AGRICULTURE

UNIT 1 THE MEANING AND IMPORTANCE OF FARM

RECORDS
UNIT 2 PHYSICAL FARM RECORDS
UNIT 3 FINANCIAL FARM RECORDS
UNIT 4 SOURCES AND IMPORTANCE OF WATER
UNIT 5 IRRIGATION
UNIT 6 SOIL COMPOSITION
UNIT 7 THE IMPORTANCE OF SOIL
UNIT 8 FARM IMPLEMENTS
UNIT 9 SAFETY MEASURES IN USING FARM
IMPLEMENTS
UNIT 10 MAINTENANCE OF FARM IMPLEMENTS
UNIT 11 THE FARMING CALENDAR
UNIT 12 LAND PREPARATION FOR GROUNDNUTS
AND CASSAVA
UNIT 13 SEED SELECTION IN GROUNDNUTS AND
CASSAVA
UNIT 14 PLANTING GROUNDNUTS AND CASSAVA
UNIT 15 WEEDING IN GROUNDNUTS AND CASSAVA
UNIT 16 PESTS AND DISEASES IN GROUNDNUTS
AND CASSAVA
UNIT 17 HARVESTING GROUNDNUTS AND CASSAVA
UNIT 18 PROCESSING AND STORAGE OF
GROUNDNUTS AND CASSAVA
UNIT 19 TYPES AND IMPORTANCE OF POULTRY
UNIT 20 SYSTEMS OF KEEPING CHICKENS
UNIT 21 SYSTEMS OF KEEPING CHICKENS
UNIT 22 CHICKEN FEED AND FEEDING
UNIT 23 BREEDING PRINCIPLES FOR CHICKENS
UNIT 24 THE DISEASES AND PARASITES OF
CHICKENS
UNIT 25 MARKETING OF CHICKENS AND CHICKEN
PRODUCTS
UNIT 26 TREE NURSERY ESTABLISHMENT
UNIT 27 TREE NURSERY MANAGEMENT
UNIT 28 WOODLOT ESTABLISHMENT
UNIT 29 WOODLOT MANAGEMENT 1
UNIT 30 WOODLOT MANAGEMENT 2
REFERENCES

UNIT 1 THE MEANING AND IMPORTANCE OF

FARM RECORDS

MEANING OF FARM RECORDS

Farm records are written information that farmers
keep on different activities carried out on a farm.
THE IMPORTANCE OF KEEPING FARM RECORDS
 making important decisions
 budgeting and planning
 calculating profit or loss
 selecting livestock
 obtaining loans from money lending
institutions
UNIT 2 PHYSICAL FARM RECORDS

Physical farm records are all farm records dealing

with production.

EXAMPLES OF PHYSICAL FARM RECORDS

 field operations records
 crop records
 labour records
 layers records
 milk production records
 inventory records (record of items on a farm)
FIELD OPERATION RECORDS
A field operation record is a record of daily
activities done by a farmer from land preparation
to harvesting. This record shows inputs used on the
crops such as type and amount of seed, fertilizers,
chemicals and labour used.

CROP RECORD
A crop record shows the crop, plot number, plot
size, type and amount of seed used, type and
amount of fertilizer or manure and amount of
insecticides used.

A YIELD RECORD
A yield crop shows the amount of yield harvested
for each crop grown on the farm. The amount is
recorded in kilograms.

A LABOUR RECORD
A labour record shows crop, plot number, plot size,
activity and work done (man days). Labour is work
done by human beings measured in man days.

A LAYERS RECORD
A layers record shows the date, the number of
hens laying, the number of eggs collected daily
and the amount of feed used daily.

UNIT 3 FINANCIAL FARM RECORDS

MEANING OF FINANCIAL FARM RECORDS
Financial records are records dealing with money
on a farm.
OR
Financial farm records are all records of accounts
that show income and expenditure.

EXAMPLES OF FINANCIAL FARM RECORDS

 sales records
 expenditure records
 production records

In financial farm records, there are two main

columns of income on one side and expenditure on
the other.
The difference between the total income and total
expenditures gives the profit or loss of a particular
farming activity.
Any produce from the farm eaten or used at home
should be valued at current market price.
This should be recorded under sales and receipts
because the farmer would have sold such produce
for income.
 UNIT 4 SOURCES AND
IMPORTANCE OF WATER
SOURCES OF WATER
 Rivers
 Dams
 Lakes
 Streams
 Boreholes
 wells
However, all these sources depend on rainfall.

THE IMPORTANCE OF WATER TO CROPS

 Seed germination
 Irrigation of crops
 Pollination of flowers
 Making plant food
 Transportation of farm inputs and produce

THE IMPORTANCE OF WATER TO LIVESTOCK

 For drinking
 Fish farming
 Washing utensils
  Dip tanks – chemicals at dip tanks are mixed
with water to make dip wash or dip solution.
This helps to kill external parasites in farm
animals

WAYS OF IMPROVING AVAILABILITY OF WATER

 Avoiding cutting down trees carelessly around
sources of water
 Construction of dams and boreholes
 Provision of piped water

WAYS OF IMPROVING THE QUALITY OF WATER

 Avoiding putting wastes in rivers
 Adding chlorine to dirty water

UNIT 5 IRRIGATION
MEANING OF THE TERM ‘IRRIGATION’
Irrigation means supplying water onto a field to
enable crops grow.

IMPORTANCE OF IRRIGATION
 Avoiding risks of hunger
  Helps farmers to grow crops several times a
year

METHODS OF IRRIGATION
 Sprinkler irrigation
 Drip irrigation
 Basin irrigation
 Flooding irrigation
SPRINKLER IRRIGATION

Water is supplied to crops through pipes which

have nozzles at one end to spray the water.
the sprinkler irrigation method
DRIP IRRIGATION
This is also known as trickle irrigation. Water is led
through plastic pipes which are laid on the ground.
The pipes have small holes through which water
comes out. The spacing between the holes is
determined by the distance between the planting
stations of the crops. Water intake by the soil is
controlled.
the drip irrigation method

BASIN IRRIGATION
Water is led to basins through furrows. This
method is good for fruit trees.

the basin irrigation method

FLOODING IRRIGATION
Water is supplied in a plot through flooding. This
method is common in rice fields. The land should
be flat.
 UNIT 6 SOIL COMPOSITION
The term ‘soil’ means the loose material covering
the surface of earth.

THE COMPOSITION OF SOIL

Soil is made up of different materials.
These include the following:
 Inorganic matter
 Organic matter
 Soil water
 Soil air

INORGANIC MATTER
  This is made up of sand, silt and clay particles.
This forma the largest part of the soil.

ORGANIC MATTER
 This is made up of living, decaying and
decayed plant and animal parts. The decayed
matter is called humus.

SOIL WATER
 This is soil moisture.

SOIL AIR
 This is air trapped between the soil particles.

UNIT 7 THE IMPORTANCE OF SOIL THE

IMPORTANCE OF SOIL TO CROPS
 Holds plants
 Supplies water to plants
 Provides mineral salts to plants
  Provides air
 It is home of soil organisms

UNIT 8 FARM IMPLEMENTS

NAMES AND PARTS OF FARM IMPLEMENTS

 The wheelbarrow

The wheelbarrow has four main parts:

o Wheel
o Handles
o Barrow
o Frame
a wheelbarrow
Wheel: it rolls over the ground to enable the
barrow to be pushed more easily. Handles : they
enable the farmer to hold and push the barrow.
Barrow : this is the basin or box in which the
materials being transported are placed. Frame :
this is the structure to which all the other parts are
attached.

 THE MAIZE SHELLER

This implement is used to shell maize. Major parts
of the maize sheller are:
o Loading hopper
o Drum
o Shelling disc
o Steel supporters
a maize sheller
Loading hopper : this is where maize cobs are
placed or loaded for shelling.
Drum : the cobs slide into a drum where shellers
are placed.
Shelling disc : the shellers in the drum are
attached to a shelling disc which spins during
shelling process.

Steel supporters – the implement is held upright by

strong steel bars.

 A FARM CART
This is used for transporting farm goods. The main
parts of a farm cart are:
o Cart body
o Dazzle boom
o Wheels and tyres
 o Yoke

a farm cart
Cart body: this is a box-like structure made of
wooden planks bolted together. It is where goods
are loaded.
Dazzle boom : this supports the cart body and joins
it to a yoke.
Wheels and tyres : they roll on the ground so that
the cart can move more easily when pulled by
draught animals
Yoke : this is a wooden structure which connects
the cart to the necks of the draught animals.

 TREADLE PUMP
This is used for pumping water from a source to a
crop field. Major parts of treadle pump are:
 o Handle
o Treadles
o Barrel assembly
o Pulley
o Inlet pipe
o Outlet pipe

a treadle pump
Handle : the person operating the treadle
pump holds the handle for support.
Treadles : these are the two wooden foot
pedals. They are used to pump water through a
walking motion. Barrel assembly : the two
pistons which help to draw the water.
Pulley : this is the metal wheel which helps in
lifting the water.
Inlet pipe : This is also called intake or suction
pipe. It is used to carry water from water
sources such as boreholes, wells, lakes or
rivers.
Outlet pipe : this delivers water towards the
garden.

o WIND MILL
Main parts of a wind mill are:
 Bladed turbine
 tower

a wind mill Bladed turbine : this rotates in the

blowing of the wind.
Tower : this supports the wind turbine

o A MOTORISED WATER PUMP

USES OF FARM IMPLEMENT

Farm implement
Uses
Wheelbarrow o Transporting materials such as farm
produce, fertilizers, manure,
building materials
Maize sheller o Shelling dry maize

Farm cart o Transporting farm produce from

the farm to the home or market
o Transporting farm inputs such as
fertilizer, seed, farm produce,
manure, building materials

Treadle pump o Lifting water from wells, boreholes

or open sources (rivers or lakes)
for irrigating crops
Motorised o Drawing water

pump
Wind mill o Drawing water
o Generating electricity
 UNIT 9 SAFETY MEASURES IN
USING FARM IMPLEMENTS
GENERAL FARM SAFETY RULES IN USING FARM
IMPLEMENTS
 Dress suitably for the task, for
example, avoiding wearing loose
clothing that can be caught in a
moving or rotating implement
 Using implements properly
 Ensuring that implements are in good
state of repair
 Checking implements before use to
ensure that bolts and nuts are securely
fixed to avoid wobbling
 Following the manufacturer's
instructions or procedures when using
farm implements
 Greasing all moving parts
 Properly fixing the wheel axle

FARM-CART
 It should not be overloaded to avoid
loss of balance
 Bolts and nuts should be tightened
before use
 Tyres should be properly inflated
  Draught animals should be strong and
of the same size
 The yoke should be the correct size for
the oxen
 The yoke strap should be strong

 The cart should be fitted with reflectors

to avoid accidents

TREADLE PUMP
 Check the pulley and rope before use
 Hold the handle firmly

WINDMILL
 Check that fasteners are tight to keep
the vane in place

MOTORIZED PUMP
 Keep fuel and oil in safe place
 Tighten bolts and nuts before use
 Grease all moving parts before use
 Keep battery acid away from your skin
or eyes
 UNIT 10 MAINTENANCE OF
FARM IMPLEMENTS
WAYS OF MAINTAINING FARM IMPLEMENTS
WHEELBARROW
 Replace worn out parts
 Load it appropriately
 Clean it well after use
 Paint it when not in use to prevent
rusting
 Store it in a shed for protection against
the sun and rains
 Grease the wheel axle

MAIZE SHELLER
 Replace worn out parts
 Grease moving parts to reduce friction
 Clean it properly (dust it)
 Change oil and oil filter regularly
 Set the maize sheller properly
 Paint it if not in use to prevent rusting
  Store it under the shed

FARM CART
 Replace worn out parts
 Grease bearings regularly
 Inflate tyres at the correct pressure
 Avoid overloading it
 Keep the farm cart under the shed if
not in use

TREADLE PUMP
 Replace worn out parts
 Grease moving parts to reduce friction
 Paint it when not in use

WINDMILL
 Change the oil and clean the filter on
the compression
 Grease the moving parts
 Replace worn out parts
 Re-paint the rotor
 Service pump
 Tighten fasteners
MOTORIZED WATER PUMP
 Change the oil regularly
 Check the wiring
 Replace worn out parts
 Overhaul the engine

UNIT 11 THE FARMING

CALENDAR

MEANING OF THE TERM 'FARMING CALENDAR'

A farming calendar is a list of activities to be
done in each month of the year for a given
crop.

THE IMPORTANCE OF A FARMING CALENDAR

 It is a source of farm record
 It guides the farmer to carry out all
farming operations or activities at the
appropriate time
 UNIT 12 LAND PREPARATION
FOR GROUNDNUTS AND
CASSAVA
Land preparation for growing field crops such
as groundnuts and cassava should be done
soon after harvesting the preceding crop.
This is what is known by early land preparation.

REASONS FOR EARLY LAND PREPARATION

 It is easy to till the ground
 It promotes the decomposition of crop
residues which improves soil fertility
 It enables the farmer to plant with the
first rains
ACTIVITIES INVOLVED IN LAND PREPARATION
 Site selection
 Clearing land
 Ploughing the land
 Ridging
 Making box ridges
 UNIT 13 SEED SELECTION IN
GROUNDNUTS AND CASSAVA

In Malawi, most farmers buy seeds from shops.

However some farmers select seeds or planting
materials from the previous crop.

FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN SELECTING

GOOD SEEDS OR PLANTING MATERIALS
 Ability to germinate

 Large size
 Wholeness (unbroken or undamaged)
 Free from diseases
 Purity (not mixed with any other
materials)
 Maturity
 Suitable variety for climate of the area
 UNIT 14 PLANTING
GROUNDNUTS AND CASSAVA

Like any other field crops, groundnuts and

cassava must be planted at the right time,
spacing, seed rate and depth.

Groundnuts
In Malawi, groundnuts are planted with the first
or soaking rains of between 25mm and 30mm.
It is usually between October and November in
the southern region and November and
December in the central and northern regions.
The spacing between ridges and planting
stations for groundnuts depends on the variety.

VARIETIES, SEED RATE AND SPACING IN

GROUNDNUTS

Variety
Seed Spacing Plantin
rate (cm) g depth
(kg/ha)
Chalimba 110 75 x 15 x 5-7cm
na 1 seed
Chitemba 120 75 x 15 x 5-7cm
na 1 seed
CG7 110 75 x 15 x 5-7cm
1 seed
Nsinjiro 100 75 x 15 x 5-7cm
1 seed
Manipinta 80 75 x 15 x 5-7cm
r 1 seed
Mawanga 80 75 x 15 x 5-7cm
1 seed
RG1 80 75 x 15 x 5-7cm
1 seed
Malimba 45 75 x 10 x 5-7cm
1 seed
Kakoma 60 75 x 10 x 5-7cm
1 seed
Baka 60 75 x 10 x 5-7cm
1 seed

Cassava
Cassava is also planted with the first soaking
rains in all the regions in Malawi.

It is recommended to plant cassava on ridges

spaced at 90 centimetres apart and 90
centimetres between planting stations where it
would be processed into Kandowole.
For the tubers to be sold fresh at the market,
spacing of 90 centimetres between ridges and
45 centimetres between planting stations is
used.
Cassava planting materials must be obtained
from a middle portion of a well matured plant.
Cassava cuttings should be 25 to 30
centimetres long with at least two nodes.
Cuttings should be planted at an angle and two
thirds of the cuttings should be planted into the
soil. This prevents water from settling down on
the cut edges which can cause rotting of the
cutting.

The improved varieties of cassava include

silira, maunjiri and mkondezi.
There are also local varieties that are grown in
Malawi like Manyokola (mbundumali), Gomani
and Chitembwere.

Groundnut seed and cassava planting

materials that have not germinated or
sprouted have to be replaced immediately so
that they can almost grow together with the
seeds or planting materials of the first planting.
Replanting where germination failed is called
'supplying'.
Supplying is important because it helps to
maintain both the plant population and yield of
a particular crop.

UNIT 15 WEEDING IN
GROUNDNUTS AND CASSAVA
WEEDING GROUNDNUTS AND CASSAVA
The best time to weed is when weeds appear.
It is also recommended to weed while the
crops are still young. This does not disturb the
developing roots.

METHODS OF WEEDING GROUNDNUTS AND

CASSAVA
 Using hoes
 Ploughing
 Using hands

 Using chemicals
COMMON WEEDS OF GROUNDNUTS AND
CASSAVA
 Chisoso (black jack)
 Msonthi
 Bonongwe (Amaranthus)
 Luba
 Namsongole (tares)
 Dawe
 Khovani
 Chilungumwamba
 Denje
 Likodza
 Kalasawene
 Volunteer crops such as maize, millet
and sorghum

EFFECTS OF WEEDS IN GROUNDNUTS AND

CASSAVA
 Competition for nutrients
 Competition for water
 Competition for sunlight
 Transmission of diseases
 Harbouring pests
 UNIT 16 PESTS AND DISEASES
IN GROUNDNUTS AND CASSAVA

THE PESTS OF GROUNDNUTS, DAMAGE DONE

AND THEIR CONTROL

Pest
Damage done Control/prevention
Termit o They damage o Avoiding growing

es the stems and groundnuts in gardens

eat the soft parts
of groundnut that have termites
pods mounds or a history
of termites
Aphids o They suck plant o Early planting

juice and o Planting closer

transmit a virus together so that leaves

which causes cover the soil
rosette disease completely
in groundnuts o Practicing crop

rotation

o Correct spacing of
plants
o Spraying chemicals
Birds o They dig up and o Scaring
eat planted seeds o Trapping
or mature nuts

Mice o They eat up nuts o Trapping

in the garden and
in
storage
Monkey o They dig up o Scaring
s planted seeds and
mature
nuts

a termite

an aphid

THE DISEASES OF GROUNDNUTS

Rosette
Rosette is caused by a virus and spread by
aphids. The disease restricts pod formation.
The crop has a stunted growth.
Sometimes the groundnut leaves look wrinkled
with dark green or yellow colour.

Control of rosette disease

 Planting early
 Recommended spacing to prevent
aphids multiplying
 Uprooting the diseased plants and
burning them
 Using resistant varieties such as RG1,
Nsinjiro

Leaf spot
This is caused by fungus.
There are two types of leaf spot that attack
groundnuts. These are:
 Early leaf spot
 Late leaf spot
Early leaf spot shows reddish brown spots
surrounded by a yellow band.
Late leaf spot shows darker and smaller spots
without a yellow band around them.

Control of leaf spot

 Spraying the plants with recommended
fungicides
 Growing resistant varieties
 Practicing crop rotation

THE PESTS OF CASSAVA, DAMAGE DONE AND

CONTROL OR PREVENTION

Pest
Damage done Control/
prevention
Green o They attack o Early planting

spider fresh leaves and o Planting stem

mites shoots cuttings that are not
especially attacked by green
during the dry spider mites
season
o The tips of the

shoots shrivel
and die

White flies o They suck juice o Planting stem

 from the plant cuttings which are
o They cause free from white
lumps and flies
knots in the o Early planting
tubers
o They spread
cassava mosaic
disease

Mice o They dig up o Scaring

Hares mature tubers o Trapping
Wild pigs
Monkeys
Porcupine
s

The diseases of cassava

 Cassava mosaic. It is caused by virus
and transmitted by white flies.
 Bacterial blight. It is caused by
bacteria.
THE DISEASES OF CASSAVA, EFFECTS AND
CONTROL

Disease
Effects Control/
 (damage) prevention
Cassava o Change shape of o Using healthy

mosaic the leaves and cuttings

become yellow o Early planting

o Uprooting and

burning diseased
plants

Bacteria o Shoot tips turn o Using healthy

l blight brown cuttings
o Leaves develop o Early planting
brown patches, o Uprooting and
wilt and fall off burning diseased
plants
o Practicing crop
rotation

UNIT 17 HARVESTING
GROUNDNUTS AND CASSAVA
The success of harvesting depends on the
timing of both groundnuts and cassava.
Before harvesting both groundnuts and
cassava, it is important to check if they are
mature.
Groundnuts
Groundnuts are mature and ready to harvest if
the inside of the pod is spotted pale brown.
This is usually after three to five months from
the time of planting depending on the variety.

STEPS TO FOLLOW WHEN HARVESTING

GROUNDNUTS
 Dig up the plants with a hoe carefully
to avoid nuts breaking off and
remaining on the ground and pull them
down
 Stack groundnuts and leave the plants
in the sun with pods up for few days to
dry
 Pull off the nuts from the plants, that is,
strip off the nuts (kuthothola)
 Spread groundnuts on the mats to dry
again for a week

Cassava
Cassava is usually mature and ready to harvest
when it has been growing for one year.
Cassava is usually mature when the soil on
which it grows starts to crack.
It can be harvested by cutting off the stems
with a panga, removing the soil around the
roots with a hoe and then pull them out

UNIT 18 PROCESSING AND

STORAGE OF GROUNDNUTS
AND CASSAVA
Cassava and groundnuts need to be processed
and stored properly.
Processing of cassava helps it to stay for a
longer period of time and attracts high prices
on the market.

Groundnuts
Groundnuts’ inside shells take 3 to 6 weeks to
dry. Sometimes groundnuts are dried in stooks
for quick drying.
It is not recommended to dry groundnuts on
iron sheet roofs.
Pods are then removed by hand or machine
from the plant when they start to rattle.
Groundnuts are then winnowed to remove soil
debris or trash.
After drying, shelling is done by hand or
machine.
After shelling, groundnuts are graded to
remove mouldy and broken nuts from good
ones. Take note that oil nuts such as mawanga
and manipintar are usually sold in pods.
Shelled nuts may be roasted, pounded into
flour and made into sauce. Sometimes farmers
roast, salt groundnuts and put them in small
plastic packets. These are sold as an income
generating activity at local markets.

CASSAVA
Cassava is best stored in processed form
because it does not take long to rot after
harvesting. There are two methods of
processing cassava.
These are:
 Heap fermentation
 Soaking fermentation

HEAP FERMENTATION
This involves:
o peeling the outer covers
o Slicing
o Heap to ferment
o Drying
SOAKING FERMENTATION
This involves:
o Peeling
o Soaking in containers
o Cleaning
o Pounding
o Drying
Fermentation helps to remove the toxic
substances from the bitter varieties of cassava
and improve taste When slicing cassava, chips
or slices are prepared about 2.5 to 7.5
centimetres for easy drying.
Large chips develop moulds especially when
harvesting is done in rainy season.
Sweet varieties of cassava are prepared by
peeling, cutting the tubers into small pieces
and boiling.

STORAGE OF GROUNDNUTS AND CASSAVA

Groundnuts
Dried groundnuts can be stored either in
shelled or unshelled form. Unshelled
groundnuts are stored in sacks, granary
(nkhokwe) or in clay pots. Shelled groundnuts
are stored in sacks.
The sacks are stacked on planks or logs to
allow free movement of air to prevent moisture
which attracts the growth of moulds on the
groundnuts
Groundnuts store better in pods because it is
difficult for moulds to attack. Before storage,
groundnuts need to be winnowed to clean
them.

Cassava
Farmers are encouraged to store cassava in
processed form such as dried pieces (makaka)
or flour. Processed cassava stay longer in
storage without getting rotten.
Apply 25 grammes of actellic dust to 50kg of
makaka to avoid weevil damage.
Cassava chips should be kept dry and away
from wet conditions to prevent them from
developing moulds. Mouldy cassava chips are
not good for consumption and cannot sell well
on the market.

UNIT 19 TYPES AND

IMPORTANCE OF POULTRY
Poultry means all domesticated birds.

TYPES OF POULTRY
 Chickens
 Pigeons
 Ducks
 Geese
 Turkeys
 Guinea fowls

IMPORTANCE OF POULTRY
 Source of food to people
 Beautification
 Source of manure
 Employment
 Source of raw materials
 Source of income

TYPES OF CHICKENS
 Layers
 Broilers
Layers are kept mainly for egg production
Broilers are kept mainly for meat production
In Malawi farmers also keep the Black
Australorp locally known as Mikolongwe. These
are kept for both meat and eggs.

BROILERS
Broilers are big, heavy and grow very fast.
They are usually ready for use at the age of 6
to 8 weeks.
The improved breeds of broilers kept for meat
in Malawi include Stabro, Indian River and
Ross.

LAYERS
Layers are small, light and grow slowly.
They take about 18 to 20 weeks before they
start laying eggs.
There are several improved breeds of layers
kept and these include Hyline, White leghorn
and Shavers.
 UNIT 20 SYSTEMS OF KEEPING
CHICKENS 1

Chickens need proper housing to protect them

from bad weather, predators and thieves. It is
important to provide enough space.
A clean chicken house will help to control
diseases and parasites. There are three main
systems of keeping chickens.
These are:
 Free range system
 Semi-intensive system
 Intensive system

FREE RANGE SYSTEM

Chickens are left free all day, getting their own
feed in form of green grass, insects and any
leftover food. The chickens are not restricted
by a fence.
This system is adopted where there is enough
land.

ADVANTAGES OF FREE RANGE SYSTEM

  Chickens can find feed for themselves
 Chickens are able to get sunshine
 Manure is well spread all over the field
 The children house does not need
expensive materials to construct

DISADVANTAGES OF FREE RANGE SYSTEM

 Predators can catch the chickens

 It is difficult to collect eggs at they may

be laid in the bush
 Chickens can easily catch diseases
 Difficult to control breeding

SEMI-INTENSIVE SYSTEM
The chickens are allowed to move freely during
the day to eat insects, grass, worms and grit in
a fenced area. They are provided with a house
to sleep at night.
Feed and water are provided within the fence.
Laying nets are provided.
The house provided can either be traditional or
deep litter.
ADVANTAGES OF SEMI-INTENSIVE SYSTEM
 Chickens do not go far away
 Easy to collect manure
 It is easy to control diseases
 It is easy to collect eggs
 Chickens can be fed on locally made
feed

DISADVANTAGE OF FREE RANGE SYSTEM

 Feed must be provided as chickens
cannot find enough feed for
themselves

UNIT 21 SYSTEMS OF KEEPING

CHICKENS 2
INTENSIVE SYSTEM OF KEEPING CHICKENS
The chickens are confined all the time.
This system requires high levels of
management and totally depends on
commercial feeds.
There are two main houses used to keep
chickens under this system. These are

 Deep litter houses

 Battery cages

DEEP LITTER HOUSE

Chickens are confined (kept) throughout their
life in a house. Part of the wall is built with wire
mesh to allow ventilation. The house is built on
a raised ground.
The floor is well filled with litter up to 10 to 15
centimetres high.
The litter can be made of sawdust, wood
shavings, crashed maize cobs or chopped
straws. The litter is turned constantly using a
rake.
The old litter is removed when new birds are
put into the house. The house has a floor space
of 2 to 3 birds per square metre.
The farmer provides laying nests, roosting
perches, feed and water troughs.

ADVANTAGES OF DEEP LITTER HOUSE

  Many chickens can be kept in a small
area
 More eggs and meat are produced in
this system than in the semi-intensive
system
 Chickens are well protected from
disease and predator attacks

DISADVANTAGES OF DEEP LITTER HOUSE

 There is problem of cannibalism and
egg eating
 Chickens can easily catch diseases if
litter has a lot of moisture
 Litter may not be available when
needed
 It is difficult to identify non-laying
chickens

THE BATTERY CAGE SYSTEM

This is the most intensive of all the systems.
The chickens are put in cages.
The number of chickens per cage varies from 1
to 4.
The cages are made of wire and placed in tiers,
generally one above the other. They stretch
the whole length of the house.
Each cage has a sloping floor to allow for easy
flow of eggs.
Since the droppings fall onto the floor, the
lowest tier of cages should be 0.6 to 0.9 metres
above the floor for easy cleaning.
Watering and feeding are continuous
throughout the length of the cages. Battery
house should have adequate light and air
should move freely.
The floor is made of concrete.
This system is recommended for layers.

ADVANTAGES OF BATTERY CAGE SYSTEM

 The farmer can keep many chickens on
a small piece of land
 Individual record of the chickens can
be kept
 Chickens cannot practise egg eating
and cannibalism
 No contamination of food and water
with droppings
 Clean eggs are collected
 High egg, meat and manure production
DISADVANTAGES OF BATTERY CAGE SYSTEM
 It needs a lot of money to buy the
cages
 High level of management needed for
maximum profits

UNIT 22 CHICKEN FEED AND

FEEDING
TYPES OF FEEDS FOR CHICKENS
Chickens need feed every day. The type of
feed depends on the type and the age of
chicken. The feed given to the chickens must
always be balanced. A balanced food has all
the needed nutrients in correct amounts for the
chickens to be healthy and provide meat or
eggs. These feeds can be brought from the
shops or prepared locally on the farm.
The locally prepared feed is made by mixing 1
part maize meal, 1 part maize bran and 1 part
bean meal. Instead of bean meal a farmer can
use any other protein source such as cotton
seed meal, groundnuts meal, fish meal, meat
and bone meal. However the beans must be
roasted before grinding to make a bean meal.
If

the chicken are feed on locally prepared feed,

they must be given plenty of green vegetable
as the source of vitamins.
Layers, on locally prepared feeds, must be
prepared with lime, burnt and crushed bones
or eggshells so that they produce eggs with
strong shells.
The commercial feed is already balanced. The
farmer will buy according to the needs of the
chickens whether layers or broilers and their
age.
The feeding is done as shown in the tables
below:
Feeding of layers

Types of chicken
Ages Types of
feed
Layers Day old to 8 Chick starter
weeks marsh
9 weeks to Growers
16 weeks marsh or
pellet
17 weeks Layers marsh
on wards or pellet
Feeding of broilers

Types of chicken
Stage of Types of feed
developme
nt
Broilers Day old to 3 Broiler starter
weeks marsh
4 weeks to 5 Broiler grower
weeks marsh or pellet
6 weeks to 8 Broiler finisher
weeks marsh or pellet

Or

Types of Stage of Types of

chicken developmen feed
t
Broilers Day old to 4 Broiler starter
weeks marsh
5 weeks to 8 Broiler finisher
weeks marsh

FEEDING CHICKENS
Chicken feed and water must be available all
the time. The feed is placed in feed troughs
(feeders) and water is put in water troughs
(waterers). Clean water must be provided
every day. Always wash the water troughs
before putting fresh water.

UNIT 23 BREEDING PRINCIPLES

FOR CHICKENS
SELECTION OF CHICKENS FOR BREEDING
It is the aim of every farmer to produce more
eggs and chicken meat. To get this, a farmer
must start with strong and healthy chicks. Such
chicks will be produced if the cock and the hen
have the required

characteristics of high eggs and meat

production. This required good selection of a
hen and a cock to be parents for the wanted
chicks. It is recommended to mate cocks of
black austrolop (mikolongwe) with a local hen
in order to improve meat and egg production.
The offspring will have the better resistance to
diseases and survive under hard conditions.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD HEN

 o Broad heat and blunt, short beak
o Bright eyes
o Large smooth comb
o Well-built and roomy body
o Strong legs
o A wide, moist vent

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD COCK

o A large smooth comb
o Bright eyes
o Strong and healthy legs
o Strong body

UNIT 24 THE DISEASES AND THE

PARASITES OF CHICKENS
THE DISEASES OF CHICKENS
COMMON DISEASES OF CHICKEN

Name Caus Signs Preventio Treatmen

es and n t
sympto
ms
Newca virus o walkin o vaccinati none

stle g on
backwa
rd
o loss of

balance

o failing o kill all

on one the
side infected
o head birds
shakin o burn or
g bury all
o twistin dead
g of birds
 neck o disinfecti
o paralys on
is
o coughi
ng
o sneezin
g
o difficul
ty in
breathi
ng and
graspin
g for
air

Fowl virus o sores o vaccinati none but

pox or on antibiotic
spots o isolation can be
or of used for
patches infected the sores.
on birds Iodine can
face, also be
wattles, applied on
comb, sores
around
eyes
and
beak

Cough virus o sneezin o vaccinati no specific

s g on treatment
Sneezi o coughi o cleanlines
ng ng s
o watery o Isolation
dischar of
ges infected
from birds
eyes
and
nose

Coccidi proto o blood o Drugs Use

osis zoa in added to suitable
droppi drinking drugs. For
ngs water and example,
o rough feed sulphamer
feather o Disinfecti azine,
s on sulphamet
o weak o Clean hizine,
birds house and amprolium
equipmen
t

Fowl bacte o Greyis o vaccinati Antibiotics,

choler ria h on for
a droppi example,
ng tetracyclin
o Blue e sulfer
wattles, drugs
combs
and
 face

THE PARASITES OF CHICKENS

Two groups of parasites attack chicken. These
are:
 internal parasites
 external parasites

The internal parasites live inside the chickens,

in the intestines. They feed on the food that is
the chickens eat. They can block the chicken’s
digestive system.

The external parasite live on the surface of the

chicken, infesting the skin feathers and legs.
They suck blood and cause irritation.

SOME OF THE COMMON PARASITES OF

CHICKENS

Parasite
Signs of Prevention Treatme
infestatio nt
n or
damage
Tapeworm o Suck o Cleanliness o Use
s digested in houses piperaz
feed o Keep ine
o Chicks feeding and (de-
fails to drinking wormi
gain places dry ng )
weight

Roundwor o Suck o Clean the o Use

ms digested khola piperaz
feed o Keeping ine
o Chicks litter dry (de-
fail to o Raising the wormi
gain young ng)
weight
o Older birds away
birds lose from the
weight older birds
o Reduce
eggs
productio
n

Scaly legs o Scales on o Cleanliness o Wash

mites legs in the khola legs
with
paraffi
n or
gamato
x
solutio
n
 o Apply
petrole
um
jelly
or grease
on legs
Fleas and o Irritating o Cleanliness o Dust

lice skin in the pestici

o Birds des
sand- khola into
bathe
feathers

UNIT 25 MARKETING OF CHICKEN

PRODUCTS
MARKETING OF CHICKEN PRODUCTS
Chicken products that a farmer can sell include
eggs, chicken meat (or live chickens), and
manure.
MARKETING OF EGGS, CHICKENS AND CHICKEN
PRODUCTS
Where farmers sell eggs and chickens
Poultry farmers sell chickens and eggs at local
market, district council markets, town markets,
hotels, restaurants, super markets and other
institutions.

Procedures for marketing chickens and

chicken products
Marketing of chickens and chicken products
involve the following:
o Cleaning
o Grading
o Packaging
o Setting a market price
o Storing while awaiting selling
o Transporting

Cleaning
Eggs covered with chicken droppings or
remains of broken eggs or litter cannot be
easily sold. They should be cleaned by wiping
them with a moist cloth. However, only very
dirty eggs need to be cleaned. Washing eggs
should be avoided because it removes the
productive coat on the outside surface of the
egg.
Dirty eggs become infected easily and lose
their quality and become poisonous. It is
therefore to ensure that eggs are laid in clean
conditions in order to avoid the need for
cleaning them.
Chickens must be washed with clean water
after plucking the feathers to remove dirt.

Grading
The external qualities of commercial eggs are
measured by:
o Shell quality – smooth, even and not
cracked
o Cleanliness – dirty eggs may be rejected as
they may be contaminated
o Shape – a normal egg is oval: very round or
very long eggs do not fit well into the egg
trays and as a result are easily broken.
o Colour – local preferences may be for
brown or white eggs.
o Size or weight – eggs size must be uniform.
Very small eggs are rejected. Extra-large
eggs or double yolk may not be suitable for
packing for transportation as they might
break
CLASSES OF MARKET CHICKENS
The poultry farmer can sell chickens as:
o Broilers – young chickens under 12 weeks,
which give tender meat (also called friers)
o Roasters – young chickens under 8 months.
They are tender but less than broilers.
o Hens – mature female chicken, usually an
old layer, more than 10 months old, less
tender than a roaster, suitable for stewing.
o Cocks (old roasters) – mature male chicken
with course skin, toughened and darkened
meat. It is suitable for stewing.

Storage
Eggs break easily. It is therefore important that
they are handled carefully in order to reach the
consumer without losing much of their original
quality. They must be stored at a cool place as
they easily rot.
Eggs absorb strong smells and lose their taste.
They should therefore be stored away from
strong smelling substances such as paraffin,
onions and fish. Chicken meat is stored in
refrigerators or cold rooms as it can easily rot.
Transporting chickens and chicken
products
Eggs break easily. They must therefore be
transported carefully while packed in trays.
Egg trays can be transported in wheelbarrows,
cars, bicycles. Live chickens can be carried in
baskets or boxes.

Setting market prices

The market price for chickens and chicken
products must include the cost of production,
cost of marketing activities such as the cost of
plastic paper for packaging, transport, storage
and profit.

Selling chicken manure

Chicken manure can be sold locally to farmers
who grow crops and keep fish. Chicken manure
can also be sold to the industries for making
organic fertilizers.

UNIT 26 TREE NURSERY

ESTABLISHMENT
SEED SELECTION
It is important to select good seed for planting
to ensure high germination percentage and
healthy strong seedlings. Seed can be collected
from already existing trees. Ensure that the
seed is disease free, plump and from mature
fruits. The seed must be whole and able to
germinate. Avoid seed which has overstayed
by checking the expiry date when using seed
which has been bought.

SEED TREATMENT
Some seeds have very hard seed coats which
prevent water from entering the seed for
germination. They can either be nicked, socked
or rubbed with sand paper.
Seed treatment

Seed
Tree species
treatment
Leucaena nick (small cut
or notch)
Kachere remove fleshy
pulp
Chamwam remove from
ba pod or shell
Chitimbe nick
Acacia nick
Msangu nick
gliricidia nick

SEED BED PREPARATION

After selecting the site for a nursery
establishment, it must be fenced. The land
must be tilled to a depth of more than 30
centimetres to loosen the soil and improve
drainage. The beds should 90 centimetres wide
and 15 centimetres high. Well rotten manure
should be mixed in the ratio of two parts soil,
one part manure and one part sand. The seeds
can be sown on flat beds to avoid run off. They
can also be sown in pots, plastic tubes of
opaque beer packets.

SOWING
Make furrows 10 centimetres apart along the
width of the seedbed in straight lines for easy
cultivation and extraction. Large seeds like
gliricidia and acacia must be planted at a depth
of 1.5 centimetres. Medium seeds like msangu
must be planted at a depth of 1 centimetre.
Small seeds like sensibania and Cinderella
should be planted at a depth of 0.5 centimetre.
The seeds should be sown 5 centimetres apart
and covered lightly with the soil.
Tiny seeds may be mixed with sand and spread
evenly along the furrow. When sowing seeds in
packets, lay the seeds flat in the middle of the
container. Push seeds to the required depth
with a finger or stick. Mulch the seeds with
leaves or grass to reduce evaporation.

UNIT 27 TREE NURSERY

MANAGEMENT
Tree nursery management involves a number
of activities.
These activities include watering, weeding,
thinning, pest and disease control and
hardening off seedlings.

Watering
Water seedbeds in the morning and late in the
afternoon every day until the seedlings are 4
weeks old. Avoid watering at midday when
evaporation is at its highest. Avoid under-
watering because it will result into wilting. Start
hardening off in the fourth week by watering
once in the morning only.
Weeding
Weeding is necessary to reduce competition for
nutrients, water, light and space. It also
reduces the incidence of pests and diseases.
Hand weeding is recommended to avoid
damaging the roots. It is necessary to make
the soil loose using a small sharp stick.

Thinning
This can be done when there are too many
seedlings in the furrow (drills). Seedlings which
are very overcrowded grow thin, and tall and
heavily compete for space, sunlight and water.

Controlling pests and diseases

Seedlings have to be protected from diseases
and pests. Some pests of tree seedlings are
ants, termites, cutworms, beetles and
caterpillars.

PESTS
PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL MEASURES

Pest
Control
Ants and o Apply wood ash from bitter trees.
termites o Keep the seedbed free from sticks and
weeds

Cutworms o Dig up and destroy them

Beetles o Pick and kill them

Caterpillar o Spray with tephrosia liquid (sock 2 kg of

s crushed tephrosia in pail overnight
and spray the filtered solution the
following day. Repeat the
application 2 to 3 times per week)

DISEASES
Damping off
This is the common nursery disease caused by
fungi.
PREVENTION OF DAMPING OFF DISEASE
o Following recommended spacing
o Using clean farm tools and gentle handling
o Frequent weeding

Hardening off
This is done to prepare seedlings for the hot
and dry conditions in the woodlot. It can be
done by reducing the frequency of watering
from twice to once a day 4 weeks after
germination. Reduce the shading materials to
half at the 4th week and remove them
completely after the seventh week from date of
sowing.

UNIT 28 WOODLOT
ESTABLISHMENT
LAND PREPARATION
Seedlings are planted in holes.
Holes should be made in the dry season.
They must be 60 cm in diameter and 60 cm in
depth. When digging the holes, separate top
soil from sub soil. Mix the top soil with manure.
When replacing the soil into the pit, put in top
soil mixed with manure first and then subsoil.
A stick can be inserted in the middle to indicate
where the tree seedlings would be
transplanted. The distances between the
planting stations vary according to tree species
and the intended use of the trees.
TRANSPLANTING
It is important to transplant seedlings at the
beginning of the rain season to encourage root
growth before the end of rain season.
Seedlings should be transplanted on a wet day
either early in the morning or late in the
afternoon. They should be watered before
uprooting for transplanting.
Place seedlings together with soil around the
roots in the planting holes.
Cover the seedlings up to the collar mark.
Firmly press the soil around the transplanted
seedlings to prevent lodging.

UNIT 29 WOODLOT
MANAGEMENT 1
WOODLOT MANAGEMENT
To ensure that trees reach maturity, the
following management practices need to be
done:
 mulching
  watering
 weeding
 manure and fertilizer application
 pest control

MULCHING
Mulching is the process of covering the soil
around a crop to conserve moisture.

mulching a woodlot Materials used in mulching

are cut grass, leaves and crop remains.
Mulching is important because It helps in
controlling weed growth. After decomposition it
improves the soil fertility.
Avoid putting the mulch close to the seedlings
because it invites termites.

WATERING
When there is a short break of rainfall and
trees show signs of wilting they should be
given water. Make a basin of water around the
seedling to retain water.
The area around the basin should be 1 square
metre.

WEEDING
Use hoes to weed a woodlot during the first 2
growing seasons. Thereafter use slashes to
weed a woodlot.

MANURE AND FERTILIZER APPLICATION

DAP fertilizer can be applied at 50 grammes

per tree using the banding method.
the banding method of fertilizer application

Apply two handfuls of manure around tree

seedlings.
PEST CONTROL
The major pests of trees are termites and farm
animals like goats and cattle.
Termites can be controlled by applying
chemicals like Marshal Suscon at the base of
the tree. Branches from trees with thorns can
be placed around trees to keep livestock away.
A fence can also be erected around the
woodlot or around individual trees.

UNIT 30 WOODLOT
MANAGEMENT 2
PRUNING
Pruning is the process of removing unwanted
tree branches. These include dead, diseased
and excess branches.
It is important to start pruning trees while they
are young.
When pruning, branches are cut from the
bottom upwards to avoid tearing the bark. The
cutting must be at an angle.
Always cut using a sharp panga knife or saw.
Pruning helps to have straight poles and think
trees.
The removal of the diseased branches helps to
control the spread of diseases. Trees must be
pruned during the dry season so that the cut
wounds should heal.

CLEARING FIRE BREAKS

A fire break is clearing around the woodlot to
prevent fires.
It measures 3 to 5 metres in the width all
around the woodlot.
The fire break must be cleared every year at
the end of the rain season. Fire breaks help to
protect trees from being burnt by fire.

HARVESTING
Harvesting of trees is done according to the
intended purposes. For timber, the trees are
harvested when the trunks are thick. For poles
and fuel wood, they can be harvested at any
time.
Thin or poorly developing trees can be
harvested earlier to enable healthier trees to
have more space.
The value of the trees can be improved by
processing the trees into products such as
timber, mortars, pestles, hoe handles, boats
and furniture.

REFERENCES

MIE (2007) Agriculture Teacher’s Guide for

Standard 6, Domasi; MIE