia, West Bengal, India
Corresponding author E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract:
Microplastic pollution has become a severe environmental issue, particularly in
aquatic ecosystems. These tiny plastic particles, measuring less than 5 mm, originate from
the breakdown of larger plastic waste and microbeads in personal care products. Due to
their small size, they are easily ingested by aquatic organisms, causing harmful effects
throughout the food chain.
The ingestion of microplastics by marine and freshwater species leads to several
health issues, including internal injuries, digestive blockages, and reduced nutrient
absorption. Additionally, microplastics can carry toxic pollutants such as heavy metals and
persistent organic pollutants (POPs), which accumulate in aquatic organisms and
biomagnify up the food chain, ultimately affecting human health. Microplastics have also
been shown to disrupt endocrine functions, impair reproduction, and reduce growth rates
in fish, shellfish, and other marine life.
To combat microplastic pollution, several measures can be implemented. Firstly,
reducing plastic production and consumption is crucial, along with promoting
biodegradable alternatives. Improved waste management systems, including better
recycling and waste disposal, can prevent plastic from entering water bodies. Additionally,
advanced filtration systems in wastewater treatment plants can help capture microplastics
before they reach aquatic environments. Public awareness and policy interventions, such
as bans on microbeads in cosmetics and restrictions on single-use plastics, are also vital in
tackling this issue.
By adopting sustainable practices and enforcing strict regulations, we can mitigate
microplastic pollution and protect aquatic organisms from its detrimental effects.
The main aim of this article is to review regarding microplastic, its source, effects on
aquatic organisms and remedies.
Keywords: Microplastic, Aquatic Organisms, Sources, Entry into The Environment, Effects
on Aquatic Organisms.

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Introduction:
Now a days we are facing a problem regarding plastic pollution. According to Ahmed
et al. (2023) plastic is synthetic organic polymers and derived from coal, natural gas, and
crude oil through polymerization or polycondensation processes. Global plastic production
increased from 1.7 million tons in the 1950s to 335 million tons in 2016. 8 million metric
tons (Mt) of plastic waste entered the marine environment from land sources (Talbot and
Chang, 2022). Due to high demand, production trends are expected to quadruple by 2050.
Consumption of plastic is increased day by day due to consumer habits, improper disposal
of plastic waste, and population demographics. Now a days plastic would become a serious
concern (Haque and Fan, 2023). Plastic is not safe for environment as it is non-renewable
resource, cannot be replenished naturally, high affinity for persistent organic pollutants
(POPs), Durability of plastic makes it highly resistant to degradation, leading to its
persistence in the environment (Sahu et al., 2023, Wright et al., 2013).
Microplastic (MPs) refer to inconspicuous plastic particles threaten our
environment and health. From the oceans to the food chain, they get into everything and
harm wildlife and ecosystems. Sizes of microplastic vary from >1.6 μm, <1 mm, <2 mm, 2–
6 mm, <5 mm, and <10 mm (Khoshmanesh et al., 2023; Yu et al., 2022). According to
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) MPs are tiny, ubiquitous plastic
particles with a diameter of <5 mm (Miao et al., 2023; Leal Filho et al., 2019). These tiny
pollutants, typically measuring <5 mm, have quietly infiltrated our oceans, rivers, and even
the air we breathe (L. Xu et al., 2022; D. Xu et al., 2022; Mahamud et al., 2022). While
invisible to the naked eye, the impact of MPs on our ecosystems and human health is far
from negligible (Kalčíková, 2023; Ali et al., 2020). Microplastic with different derivatives
such as Bisphenol A and Phthalates induces a serious threat for the aquatic ecosystem
(Auta et al. 2017). Combination of microplastic with organic pollutant affect the immune
system and there by decreasing the aquaculture products (El-Sherif et al. 2022).
Microplastic slow down the growth and survival of aquatic animals and causes serious
health effects after consumption of microplastic. Microplastic reduces enzymatic activity,
absorption function of digestive system. Human health risk increases day by day by
accumulation of organic contaminants, such as antibiotics and microplastic and organic
additives. Microplastic along with other organic pollutants causes hazardous effects for
human reproduction, teratogenic and mutagenic effects and administration of microplastic
causes human intestinal microbiota more resistant to infection (Nunes et al., 2023; L. Yang

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et al., 2021; Yu et al., 2022; Sheriff et al., 2023). So, working to investigate microplastic
pollution is essential for aquatic ecosystem. The main objectives of this review are to
investigate regarding sources, effects of microplastics on aquatic organisms.
Sources of Microplastic in the Environment
Microplastic can either enter in the environment at the micro sized scale (Primary
microplastic) or fragment from larger, “macro” – sized plastic already in the environment
(Secondary Microplastic). The The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)
highlights seven primary sources of microplastics in the marine environment: synthetic
textiles, vehicle tyres, road markings, personal care products and cosmetics, plastic pellets,
marine coatings, city dust (Jeyavani etal., 2022; Nawaz et al., 2023). Microfibres which shed
from textiles are the main contributor to micropollution. Although only synthetic
microfibers would be considered microplastics, micro fragments from all types of fibres -
including natural ones such as cotton and wool, also contribute to pollution. Vehicle tyres
are another source of microplastic pollution. Natural rubber contents in the rubber are
20% and rest include plastic. The total microplastics generated from the wear of
automotive tyres in the European Union is around 0.5 million metric tonnes (MMT) per
year (Eunomia and ICF; 2018). City dust refers to a wide range of microplastic sources
originating from urban areas - artificial turf, building paints, and industrial abrasives
constitute the largest and most well-understood sources of city dust. City dust refers to a
wide range of microplastic sources originating from urban areas - artificial turf, building
paints, and industrial abrasives constitute the largest and most well-understood sources of
city dust. Road covers and tyres, road markings wear. Hot-melt paints, which are
commonly used for road markings, consist of 15-25% polymer binders, which contribute to
microplasitc pollution when worn away. Marine coatings applied to the hulls of marine
vessels include polymers such as polyurethane, epoxy coatings, vinyl and/or lacquers, as
well as other compounds such as metals, when these coatings are weathered, scraped,
sanded, disposed of, or spilt during the application, they contribute to microplastic load in
the environment. Personal care products, such as exfoliants contain microbeads, which
make up a relatively small but well-recognised facet of microplastic pollution. Plastic resin
pellets (also known as ‘nibs’ or ‘nurdles’) are used as feedstock for the manufacture of most
plastic products (Sundt et al. 2014). Polymer-based products potentially containing
microplastics have a variety of applications in agriculture, including mulches for
temperature and moisture control, silage and fumigation films, and anti-bird and weed

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protection (Horton et al. 2017). Primary microplastics have hundreds of other sources
across many sectors:
• Dish detergents can contain microplastics such as polyurethane particles that are
used to clean surfaces and are subsequently disposed of in wastewater; (Scudo,
2017).
• Plastic bio-beads used as filter media in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) can
be unintentionally released due to accidents and leaks at plants;
• Microplastics are used in the healthcare and pharmaceutical sectors, including as
vectors for drugs and dentist polish (Sundt, 2014).
• Microplastics are also commonly employed in the oil and gas sector as additives to
drilling fluids, although it has proved difficult to estimate precisely the tonnage of
microplastics used for this purpose (Scudo, 2017).
• Other common uses for microplastis incude: packaging, textile printing and
automotive moulding, biomedical research insulation, furniture, pillows, buoys, 3D
printing, ceramics, and adhesives (European Chemicals Agency (ECHA) 2019).
• Sources of secondary microplastics include macro-sized terrestrial and marine-
based refuse (e.g. fishing gear and shipping waste and losses).
Entry of Microplastic in the Environment
Since the vast majority of plastic has a terrestrial origin, terrestrial ecosystems and
wastewater infrastructure are the major pathways of microplastics into the environment.
The main channels by which primary microplastics enter the environment are roadside
runoff, wastewater treatment plants, wind transfer, marine activities.
Characteristics of microplastic
MPs come in various forms, including fibers, fragments, films, and microbeads, each
possessing unique attributes. Their size is a defining characteristic, allowing them to be
easily ingested by a broad range of organisms. Shapes, such as irregular, spherical, or
elongated, further influencing their transport and behavior in the environment.
Microplastics consist of carbon and hydrogen atoms bound together in polymer chains.
Other chemicals, such as phthalates, polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), and tetra
bromo bisphenol A (TBBPA), are typically also present in microplastics, and many of these
chemical additives leach out of the plastics after entering the environment.

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Ecological implications of microplastic in aquatic environment

Ecological implications of microplastic in aquatic environment are far-reaching and
multifaceted effects which plays a crucial role in various trophic levels and disrupting key
ecological processes. Microplastic cause serious effects by altering sediment composition
and there by affecting nutrient cycling by accumulation in the sediment (Shukur et al.
2023). This type of disruption causes changes in primary production with potential effects
on ecosystem. Effects of microplastic is observed for various organisms. Among these, fish
are the most commonly studied (25%), followed by molluscs (15%), small crustacea
(11%), large crustacea (8%), annelid worms (6%), mammals and echinoderms (both 3%),
birds and cnidaria (both 2%), porifera, reptiles and rotifers (<1%) (Carlos et al., 2018).
Effects of Microplastic on Aquatic organisms
Incase of fishes Microplastic causes neurotoxicity ((96 h; 1–5 μm; 0.184 mg L−1)
(Oliveira et al., 2012, Oliveira et al., 2013; Luis et al., 2015), reduction of the predatory
performance and efficiency in Pomatoschistus microps (predatory test; 420–500 μm;
100 particles L−1) (Carlos de Sá et al., 2015). Mazurais et al. (2015) reported mortality and
induction of the cytochrome P450 (CYP P450) in Dicentrarchus labrax (846 h; 10–45 μm;
10–100 particles mg−1 of diet). Polyethylene MPs have been shown to affect growth and
reproduction of a large freshwater crustacean, the amphipod Hyalella azteca (240 h and
1008 h; 10–27 μm; 0–108 particles L−1) (Au et al., 2015). Several toxic effects related to
immune response, oxidative stress and genotoxicity have been reported in molluscs
including a study of the marine mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis exposed to Polyethelene
MPs (168 h; <100 μm; 20,000 mg L−1) (Avio et al., 2015). Van Cauwenberghe et al.
(2015) observed an increase of energy consumption by the polychaete Arenicola
marina when exposed to PE MPs (336 h; <100 μm; 1.1 × 105 particles L−1). In echinoderms,
PE MPs (120 h; 10–45 μm; 3 × 105 particles L−1) have been shown to influence larval
growth and development of Tripneustes gratilla without affecting its survival (Kaposi et al.,
2014).
MPs on entering in the gastrointestinal system of fish after consumption, producing
obstructions across the digestive tract and limiting feeding owing to appetite (Lusher et al.,
2013; Wright et al., 2013) and induce anatomical and functional changes in the digestive
tracts, causing dietary and development issues in fish (Huang et al., 2022; Borrelle et al.,
2017; Peda et al., 2016). MPs pose a threat to fish, with mortality occurring frequently
before they reach maturity due to MPs ingestion. Administration of microplastic on Danio

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rerio causes oxidative stress, decreased mobility, gene expression disruption and damage
of reproductive organs (Mu et al., 2021; Zhao et al., 2021; Zhang et al., 2022). Oryzias
melastigma showed physical impairment due to MPs ingestion (Xia et al., 2022). Growth
inhibition, dysbiosis of fish gut, reduction of weight, disturbance of anti-oxidative condition
of the liver, damaging reproductive organs and growth retardation are visible effects in
Oryzias melastigma (Wang et al., 2022; Zhang X. et al., 2021; Feng et al., 2021; Li et al.,
2021). Sparus aurata is affected by MPs ingestion by facing stress, oxidative damage,
survival, Behavior changes and damage of immune system’s key functions (Espinosa et al.,
2017; Pannetier et al., 2020; Jacob et al., 2021; Rios-Fuster et al., 2021; Solomando et al.,
2021).
Reduction of plastic pollution
Science from 6,300 million metric tons of plastic waste were generated. Of which
about 4,900 million metric tons, ended up in landfills and the environment. Researchers
assumed that by 2050 the amount of plastic waste in landfills and the environment would
reach 12,000 million metric tons. Plastics pollution, especially pollution from microplastics,
remained largely ignored by governments and policy makers.
To help overcome this obstacle, organizations such as the United Nations Expert
Panel of the United Nations Environmental Programme engaged more than 100 countries
in educational campaigns aimed at raising awareness of plastics pollution and encouraging
reuse and recycling of plastics. Other international cooperative programs were established
to address marine wastes, including microplastics pollution. In 2015 the United
States passed the Microbead-Free Waters Act, which prohibits the manufacture and
distribution of rinse-off cosmetics products that contain plastic microbeads. Many other
countries also placed bans on microbeads.
Remediation of microplastics by using microorganisms capable of breaking down
synthetic microplastic polymers. A number of bacterial and fungal species possess
biodegradation capabilities, breaking down chemicals such as polystyrene, polyester
polyurethane, and polyethylene. Such microorganisms can potentially be applied to sewage
wastewater and other contaminated environments.
Conclusion:
Microplastic pollution poses a significant threat to aquatic ecosystems, affecting the
health and survival of marine and freshwater organisms. The ingestion and accumulation
of microplastics lead to physiological and toxicological effects, ultimately impacting

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biodiversity and human health. Addressing this issue requires a multi-faceted approach,
including reducing plastic production, enhancing waste management, and implementing
effective policies.
In the future, advancements in biodegradable materials and innovative cleanup
technologies, such as nanotechnology-based filtration and plastic-eating microbes, may
offer promising solutions. Further research is needed to understand the long-term
ecological and health impacts of microplastics. Additionally, global cooperation and stricter
regulations will play a crucial role in mitigating plastic pollution. By adopting sustainable
practices and fostering scientific innovations, we can work towards a cleaner and healthier
aquatic environment.
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toxicological assessment. Toxics 11 (3), 282. doi:10.3390/toxics11030282.
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Aquatic Toxicology. 258. 106480. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquatox.2023.106480.
21. Kaposi, K.L., Mos, B., Kelaher, B.P., Dworjanyn, S.A., 2014. Ingestion of microplastic has
limited impact on marine larva. Environ. Sci. Technol. 48, 1638–1645.
22. Karbalaei, S. et al. (2018) ‘Occurrence, sources, human health impacts and mitigation
of microplastic pollution’, Environmental Science and Pollution Research.
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23. Khoshmanesh M., Sanati A.M., Ramavandi B. 2023. Co-occurrence of microplastics and
organic/inorganic contaminants in organisms living in aquatic ecosystems: A review.
Marine Pollution Bulletin. 187. 114563.
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24. Li, Y., Yang, G., Wang, J., Lu, L., Li, X., Zheng, Y., et al. (2021). MPs Increase the
Accumulation of Phenanthrene in the Ovaries of marine Medaka (Oryzias Melastigma)
and its Transgenerational Toxicity. J. Hazard. Mater., 127754.
doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2021.127754.
25. Luís, L. G., Ferreira, P., Fonte, E., Oliveira, M., and Guilhermino, L. 2015. Does the
Presence of MPs Influence the Acute Toxicity of Chromium (VI) to Early Juveniles of

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the Common Goby (Pomatoschistus Microps)? A Study with Juveniles from Two Wild
Estuarine Populations. Aquat. Toxicol. 164, 163–174.
doi:10.1016/j.aquatox.2015.04.018.
26. Lusher, A. L., Mchugh, M., and Thompson, R. C. 2013. Occurrence of MPs in the
Gastrointestinal Tract of Pelagic and Demersal Fish from the English Channel. Mar.
Pollut. Bull. 67 (1-2), 94–99. doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2012.11.028.
27. Mahmud A., Wasif M. Md., Roy H., Mehnaz F., Ahmed T., Pervez Md. N., Naddeo V.,
Islam Md. S. 2022. Aquatic Microplastic Pollution Control Strategies: Sustainable
Degradation Techniques, Resource Recovery, and Recommendations for Bangladesh.
Water. 14(23), 3968; https://doi.org/10.3390/w14233968
28. Mazurais, D., Ernande, B., Quazuguel, P., Severe, A., Huelvan, C., Madec, L., et al. 2015.
Evaluation of the Impact of Polyethylene Microbeads Ingestion in European Sea Bass
(Dicentrarchus labrax) Larvae. Mar. Environ. Res. 112, 78–85.
doi:10.1016/j.marenvres.2015.09.009.
29. Miao C., Zhang J., Jin R., Li T.,, Zhao Y., Shen M. 2023.Microplastics in aquaculture
systems: Occurrence, ecological threats and control strategies. Chemosphere. 340.
139924. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2023.139924Get rights and content
30. Mu, X., Qi, S., Liu, J., Yuan, L., Huang, Y., Xue, J., et al. 2021. Toxicity and Behavioral
Response of Zebrafish Exposed to Combined Microplastic and Bisphenol Analogues.
Environ. Chem. Lett., 1–8. doi:10.1007/s10311-021- 01320-w.
31. Nawaz S., Tabassum A., Muslim S., Nasreen T., Baradoke A., Kim T.H., Boczkaj
G., Jesionowski T., Bilal M. 2023. Effective assessment of biopolymer-based
multifunctional sorbents for the remediation of environmentally hazardous
contaminants from aqueous solutions. Chemosphere. 329. 138552.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2023.138552
32. Nunes B.Z., Moreira L. B., Xu E.G., Castro Í B. 2023. A global snapshot of microplastic
contamination in sediments and biota of marine protected areas. Science of The Total
Environment. 865, 161293. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.161293
33. Oliveira M., Gravato C., Guilhermino L. 2012. Acute toxic effects of pyrene
on Pomatoschistus microps (Teleostei, Gobiidae): Mortality, biomarkers and
swimming performance. Ecological Indicators. 19: 206 – 214.
34. Oliveira, M., Ribeiro, A., Hylland, K., and Guilhermino, L. 2013. Single and Combined
Effects of MPs and Pyrene on Juveniles (0+ Group) of the Common Goby

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Pomatoschistus Microps (Teleostei, Gobiidae). Ecol. indicators 34, 641–647.

doi:10.1016/j.ecolind.2013.06.019.
35. Pannetier, P., Morin, B., Le Bihanic, F., Dubreil, L., Clérandeau, C., Chouvellon, F., et al.
2020. Environmental Samples of MPs Induce Significant Toxic Effects in Fish Larvae.
Environ. Int. 134, 105047. doi:10.1016/j.envint.2019.105047
36. Peda, C., Caccamo, L., Fossi, M. C., Gai, F., Andaloro, F., Genovese, L., et al. 2016.
Intestinal Alterations in European Sea Bass Dicentrarchus labrax (Linnaeus, 1758)
Exposed to MPs: Preliminary Results. Environ. Pollut. 212, 251–256.
doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2016.01.083.
37. Rios-Fuster, B., Arechavala-Lopez, P., García-Marcos, K., Alomar, C., Compa, M.,
Álvarez, E., et al. 2021. Experimental Evidence of Physiological and Behavioral Effects
of Microplastic Ingestion in Sparus aurata. Aquat. Toxicol. 231, 105737.
doi:10.1016/j.aquatox.2020.105737.
38. Sahu S., Kaur A., Khatri M., Singh G., Arya S.K. 2023. A review on cutinases enzyme in
degradation of microplastics. Journal of Environmental Management. 347. 119193.
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39. Scudo, A. (2017) Intentionally added microplastics in products.
40. Sheriff I, Yusoff M.S., Halim H. B. 2023. Microplastics in wastewater treatment plants:
A review of the occurrence, removal, impact on ecosystem, and abatement measures.
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41. Shukur S.A., Hassan F.M., Fakhry S.S., Ameen F., Stephenson S.L. 2023. Evaluation of
microplastic pollution in a lotic ecosystem and its ecological risk. Marine Pollution
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42. Solomando, A., Capó, X., Alomar, C., Compa, M., Valencia, J. M., Sureda, A., et al. 2021.
Assessment of the Effect of Long-Term Exposure to MPs and Depuration Period in
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44. Talbot R., Chang H. 2022. Microplastics in freshwater: A global review of factors
affecting spatial and temporal variations. Environmental Pollution. 292, Part B,
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45. Van Cauwenberghe L., Devriese L., Galgani F., Robbens J., Colin R. Janssen C.R. 2015.
Microplastics in sediments: A review of techniques, occurrence and effects. Marine
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46. Xia, B., Sui, Q., Du, Y., Wang, L., Jing, J., Zhu, L., et al. 2022. Secondary PVC MPs Are
More Toxic Than Primary PVC MPs to Oryzias Melastigma Embryos. J. Hazard. Mater.
424, 127421. doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2021.127421.
47. Xu D., Gao B., Wan X., Peng W., Zhang B. 2022.Influence of catastrophic flood on
microplastics organization in surface water of the Three Gorges Reservoir, China.
Water Research. 211. 118018. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2021.118018.
48. Xu L. Xu X., Li C., Li J., Sun M., Zhang L. 2022. Is mulch film itself the primary source of
meso- and microplastics in the mulching cultivated soil? A preliminary field study
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49. Yang L., Zhang Y.,, Kang S., Wang Z., Wu C. 2021. Microplastics in soil: A review on
methods, occurrence, sources, and potential risk. Science of The Total Environment.
780. 146546. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.146546
50. Yu J., Adingo S., Liu X., Li X., Sun J., Zhang X. 2022. Micro plastics in soil ecosystem - A
review of sources, fate, and ecological impact. Plant Soil Environ. 68(1):1-17.
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51. Wang, J., Li, X., Gao, M., Li, X., Zhao, L., and Ru, S. 2022. Polystyrene MPs Increase
Estrogenic Effects of 17α-Ethynylestradiol on Male marine Medaka (Oryzias
Melastigma). Chemosphere 287, 132312. doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere. 2021.132312
52. Wright, S. L., Thompson, R. C., and Galloway, T. S. 2013. The Physical Impacts of MPs
on marine Organisms: a Review. Environ. Pollut. 178, 483–492. doi:10.
1016/j.envpol.2013.02.031.
53. Zhang, X., Wen, K., Ding, D., Liu, J., Lei, Z., Chen, X., et al. 2021. Size-dependent Adverse
Effects of MPs on Intestinal Microbiota and Metabolic Homeostasis in the marine
Medaka (Oryzias Melastigma). Environ. Int. 151, 106452. doi:10.
1016/j.envint.2021.106452

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54. Zhang, X., Xia, M., Zhao, J., Cao, Z., Zou, W., and Zhou, Q. 2022. Photoaging Enhanced
the Adverse Effects of Polyamide MPs on the Growth, Intestinal Health, and Lipid
Absorption in Developing Zebrafish. Environ. Int. 158, 106922.
doi:10.1016/j.envint.2021.106922.
55. Zhao, Y., Qin, Z., Huang, Z., Bao, Z., Luo, T., and Jin, Y. 2021. Effects of Polyethylene MPs
on the Microbiome and Metabolism in Larval Zebrafish. Environ. Pollut. 282, 117039.
doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2021.117039.

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BIOMODULANT PROPERTIES OF THE MILK WEED,

CALOTROPIS GIGANTEA (L.) DRYAND.: A REVIEW
Sreeja R S
Department of Zoology,
Iqbal College, Peringammala, Thiruvananthapuram – 695 563, Kerala, India.
Corresponding author E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract:
Medicinal plants are frequently used as raw materials for the synthesis of different
drugs. Calotropis gigantea (L.) Dryand, a perennial shrub is considered to be a weed in arid
lands. The medicinal value of the plant had been proved and utilized for the betterment of
humans from time immemorial. Studies proved that, the extracts of the plant parts are
having anti helminthic, analgesic, antisyphilic, antipyretic, cytotoxic and antimicrobial
effects in vertebrates. An ayurvedic preparation of C. gigantea, Swarnabhasma, is
extensively used for the treatment of diabetes mellitus, bronchial asthma, rheumatoid
arthritis and nervous disorder
Keywords: Milkweed, Phytochemicals, Bioactive Compounds, Cytotoxicity.
Introduction:
Plants have been used by human beings for
the treatment and prevention of various ailments.
Calotropis gigantea (L.) Dryand known as
‘Milkweed’, belongs to the family Asclepiadaceae
is used as one of the best medicinal plants in
traditional system of medicine. Varieties of
bioactive components isolated from the plant have
proved remarkable pharmacological effects on living world[1].
Taxonomical position of the title plant
Kingdom Plantae
Class Magnoliopsida
Order Gentianales
Family Apocynaceae
Genus Calotropis
Species gigantea

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General Description of the Plant

The plant is a perennial shrub, relatively drought resistant and salt tolerant with
oval, light green leaves and milky stem growing upto 4 m (13 ft) tall with waxy flowers
consists of five pointed petals and a small, elegant "crown" rising from the centre, which
holds the stamens usually grows up to 900 meters with an annual rainfall of 300-400mm
throughout the country and is a native of India, China, Malaysia, Bangladesh, Thailand,
Pakistan, United Arab Emirates and Sri Lanka[2] .The seeds of the plant are numerous and
are freely floated thorough the air and natural regeneration happens.
Remarkable Studies on the Plant
In India, a lot of promising works have been reported using different parts viz.,
leaves, stem, latex, flower, roots of Calotropis gigantea L. Dryand.
Phytochemical Profile
Phytochemicals are the chemicals present in plants. The medicinal value of a plant
mostly depends upon the presence of phytochemicals in it. Important constituents of plant
include alkaloids, tannins, flavonoids, carbohydrates, terpenoids and steroids. Studies
revealed that, the leaves of C. gigantea contains phytochemicals especially usharin,
gigantin, calcium oxalate, fatty acids (both saturated and unsaturated), alpha and beta-
calotropeol, and hydrocarbons[3]. Plant produced cardenolides are a group of remarkable
chemical compounds or diverse steroids derived from triterpenoids, which are responsible
for the poisoning of livestock and also for the treatment of congestive heart failure. It is
noted that several cardenolides were isolated from the plant latex, which includes calactin,
calactoxin, calotropagenin, proceroside, uscharidin, syriogenine, Calotropin DI and DII
(cysteine proteinases) Calotropain FI and FII (proteinases) and voruscharin[4]. Flavonoids
are more popular because of the health promoting effects. Important sources of flavonoids
in diet are fruits, tea and soybean. Research suggests that flavonoids (most diverse group of
phytochemicals), is responsible for reduced mortality rates, observed in people consuming
high levels of plant-based foods. It is noted that, the flowers of Calotropis contains
flavonoids, sterol, queretin-3-catinoside, calotropagenin, calotropin, polysaccharides with
D- arabinose, glucose, glucosamine and L-rhamnose[5] . Many studies on root bark revealed
that, it contains phytochemicals such as amyrin, taraxasterol and its isomers, taraxasterol
acetate, gigantin and sitosterol. A new pregnanone, Calotropone (I) and a cardioglycoside
were isolated from the ethanolic extract of the roots of Calotropis gigantea L. Dryand [6].

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Pharmacological Profile
Plants are used in the treatment of many diseases. Bioactive compounds in plants
are the secondary metabolites, which elicit remarkable effects on biological system. Several
studies such as antimicrobial (strains of S.aureus, B.cereus, and E.coli), anti- fungal (against
Fusarium mangiferae) and anti-candida activity (against clinical isolates of Candida
albicans) of aqueous extract of C. gigantea leaves were reported[1]. A lot of attention has
been focused on the wound healing and anti- inflammatory activites of root bark extracts of
Calotropis against albino rats [7]. Today, many of the plant parts are used traditionally as
hepato- protective, anti- diarrhoeal, analgesic, anti - helminthic and anti- pyretic drugs[8].
Another study reported that, the aqueous extracts of different plant parts of milkweed viz.
leaves, flowers, roots and stem were found to be highly effective against ovicidal activity on
Helicoverpa armigera, a polyphagous pest that infest cotton and tomatoes[9].
ROS are highly reactive molecules that originate mainly from the mitochondrial
electron transport chain (ETC). Free radicals and ROS are well known inducers of several
human diseases such as heart disease, cancer, inflammatory disorders etc. Studies revealed
that, the methanolic extract of C. gigantea roots exhibited antioxidant activity[10].
Conclusion:
The milk weed has many useful applications in traditional medicine. The description
suggests that a wider lacuna is set yet in the field of research about C. gigantea. In this
scenario, it can be concluded that, the milk weed, Calotropis gigantea is a plant with
immense potential, many of which has to be searched out further.
References:
1. Kumar, P. S., Suresh, E., & Kalavathy, S. (2013). Review on a potential herb Calotropis
gigantea (L.) R. Br. Scholars Academic Journal of Pharmacy, 2(2), 135-143.
2. Mueen Ahmed, K.K,Rana, A.C, Dixit, V.K,.( 2005). Plant review Calotropis species(
Asclepediaceae)- A comprehensive review,. Pharm. Mag.(2): 48-52.
3. Murti PBR and Seshadri TR. Chemical composition of Calotropis gigantea, Part V.
Further examination of the Latex and Root bark (1945a). Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci., (21), pp
143-147.
4. Vishwa Nath Verma. (2014). The Chemical Study of Calotropis., Int. Letters of Chem.
Phy. and Astronomy . ISSN 2299-3843.,PP 74-90.

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5. R. Dhivya and K. Manimegalai. (2013). Preliminary phytochemical screening and CC-

MS profiling of ethanolic flower extract of Calotropis gigantea Linn. (Apocynaceae). J.
of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry.,2(3): pp 28-32.
6. Wang Z, Wang M, Mei W, Han Z, Dai H, (2008) . A new cytotoxic pregnanone from
Calotropis gigantea L. Molecules ; 13 (12); 3033-3039.
7. Deshmukh PT, Fernandes J, Aarte A, Toppo E, Wound healing activity of Calotropis
gigantea root bark in rats(2009). J. Ethnopharmacol.; 125(1):178-181.
8. S. Sarkar, R. Chakraverty and A. Ghosh (2014) Calotropis gigantea Linn.- A complete
busket of Indian traditional medicine. Int. J. Pharm.Res.Sci., 2(1), 7-17.
9. S. Prabhu, P. Priyadharshini and R. Veeravel (2012). Effect of aqueous extracts of
different plant parts of milkweed plant (Calotropis gigantea R. Br.) against ovicidal
activity on Helicoverpa armigera (Hubner)., International J. of Adv. Life sciences .
(2),ISSN 2277-758X.
10. Elakkiya,P. and G.Prasanna .(2012). A study on phytochemical screening and invitro
antioxidant activity of Calotropis gigantea L., Int. J. Pharm. Tech. Research.( 4): 1428-
1431.

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METHANOLIC EXTRACT OF NEEM (AZADIRACHTA INDICA A. JUSS) LEAF -

A POTENT ANTIMICROBIAL AGENT
Sheeja V. R
Department of Zoology,
Iqbal College, Peringammala, Thiruvananthapuram – 695 563, Kerala, India.
Corresponding author E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract:
Azadirachta indica (Neem) plant acts as a medicinal plant have been found effective
in the treatment of bacterial, fungal, viral and other diseases. Neem leaf may alleviate
eczema, ringworm, acne, and has anti-inflammatory and antihyperglycemic characteristics.
It is also useful to repair chronic wounds, diabetic food, and gangrene situations. It is
thought to eliminate pollutants, neutralize free radicals, and purify the bloodstream. This
study examined the antibacterial effects of methanol extract on Azadiracta indica leaf. The
extract contains pharmacologically active constituents that may be responsible for its
activity against Salmonella typhi, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Clostridium perfringens,
Mycobacterium fortuitum and Vibrio cholera. Therefore, the use of Neem plant for treating
various medical ailments, particularly infectious diseases, is highly justified.
Keywords: Antimicrobial, Phytocompounds, Ailments, Bioactive, Antibiotic
Introduction:
Drug resistance is a global issue which brings about challenges for clinicians and the
pharmaceutical industry. Herbal medications are being used in the developed world due to
their bioactive properties, which can be used in medicine, nutraceuticals, pharmaceutical
intermediates, and lead molecules in synthetic drugs (De N et al., 2002; Ncube N S et al.,
2008). Identifying active chemicals in medicinal plants can lead to the development of
novel antibacterial drugs. Chemical modification of these molecules can lead to new and
improved treatments for infectious disorders (Natarajan et al., 2003).
Medicinal plants have been used to combat ailments since the beginning of
civilization. Azadirachta indica A. Juss (syn. Melia azadirachta) has been known in India and
its neighboring countries for over 2000 years as one of the most versatile medicinal plants,
with a wide range of biological activities. The neem tree's sanskrit name is ‘Arishtha’, which
means ‘reliever of sickness’, and is thus known as 'Sarbaroganibarini'. In India, the tree is
still recognized as a ‘village dispensary’ (Susmitha et al., 2013). Azadirachta indica (Neem)
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plant acts as a medicinal plant have been found effective in the treatment of bacterial,
fungal, viral and other diseases. Due to increasing antibiotic resistance in microorganisms
and side effects of synthetic antibiotics neem plant are now growing popularity in the
treatment of many infections. Neem plant is considered as clinically effective and safer
alternatives to the synthetic antibiotics (Gupta and Mohan, 1990; Kumar, V. S. and
Navaratnam et al., 2013). The main aim of this study is to evaluate antimicrobial potential
of methanolic extract of A. indica leaves on selected microbial strains.
Materials and Methods:
The experiment was performed at the laboratory in the Department of Zoology,
Iqbal College, Peringammala, Trivandrum. The healthy and mature leaves of A. indica for
the proposed study were collected from the nearby areas of Palode. The collected leaves
were dried under shade and powdered using an electric blender, and were sieved with a
mesh of size 0.5mm. 10 g of the powder was extracted in 100 ml methanol using Soxhlet
apparatus. The crude extracts were then kept in oven at 37oC for the solvents to get the
residue for further use.
Antibacterial Assay
The antibacterial activity was evaluated using the well diffusion method (NCCLS
1993; Perez et al., 1990). The culture medium employed for bacterial growth was nutrient
broth, nutrient agar, and Mueller Hinton agar acquired from Hi Media. The five perilous
bacterial strains, Salmonella typhi, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Clostridium perfringens,
Mycobacterium fortuitum and Vibrio cholerae were collected from MTTC in Chandigarh. A
Stock solution of 64mg/ml methanolic extract of plant leaves was prepared and diluted to
get a series of concentrations ranging from 4 mg/ml to 32mg/ml using DMSO.Petri plates
containing 20ml Muller Hinton medium were seeded with 24hr culture of bacterial strains.
6mm wells were cut using well cutter. 50 μl of the plant extracts were added to each well.
The plates were then incubated at 37°C for 24 hours. The antibacterial activity was assayed
by measuring the diameter of the inhibition zone formed around the well (NCCLS, 1993).
Tetracycline was used as positive control and DMSO as negative control.
Results:
The plant extract was proved to be highly susceptible to M. fortuitum, C. perfringens,
K. pneumoniae (gram positive) and S. typhi, V. cholera (gram negative). The findings of
antibacterial activity were depicted in the table given below.

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Methanol Extract
Sl. Zone of Inhibition (mm)
Test Organisms
No. 64 32 16 8 4
PC NC
mg/ml mg/ml mg/ml mg/ml mg/ml
1 Mycobacterium fortuitum 15 13 10 8 0 29 0
2 Salmonella typhi 16 14 13 9 7 27 0
3 Vibrio cholera 11 9 8 7 0 24 0
4 Clostridium perfringens 12 10 9 8 0 28 0
5 Klebsiella pneumoniae 9 8 7 0 0 29 0

Discussion:
The development of plant-based antimicrobial compounds with improved safety
and efficacy could help address antibiotic resistance (Srivastava et al., 2000). The Bioactive
compounds present in the candidate plant is capable of stimulating antimicrobial
properties against disease causing bacterial populations. The presence of these
phytochemical components may be responsible for the observed antimicrobial activity of
the plant leaf extract. This finding conforms to the report of (Anyanwu and Dawet, 2005) in
which similar constituents was found to exhibits antiprotozoal and antibacterial activities.
According to Himal Paudel Chhetri et al., 2008), the ethanolic extract of Azadiracta indica
entire plant primarily contains flavonoids and tannins. Azadiracta indica extract effectively
inhibits E. coli and Staphylococcus aureus. A previous study by Srinivasan et al., 2001) found
that A. indica has antifungal and antibacterial properties. Natural products are unlikely to
cause resistance in bacteria, making them effective therapeutic agents. The plant has the
potential to be a cost-effective alternative to traditional medications due to its availability
and ease of extraction through exfoliation or infusion.
Conclusion:
Antimicrobial studies provided clear cut evidence to the inhibition of bacterial
growth indicating potential effectiveness of the methanolic extracts prepared from
Azadirachta indica leaf.
References:
1. Chhetri, H. P., Yogol, N. S., Sherchan, J., Anupa, K. C., Mansoor, S., & Thapa, P. (2008).
Phytochemical and antimicrobial evaluations of some medicinal plants of Nepal.
Kathmandu university journal of science, engineering and technology, 4(1), 49-54.

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2. Srivastava, A. S., Shukla, Y. N., & Sushil Kumar, S. K. (2000). Recent development in
plant derived antimicrobial constituents-a review.
3. Anyanwu, G. I., & Dawet, A. (2005). Pharmacological and phytochemical screening of
Hyptis suaveolens Poit (Lamiaceae) for bioactivity in rodents. Nigerian Journal of
Botany, 18, 190-196.
4. De, N., & Ifeoma, E. (2002). Antimicrobial effects of components of the bark extracts of
neem (Azadirachta indica A. Juss). Technology and Development, 8, 23-28.
5. Ncube, N. S., Afolayan, A. J., & Okoh, A. I. (2008). Assessment techniques of
antimicrobial properties of natural compounds of plant origin: current methods and
future trends. African journal of biotechnology, 7(12).
6. Natarajan, V., Venugopal, P. V., & Menon, T. (2003). Effect of Azadirachta indica
(neem) on the growth pattern of dermatophytes. Indian journal of medical
microbiology, 21(2), 98-101.
7. Susmitha, S., Vidyamol, K. K., Ranganayaki, P., & Vijayaragavan, R. (2013).
Phytochemical extraction and antimicrobial properties of Azadirachta indica (Neem).
Global journal of pharmacology, 7(3), 316-320.
8. Gupta, G. N., & Mohan, S. (1990). Response of several tree species to management on
degraded soil of semi-arid region. Indian Forester, 116(8), 622-630.
9. Kumar, V. S., & Navaratnam, V. (2013). Neem (Azadirachta indica): Prehistory to
contemporary medicinal uses to humankind. Asian Pacific journal of tropical
biomedicine, 3(7), 505-514.

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HPV VACCINATION CONTROL CERVICAL CANCER IN INDIA

N. P. Sanap
Department of Zoology,
Shardchandra Arts, Commerce and Science College, Naigaon. Dist. Nanded.
Corresponding author E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract:
Human Papillomavirus infection causes cervical cancer. Second most common
cancer in women worldwide and leading cancer in Indian women. To prevention of cervical
cancer there are several methods. Most effective option is vaccination, two vaccines
available Several studies have been published safety about vaccine’s efficacy, regarding
mandatory vaccination questions and controversy remain in the Indian context need two
booster doses and cost-effectiveness
Keywords: Human Papillomavirus, Vaccine, Cancer, Cervix.
Introduction:
Fifth most common cancer in humans is cervical cancer and second most common
cancer in women worldwide and cervical cancer cause of death in the developing countries.
Cervical cancer sexually transmitted human papilloma virus (HPV) infection is the most
important risk factor for cervical intraepithelial neoplasia. The worldwide incidence of
cervical cancer is approximately 510,000 new cases annually, with approximately 288,000
deaths worldwide. Unlike many other cancers, cervical cancer occurs early and strikes at
the productive period of a woman's life. The incidence rises in 30–34 years of age and
peaks at 55–65 years, with a median age of 38 years (age 21–67 years). Estimates suggest
that more than 80% of the sexually active women acquire genital HPV by 50 years of age.
Hence, the advent of a vaccine against HPV has stirred much excitement as well as debate.
Indian Scenario of HPV Infection
Most frequent cancer in women in India is cervical cance. Women above 15 years of
age, who are at risk of developing cervical cancer. Indian women face a 2.5% cumulative
lifetime risk and 1.4% cumulative death risk from cervical cancer. At any given time, about
6.6% of women in the general population are estimated to harbor cervical HPV infection.
There are currently several cervical cancer research programmers in India. The National
cancer registry programme, established by the Indian council of medical research, acts as a
surveillance system for cancer in India. It collects data in an “active” manner, visiting
government and private sector hospitals, specialized cancer hospitals and pathology

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laboratories to get information on the types and magnitude of cancer cases. The cancer
registry in India does not cover the entire country actively but collects information only
from a few urban and rural registries established in the country.
Preventive methods:
Sexual activity and age influenced by HPV transmission is. Almost 75% of all
sexually active adults are likely to be infected with at least one HPV type. However, vast
majority of the infections resolve spontaneously and only a minority of the HPV infections
progress to cancer. The lifetime risk for genital HPV is 50–80% and genital warts is
approximately 5%. In women who undergo routine screening, the risk of having an
abnormal Papanicolou However, in women without routine screening, the risk for cervical
cancer is up to 4%. The Pap test is used to find cellular abnormalities in cervical tissue,
aiding early diagnosis. Majority of the women become infected with HPV at some point in
their lives, soon after the onset of sexual activity.
Why vaccination is the best form of prevention
Currently, all genital HPV infections cannot be prevented except by abstinence and
lifetime mutual monogamy. There is no clear evidence that barrier methods of
contraception, most notably use of condoms, confer a protection against HPV infection.
Secondly, except for genital warts, the infection is asymptomatic. Adherence to routine
screening by the susceptible female population through periodic Pap smears even in
developed countries has been unsatisfactory, whereas in developing countries like India,
large-scale routine screening is difficult to achieve.
Types of HPV Vaccine
Two vaccines licensed globally are available in India; a quadrivalent vaccine
(Gardasil) and a bivalent vaccine (Cervarix). Both vaccines are manufactured by
recombinant DNA technology that produces non-infectious VLPs comprising of the HPV L1
protein. Clinical trials with both vaccines have used efficacy against CIN-2/3 and
adenocarcinoma in situ (AIS) caused by HPV strains contained in the concerned vaccine as
primary end points. Both the vaccines have also looked at cross-protection against HPV
strains not contained in the concerned vaccine. These vaccines do not protect against the
serotype with which infection has already occurred before vaccination. Gardasil™ is a
mixture of L1 proteins of HPV serotypes 16, 18, 6 and 11 with aluminum-containing
adjuvant. Cervarix is a mixture of L1 proteins of HPV serotypes 16 and 18 with AS04 as an
adjuvant.

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Dosage and Schedule

The vaccine dose is 0.5 mL given intramuscularly, either in the deltoid muscle or in
the antero-lateral thigh. It is available as a sterile suspension for injection in a single-dose
vial or a prefilled syringe, which should be shaken well before use. Manufacturer's
instructions for storage and administration of vaccines should be followed.
The recommended age for initiation of vaccination is 9–12 years. Catch-up
vaccination is permitted up to the age of 26 years. A total of three doses at 0, 2 and 6
months are recommended with Gardasil or 0, 1 and 6 months with Cervarix (minimum
interval of 4 weeks between the first and the second dose, 12 weeks between the second
and third dose and 24 weeks between the first and third dose). HPV vaccines can be given
simultaneously with other vaccines such as Hepatitis B and Tdap. At present, there is no
data to support the use of boosters.
If the HPV vaccine schedule is interrupted, the vaccine series need not to be
restarted. If the series is interrupted after the first dose, the second dose should be
administered as soon as possible, with an interval of at least 12 weeks between the second
and third doses. If only the third dose is delayed, it should be administered as soon as
possible.
Side-Effects and Contradictions
The most common adverse reactions are local reactions like pain (mild to moderate)
in 83%, swelling with erythema in 25% and systemic adverse effects such as fever in 4% of
the vaccinees. No serious vaccine-related adverse events have been reported. The HPV
vaccine is currently not licensed for use in female patients younger than 9 years or older
than 26 years or for use in male patients. It is contraindicated in people with a history of
immediate hypersensitivity to yeast or to any vaccine component. The vaccine should be
deferred in patients with moderate or severe acute illnesses. The vaccine may be
administered in a sitting or lying down position and the patient should be observed for 15
min post-vaccination for syncope.
The vaccine is not recommended for use in pregnant women. Although it has not
been causally associated with adverse outcomes of pregnancy, data are limited. Any
exposure to the vaccine during pregnancy must be immediately reported. Lactating women
and immunosuppressed female patients can receive the vaccine. The efficacy and the
degree of immune response could be poor in the latter group.

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Conclusion:
HPV vaccination is for primary prevention (serotype-specific with limited cross-
protection) of carcinoma cervix. A cost-effective second-generation HPV vaccine is needed
for developing countries to address various issues specific to the region. However, till such
time, secondary prevention through periodic cervical cancer screening should be in place
to use the existing infrastructure and cost-effective screening methods such as Pap smear
and HPV DNA tests. There is no risk of getting an HPV infection from the vaccine as the
vaccine does not contain live virus. HPV vaccination and regular cervical screening is the
most effective way to prevent cervical cancer.
References:
1. Schiffman, M., Castle, P. E., Jeronim, J., Rodrigue, A. C., & Wacholde, S. (2007). Human
papillomavirus and cervical cancer. The Lancet, 370, 890–907.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(07)
2. Sankaranarayanan, R., & Ferlay, J. (2006). Worldwide burden of gynecological cancer:
The size of the problem. Best Practice & Research Clinical Obstetrics & Gynaecology,
20(2), 207–225. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bpobgyn.2005.10.007
3. Singh, N. (2005). HPV and cervical cancer - prospects for prevention through
vaccination. Indian Journal of Medical & Paediatric Oncology, 26, 20.
4. WHO/ICO Information Centre on HPV and Cervical Cancer (HPV Information Centre).
(2007). Summary report on HPV and cervical cancer statistics in India. Retrieved May
1, 2008, from [Insert URL if available]
5. Howley, P. M., & Lowy, D. R. (2001). Papillomaviruses and their replication. In Knipe,
D. M., & Howley, P. M. (Eds.), Field's Virology (4th ed., Vol. 2, pp. 2197–229). Lippincott
Williams & Wilkins.
6. Burd, E. M. (2003). Human papillomavirus and cervical cancer. Clinical Microbiology
Reviews, 16(1), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1128/CMR.16.1.1-17.2
7. Muñoz, N., Bosch, F. X., de Sanjosé, S., Herrero, R., Castellsagué, X., Shah, K. V., et al.
(2003). Epidemiologic classification of human papillomavirus types associated with
cervical cancer. The New England Journal of Medicine, 348, 518–527.
https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa021641
8. World Health Organization. (2005). HPV IARC monograph summary. The Lancet
Oncology, 6, 204.
9. Dunne, E. F., & Markowitz, L. E. (2006). Genital human papillomavirus infection.
Clinical Infectious Diseases, 43(5), 624–629. https://doi.org/10.1086/505982

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RESEARCH TRENDS IN ZOOLOGY

S. M. Hegade
Department of Zoology,
KLE Society’s G. I. Bagewadi College, Nipani
Corresponding author E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract:
Zoology is the branch of biology dedicated to the study of animals, including their
structure, function, behaviour, distribution, and evolution across diverse ecosystems.
Understanding animal biology is crucial for conservation efforts, managing wildlife
populations, addressing human health concerns related to zoonotic diseases, and gaining
insights into fundamental biological processes.
Research trends in zoology currently focus heavily on integrating molecular and
genetic approaches to understand animal behaviour, evolution, and ecology, with a
particular emphasis on conservation biology, climate change impacts on animal
populations, and the application of advanced technologies like genomics, bioinformatics,
and remote sensing to study animal behaviour and physiology in natural
environments; this allows for a deeper understanding of animal diversity, adaptation
mechanisms, and the complex interactions within ecosystems.
Key points to include in an introduction to research trends in zoology
Evolutionary Biology:
Studying the genetic basis of adaptation and speciation using comparative
genomics, particularly in the context of climate change and environmental
pressures. Examining how changing environmental conditions affect animal distribution,
behaviour, and physiology.
Some research trends in evolutionary biology include:
1. Genome evolution
Genome evolution refers to the changes in the structure and organization of an
organism's genome over generations. New genomic technologies allow researchers to
study how evolution is reflected in the genome.
Gene Duplication:
The creation of extra copies of genes, which can lead to new functions or
specialization.

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Mutation:
Random changes in DNA sequences, which can be beneficial, harmful, or neutral,
and are the raw material for evolution.
Selection:
The process by which organisms with certain traits are more likely to survive and
reproduce, leading to the spread of those traits in a population.
Examples of Research Areas:
• Evolution of specific genes or gene families: Studying the evolution of genes
involved in adaptation to specific environments or behaviors.
• Evolution of genome structure: Investigating how genome size, organization, and
the presence of repetitive DNA elements change over time.
• Evolution of developmental processes: Understanding how changes in the
genome lead to changes in animal development and morphology.
• Evolution of complex traits: Studying the genetic basis of complex traits like
coloration, behavior, and immunity.
2. Machine learning
Machine learning can analyze genomic data, differentiate cells, and detect disease
indicators.
3. Big data
Big data sources include medical records, imaging data, and network-based
information.
4. Bioinformatics
Bioinformatics and other technologies have improved the efficiency of biological
assays.
5. Developmental biology
Evolutionary developmental biology is a technological and conceptual advance
that is moving the field of evolutionary biology forward.
6. Experimental evolution
Experimental evolution is a research approach that is used to study adaptation,
estimate evolutionary parameters, and test evolutionary hypotheses.
Explanation

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Evolutionary biology is the study of evolutionary processes that have produced the
diversity of life on Earth. Evolutionary trends are identifiable patterns in which a trait
evolves in a given direction over a prolonged period of time.
• Behavioural Ecology:
Investigating animal behaviour through field studies, incorporating advanced
tracking technologies like GPS and radio telemetry to understand decision-making,
foraging strategies, and social dynamics.
Applying genetic analysis to inform conservation efforts by identifying population
bottlenecks, genetic diversity, and potential impacts of inbreeding. Investigating the
impacts of human activities on animal populations, developing strategies for species
protection, and studying habitat restoration. Exploring the ecological factors influencing
animal behavior, including social interactions and foraging strategies.
• Animal Physiology and Genomics:
Utilizing genomic tools to explore the physiological mechanisms underlying
adaptation in extreme environments, including thermal tolerance and stress responses.
• Biodiversity and Systematics:
Utilizing molecular data to refine taxonomic classifications and understand the
evolutionary relationships between species, especially in poorly studied regions.
• Emerging Technologies:
Incorporating new technologies like drones, underwater robotics, and high-
throughput sequencing to access previously inaccessible environments and study animal
behavior with greater detail.
• Animal Genomics and Molecular Biology:
Utilizing genomic tools to study animal evolution, adaptation, and disease
susceptibility.
• Wildlife Disease Ecology:
Investigating the dynamics of infectious diseases in wildlife populations and their
potential transmission to humans.
Technological Advancements:
• Biotelemetry: Using electronic devices to track animal movements and behaviour
in real-time
• Next-generation sequencing: High-throughput DNA sequencing for population
genetics and evolutionary studies

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• Citizen Science: Engaging the public in data collection and monitoring animal
populations.
Technological advancements are crucial in zoological research, enabling scientists to
study animals and their ecosystems more efficiently and effectively, leading to better
conservation strategies and a deeper understanding of the animal kingdom
Conclusion:
Current research trends in zoology are heavily focused on understanding animal
behaviour and ecology in the context of rapidly changing environments, utilizing advanced
technologies like genomics and molecular biology to investigate evolutionary relationships
and adaptations, prioritizing conservation efforts through detailed studies of threatened
species, and exploring the complex interactions within ecosystems, with a strong emphasis
on addressing global challenges like climate change and biodiversity loss.
References:
1. Burgin, S., & Ross, P. M. (2012). Study of climate change and field research in zoology:
Are they compatible with research student training programs? In D. Lunney & P.
Hutchings (Eds.), Wildlife and climate change: Towards robust conservation strategies
for Australian fauna (pp. 169–174). Royal Zoological Society of New South Wales.
2. Hanson, E. D. (Ed.). (2019). Zoology. Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved from
https://www.britannica.com/science/zoology

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AN OVERVIEW ON THE STATUS OF EARTHWORMS IN

KARNATAKA, INDIA
Harish Kumar T. S.*1 and Sreepada K. S.2
1Department of Zoology,
D.R.M. Science College, Davanagere-577 004, Karnataka, India.
2Department of Applied Zoology,
Mangalore University, Mangalagangothri, Mangaluru- 574 199, Karnataka, India.
*Corresponding author E-mail: [email protected]

Soil organisms as an inhabitant of the soil, play an important role in agricultural

practices, forest activities as well as in many other ecosystem functions, there by modify
the physico-chemical and biological properties of the soil. At different spatio-temporal
scales they improve the soil fertility and land productivity through perturbation and the
production of biogenic structures (Lavelle and Spain, 2001; Jouquet et al., 2006; Kanianska
et al., 2016). These organisms are mainly supported by the plants for their resources and
even to occupy their own niche in a particular habitat (Puga-Freitas and Blouin, 2015).
Interactions of the soil macrofauna with other soil biota and microorganisms are important
in the soil processes and development of faunal community (Seastedt, 1984; Visser, 1985).
Many investigators have reported the role of soil organisms in soil fertility (Edwards and
Lofty, 1977; Marinissen and Dereitur, 1993). In terrestrial ecosystem, plant leaf litter
inputs are the main energy source in the soil for diverse group of organisms. The soil
microorganisms are the key drivers for energy nutrient cycles and macro-biotas are the
decomposers and energy transformers. Recently, soil biodiversity has received
considerable attention due to the greater recognition of soil animals and their interactions
in many soil processes (Wall and Moore, 1999). Alterations in the ecosystem structure and
functions leads to the change in biodiversity, because it depends on the presence of specific
number of functional group (Ehrlich and Ehrlich, 1981).
Earthworms belonging to the Phylum: Annelida; Class: Oligochaeta, account for the
highest biomass among the soil macro fauna comprising about 80-90 % of total biomass of
the soil invertebrates (Didden et al., 1994). They are the first group of multicellular
invertebrate animal, which have successfully invaded the terrestrial habitat. There are two
groups of Oligochaetes i.e. megadriles (terrestrial and semi-aquatic earthworms) and
microdriles (only aquatic earthworms). Among the soil organisms, earthworms, termites,
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ants, centipedes, millipedes, woodlice and slugs are important in the soil humification
(Ashwini and Sridhar, 2006). Earthworms present in wide range of soil types and play an
important role in maintaining the soil fertility and nutrient cycling through fragmentation,
mixing of the decomposed organic matters and aeration in the soil (Lee, 1985; Edwards
and Bohlen, 1996).
Earthworms are reported to be originated in equatorial region of West Africa and
currently distributed in tropical, sub-tropical and temperate regions of the world. Of the 36
families in Oligochaetes, two-third families include aquatic Oligochaetes and rest of the
families are terrestrial earthworms (Bohlen et al., 2004). Approximately of the 6200
earthworm species known to exist in the world, the taxonomic status is given only for
about 4400 species of earthworms (Csuzdi, 2012; Reynolds and Wetzel, 2018). Of these,
about 150 species are considered as peregrine on a global scale (Blakemore, 2012). The
earthworm taxonomic work was started by Carolus Linnaeus (1758) with the description
of two annelid species i.e. Lumbricus terrestris (Oligochaete) and Lumbricus marinus
(Polychaete) in the 10th edition of his famous book entitled ‘Systema Naturae’. Later, nearly
30 species of lumbricids were described by Savigny (1826). Glossoscolex giganteus was
described by Leuckart from Brazil and South America during 1850s. New generation
zoologists started exploring these soil organisms in 1860s. Therefore, during the first
century of earthworm taxonomy (1758−1865), nearly 70 species of earthworms were
described. Later, taxonomists have contributed to the earthworm study from different
parts of the world including India. The first report on the earthworms of Indian
subcontinent was given by Templeton (1844). Subsequently, several species of earthworms
were reported from different parts of the country including Karnataka state.
Studies on earthworms of Karnataka was started by Kale and Krishnamoorthy
(1978). Later, the biological and ecological aspects of certain Indian earthworms were
reported by Rao (1979). Krishnamurthy and Ramachandra (1988) studied the population
structure of earthworms in woodlands of Karnataka. Blanchart and Julka (1997) studied
the influence of forest disturbance on the earthworm communities in Sagar forest range,
Western Ghats of Karnataka. Julka et al. (2004) reported few species of octochaetidae
earthworms from Western Ghats of Karnataka. Earthworms from Dakshina Kannada
district of Karnataka was studied by Siddaraju et al. (2010, 2013). Aquatic earthworms
have also been reported for the first time from Dakshina Kannada district in Karnataka
(Siddaraju, 2011; Hegde and Sreepada, 2015). Earthworm taxonomy from north Karnataka

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regions of Gulbarga district was reported by Hatti (2013), Padashetty and Jadesh (2014);
Harish et al., 2018a & b). Amynthas alexandri a new addition to the earthworm fauna of
Karnataka State, Southern India reported by Hasyagar et al. (2021). The existence of
Eudichogaster indicus and E. poonensis is the new record from Hyderabad-Karnataka region
is the second arid region after parts of Rajasthan in India (Mubeen and Hatti, 2022). Range
extension of earthworm Drawida impertusa in Karnataka (Hasyagar et al., 2022). At
present, nearly 505 species of earthworms have been reported from India (Julka, 2014;
Ahmed and Julka, 2017). Many scientists have studied the earthworm species diversity and
distribution in different regions of Karnataka state. Still, many earthworm species are yet
to be surveyed in different types of habitats.
References:
1. Ashwini, K. M. and Sridhar, K. R. (2006). Seasonal abundance and activity of pill
millipedes (Arthrosphaera magna) in mixed plantation and semi-evergreen forest of
Southern India. Acta Oecologica 29: 27-32.
2. Blakemore, R. J. (2012). Cosmopolitan earthworms- an eco-taxonomic guide to the
peregrine species of the world. Verm Ecology, Yokohama, Japan, 850 p.
3. Blanchart, E. and Julka, J. M. (1997). Influence of forest distribution on earthworm
(Oligochaeta) communities in the Western Ghats (South India). Soil Biology and
Biochemistry 29: 303-306.
4. Bohlen, P. J., Groffman, P. M., Fahey, T. J. and Fisk, M. C. (2004). Influence of
earthworm invasion on redistribution and retention of soil carbon and nitrogen in
Northern temperate forests. Ecosystems 7: 13–27.
5. Csuzdi, C. S. (2012). Earthworm species, a searchable database. Opuscula Zoologica
(Budapest) 43(1): 97–99.
6. Didden, W. A. M., Marinissen, J. C. Y., Vreeken-Buijs, M. J., Burgers, S. L. G. E., de Fluiter,
R., Geurs, M. and Brussaard, L. (1994). Soil meso and macro fauna in two agricultural
systems: Factors affecting population dynamics and evaluation of their role in carbon
and nitrogen dynamics. Agriculture, Ecosystem and Environment 51: 171-186.
7. Edwards, C. A. and Bohlen, P. J. (1996). Biology and ecology of earthworms. 3rd
edition. Chapman and Hall, London, 330 p.
8. Edwards, C. A. and Lofty, J. R. (1977). Biology of earthworms. Chapman and Hall, New
York. 333 p.

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9. Ehrlich, P. R. and Ehrlich, A. H. (1981). Extinction: The causes and consequences of the
disappearance of species. Random House, New York, pp. 72-98.
10. Harish K.T. S., Siddaraju M., Bhat C. H. K. and Sreepada K. S. (2018b). Seasonal
distribution and abundance of earthworms (Annelida: Oligochaeta) in relation to the
edaphic factors around Udupi Power Corporation Limited (UPCL), Udupi District,
South-western Coast of India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 10(3): 11432–11442;
http://doi.org/10.11609/jott.3806.10.3.11432-11442.
11. Harish K.T. S., Sreepada K. S., Narayanan S. P. and Reynolds J. W. (2018a). Megadrile
earthworms (Annelida: Oligochaeta) around Udupi Power Corporation Limited
(UPCL), Udupi District, Karnataka, South-West Coast of India. Megadrilogica 23(5):
79-89.
12. Hasyagar V., Narayanan S.P. and Sreepada K. S. (2022).Range extension of earthworm
Drawida impertusa Stephenson, 1920 (Clitellata: Moniligastridae) in Karnataka, India.
Journal of Threatened Taxa 14 (6), 21307-21310
13. Hasyagar, V., Narayanan S.P., Sreepada K. S. and Reynolds J.W. (2021). Amynthas
alexandri Beddard, 1901 (Clitellata: Megascolecidae) a new addition to the
earthworm fauna of Karnataka State, southern India. Megadrilogica 26(3): 43–49.
14. Hatti, S. S. (2013). Taxonomical studies on earthworm species of Gulbarga city,
Karnataka, India. Indian Journal of Applied Research 3(7): 34-38.
15. Hegde, P. R. and Sreepada, K. S. (2015). Freshwater Oligochaetes (Annelida) from
Western Ghats and the West coast of Karnataka (India). Turkish Journal of Zoology 39:
523–526.
16. Jouquet, P., Dauber, J., Lagerlof, J., Lavelle, P. and Lepage, M. (2006). Soil invertebrates
as ecosystem engineers: Intended and accidental effects on soil and feedback loops.
Applied Soil Ecology 32: 153–164.
17. Julka, J. M. (2014). Diversity and distribution of exotic earthworms (Annelida:
Oligochaeta) in India a review. In: Chaudhuri, P. and Singh, S. M. (eds.). Biology and
Ecology of Tropical Earthworms. Discovery Publishing House, New Delhi, pp. 73–83.
18. Julka, J. W., Blanchart, E. and Chapuis-Lardy, L. (2004). New genera and new species
of earthworms (Oligochaeta: Octochaetidae) from Western Ghats, South India.
Zootaxa 486: 1–27.

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19. Kale, R. D. and Krishnamoorthy, R.V. (1978). Distribution and abundance of

earthworms in Bangalore. Proceedings of the Indian Academy of Sciences-Section B,
Animal Sciences 87(3): 23-25.
20. Kanianska, R., Jad’ud’ová, J., Makovníková, J. and Kizeková, M. (2016). Assessment of
relationships between earthworms and soil abiotic and biotic factors as a tool in
sustainable agricultural. Sustainability, 14 p.
21. Krishnamurthy, R. V. and Ramachandra, S. (1988). Population structure of
earthworms in woodlands of Karnataka. Proceedings of the Indian Academy of Science
(Animal Science) 97(4): 355-365.
22. Lavelle, P. and Spain, A.V. (2001). Soil Ecology, Kluwer Scientific, Amsterdam, 654 p.
23. Lee K. E. (1985). Earthworms: Their ecology and relationships with soils and land use.
Academic press. New York, 411 p.
24. Marinissen, J. C. Y. and Dereitur, P. C. (1993). Contribution of earthworms to carbon
and nitrogen cycling in agro-ecosystems. Agriculture Ecosystem and Environment
47(1): 59- 71.
25. Mubeen H. and Hatti S.S. (2021). Earthworms of Hyderabad-Karnataka Province,
Karnataka, India, with Two New Records. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., India, Sect. B Biol. Sci.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s40011-021-01301-7.
26. Padashetty, S. and Jadesh, M. (2014). An preliminary survey of earthworm species
composition and distribution in the North Karnataka region, Gulbarga, Karnataka.
International Letters of Natural Sciences 27: 54-60.
27. Puga-Freitas, R. and Blouin, M. (2015). A review of the effects of soil organisms on
plant hormone signaling pathways. Environmental and Experimental Botany 114:
104-116.
28. Rao, B. R. C. (1979). Studies on the biological and ecological aspects of certain Indian
earthworms. Karnataka. Ph.D. thesis, Mysore University, India, 242 p.
29. Reynolds, J. W. and Wetzel, M. J. (2018). Nomenclatura Oligochaetologica- A catalogue
of names, descriptions and type specimens. Editio Secunda. URL:
http://www.inhs.illinois.edu/people/mjwetzel/nomenoligo.
30. Seastedt, T. R. (1984). The role of micro-arthropods in decomposition and
mineralization process. Annual Review of Entomology 29:25–46.

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31. Siddaraju, M. (2011). Earthworm species diversity in Dakshina Kannada district and
organic waste management through vermitechnology. Ph.D thesis, Mangalore
University, India, 173p.
32. Siddaraju, M., Sreepada, K. S. and Krishna, M. P. (2013). Recorded distribution of
earthworms of the family Octochaetidae in Dakshina Kannada district, South-west
coast, Karnataka. International Scientific and Research publication 3(6): 2250-3153.
33. Siddaraju, M., Sreepada, K. S. and Reynolds, J. W. (2010). Checklist of earthworms
(Annelida: Oligochaeta) from Dakshina Kannada, Karnataka, South-west coast of
India. Megadrilogica 14(5): 65-75.
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