Journal Pre-proofs

Review Article

Utilisation of construction and demolition waste and recycled glass for sus‐
tainable flexible pavements: A critical review

Piyush Punetha, Sanjay Nimbalkar

PII: S2214-3912(25)00131-X
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trgeo.2025.101612
Reference: TRGEO 101612

To appear in: Transportation Geotechnics

Received Date: 7 September 2024

Revised Date: 2 January 2025
Accepted Date: 13 June 2025

Please cite this article as: P. Punetha, S. Nimbalkar, Utilisation of construction and demolition waste and recycled
glass for sustainable flexible pavements: A critical review, Transportation Geotechnics (2025), doi: https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.trgeo.2025.101612

This is a PDF file of an article that has undergone enhancements after acceptance, such as the addition of a cover
page and metadata, and formatting for readability, but it is not yet the definitive version of record. This version
will undergo additional copyediting, typesetting and review before it is published in its final form, but we are
providing this version to give early visibility of the article. Please note that, during the production process, errors
may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain.

© 2025 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

 Utilisation of construction and demolition waste and recycled glass for
sustainable flexible pavements: A critical review
Piyush Punetha a and Sanjay Nimbalkar b,

a Research Associate, School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of

Technology Sydney, 15 Broadway, Ultimo NSW-2007, Australia. Email:
[email protected]. ORCID: 0000-0002-0812-4708
b Associate Professor, School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of
Technology Sydney, 15 Broadway, Ultimo NSW-2007, Australia. Email:
[email protected]. ORCID: 0000-0002-1538-3396


Corresponding author: A/Prof. Sanjay Nimbalkar, Associate Professor, School of Civil and
Environmental Engineering, University of Technology Sydney, 15 Broadway, Ultimo NSW-
2007, Australia. Email address: [email protected]

Declaration of interests

☒ The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal
relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

☐ The authors declare the following financial interests/personal relationships which may be
considered as potential competing interests:

• A critical analysis of the use of recycled aggregates for sustainable construction

• Comprehensive evaluation of physical and mechanical properties of recycled material
• Determination of resilient modulus and permanent deformation of recycled aggregates
• Promotion of broader adoption of aggregates derived from C&D waste and waste glass

Abstract

The heightened pressure on natural resources, coupled with unprecedented levels of waste and
pollution, has created an urgent need for sustainable construction practices in the road industry.
To this end, the use of recycled aggregates in pavement construction has gained significant
attention due to their environmental, economic, and social benefits. However, despite their
immense potential, the application of recycled materials in flexible pavements remains limited
due to concerns over their long-term performance, variability in properties, environmental
impacts and inconsistent specifications. This article provides a critical analysis of the current

1
state of knowledge on the use of recycled aggregates, particularly recycled concrete aggregate
(RCA), recycled crushed brick (RCB) and recycled crushed glass (RCG), for sustainable
flexible pavement construction. By examining key laboratory and field investigations, this
study evaluates the physical and mechanical characteristics of recycled materials and their
blends and assess their suitability for use in pavements. While previous studies have
demonstrated that recycled aggregates can be effectively used in pavements, their performance
is influenced by factors, such as source, composition, gradation, age, degree of compaction,
moisture content, and loading conditions. This study also assesses the suitability of predictive
models in evaluating the resilient modulus and cumulative permanent deformation of recycled
aggregates and their blends under cyclic loading, which could be used in the design of flexible
pavements incorporating these materials. The main objective of this review is to promote wider
adoption of aggregates derived from construction and demolition waste, as well as waste glass,
in flexible pavements.

Keywords: Flexible pavement; recycled concrete aggregate; recycled crushed brick; recycled
crushed glass; resilient modulus; permanent deformation

1 Introduction

1.1 Background

A rapid increase in construction activities worldwide has led to the generation of a substantial
amount of construction waste. The construction sector alone is responsible for almost half of
the consumption of natural resources and about half of the total solid waste generated
worldwide [1]. A construction activity impacts the environment at all steps, commencing from
the raw material extraction to its processing, manufacturing, and transportation, followed by
the construction of the structure, and finally, its demolition. The traditional approach to
handling the waste was to dispose it of in landfills, which may lead to severe environmental
consequences. Climate change, resource depletion, and biodiversity loss are some of the
consequences of human interference with the environment, especially construction activities.

The construction and demolition (C&D) industry is among the largest producers of waste in
several countries, including Australia [2], China [3], the United States [4], and those in the
European Union [5]. Over the years, C&D waste management has become a critical global
issue with significant implications for sustainability and environmental conservation. Many
countries are facing challenges in managing the vast quantities of C&D waste generated by
rapidly expanding urbanisation and infrastructure development. For instance, in Australia,
about 29 million tonnes of C&D waste was generated in 2021, with approximately 22% of this
amount being disposed of in landfills [2]. There has been a 73% increase in overall C&D waste
generation in Australia since 2007. Although the quantity of waste being disposed has remained
relatively constant [2], the accumulation of waste in landfills continues to pose environmental
threats. Therefore, further advancements in recycling and waste diversion practices are
essential to avoid the need to develop additional landfill facilities that could significantly affect
biodiversity and the environment.

2
C&D waste is a generic term for a diverse range of materials that can end up as high-value
materials and resources for new construction after segregation. It is the waste produced by
C&D activities, including road and rail construction, maintenance and excavation of land
associated with construction activities, conservation, retrofitting and rehabilitation of
structures. During construction, waste is primarily generated due to excess material orders,
mishandling by unskilled workers and improper material storage, among others. On the other
hand, demolition waste is generated when structures reach the end of their life span or are
damaged due to natural disasters. The typical C&D waste materials include concrete, bricks,
steel, timber, plastics, reclaimed asphalt, cardboard, and smaller quantities of other building
materials. In Australia, for instance, 81.6% of the total C&D waste comprises reclaimed
asphalt, bricks, concrete, pavers, ceramics, tiles, pottery, plasterboard, cement sheeting, rubber,
and soil [2]. In addition, metals and organics contribute to 5.4% and 3% of the total C&D waste
generated, respectively.

Alongside a significant amount of waste produced, the construction industry consumes a

tremendous quantity of natural resources, including virgin quarried aggregates and fuel. For
instance, the average consumption of aggregates in Australia is approximately 7 tonnes per
person per annum [6]. While in the United States, over two billion tonnes of natural aggregates
are being quarried annually [7]. To preserve the environment, it is inevitable to reduce the
exploitation of non-renewable natural resources in the construction industry. The use of
recycled materials can reduce the need to quarry more natural aggregates while minimising the
amount of waste that is being disposed of in landfills. In addition, it would reduce the need to
develop additional landfills in the future, consequently protecting our valuable landscape and
environment. Thus, it is essential to promote studies and applications that focus on using
recycled materials.

Using recycled materials processed from the C&D waste in road construction and maintenance
offers a sustainable and economical alternative to conventional quarry materials. It has been
estimated that approximately 8,000 tonnes of C&D waste can be diverted away from the
landfill for every kilometre of road constructed using recycled aggregates [8]. The practice of
recycling aggregates from C&D waste dates back to ancient civilisations, including the
Egyptians, Greeks and Romans [9]. The aggregates derived from the buildings destroyed
during the Second World War were used in the post-war reconstruction of infrastructure in
Europe [10]. From the 1970s onwards, countries like the United States and the Netherlands
began incorporating waste materials, particularly old concrete and masonry, into the base or
subbase layers of pavements [11]. In 1971, recycled aggregates were utilised in pavement
construction projects in Texas and California [12, 13]. In late 1970s, crushed concrete was used
to construct the subbase layer in the Eden’s expressway reconstruction project in Chicago [14].
By 1985, several countries including the United States, Japan, the Netherlands, the United
Kingdom, and Russia had introduced standards, guidelines or recommendations for using C&D
waste and other recycled materials in road construction [15]. Since then, global research into
the application of recycled C&D waste in pavements has significantly intensified, leading to
further advancements in sustainable construction practices.

3
In Australia, the use of recycled C&D waste in pavements started around 1986 after a
demolition contractor in Victoria began crushing demolished concrete to overcome disposal
costs at landfills. By 1989, RCA was being tested for suitability as subbase course materials,
and in 1992, VicRoads introduced the standard specification 820 ‘Crushed concrete for
pavement subbase’ [16]. By 1996, about 520,000 tonnes of RCA had been utilised in
Melbourne, with 39% employed in the subbase layers for deep-strength asphalt pavements
[16]. Subsequently, recycling efforts expanded, with Sydney and Melbourne recycling
approximately 400,000 and 350,000 tonnes of concrete annually by 2001 [17]. Since 2009, the
experimental research at universities further advanced the understanding of the suitability of
recycled C&D waste for pavement applications [18-20]. By 2011, 55% of Australia’s C&D
waste was being recycled, with recycling rates exceeding 75% in some states [6]. Recent
developments include a technical note from the Queensland Department of Transport and Main
Roads (DTMR) in 2020 [21] and a report from the Australian Road Research Board in 2022
[8], both providing guidance on the use of recycled aggregates in road construction.
Additionally, in 2023, Standards Australia launched an initiative to harmonise and improve
performance-based standards for recycled materials [22].

In addition to C&D waste, the waste glass can be crushed into cullets and used as a partial
replacement for the unbound granular aggregates in pavement construction [23]. This practice
is crucial for reducing the amount of waste glass being disposed of in landfills. In Australia
alone, 1.5 million tonnes of waste glass was produced in 2021, with approximately 41% ending
up in landfills [2]. As the annual generation of waste glass continues to rise, increasing the
recycling rate is necessary to avoid the need to construct new landfills.

Despite the growing adoption of recycled materials in road construction, the amount of material
being used remains relatively low compared to the large quantities of waste generated. Several
factors contribute to the lower utilisation of waste compared to the volume of waste produced.
One key challenge is the limited knowledge of the engineering characteristics of aggregates
derived from waste, which raises concerns about their long-term performance and durability.
Additionally, there is a lack of evidence demonstrating the long-term environmental and
performance outcomes of these materials. The variability in the properties of recycled materials
also contributes to uncertainty in their application. Environmental concerns, such as the
potential for heavy metal contamination in water sources and the corrosive effects of high-pH
leachate on underlying metal drainage pipes, further complicate the widespread adoption of
recycled aggregates in construction projects.

Consequently, several researchers have attempted to understand the mechanical behaviour of

recycled aggregates and assess their suitability for usage in pavements through laboratory and
field investigations. This article provides a comprehensive analysis of the current knowledge
on the use of recycled aggregates for sustainable flexible pavement construction. Particularly,
the physical and mechanical properties of three types of recycled aggregates ‒ recycled
concrete aggregates (RCA), recycled crushed brick (RCB) and recycled crushed glass (RCG),
are critically examined for application in the construction of flexible pavement layers.

4
The particle-level properties of recycled aggregates (RCA, RCB, RCG) are first examined,
followed by an analysis of their particle assembly properties, with a particular emphasis on
pavement applications. Subsequently, the geotechnical properties of blends involving these
aggregates and other materials are explored. The long-term performance of these recycled
aggregates is then addressed, and the suitability of predictive models for evaluating the resilient
modulus and permanent deformation of these aggregates and their blends under cyclic loading
is assessed. The values of empirical parameters for different recycled materials and their blends
are also determined using the literature data, which could be used by practising engineers for
analysis and design of flexible pavements constructed using these materials. Subsequently,
field investigations on the application of recycled aggregates in the pavements are reviewed.
Finally, the benefits and challenges of using recycled aggregates are discussed along with some
strategies that can be adopted by practitioners to overcome the practical obstacles related to the
use of recycled materials, such as concerns about long-term durability, environmental impacts,
and variability in material properties.

1.2 Significance of review

This review is intended to serve as a guide for researchers, practising engineers and
policymakers exploring the use of recycled aggregates, particularly RCA, RCB and RCG, in
pavement applications. By critically analysing the micro-scale (i.e., focusing on the structure
and arrangement of individual soil particles) and macro-scale (i.e., focusing on the soil sample
as a whole) properties of recycled aggregates, along with their geotechnical performance
(including short-term and long-term) characteristics, it aims to enhance the understanding of
these recycled materials and their potential to improve the sustainability of flexible pavements.
Additionally, the assessment of predictive models for evaluating the behaviour of recycled
aggregates under cyclic loading would help in the analysis and design of flexible pavement
incorporating these materials. By providing a thorough evaluation of laboratory and field
investigations (ensuring a balanced focus on each), this review supports the development of
more sustainable construction practices and contributes to the global effort to increase
recycling and waste diversion in the road construction industry. In addition, this review
provides a unique combination of laboratory studies, field performance data, and the evaluation
of predictive models, which has not been covered together in previous review articles.

This review also makes an effort to integrate all the scattered data on RCA, RCB, and RCG
into a comprehensive resource. By bringing together findings from diverse studies, it aims to
assist researchers in identifying knowledge gaps, enabling them to prioritise areas requiring
further investigation. For engineers, this resource serves as a practical guide for incorporating
sustainable recycled materials into pavement construction by offering insights into material
properties, performance, and potential applications. In addition, policymakers can leverage this
unified resource to formulate evidence-based guidelines and standards that promote sustainable
practices in road construction. By addressing the needs of multiple stakeholders, this review
facilitates informed decision-making while also contributing to advancing the adoption of
recycled materials, thereby supporting the broader goals of environmental sustainability and
resource conservation.

5
1.3 Review methodology

This literature review employs a systematic methodology to ensure a comprehensive

examination of primary research on the use of C&D waste and RCG in flexible pavements.
The approach involves systematically identifying, selecting, evaluating, and synthesising high-
quality evidence related to the topic.

1.3.1 Search strategy

Publications were searched across three databases, namely, Scopus, Google Scholar and Web
of Science, using the following keywords: “construction and demolition waste, flexible
pavement, base or subbase, recycled concrete aggregate, crushed brick, recycled glass,
geotechnical properties, long-term performance, resilient modulus, permanent deformation,
durability, predictive models, field investigation, and machine learning”.

1.3.2 Inclusion and exclusion criteria

To maintain focus and relevance, studies explicitly addressing the use of recycled aggregates
in pavements were included. The exclusion criteria used were articles published in languages
other than English and those unrelated to geotechnical application of recycled aggregates. The
titles and abstracts of all the records were scrutinised rigorously, resulting in an initial selection
of 72 publications primarily focused on the pavement application of recycled aggregates.
Additionally, 86 more publications, comprising journal articles, books, book chapters,
conference papers, reports, standards, and webpages, were included, primarily based on their
citation relationships with the initially retrieved records (i.e., publications that were either cited
by or cited the initial selection).

To minimise subjectivity in the selection process and mitigate the risk of bias, a rigorous
screening procedure was adopted to ensure that all included publications were highly relevant
to the review objectives. In addition, multiple references were obtained for each topic to reduce
reliance on any single source.

1.3.3 Data summarisation

The selected publications were first categorised into three groups: laboratory studies, field
investigations, and studies focusing on predictive modelling. Within each category, the studies
were further sorted based on the type of recycled aggregate investigated, namely RCA, RCB
and RCG. Finally, the studies were classified according to the properties they examined, such
as particle size distribution, Atterberg limits, maximum dry density, optimum moisture content,
flakiness index, Los Angeles abrasion loss, California bearing ratio (CBR), pH, leachate
migration, unconfined compressive strength (UCS), cohesion, friction angle, resilient modulus
and permanent deformation accumulation. Data reported in the selected publications were
extracted either directly from the text or from graphs using the Plot Digitizer software [24].
The extracted data were systematically compiled and presented for comparison and analysis.

6
For predictive models, the selection was guided by the prior experience of authors with models
for predicting the resilient modulus and permanent deformation accumulation in granular
materials [25]. In addition, several machine learning (ML) based predictive techniques were
identified and evaluated for their effectiveness in predicting key parameters.

The subsequent section provides an overview of the structure of flexible pavements and the
materials used for their construction. This fundamental knowledge is essential for
understanding the application and performance of recycled materials in pavements.

2 Flexible pavements

The flexible pavements typically comprise multiple layers constructed using granular and
bituminous materials [26]. The imposed wheel load in these pavements is transferred to the
underlying granular layers through grain-to-grain contacts. Figure 1 shows the typical structure
of a flexible pavement. The topmost layer in a flexible pavement is termed the surface or
wearing course. It usually comprises sprayed seal or asphalt concrete in case of sealed or paved
roads. This layer must have adequate toughness to resist distortion under traffic-induced
loading and provide a skid-resistant surface. It must be impermeable in order to prevent the
ingress of water into the pavement layers and natural subgrade.

Figure 1 Typical structure of a paved flexible pavement

The base course is provided immediately below the surface course. It is typically constructed
using crushed stone, slag or other untreated or stabilised materials. The primary function of

7
this layer is to distribute the loads in such a way that the underlying subgrade does not get
highly stressed or undergo significant deformation. It must have a low moisture susceptibility,
adequate shrinkage, volume stability, and fatigue properties.

The subbase course underlies the base course and is typically constructed using local and
lower-cost materials than that used in the base course. The reason for providing the subbase
course is to achieve economy by replacing the expensive base course material for the entire
layer with low-cost materials on top of the subgrade. In addition, it serves as a stable platform
for the construction of overlying layers. In the case of an open-graded base course, the subbase
course (with more fines) can serve as a filter between the subgrade and the base course.

The subgrade comprises a prepared and natural subgrade. It is a usual practice to scarify and
compact the top 150 mm of the natural subgrade layer to serve as a prepared subgrade [26].
However, a layer of selected material can also be provided as the prepared subgrade. The
natural subgrade is the naturally occurring material upon which the pavement is built.

Flexible pavements are typically classified into sealed (or paved) and unsealed (or unpaved)
roads on the basis of structure. Sealed roads consist of a surface course, base course, subbase
course and subgrade (compacted or prepared and natural). The surface course of the sealed
road may be constructed using a sprayed seal or asphalt concrete, depending on various factors
such as traffic, cost of construction, and available budget.

Unsealed roads are those in which an impermeable surface course is absent, and consequently,
they are prone to distress due to adverse climatic conditions. These are constructed when the
traffic volume is low and economic considerations cannot justify the use of higher-quality
sealed roads [27]. Nevertheless, they form the backbone of growth for several countries. It is a
common practice to provide a single base layer that acts as both the wearing and load-bearing
layer over the subgrade [28]. However, a subbase course made of lower-quality (marginal)
material is often provided for economic reasons and to improve the structural capacity [26, 29,
30].

A wide range of materials can be used to construct different layers of flexible pavements. The
selection of the most appropriate material depends on several factors, such as structural
requirements, cost, past performance, environmental impact, physical and mechanical
properties [31]. Typically, each pavement layer has specific requirements. So, if the recycled
materials are used to construct a pavement layer, they must satisfy the requirements for that
layer. For instance, the materials to be used in the unbound base layer must have high strength,
durability and resistance to permanent deformation. Therefore, to achieve these requirements,
the recycled aggregates or their blends must be well graded, angular, possess rough surface
texture, must be compacted to high density, have low moisture content, and contain 6% − 12%
of cohesive fines [31]. In addition to these physical property requirements, different road

8
agencies specify engineering property requirements that must be satisfied by the pavement
materials.

The next section explores the particle-level and assembly-level properties of three types of
recycled aggregates and their blends, providing detailed insights into their characteristics and
potential applications.

3 Recycled aggregates as pavement materials

Recycled aggregate is a generic term that typically refers to granular material derived from
waste. Although waste materials are being studied throughout the world, there is ample scope
for understanding their chemical, physical and mechanical behaviour due to their considerable
variability. In addition, the common tests used for natural aggregates may not be reliable for
evaluating the behaviour of recycled materials and predicting their in-situ performance,
particularly for pavement applications [32]. The properties of following three types of recycled
aggregates have been critically examined in this section.

3.1 Recycled concrete aggregate (RCA)

RCAs are derived from the concrete waste produced primarily due to the construction,
demolition, maintenance, and rehabilitation of concrete structures. These are conglomerates of
natural aggregates with mortar and cement paste adhered to them. These aggregates have been
commonly used to replace the natural aggregates partially or completely in the different layers
of pavements (primarily base and subbase course in sealed roads). These aggregates typically
pass nearly all the standard requirements (except soundness) associated with their usage as base
and subbase materials. They have also demonstrated similar or superior performance than their
natural counterparts [31]. The use of RCA is attractive from the environmental perspective as
the production of RCAs can lead to about 65% less greenhouse gas emissions than generating
similar virgin aggregates [6].

3.2 Recycled crushed brick (RCB)

RCB is typically derived from the demolition of buildings and other masonry structures. It
generally comprises 40−70% brick and 30−60% of materials like mortar, rock, asphalt, and
organics, depending on the material source [19, 33]. It can potentially replace natural
aggregates for pavement construction and promote sustainability. However, the use of RCB as
a pavement material is limited in comparison to RCA due to a lack of specifications or
performance-based guidelines or limited knowledge about its behaviour [33]. A few
researchers have recommended blending RCB with other aggregates (natural or recycled) to
improve its performance in pavement subbase applications [33].

9
3.3 Recycled crushed glass (RCG)

RCG is a mixture of different coloured glass pieces collected from municipal and industrial
waste streams, and it often contains impurities such as organic matter, plastic and metal caps,
ceramics (coffee mugs, pottery), paper, and soil [34]. The glass pieces are crushed in a
recycling facility to form RCG, which comprises mixed-coloured glass particles that are
angular in shape, with a notable percentage of flat and elongated particles. The physical and
engineering properties of RCG depend on the waste source (municipal or industrial) and
crushing procedure.

Typical applications of RCG include concrete production, asphalt layers, filters, drainage
blankets, pavements, backfill for trenches, retaining walls, and buried pipes. It has been used
in the construction industry as an embankment fill and drainage since the 1970s, and several
specifications have been developed regarding its use [22]. The geotechnical properties of RCG
are similar to that of natural sand [35]. However, there are a few issues regarding the quality
of glass, which is affected by contaminants. In addition, it is often argued that the potential
pollutants present in RCG may spread when it is used in pavements [34].

The subsequent section discusses the properties of RCA, RCB and RCG. The desired properties
of these materials depend on the primary function of the pavement layer where they will be
incorporated.

3.4 Particle level properties

3.4.1 Gradation

RCA generally comprises sand and gravel-sized fractions [36]; however, their gradation
depends on numerous factors, such as the source of concrete waste and the type of crusher used
for its manufacture [11]. For instance, the size of RCA derived from structural concrete is
different from that of the concrete used to construct a footpath. RCA and its blends must satisfy
the grading requirements in order to be used in the base and/or subbase layers of the pavements.
Figure 2 shows the particle size distribution curves of RCA used in past laboratory studies [17,
20, 36-45]. The gradation limits for unbound base and subbase materials, according to current
industry practice [46], are also provided in the figure to check their compliance. It is apparent
that most of the curves are well-graded and satisfy the limits specified for base or subbase
layers [46]. The RCA particles comprise sand and gravel fractions as per the Australian
Standard [47], and the average values of d10, d30, d50 and d60 are 0.25, 1.5, 4.77, and 7.03 mm,
respectively. The finer fraction (passing 75 μm sieve) varies between 1.5 to 8%. In addition,
the clay content in RCA is usually minimal, which may affect their workability as particle
cohesion and a tightly prepared surface are greatly desired in the field [36].

10
 Figure 2 Particle size distribution curves of RCA used in previous studies

RCB typically consists of irregularly shaped particles with particle size ranging from fine dust
to large particles. It is typically classified as well-graded gravel with a small amount of fines
[36], but its particle size distribution depends on factors such as the crushing process used,
source, and the brick manufacturing process, among others. Figure 3 shows the particle size
distribution curves of RCB reported in past studies [36, 38, 48]. The gradation limits for
unbound base and subbase materials, according to current industry practice [46], are also
provided in the figure to check if the gradation lie within the limits. It is apparent from the
figure that all the curves satisfy the limits specified for base or subbase materials. RCB particles
comprise sand and gravel fractions as per the Australian Standard [47], and the average values
of d10, d30, d50 and d60 are 0.17, 1.48, 4.93, and 7.18 mm, respectively. The finer fraction
(passing 75 μm sieve) varies between 3 to 8%, which is similar to the RCA.

11
 Figure 3 Particle size distribution curves for RCB

RCG is typically classified as a well-graded sand with a small amount of silt-sized particles
[34, 40]. Figure 4 shows the particle size distribution curves of RCG reported in past studies
[34, 36, 40, 49-52]. The gradation limits for unbound base and subbase materials according to
current industry practice [46] are also provided in the figure to investigate their compliance
with the standards. It is apparent that the curves did not satisfy the limits specified for base and
subbase materials, therefore RCG alone cannot be used to construct the base or subbase layer
and must be blended with other materials. The RCG particles comprise sand and gravel
fractions as per the Australian Standard [47] and the average values of d10, d30, d50 and d60 are
0.66, 1.82, 3.07, and 3.67 mm, respectively. The finer fraction (passing 75 μm sieve) is less
than 5%.

12
 Figure 4 Particle size distribution curves for RCG

3.4.2 Particle shape and texture

The particle shape is a key parameter that influences the properties of granular materials, such
as packing ability, shear strength and stiffness [53]. Rounded aggregates undergo more
compaction under a given compactive effort as compared to angular aggregates. The shape of
RCA depends on the type of crusher used, the number of crushing stages, the shape of
aggregates in the original concrete and the amount of adhered mortar. Typically, RCAs have
an irregular shape, which is mostly rounded due to the presence of adhered mortar [54]. It may
also comprise elongated and flaky particles; however, the percentage of such particles in most
of the studies is relatively low, which is evident from the low values of the flakiness index (see
Table A.1).

The particle texture refers to the small-scale features on the particle surface which affect the
shear strength and contact behaviour of the granular material with different interfaces [55]. It
represents the local roughness features, such as surface smoothness, the roundness of edges
and corners, and the amount of surface irregularities. RCAs typically have a rough surface
texture, but it depends on the texture of the original aggregates, the crushing process and the
amount of adhered mortar [54, 56].

13
The shape of RCB depends on the type of crusher used, number of crushing stages and the
amount of mortar attached to the bricks. Typically, RCB have an irregular shape which is
angular [57]. They also comprise elongated and flaky particles. Their flakiness index value
varies in the range of 14% – 25.9% (see Table A.2), which is much higher than that for RCA
(see Table A.1). RCB typically have a rough surface texture, but it also depends on the crushing
process and the amount of adhered mortar.

The RCG is produced by crushing and processing waste glass, therefore, its shape is expected
to be angular. However, due to the brittleness of RCG, the sharp edges may break, causing the
shape to change from angular to subrounded [23]. In addition, the shape also depends on the
size of the particles, for instance, coarse RCG typically comprises flaky and elongated particles
[23].

RCG is a non-cohesive and unbound substance, and smooth surfaces of RCG aggregates avoid
forming strong bonds with other aggregates, such as RCB and RCA. According to the
Austroads guideline [58], the RCG particles must be cubic in shape and free from sharp edges
and elongated particles to be used for pavement application.

3.4.3 Adhered mortar and cement paste

Since RCA is derived from concrete, a certain amount of mortar from the original concrete
remains attached to the natural aggregate particles. The volume percent of the mortar attached
to the natural aggregate particles depends on the size fraction and typically increases with
decreasing particle size. For instance, Hansen and Narud [59] found that the volume percentage
of mortar is between 25% − 35% for 16−32 mm, 39% for 8−16 mm and 58% − 64% for 4−8
mm RCAs. The presence of attached mortar is the primary reason for its high-water absorption
capacity, which is attributed to the porous nature of mortar, which allows absorption of more
water. The density and specific gravity of the attached mortar are also low and account for the
low specific gravity and bulk density of RCA. In addition, the bond between this attached
mortar and the natural aggregate is weak, which is further weakened by the crushing process,
that generates cracks and fissures in the mortar [60]. It is often argued that RCA exhibits
progressively poor performance with an increase in the adhered mortar content [56].

Since RCBs are derived from the masonry, a certain amount of mortar may be attached to the
crushed brick particles. The amount of mortar attached to the particles depends on its type and
size fraction of crushed brick. For instance, the lime mortar can be easily removed from the
bricks during crushing, whereas the cement mortar is difficult to remove [61]. The presence of
adhered mortar increases the water absorption capacity of RCB due to its porous nature. The
density and specific gravity of the adhered mortar are also low and account for the low specific
gravity and bulk density of RCB.

14
Unlike RCA and RCB, RCG particles typically lack any adhered mortar or cement paste.

3.4.4 Specific gravity, porosity and moisture absorption

The specific gravity of the aggregates is the ratio of their unit weight to the unit weight of
water. The specific gravity of RCA typically varies between 2.45 to 2.7 [40, 62, 63], which is
slightly smaller than that of the natural aggregates (which typically vary in the range of 2.6 to
2.83 [64]). The porosity of an aggregate is the ratio of the volume of voids to its total volume.
It significantly affects the strength and durability of the particle assembly. For instance, higher
porosity can lead to (a) weaker aggregates, causing a reduction in the shear strength of the
assembly, and (b) more water absorption, rendering the assembly vulnerable to freeze-thaw
damage. The porosity and water absorption of the RCA are much higher than the natural
aggregates [65]. This is primarily due to the presence of the mortar adhered to the natural
aggregates in the case of RCA [66]. Previous investigations have revealed that the water
absorption of RCA varies in the range of 1.4% to 13.6% [20, 36, 37, 45, 67-69]. Interestingly,
the water absorption is directly proportional to the amount of adhered mortar, i.e., water
absorption increases with an increase in mortar content [66].

The specific gravity of RCB typically varies in the range of 2 to 2.67 [36, 62], which is lower
than that of the natural aggregates. They typically have a higher porosity than natural
aggregates [70]; however, the degree of porosity depends on the type of raw material used to
manufacture the original brick and the manufacturing conditions, such as temperature [71].
Previous investigations have revealed that the water absorption of the RCB is in the range of
6.15% to 30.9% [33, 68, 70], which is much higher than the natural aggregates and RCA. This
is primarily due to the inherent porous structure of the bricks and the presence of the adhered
mortar [68]. This high water-absorption capacity may significantly affect its mechanical
performance and require more water during the compaction. In fact, Poon and Chan [68]
reported about 28% reduction in the strength of RCB after soaking in water.

The specific gravity of RCG typically ranges between 1.96 to 2.54 [34, 40, 64], which is lower
than that of most natural aggregates. A large variation in the values may be attributed to the
presence of impurities in RCG and variation in the source. This lower specific gravity results
in smaller values of maximum dry density (MDD) than natural aggregates. Crushed glass
particles have a negligible porosity, which leads to negligible water absorption [72]. However,
the impurities present in RCG, such as paper, could lead to some absorption of moisture [23].

3.4.5 Chemical properties

RCA is alkaline in nature, with a pH value ranging between 8.6 and 13.1, depending on the
source and storage time or age. RCA may also have small amounts of heavy metals due to: (a)
the use of products, such as fly ash and slag, during the production of concrete [73]; (b) contact
with the chemicals during the service life. Chemical analyses performed by several researchers
have revealed that the major elements in RCA include aluminium, calcium, iron, magnesium,

15
oxygen, potassium, and sodium [74-76]. It also contains other elements such as arsenic,
antimony, barium, cadmium, chromium, cobalt, copper, lead, molybdenum, nickel, selenium,
strontium, vanadium, and zinc, albeit in trace quantity [74, 75]. As RCA is a recycled product,
some environmental concerns arise from using RCA in the base or subbase courses of the
pavements, such as the effect of high pH RCA leachate on groundwater and buried metal pipes.

Crushed bricks made up of clay typically comprise silica, alumina, iron oxide and lime [77].
RCB is alkaline, with a pH value ranging between 9.1 and 10.9, depending on the source. It
has a higher water-soluble sulphate content as compared to RCA or natural aggregates.
Chemical analyses performed by several researchers have revealed that the major elements in
RCB include aluminium, calcium, iron, oxygen, silicon, and sulphur while it also contains trace
amounts of elements such as arsenic, barium, chromium, copper, lead, mercury, molybdenum,
nickel, selenium, vanadium, and zinc [78, 79].

RCG is alkaline in nature, with a pH typically ranging between 9.6 and 10.1 [34, 35]. This
alkalinity may arise due to the leaching of the sodium component of soda lime RCG. Chemical
analyses performed by several researchers have revealed that the major elements in RCG
include calcium, oxygen, silicon, and sodium, with small amounts of aluminium, chlorine, iron,
manganese, magnesium, potassium, titanium, and sulphur [80-83]. It also contains other
elements such as aromatic hydrocarbons, arsenic, barium, beryllium, cadmium, chromium,
copper, cyanide, lead, mercury, nickel, selenium, silver, and zinc, albeit in trace quantities [34,
84].

3.4.6 Particle crushability

Particle breakage occurs when the stresses imposed on the aggregate particles exceed their
strength [85]. It influences the properties of the aggregate assembly, such as shear strength,
stress-strain behaviour, compressibility, and hydraulic conductivity or permeability [85, 86]. It
depends on several factors, such as the stress level, mineral hardness, particle size, shape and
coordination number [85, 87, 88]. Although a significant amount of data related to particle
crushability in natural aggregates is available, the data related to RCA is minimal. Some studies
have revealed that RCA exhibits a lower crushing strength than natural aggregates [89], which
is also responsible for a limited replacement of these aggregates in pavements [90]. Due to low
crushing strength, RCA is more susceptible to breakage than natural aggregates. In addition,
the magnitude of particle breakage in RCA increases with an increase in angularity and
flakiness index [77].

The abrasion value of aggregates is the percentage loss in weight due to abrasion. Los Angeles
abrasion (LAA) and Micro-Deval tests are commonly employed to assess the abrasion values
of aggregates. A high abrasion value indicates low resistance to abrasion and vice versa.
Typically, the materials with low abrasion values are used in the upper pavement layers. It can
be observed from Table A.1 that the LAA loss for RCA typically varies between 21% and

16
43.6%, with an average value of about 31.7%. This is similar to a typical quarry material, which
shows LAA loss of less than 40% [36].

A limited amount of data related to particle crushability in the RCB is available. Some studies
suggest that RCB exhibits a lower crushing strength than natural aggregates and RCA [91].
Therefore, it is more susceptible to breakage than the natural aggregates and RCA. It can be
observed from Table A.2 that the LAA loss for RCB typically varies between 35.5% and
49.6%, with an average value of about 40.4%. This value is higher than that for a typical quarry
material and RCA [36]. This indicates that RCB has a relatively lower resistance to abrasion
than the natural aggregates and RCA.

It has been found that angular RCG experiences more particle crushing than similar less angular
materials such as glass beads [92]. In addition, the LAA values for RCG varies in the range of
24% to 42% (see Table A.3). These values are affected by the factors such as particle size.
Fine and medium-sized RCG typically have LAA values (24.5% − 25.4%) similar to that of
crushed rock (24%) and lower than that of RCA (31.7%) [34, 64], whereas the coarse RCG
exhibits a higher LAA value of 27.7%.

3.5 Particle assembly properties

3.5.1 Secondary cementation

RCA may contain a small amount of residual unhydrated cement, which reacts with moisture
and causes cementation (or secondary cementation or re-cementation). Although there can be
strength gain due to cementation, it can be accompanied by a loss of hydraulic conductivity
and shrinkage, which might cause reflective cracking in the wearing course of sealed roads. It
has been found that the shrinkage strain in RCA increases rapidly during the first seven days,
after which the strain increases at a reduced rate till shrinkage stops [20]. Nevertheless, it is
often argued that the shrinkage due to secondary cementation would be very slow due to a slow
rate of hydration since residual cement is expected to reach the final stage a long time ago [93].
In addition, RCA can be used either in the road subbase or blended with RCG to limit this
reflective cracking [8].

3.5.2 Maximum dry density and optimum moisture content

The MDD and optimum moisture content (OMC) are among the most important properties of
aggregates for pavement applications. The achievement of MDD and OMC plays an important
role in the performance of a pavement layer. During the construction of a pavement, the MDD
is employed to specify the target density for the material in a particular layer, while the OMC
serves as a guideline to control the moisture content. Table A.1 shows the mean value, standard
deviation and typical range of OMC and MDD for RCA reported in previous studies. RCA has
a higher OMC and lower MDD than typical quarried aggregate [68]. The higher OMC is due
to the absorption of water by the aggregates owing to their porous nature due to the presence
of adhered mortar paste. Therefore, the replacement of natural aggregates with RCA typically
17
increases the OMC of the mix. However, it was found that the energy and effort required to
compact RCA is similar to that for crushed aggregate and gravel [45]. Figure 5 illustrates the
values of MDD and OMC for RCA reported in the past studies. It also shows the range for a
typical quarry material [36] for comparison. It is apparent from the figure that the MDD and
OMC for RCA lie within the range for a typical quarry material. Similarly, Figure 5 also shows
that the MDD and OMC for RCB also lie within the typical range for quarry materials.

18
 Figure 5 OMC and MDD values reported in past studies for (a) RCA, RCB and RCG; (b)
their blends with other materials

The MDD of RCG varies between 1451 kg/m3 and 1990 kg/m3, while the OMC varies in the
range of 8% to 13.6% (see Table A.3). The moisture-density curves of RCG are relatively flat
due to its insensitivity to moisture content. Interestingly, both OMC and MDD of RCG are less
sensitive to changes in compaction effort [23]. Figure 5 illustrates the values of MDD and
OMC for RCG reported in previous studies. It is apparent from the figure that the MDD and
OMC for RCG in most of the studies lie beyond the range for a typical quarry material.
Therefore, RCG alone may be inappropriate for usage in the base and subbase layers of the
flexible pavements.

3.5.3 California bearing ratio (CBR)

The California bearing ratio (CBR) is the ratio (expressed in percentage) of the load required
to cause a specific penetration in any material with a standard circular plunger to that required
for corresponding penetration in a standard crushed rock. Although it is an empirical value, it
has been widely used to characterise materials owing to its simplicity. Table A.1 lists the mean,
standard deviation and range of CBR values for RCA reported in the past studies. The CBR
value of RCA typically varies between 74.2% to 184% depending on various parameters such
as testing condition (soaked or unsoaked), compactive effort (standard or modified), material
source, and age. Figure 6 shows the CBR values for RCA and RCB reported in past studies
and the range for typical quarry materials [36]. It can be seen from Figure 6 that the CBR
values for RCA and RCB are generally within the range for typical quarry materials (except
for the RCA used in [40]). Although the CBR values of RCB are within the range reported for
RCA (see Table A.1), the variation is smaller, with values typically ranging from 123% to
138%. This small variation is due to a limited number of studies investigating the geotechnical
properties of RCB.

Previous studies have reported the CBR values for RCG to lie in the range of 18% – 76%,
depending on factors such as the size range and compactive effort (see Table A.3). These
values are lower than those for RCA and natural aggregates. The CBR values of RCG
specimens prepared using the modified compaction are typically much higher than those
prepared using the standard compaction [35]. Additionally, the CBR values of medium-sized
RCG are much higher than those of fine-sized RCG [35]. Figure 6 illustrates the CBR values
for RCG reported in previous studies. It is apparent from the figure that the CBR values for
RCG lie beyond the range for a typical quarry material that is used in the pavement layers.

19
 Figure 6 CBR values for recycled aggregates and their blends reported in past studies

3.5.4 Shear strength

Aggregates are the primary load-carrying medium in unbound flexible pavements. Therefore,
the shear strength of an aggregate mass is one of the most important properties that governs the
design of flexible pavement layers. The shear strength of a granular material is the maximum
shear stress that it can withstand without undergoing failure. It is typically represented using
the apparent cohesion (c) and friction angle (φ). Table A.1 lists the mean value, standard
deviation and range of c and φ values for RCA reported in past studies. It can be observed that
the c values for RCA range between 44 kPa and 169.7 kPa, and the friction angle varies
between 41.5° and 57°. Figure 7 shows the c and φ values for RCA reported in past studies
and the range for typical quarry materials [36]. It is apparent from Figure 7 that the c and φ
values for RCA are within the range for typical quarry materials. However, a large variability
in the c and φ values reported in the previous studies can be observed. This can be attributed to
factors such as difference in the sources, foreign material content, crushing techniques, and
testing conditions. It can also be seen from Figure 7 that the c and φ values for RCB fall within
the range for typical quarry materials.

20
RCG exhibits a φ value in the range of 37° to 48°, depending on parameters such as gradation,
angularity, density, test conditions and confining pressure [23, 72]. Similar to cohesionless soil,
the friction angle of RCG typically decreases with an increase in confining pressure [35, 84].
Figure 7 shows the c and φ values for RCG reported in previous studies. It is apparent from
the figure that c values for RCG lie beyond the range for a typical quarry material, while its φ
values are within the typical range.

Figure 7 Friction angle and apparent cohesion values for recycled aggregates and their
blends reported in past studies

3.5.5 Unconfined compressive strength (UCS)

Unconfined compressive strength is the maximum axial stress that a geomaterial specimen can
sustain under zero confining pressure. It is determined using the UCS test, which is considered
a special case of triaxial compression test in which σ2 = σ3 = 0, where σ2 and σ3 are intermediate
and minor principal stresses, respectively. Table A.1 lists the mean value, standard deviation
and range of UCS values for RCA reported in the past studies. It can be observed that the UCS

21
value of RCA typically varies in the range of 0.44 MPa to 0.88 MPa, with a mean value of 0.62
MPa. This variation is due to various factors, such as material source, age, gradation, and
secondary cementation, among others. In fact, secondary cementation increases the UCS of
RCA with time or curing period [20].

3.6 Factors affecting the properties of recycled concrete aggregates

Since RCA is derived from waste, several factors affect its performance. The source is one of
the most important factors that influences the properties of RCA, including density, water
absorption, pH, stiffness, strength, rehydration ability, and resistance to permanent deformation
[20, 37, 94-96]. RCAs derived from high-strength concrete with lower water-cement ratios will
exhibit greater density and lower water absorption as compared to those obtained from low-
strength concrete, owing to the low porosity of high-strength concrete. Even the properties
from the same source might vary temporally [95].

The composition of RCA also influences its performance as an unbound pavement layer. The
presence of softer impurities such as wood, plastic and organic matter decreases its density,
strength and resilient modulus [17]. The performance of RCA is also affected by the storage
time and the amount of mortar attached to the aggregates. For instance, fresh RCA possesses
strong self-cementing property, whereas the tendency for secondary cementation decreases
with storage time [37]. An increase in adhered mortar content negatively affects its
performance by decreasing the density, increasing the water absorption, and reducing the
crushing strength [56, 97]. Recycled aggregates may be more prone to change in properties
during their service life due to crushing or abrasion of the adhered mortar [56].

3.7 Summary

Thus, the findings from the previous studies demonstrate that RCAs could be used in the base
and subbase course of flexible pavements. Their mechanical properties are similar (if not)
superior to the natural quarry aggregates and require similar energy and effort for in-situ
compaction. However, the main issue with the use of RCA is the adhered mortar, which is
responsible for its high water-absorption capacity, lower MDD and higher OMC than the
natural aggregates. This mortar may also get detached during the compaction or the
construction of the road and modify the in-situ particle size distribution of the mix, thereby
modifying the properties. Nevertheless, as RCA possesses some residual or unhydrated cement,
there is a tendency for secondary cementation or re-cementation (depending on the age of the
aggregate). On one hand, this cementation improves mechanical properties, while on the other
hand, it might lead to reflective cracking due to shrinkage associated with the cementation.
Reducing this tendency for re-cementation and subsequent crack formation requires blending
with other materials such as RCG.

While the properties of RCB are comparable to typical natural aggregates used in the unbound
pavement layers, it exhibits inferior properties compared to RCA, such as higher moisture

22
absorption, lower density, and lower abrasion resistance. Consequently, some researchers
recommend blending RCB with RCA for pavement subbase applications [93]. Specifically, up
to 25% replacement of RCA by RCB has been suggested for subbase layers. In some European
countries, about 30% and 10% of RCB blended with RCA are allowed for subbase and base
applications, respectively [98].

The findings also reveal that RCG possesses the lowest moisture absorption and sensitivity
compared to other recycled aggregates typically used in pavements. Its MDD, CBR, and shear
strength are lower than those of typical natural aggregates. Therefore, RCG alone may be
inappropriate for usage in the base and subbase layers of the pavement and must be blended
with natural or other recycled aggregates.

While individual recycled aggregates such as RCA, RCB, and RCG exhibit distinct properties
that influence their standalone application in pavement layers, blending these materials offers
a practical approach to mitigating their limitations and enhancing performance. Blends of
recycled aggregates are increasingly utilised in real-world pavement construction to achieve
optimal mechanical properties while addressing specific challenges such as moisture
sensitivity, compaction requirements, and abrasion resistance. The next section discusses about
the recycled aggregate blends.

4 Recycled aggregate blends

The recycled aggregates discussed above can be blended together or with other materials to
improve their performance or achieve the desired properties. Table 1 highlights the typical
observations from laboratory studies involving recycled aggregate blends. It can be observed
from Table 1 that the addition of bitumen to RCA decreases the water absorption of the blend
since bitumen coating covers the mortar pores in RCA. However, the permanent deformation
of the blend under repeated loading increases, particularly at high deviatoric stresses. Similarly,
the cumulative permanent deformation increases when bitumen is added to RCB. RCA can
also be treated with cement for applications as a fully bound subbase for deep-strength asphalt
pavements. The addition of cement increases the resilient modulus and UCS of RCA. However,
the magnitude of increment in UCS was found to be smaller than that of cement-treated natural
aggregate, since natural aggregate typically has more angular particles than RCA [16].

Table 1 Influence of blending RCA and RCB with other materials

Base Blending
Findings References
material material/additive

RCA Bitumen • Increment in permanent deformation [38, 99]

accumulated under repeated loading.

23
 • Reduction in water absorption.

RCB Bitumen • Increment in cumulative permanent deformation [38]

under repeated loading.

RCA Cement • Increment in the resilient modulus, constrained [16, 43, 48]
modulus and UCS.

• Reduction in the sensitivity of shear strength to

confining pressure.

RCA Crumb rubber • Addition by up to 0.5% increases the apparent [41]

cohesion; however, the apparent cohesion
decreases beyond this percentage.

RCA RCG and crumb • RCA, RCA + 1% crumb rubber + 5% RCG [42]
rubber satisfied the permanent deformation requirements
to be used as pavement materials for the base and
subbase.
• Addition of RCG improved the permanent
deformation behaviour of the blends under
repeated loading.

RCA PE plastic granule • Reduction in CBR, UCS value, and resilient [100]
modulus.

• Blends with HDPE granules showed better

properties (CBR, resilient modulus, UCS) than
those with LDPE granules.

RCA RCB • Reduction in MDD and increment in OMC. [11, 19, 68,
93-95]
• Reduction in CBR values (both soaked and
unsoaked).

24
 • Reduction in resilient modulus and increment in
permanent deformation accumulated under
repeated loading.

• Low clay content of the blends may affect the

workability.
• Up to 25% of RCA can be safely replaced by
RCB for pavement subbase application.

RCA RCG • Reduction in OMC, CBR and shear strength. [40]

• MDD of blends containing up to 30% RCG is
smaller than RCA alone; however, beyond this
content (i.e., at 40% or 50% RCG), the MDD
increased.
• Resilient modulus of the blend containing 10%
RCG was the highest, while it decreased with a
further increase in RCG content from 10% to
50%.

RCA RCB, RCG and • Triple blends that contain up to 15% RCG met [39]
cement the minimum requirements specified in the local
road authority specifications.

Note: PE: Polyethylene; HDPE: high-density polyethylene; LDPE: Low-density polyethylene

It can also be observed from Table 1 that the OMC increases and MDD decreases on replacing
RCA with RCB. This observation is reasonable as RCB exhibits higher water absorption and
lower particle density as compared to RCA. The CBR values decrease with an increase in the
replacement level of RCA by RCB. In addition, Azam and Cameron [95] reported that the
replacement of 20% RCA by RCB (for blends from two different sources) reduced the
shrinkage strain by approximately 45% − 59%, decreased the resilient modulus by 7% − 33%
and increased the permanent strain by 57% − 83% when compared with RCA alone.
Nevertheless, the acceptable level of RCB in the blend (% by dry mass) is quite variable. Some
European countries, such as Finland and Denmark, allow a maximum of 20% and 30% RCB
blended with RCA for subbase application [98]. For base course application, a maximum of
10% RCB is allowed in Europe. South Africa allows a maximum of 20% RCB for base and
subbase applications [98].

Table 1 also shows that replacing RCA with RCG results in a decrease in CBR values, OMC,
and shear strength. In addition, the MDD of blends with up to 30% RCG is lower than that of
pure RCA. However, at higher RCG contents, the MDD increases, likely due to improved
particle packing [40]. Some researchers have also investigated the behaviour of RCA blended

25
with RCB and RCG to limit the effects of rehydration, such as block cracking, and optimise
stiffness [39].

Thus, the previous section explored the performance of recycled aggregates after blending or
treatment. To ensure their suitability for pavement applications, it is critical to evaluate their
behaviour under cyclic or repeated traffic loading. The subsequent section delves into this
critical aspect.

5 Performance of recycled aggregates under cyclic loading

The aggregates in the pavement layers are subjected to repeated traffic loading. Therefore, for
pavement applications, it is essential to understand the behaviour of recycled aggregates and
their blends under repeated or cyclic loading conditions. Typically, the repeated load triaxial
(or cyclic triaxial) tests are carried out to study the response of materials under repeated loading
conditions. In these tests, the stresses applied to the material vary regularly in magnitude and
time and the resilient modulus and accumulation of plastic deformation are of primary interest.
These two properties will be discussed in the subsequent sections.

5.1 Resilient modulus of recycled aggregates

The resilient modulus (Er) is the ratio of the cyclic deviatoric stress (qcyc) to the resilient strain
(εr) during unloading. It is an essential parameter for the design of pavements. It is usually
determined by repeated load triaxial tests in which the confining pressure is kept constant, and
the deviator stress is cycled. These tests are carried out at various confining stress and cyclic
deviator stress combinations that are representative of the field conditions.

The resilient modulus of RCA typically varies between 118 MPa to 1667 MPa depending on
the material source, the amount of foreign materials in RCA, aggregate shape, density, moisture
content and stress state, among others [17, 40, 48, 101, 102]. In some cases, its resilient
modulus is even higher than that of the natural quarried aggregates due to the cementation
provided by unhydrated cement in crushed concrete [16, 17, 20]. Its resilient modulus also
increases with a decrease in moisture content; however, the amount of increment depends on
the source [20].

The resilient modulus of RCB typically varies between 108 MPa to 519 MPa depending
primarily on the source of material, stress state, density, and moisture content [36, 48, 102]. It
has been observed that the resilient modulus of RCB decreases with an increase in moisture
content [36]. It also increases with an increase in confining stress [48], which is reasonable as
the confinement increases the strength and stiffness of a geomaterial.

26
5.1.1 Prediction of resilient modulus

The resilient modulus of granular materials typically depends on the stress state. Several
empirical models have been developed to predict this stress-dependent behaviour of granular
materials, which are comprehensively discussed elsewhere [25]. For this study, the following
empirical model is used, which was initially proposed by Witczak and Uzan [103] and
subsequently modified in the mechanistic-empirical pavement design guide [104]:

𝑘2 𝑘3
𝜃 𝜏oct
𝐸r = 𝑘1𝑝a +1 (1)
𝑝a 𝑝a

where k1, k2 and k3 are empirical parameters; θ and τoct are bulk and octahedral shear stresses,
respectively; pa is the atmospheric pressure. Table 2 lists the values of parameters k1, k2 and k3
for recycled aggregates and their blends with other materials derived using the data reported in
[17, 36, 39, 40, 48, 101, 102, 105]. To evaluate the predictive performance of the empirical
model, several statistical metrics are used. These include coefficient of determination (R2)
(Equation 2), and root mean squared error (RMSE) (Equation 3).

𝑖=𝑛 2
∑𝑖=1 (𝐸r,p)i ― (𝐸r,m)i
𝑅2 = 1 ― 𝑖=𝑛 2
(2)
∑𝑖=1 (𝐸r,p)i ― 𝐸r,m

𝑖=𝑛 2
∑𝑖=1 (𝐸r,p)i ― (𝐸r,m)i (3)
𝑅𝑀𝑆𝐸 =
𝑛

where Er,p is the predicted resilient modulus; Er,m is the measured resilient modulus; n is the
number of data sets; 𝐸r,m is the average value of measured resilient modulus. In addition to
these metrics, analysis of variance test was carried out to determine the significance of the
empirical model [106].

Table 2 Values of empirical parameters for different recycled materials and their blends

k1 k2 k3
Material References
Mean SD Range Mean SD Range Mean SD Range

1197 -0.01
0.47 to [17, 40, 48,
RCA 2379 1608 to 0.74 0.26 -0.37 0.3 to -
1.16 101, 102]
5805 0.89

27
RCA + C
13580 – – 0.20 – – 0 – – [48]
(2)

RCA + C
1326 – – 0.28 – – 0 – – [39]
(3)

1207
0.39 to -0.01 [36, 48,
RCB 1446 305 to 0.47 0.12 0.13 0.23
0.60 to 0.39 102]
1789

RCB + C
7632 – – 0.42 – – 0 – – [48]
(2)

Blends:

RCA (80) -0.11

971 to 0.69 to
+ RCB 1067 162 0.75 0.06 -0.17 0.09 to - [105]
1254 0.81
(20) 0.28

RCA (75) -0.15

203 to 0.63 to
+ RCB 1454 1420 1.33 1.08 -0.82 1.15 to - [93]
2997 2.58
(25) 2.14

RCA (90)
+ RCG 1887 – – 0.40 – – -0.20 – – [40]
(10)

RCA (80)
+ RCG 1626 – – 0.52 – – -0.30 – – [40]
(20)

RCA (70)
+ RCG 1246 – – 0.79 – – -0.62 – – [40]
(30)

RCA (60)
+ RCG 1363 – – 0.62 – – -0.33 – – [40]
(40)

RCA (50)
+ RCG 1053 – – 0.68 – – -0.20 – – [40]
(50)

28
 RCA (65)
+ RCB
(20) + 1404 – – 0.25 – – 0 – – [39]
RCG (15)
+ C (3)

RCA (60)
+ RCB
(20) + 1557 – – 0.26 – – 0 – – [39]
RCG (20)
+ C (3)

RCA (55)
+ RCB
(20) + 1524 – – 0.26 – – 0 – – [39]
RCG (25)
+ C (3)

RCA (50)
+ RCB
(20) + 1447 – – 0.27 – – 0 – – [39]
RCG (30)
+ C (3)

RCA (45)
+ RCB
(20) + 1754 – – 0.23 – – 0 – – [39]
RCG (35)
+ C (3)

RCA (40)
+ RCB
(20) + 1615 – – 0.25 – – 0 – – [39]
RCG (40)
+ C (3)

SD: Standard deviation

Figures 8 and 9 show a comparison of the measured resilient modulus values and the values
predicted using the empirical model. An equality line, representing the condition where the
predicted and measured values are identical, is also shown. Datapoints located near this line
indicate a good agreement between the measured and predicted values. As can be seen in the
figure, the datapoints are closely clustered around the equality line, indicating that the predicted
values are in good agreement with the values obtained from the laboratory investigations. In
addition, no significant difference is observed in the measured and calculated resilient modulus
values, indicated by p-values of less than 0.05 at 95% confidence interval (see Table 3). Thus,
the values of the empirical coefficients provided in Table 2 can be used to predict the resilient

29
modulus of different recycled materials and their blends with reasonable accuracy. The resilient
modulus predicted using Equation 1 can be subsequently employed in computational tools to
predict the response of pavements constructed using recycled materials and their blends.

Table 3 Statistical metrics for evaluating the predictive performance

Material R2 RMSE p-value

RCA 0.92 84.2 0.000000

RCA + C (2) 0.86 71.5 0.000011

RCA + C (3) 0.80 10.0 0.000000

RCB 0.93 14.6 0.000000

RCB + C (2) 0.98 44.4 0.000000

Blends:

RCA (80) + RCB (20) 0.96 14.4 0.000000

RCA (75) + RCB (25) 0.96 23.8 0.000000

RCA (90) + RCG (10) 0.97 8.4 0.000000

RCA (80) + RCG (20) 0.97 9.2 0.000000

RCA (70) + RCG (30) 0.97 11.7 0.000000

RCA (60) + RCG (40) 0.99 6.3 0.000000

RCA (50) + RCG (50) 0.99 5.1 0.000000

RCA (65) + RCB (20) + RCG (15) + C (3) 0.81 8.9 0.000000

RCA (60) + RCB (20) + RCG (20) + C (3) 0.86 9.1 0.000000

30
RCA (55) + RCB (20) + RCG (25) + C (3) 0.82 10.0 0.000000

RCA (50) + RCB (20) + RCG (30) + C (3) 0.82 9.5 0.000000

RCA (45) + RCB (20) + RCG (35) + C (3) 0.91 6.7 0.000000

RCA (40) + RCB (20) + RCG (40) + C (3) 0.84 9.4 0.000000

31
Figure 8 Comparison of measured and predicted resilient modulus values: (a) RCA only; (b) RCB
only; (c) RCA and RCB with cement; (d) RCA and RCB blend

Figure 9 Comparison of predicted and measured resilient modulus values for: (a) blend of
RCA and RCG; and blends of RCA, RCB and RCG with cement containing (b) 15% and
20% RCG; (c) 25% and 30% RCG; (d) 35% and 40% RCG

32
5.2 Permanent deformation characteristics of recycled aggregates

For the design of flexible pavements, the prediction of failure is based on determining the
amount of rutting, which is a result of accumulated vertical compressive strains throughout the
pavement layers. Therefore, it is essential to predict the permanent deformation in a pavement
under traffic-induced repeated loads. Often, the permanent strain accumulated in the pavement
materials is evaluated by conducting cyclic triaxial tests. The output from this test is used to
develop empirical models that can predict the magnitude of permanent deformation.

5.2.1 Prediction of permanent deformation

The permanent deformation in the flexible pavement materials is typically predicted using the
model proposed by Tseng and Lytton [107].

𝜌 𝛽

𝜀p = 𝜀0 𝑒― 𝑁 (4)

where 𝜀p is the permanent strain; N is the number of load cycles; 𝜀0, 𝛽 and 𝜌 are empirical
parameters. These parameters are typically derived using the data from cyclic triaxial tests.
Table 4 lists the values of parameters 𝜀0, 𝛽 and 𝜌 for RCA, RCB and RCG and their blends
derived using the data reported in previous studies. Other empirical models are also available
for predicting the accumulation of permanent deformation in pavement materials, with detailed
discussions provided elsewhere [25].

Table 4 Values of empirical coefficients for different recycled materials and their blends

0  
Material References
Mean SD Range Mean SD Range Mean SD Range

0.20 to 1.29 to 0.09 to [20, 36, 38,

RCA 0.53 0.22 24.13 53.23 0.23 0.12
1.11 204.80 0.44 40]

0.28 to 4.92 to 0.18 to

RCB 0.59 0.23 38.30 41.41 0.52 0.39 [36, 38]
1.10 90.35 1.05

0.25 to 3.50 to 0.17 to

RCA (75) + RCB (25) 0.63 0.27 10.49 8 0.27 0.09 [93]
1.10 19.21 0.34

0.22 to
RCA (90) + RCG (10) 0.45 0.23 18.59 – – 0.50 – – [40]
0.69

33
 0.34 to
RCA (80) + RCG (20) 0.54 0.20 11.32 – – 0.46 – – [40]
0.74

0.29 to
RCA (70) + RCG (30) 0.54 0.25 8.79 – – 0.76 – – [40]
0.80

0.29 to
RCA (60) + RCG (40) 0.73 0.49 7.35 – – 0.51 – – [40]
1.25

0.26 to
RCA (50) + RCG (50) 1.02 0.92 14.31 – – 0.46 – – [40]
2.05

RCA (80) + RCB (20) + 0.06 to

0.07 0.01 24.86 – – 0.78 – – [39]
C (3) 0.08

RCA (65) + RCB (20) + 0.19 to

0.21 0.02 0.25 – – 0.13 – – [39]
RCG (15) + C (3) 0.23

RCA (60) + RCB (20) + 0.11 to

0.12 0.01 0.27 – – 0.21 – – [39]
RCG (20) + C (3) 0.13

RCA (55) + RCB (20) + 0.03 to

0.03 0.01 77.11 – – 0.79 – – [39]
RCG (25) + C (3) 0.04

RCA (50) + RCB (20) + 0.15 to

0.16 0.01 427.60 – – 0.48 – – [39]
RCG (30) + C (3) 0.16

RCA (45) + RCB (20) + 0.25 to

0.27 0.02 1199 – – 0.06 – – [39]
RCG (35) + C (3) 0.29

RCA (40) + RCB (20) + 0.22 to

0.23 0.02 3744 – – 0.20 – – [39]
RCG (40) + C (3) 0.25

Figures 10, 11 and 12 show a comparison of the experimental data with the cumulative
permanent strain values predicted using the empirical model. Most researchers conducted the
multi-stage repeated load (or cyclic) triaxial tests which better simulate the varying stress levels
experienced by pavement materials under traffic loading, capturing more realistic performance
data. In addition, these tests reduce the number of samples required, resulting in significant
time and cost savings in laboratory studies. Multi-stage cyclic triaxial tests are also
recommended by current industry standards [108].

34
As can be seen in the figures, the predicted values are in a reasonable agreement with the values
obtained from the laboratory investigations. Thus, the values of the empirical coefficients
provided in Table 4 can be employed to predict the permanent deformation response of
different recycled materials and their blends.

Figure 10 Comparison of measured and predicted permanent axial strain values for RCA

Thus, this section aimed to bridge the gap between laboratory research and practical
implementation through the use of predictive models, which are becoming an integral tool in
civil engineering. These models enable quick estimation of resilient modulus and cumulative
permanent strains, eliminating the need for extensive experimental testing, thereby saving time
and resources.

The resilient modulus model (Equation 1) captures the non-linear, stress-dependent behaviour
of recycled materials, making it suitable for use in pavement analysis tools. Incorporating this

35
model into design processes facilitates more realistic prediction of stress distribution within the
pavement substructure.

Figure 11 Comparison of measured and predicted permanent axial strain values for RCB
and its blend with RCA

The permanent deformation model (Equation 4) can be employed to calculate the permanent
strain accumulated in a recycled material layer after a specified number of load cycles. The
calculated strain can be compared against acceptable limits established to ensure pavement
serviceability and prevent excessive rutting. If the predicted strain exceeds these limits, the
thickness of the recycled aggregate layer can be adjusted. Thus, this model can help in effective
design of pavements utilising recycled aggregates.

The next section explores recent advancements in machine learning techniques for predicting
the resilient modulus and cumulative permanent deformation of recycled materials and their
blends.

36
 Figure 12 Comparison of measured and predicted permanent axial strain values for
recycled aggregate blends

5.3 Recent developments in machine learning techniques

Numerous ML techniques have been developed in recent years to accurately predict the
behaviour of pavement materials under cyclic loading conditions. Table 5 provides a summary
of the previous studies on ML techniques. It is apparent that the artificial neural network (ANN)
and support vector regression (SVR) are among the most commonly used methods. These
techniques have demonstrated reliable predictive performance and are particularly effective in
evaluating the resilient modulus and permanent deformation accumulation in unbound granular
materials and subgrade soils using key input parameters such as deviatoric stress, bulk stress,
moisture content and unconfined compressive strength [109-119].

Won et al. [109] used five machine learning algorithms, including K-nearest neighbour,
random forest, neural network, extreme gradient boosting, and decision tree to predict the
37
permanent strain accumulation in unbound base aggregates. All these methods showed a good
prediction accuracy [109]. Ghorbani et al. [110] employed ANN machine learning model to
predict the permanent deformation and resilient modulus of RCA blended with RCG for road
substructure. Oskooei et al. [117] used the multi-layer perceptron (MLP) to evaluate the
resilient modulus of bound and unbound recycled materials in pavement. Wu et al. [118] used
MLP and long short-term memory (LSTM) techniques, to predict the stress-strain behaviour
of granular materials under repeated loading.

Ghorbani et al. [119] predicted the resilient modulus and permanent deformation accumulation
of RCA mixed with RAP by using the SVR technique with three different kernels. The hybrid
least square support vector machines (LSSVM) approach has also been utilised to predict the
resilient modulus of subgrade. This method provides a higher degree of precision, contrasting
alternative to conventional ML methods like ANN [41].

Table 5 Summary of published studies on machine learning techniques

Parameters
Reference Type of material Method
evaluated

Won et al. [109] Unbound base K-nearest neighbour, Permanent strain

aggregates neural network, decision accumulation
tree, random forest,
extreme gradient
boosting

Ghorbani et al. RCA and RCG Artificial neural Resilient modulus

[110] network (ANN) and permanent
strain
accumulation

Oskooei et al. C&D [RCA, RCB, ANN, multi-layer Resilient modulus

[117] reclaimed asphalt perceptron, back
pavement (RAP)] propagation neural
with natural network (BPNN)
aggregates

Saha et al. [120] Unbound base BPNN Resilient modulus

granular material

Resilient modulus
Ghorbani et al. RAP and RCA in Support vector and permanent
[119] base/subbase regression (SVR)
(linear, radial basis

38
 function, polynomial), strain
random forest accumulation
regression

Heidarabadizadeh Non-cohesive Support vector machine Resilient modulus

et al. [121] subgrade soil, (SVM) hybridised with
unbound subbase colliding bodies
material optimisation, ANN

These ML techniques have demonstrated significant potential in accurately predicting the

behaviour of pavement materials under cyclic loading conditions. Methods such as ANN, SVR,
and hybrid models like LSSVM have proven highly effective in modelling critical parameters,
including resilient modulus and permanent deformation under repeated loading. These
advancements highlight the transformative role of ML in addressing complex geotechnical
challenges, enabling data-driven insights that surpass the capabilities of traditional methods.
Future research should focus on refining these models and leveraging advancements in data
availability and computational power to further enhance the predictive accuracy and practical
applicability of ML techniques.

After examining the performance of recycled aggregates under cyclic loading conditions, it is
essential to explore the key durability factors, including freeze-thaw resistance, sulphate
soundness, and temperature effects, among others. The next section delves into these factors,
highlighting their significance for the sustainable application of recycled aggregates.

6 Long-term durability of recycled aggregates

Durability refers to the ability of a material to endure over extended periods with minimal
degradation and low maintenance requirements. It is a key indicator of sustainability of a
material, as durable materials help conserve resources and minimise waste, thereby reducing
their environmental impact [9].

For recycled aggregates to be durable, they must possess adequate shear strength, permeability,
soundness, and resistance to freeze-thaw damage. Insufficient permeability can lead to water
accumulation, causing increased pore water pressure under repeated traffic loading. This, in
turn, can reduce the shear strength and stiffness of pavement layers constructed using recycled
aggregates. Therefore, ensuring adequate permeability is essential to prevent water
accumulation in pavement layers. Among the various recycled aggregates typically used in
pavements, RCG exhibits the highest permeability, which is comparable to or even superior
than that of natural aggregates [34]. For RCA, contrasting results have been observed. Some
studies reported that the permeability of RCA is higher than the natural aggregates [122], while
others suggest the opposite [123].

39
The pavement performance can also be significantly affected by freeze-thaw cycles, especially
in regions with cold climate. Freezing causes expansion of water present inside the pores of
aggregates, leading to significant tensile stresses. If the aggregates possess low freeze-thaw
resistance, these stresses can cause fragmentation and degradation. Zhang et al. [124]
investigated the influence of freeze–thaw cycles on the resilient modulus of recycled C&D
waste. It was observed that the freeze and thaw cycles decrease the resilient modulus of
recycled C&D waste. Soleimanbeigi et al. [125] observed an initial decrease in the resilient
modulus of RCA with an increase in the number of freeze-thaw cycles. However, after 20
cycles, the resilient modulus increased due to secondary cementation. Saberian and Li [126]
reported that the resilient modulus of RCA subjected to a one-day freezing and one-day
thawing cycle was higher than that of RCA without freeze-thaw exposure. In addition, the
resilient modulus after thawing and freezing cycle was significantly higher compared to RCA
without thaw-freeze exposure.

The durability of recycled aggregates can also be assessed using the sulphate soundness test,
which measures their resistance to disintegration under simulated weathering conditions. In
this test, aggregates are subjected to repeated cycles of immersion in a sulphate solution
(typically, sodium or magnesium sulphate) followed by drying. The weight loss of aggregates
is recorded after repeated cycles, with lower weight loss indicating better durability and
suitability for pavement applications. The natural aggregates typically show low sulphate
soundness values, usually below 3% [127]. However, RCA exhibits higher sulphate soundness
values due to the presence of weak and porous cement mortar adhered to the aggregates.
Nevertheless, the sulphate soundness value of RCA is typically below 20% [68, 127-129],
reflecting good resistance to weathering.

Temperature is another factor influencing the long-term performance of recycled aggregates.

Ghorbani et al. [130] investigated the effect of temperature on the permanent deformation
characteristics of blends containing RCA and RAP. The temperature was varied between 5°C
to 50°C to study its influence. The results revealed that blends with higher RAP content (60%
and 80%) showed a decrease in cumulative plastic strain with a reduction in temperature. For
blends with lower RAP content (20% and 40%), while cumulative plastic strain increased at
50°C, the deformation stabilised more rapidly compared to other temperatures. In addition, for
these blends (with 20% and 40% RAP), the cumulative permanent strain was higher at 5°C
compared to 20°C. This was attributed to the slower curing process in RCA blends at low
temperatures, which led to increased permanent strain. A sensitivity analysis revealed that both
RAP content and temperature significantly influenced the permanent strain of RCA-RAP
blends. However, the number of load cycles emerged as the most critical factor affecting the
permanent strain.

The self-cementing properties of the recycled aggregates, especially RCA, also play a key role
in their durability. The aggregates with a stronger tendency for self-cementation are typically
more durable due to reduced permanent deformation and increased resilient modulus over time.
Wang et al. [131] studied the influence of varying levels of self-cementing properties on

40
resilient modulus and permanent deformation characteristics of RCA after different curing
durations. It was observed that RCAs with a higher tendency for self-cementation exhibited
reduced permanent deformation and increased resilient modulus with an increase in curing
time, making it an excellent material for use in unbound pavement layers. However, cyclic
loading from traffic was observed to partially damage the bonds formed between particles,
thereby diminishing the effects of self-cementation. Therefore, further research is required to
better understand the long-term behaviour of RCA, particularly under the effects of cyclic
loading and extended curing periods.

Thus, recycled aggregates demonstrate promising durability characteristics but require careful
consideration of factors such as permeability, freeze–thaw resistance, sulphate soundness,
temperature effects, and self-cementation. While current studies highlight their potential for
sustainable applications, further research is required to fully understand their long-term
behaviour under varying environmental and loading conditions.

The previous sections examined the properties of recycled aggregates obtained from laboratory
experiments. The next section shifts focus to their field performance, presenting results from
case studies and real-world applications.

7 Field investigations on the use of recycled aggregates

Several field investigations have been carried out to investigate the performance of recycled
aggregates in pavement applications. de Rezende et al. [132] investigated the performance of
asphalt pavement in Goias, Brazil, over a period of eight years. The pavement was constructed
using aggregates derived from C&D waste (in subbase and base layers) sourced from
demolished buildings and laboratory concrete specimens. Tests were carried out to obtain the
water content, density, deflections, and in-situ penetration resistance. The water content and
dry density were obtained using the speedy and sand cone, respectively, and also using the
nuclear density tests. The dynamic cone penetration, Penetrometre Autonome Numerique
Dynamique Assite par Ordinatur (PANDA) (to get the end or tip resistance values along the
depth), plate bearing (on the surface course), and Benkelman beam tests (on the surface course)
were also carried out. It was observed that the pavements constructed using recycled aggregates
showed similar performance to those constructed using natural quarried material.

Chini et al. [67] studied the performance of RCA for use as a base material for HMA pavements
and as an aggregate in Portland cement concrete (PCC) pavements using the actual dual-wheel
loading at the University of Central Florida’s circular accelerated test track. The thickness of
the base course of the experimental pavement section was varied depending on the percentage
replacement of the aggregates. It was reported that the pavements constructed using RCA
performed similar to those with natural aggregates.

41
Jiménez et al. [133] investigated the performance and environmental impact of using a low-
quality recycled aggregate with low embodied energy from non-selected C&D waste
processing in unsealed pavement construction. The experimental road was divided into two
100-m long sections. These sections comprised natural soil (subgrade), base and surface
courses. The recycled aggregates mixed with natural aggregates were used to construct the
surface course. The Young’s modulus of the pavements constructed using recycled aggregate
increased with time. This was attributed to the pozzolanic activity or the remaining hydraulic
potential of cement in the concrete or the mortar. The bearing capacity was found to decrease
over time for the control or reference pavement. In addition, the leaching tests showed that the
mixed recycled aggregates do not have a greater leaching risk than natural aggregates.
Although the sulphate content or leached concentration was high in the case of mixed C&D
waste, the amount was non-hazardous as per the European Union (EU) landfill classification
acceptance criteria.

Paul [16] presented a case study on the use of RCA by VicRoads as a fully bound pavement
subbase for deep-strength asphalt pavements. It was reported that the performance of RCA is
similar to class 3 crushed rock either in bound or unbound pavement subbase. The testing of
field cores indicated that the stabilised materials have some moisture sensitivity.

Park [45] conducted laboratory and field investigations to evaluate the performance of dry and
wet RCA as base and subbase materials for concrete pavement. The falling weight
deflectometer (FWD) was used to measure the deflection of pavement sections constructed
with RCA base and subbase. The FWD results indicated that the performance of concrete
pavements with RCA base/subbase was similar to those with natural aggregates as
base/subbase.

Main Roads Western Australia (MRWA) utilised over 30,000 tonnes of recycled C&D waste
in a road widening project in Perth [134]. The recycled waste was used to construct the subbase
course in full-depth asphalt pavement. Initial investigations on road performance indicated that
the roads constructed using recycled materials were durable and could withstand moderate
traffic from construction vehicles [134].

Tavira et al. [135] investigated the long-term performance of an experimental pavement section
in Spain constructed using recycled aggregates derived from demolition waste. The study
involved two sections of 170 m and 180 m length, where recycled aggregates were used in the
base and subbase layers. These aggregates were deemed non-hazardous under the European
Landfill directive, posing no environmental risk. Static plate bearing tests were conducted
during the construction, while falling weight deflectometer tests were performed at various
stages, i.e., during construction, at its completion and during the service period. In addition,
the international roughness index (IRI) was measured using a laser profiler over a seven-year
period post construction. It was observed that recycled aggregates exhibited higher bearing
capacity compared to natural aggregates. Pavement section with a base layer of recycled
aggregates showed lower deflection than that with natural aggregates. Overall, the pavement

42
constructed using recycled aggregates demonstrated acceptable structural performance and
stability over time, which was evidenced by small IRI values.

Zhang et al. [136] studied the long-term seasonal performance of pavement bases constructed
with recycled aggregates derived from C&D waste in the United States. Falling weight
deflectometer tests were conducted to measure pavement deflection and assess seasonal
variations in the base layer modulus. In addition, the ride quality of the pavement was
monitored through IRI and rutting depth measurements. The findings revealed that recycled
aggregates exhibited a higher modulus compared to natural aggregates. It was also found that
climatic factors have more significant influence on the long-term performance of the pavement
base than traffic loading. In terms of ride quality, the pavement section constructed with
recycled aggregates performed comparably to that constructed with natural aggregates.

Pourkhorshidi et al. [137] examined the behaviour of a trial pavement constructed in Italy using
different types of recycled C&D waste (used in the base layer). The study revealed that recycled
aggregates containing weak components, such as brick particles and tiles, exhibited stiffness
increase only during the initial passes of vibrating roller. This stiffness gain was attributed to
particle breakage and changes in particle size distribution. In contrast, recycled aggregates with
strong components such as crushed high strength concrete, demonstrated a progressive increase
in stiffness throughout the construction phase. In addition, the rate of stiffness gain during
successive passes of the vibratory roller varied among different recycled materials owing to the
differences in their strength and brittleness.

Thus, the field investigations demonstrate that the performance of roads constructed using
recycled materials is similar to those constructed using natural aggregates. Despite these
encouraging results, recycled materials are not being utilised at their full potential. This is due
to several reasons that are discussed in the next section.

8 Impediments to the use of recycled aggregates

Several barriers hinder the adoption of recycled aggregates in flexible pavements [16, 22, 35,
57, 75, 102, 138]:

• A misconception still exists in the industry that recycled materials are inferior to natural
quarried materials, largely due to limited knowledge of the engineering characteristics
of recycled aggregates for pavement applications.
• There is limited information regarding the long-term durability of recycled aggregates
in service. In addition, evidence demonstrating the long-term environmental and
performance outcomes of these materials is relatively scarce.
• Some stakeholders have concerns about the environmental effects of using recycled
material, which negatively impacts their acceptance.
• There is inconsistent information on the allowable proportions of recycled materials
and their long-term performance in unbound pavement layers. Industry standards often
provide only the maximum permissible limits, with limited guidance on selecting
appropriate percentages of different aggregates in blends.

43
 • Minimum requirements for natural aggregates are based on their established
performance history, whereas comprehensive data on the in-situ performance of
recycled materials is still required.
• The availability of recycled material suppliers near a project site can be limited
compared to the quarry sources. When suppliers are distant, the additional haulage costs
can significantly offset the cost advantage of recycled materials. In addition,
maintaining consistent product quality and performance standards can be challenging
for the suppliers.
• Recycled materials exhibit inherent variability in their properties, partly due to their
affinity for water due to the presence of cement mortar and other foreign materials.
Therefore, the use of recycled materials necessitates stringent quality control and
extensive laboratory testing in comparison to natural aggregates.
• Lack of reliable tools for predicting the long-term in-service performance of recycled
aggregates and their blends.
• Possibility of leaching of hazardous materials, especially after rainfall. This risk can be
mitigated by ensuring that recycled aggregates contain negligible amounts of harmful
compounds, such as organic compounds, ions, and heavy metals.
• Environmental concerns, such as the transportation of heavy metals to water sources or
the impact of high-pH leachate on corrosion of underlying metal drainage pipes.
• Some recycled aggregates are classified as waste, requiring compliance with
regulations regarding special infrastructure for their storage. In contrast, the natural
aggregates do not require such infrastructure.

Thus, the full potential of recycled aggregates remains untapped due to several industry
barriers, including misconceptions about material behaviour, limited long-term performance
data, and inconsistent guidance on the use of recycled aggregates. Despite these impediments,
the use of recycled aggregates in pavements is highly desirable due to the benefits outlined in
the next section.

9 Environmental, economic and social impact of recycled aggregates

9.1 Environmental impact

The use of recycled aggregates must not affect the groundwater or the neighbouring
environment. Therefore, it is essential to evaluate the contaminant concentration in the water
that might seep through the recycled aggregates in pavements during its service life. This is
typically estimated using a leaching test which provides information about the potential impact
that a project will have on groundwater during their service life [139, 140]. A leaching test is
vital to ensure that the water seeping through the recycled material would not pose a threat to
the surrounding environment (groundwater or water streams). This is ensured by comparing
the tested concentration of the contaminants, such as heavy metals, with the guidelines
specified by various government agencies regarding requirements for fill or various categories
of waste materials. Table 6 provides an example of the threshold limits for different
contaminants set out by EPA Victoria [141].

44
 Table 6 Threshold limit for various contaminants (sourced from [141, 142])

Contaminant Total concentration (mg/kg) ASLP threshold for solid

inert waste (mg/L)

Fill material Solid inert waste

(maximum) (threshold)

Arsenic 20 500 0.35

Barium – 6,250 35

Beryllium – 100 0.5

Cadmium 3 100 0.1

Chromium (VI) 1 500 2.5

Copper 100 5,000 100

Lead 300 1,500 0.5

Mercury 1 75 0.05

Nickel 60 3,000 1

Selenium 10 50 0.5

Silver 10 180 5

Zinc 200 35,000 150

Cyanide (total) 50 2,500 4

Benzene 1 4 0.05

Benzo (a) pyrene 1 5 0.0005

45
 Polycyclic aromatic
20 50 –
hydrocarbons

ASLP: Australian standard leaching procedure

Some studies have found that aggregates derived from C&D waste do not pose a higher
leaching risk than natural aggregates [78, 133]. This is attributed to the total concentration of
contaminants in recycled C&D waste being below the established threshold limits [78]. In
addition, the ASLP values for these aggregates have been found to be below the thresholds for
hazardous waste [78]. Research also indicates that RCG does not pose any leaching hazard
throughout its service life in pavement applications [34].

However, other studies have reported instances where leaching of certain elements, such as
Aluminium, Barium, Chromium, Iron, Molybdenum, Sodim, Nickel, Antimony and Strontium,
exceeded local risk-based thresholds for groundwater in some RCA samples. Nevertheless, the
reported values in most cases were within the same order of magnitude as the thresholds [75].

The pH of RCA leachate is generally higher compared to that of natural aggregates [75]. If this
high-pH leachate reaches an aquifer, groundwater dilution and carbonation typically mitigate
its impact on groundwater pH [75]. However, the use of RCA may pose risks in sensitive
environments with limited potential for dilution and pH neutralisation [75].

The use of RCB in asphalt may also pose some environmental challenges. Its higher
compaction temperature requirements lead to increased energy consumption and greater
greenhouse gas emissions [143].

Nevertheless, the use of recycled aggregates offers several environmental benefits, including
reduced waste disposal into landfills, lower greenhouse gas emissions [144, 145] associated
with the production and disposal of new and waste materials, respectively, and conservation of
energy and water resources [144, 146, 147]. Recycled aggregates reduce the demand for virgin
aggregates, thereby preserving natural landscapes and protecting local ecosystems by reducing
the need for new quarry sites. This, in turn, helps prevent habitat destruction, soil erosion and
wildlife disruption.

9.2 Economic impact

Using recycled aggregates can lower project costs by reducing the amount of waste being
disposed of in landfills, which saves the landfill levy [148], storage, transportation, and long-

46
term monitoring expenses. When the recycled aggregates suppliers are near the project site,
they can be more cost-effective than virgin aggregates, resulting in significant cost savings for
road construction and maintenance [134]. Local government agencies may also offer incentives
or tax benefits for utilising recycled materials in infrastructure development projects, further
reducing the project expenditure. Additionally, the reduced demand for natural aggregates
results in cost savings associated with the exploration, land acquisition and development of
new quarry sites.

The adoption of recycled aggregates can also create job opportunities in the recycling sector.
These jobs can range from waste collection and processing to the manufacture of recycled
products, which contributes to local economic development and community welfare. For
instance, in Australia, it has been estimated that 9.2 jobs are created for every 10,000 tonnes of
waste recycled, compared to just 2.8 jobs for the same amount of waste disposed of in a landfill
[149].

9.3 Social impact

The use of recycled aggregates in flexible pavements also demonstrates a commitment to

environmental conservation and responsible resource management, enhancing community
satisfaction and promoting civic pride. Recycling helps conserve natural resources for future
generations and thus, promotes sustainability. In addition, the reduction in greenhouse gas
emissions and pollutants associated with the extraction, production, and transportation of virgin
aggregates has positive impacts on human health. Finally, using recycled aggregates helps
reduce noise and vibrations associated with quarrying operations, contributing to better living
conditions for nearby communities.

Thus, the use of recycled aggregates in flexible pavement construction presents a sustainable
and economically viable alternative to traditional materials. These materials not only offer
substantial environmental benefits, such as reducing landfill waste, conserving natural
resources, and protecting ecosystems, but also provide significant cost savings in project
execution. Furthermore, the adoption of recycled aggregates fosters job creation in the
recycling sector, contributing to local economic growth and community well-being. Given
these compelling benefits, further research efforts are needed to overcome the impediments
(discussed in the next section) and advance the widespread adoption of recycled aggregates in
pavement construction, paving the way toward more sustainable infrastructure solutions.

10 Overcoming practical obstacles related to the use of recycled materials

Several techniques are being developed to address the obstacles associated with the use of
recycled aggregates, especially the concerns regarding long-term durability, environmental
impact and material variability. The durability of recycled aggregates, particularly RCA, can
be enhanced through pre-treatment using thermal [150, 151] and chemical methods [152, 153].
In the thermal method, RCA is heated to a temperature sufficient to weaken the mortar adhered
to the natural aggregate particles, which can then be removed through mechanical rubbing
[150]. In chemical methods, acidic solvents are used to weaken and remove the adhered mortar,

47
improving the quality of RCA [152, 153]. Additionally, use of additives such as cement can
further improve the long-term performance of these aggregates [14].

To address environmental concerns, it is crucial to ensure that recycled aggregates contain

negligible amounts of harmful substances, such as organic compounds, ions, and heavy metals.
This can be achieved through: (a) proper material segregation at demolition or recycling sites
to avoid contamination, (b) comprehensive chemical and leaching tests [34, 75] and (c) pre-
treatment through washing, thermal or chemical methods. Batch testing should also be
conducted to ensure material consistency and quality. Other techniques, such as installing
impermeable barriers beneath the recycled aggregate layer [154] and creating specialised
drainage paths to bypass the recycled aggregate layer [155] can also be employed to minimise
soil or groundwater contamination.

Continuous monitoring of the environmental impact is also essential for roads constructed
using recycled materials [155]. This includes regular measurement of pH levels and the
concentration of potential contaminants in the soil or groundwater near the construction site.
The data collected from such projects can be analysed to identify and address potential issues
proactively, thereby minimising environmental risks.

Material variability can be minimised by sourcing recycled aggregates from consistent, reliable
and certified suppliers which operate under recognised quality assurance standards [156].
Additional measures include segregation at the source, implementing rigorous quality control
in sorting waste, and maintaining uniformity throughout the recycling process [9, 157].
Techniques such as grouping recycled aggregates based on similar material characteristics
[158], as well as washing and pre-treatment, can also be employed to achieve a consistent
material quality.

11 Research gaps

The following research gaps have been identified based on the extensive review of the
literature:

• Although the feasibility of using RCA as a base course material has been investigated
relatively well, few studies have been conducted on the suitability of RCA-RCB or
RCA-RCG blends for subbase or base-course applications. RCB and RCG usually
possess inferior engineering properties as compared to RCA; however, when blended
with RCA, they might prevent the occurrence of reflective cracking. In addition, RCB
can be more fragile undergoing substantial particle degradation (i.e. abrasion, splitting
and fragmentation) compared to RCA. This degradation effect in RCB requires further
investigation.
• Limited studies have investigated the performance of RCA, RCB, and RCG triple
blends. A better understanding of their performance is essential to justify an increase in
their allowable percentage for use in pavement construction and maintenance. In

48
 addition, the influence of the blending technique on the properties of recycled aggregate
blends needs to be investigated.
• Most of the studies have been carried out to assess the performance of recycled
aggregates for applications in sealed or paved roads, whereas limited studies have
investigated their potential application in unsealed or unpaved roads. A probable reason
for this could be the concern regarding the contaminant concentration in the water that
inevitably seeps through the recycled aggregates in the case of unsealed roads.
• Although the use of recycled material blends has now been permitted in pavements [21,
46], only the maximum limit of each recycled constituent to be used is specified, and
the optimum percentage still needs to be determined. In addition, there is no guideline
for selecting the percentage of various constituents in the blend.
• Current industry standards only set maximum replacement limits for recycled
aggregates in pavement applications, which might be insufficient to completely recover
the waste that is being generated annually. To increase the utilisation of recycled
materials, their effectiveness at replacement levels exceeding the allowable limits must
be demonstrated through rigorous field and laboratory investigations.
• The long-term performance of recycled materials needs to be comprehensively
investigated, especially under realistic moving loads. This could be achieved by
performing accelerated loading tests on pavements constructed using recycled
aggregates and their blends.
• The studies on the permeability of recycled materials and their blends are limited. In
addition, the influence of principal stress rotation on the behaviour of recycled materials
is not clearly understood.
• Laboratory investigations typically focus on estimating the apparent cohesion and
friction angles of recycled aggregates while overlooking their volumetric behaviour.
Further research is needed to understand the shear-induced volumetric behaviour of
recycled aggregates, often linked to the volumetric changes caused by compaction. This
understanding is essential for developing accurate constitutive models for recycled
materials and their blends. These constitutive models can be subsequently employed to
predict the response of pavements constructed using recycled materials and their blends
using numerical methods.
• Most of the properties measured in the laboratory are obtained by preparing samples at
their OMC. Although it might be acceptable for blends with flatter OMC-density curves
that tend to be less sensitive to water content, it may cause performance issues for
blends with a sharp OMC-density curve that tend to be sensitive to the moisture content.
The moisture levels in pavements may fluctuate due to material type, for example, RCB
may absorb more water than RCA. The moisture in pavements may also fluctuate due
to seasonal changes. It is therefore essential to study the behaviour of blends at various
moisture contents.
• Most studies ignore the end-of-life use of recycled materials, i.e., their utilisation after
the design life is achieved. This aspect must be addressed in future projects.

The following are the recommendations for future research:

• Establishment of comprehensive performance-based guidelines and specifications for

using different types of recycled aggregates and their blends in pavement construction.
• Advanced sensors can be employed for real-time monitoring of the performance of
recycled materials in pavements. These sensors would continuously collect data, which

49
 can be analysed using data-driven techniques to identify performance patterns and
assess the long-term behaviour of recycled materials. Such insights could facilitate the
development of adaptive pavement management strategies tailored to recycled
materials.
• Standardised methodologies for long-term field monitoring of recycled pavement
materials under various traffic loads and climatic conditions should be developed.
These methodologies would enable the creation of universally accepted performance
benchmarks and guidelines, promoting consistent and reliable use of recycled materials
in pavements.
• Artificial intelligence and machine learning techniques can be employed to analyse
large datasets obtained from laboratory and field tests on recycled materials. These
approaches can identify complex performance patterns and provide accurate
predictions of resilient modulus and permanent deformation under varying loads,
environmental conditions and material compositions.
• Existing machine learning models should be refined, leveraging advancements in data
availability and computational power to further improve their accuracy and reliability.
• Predictive models could also be integrated into digital twin frameworks to enable real-
time simulation of the behaviour of pavements constructed with recycled aggregates
under cyclic loading. This integration would provide dynamic updates based on real
world data and help optimise pavement performance during the design and maintenance
phases.

12 Concluding remarks

The use of recycled aggregates in pavement construction has gained significant attention due
to their environmental, economic, and social benefits. This article provided a comprehensive
evaluation of the physical and mechanical properties of recycled aggregates, particularly RCA,
RCB and RCG, in the context of flexible pavement construction. It examined particle-level and
assembly properties, as well as the long-term performance of these materials and their blends,
providing critical insights into their effectiveness as flexible pavement materials. By leveraging
empirical models for predicting resilient modulus and permanent deformation characteristics
under cyclic loading, this study offers a practical approach to incorporate recycled materials in
flexible pavement analysis and design. The following conclusions can be drawn from this
study:

• RCA has demonstrated significant potential as a substitute for natural aggregates in

base and subbase layers of flexible pavements. Despite variability in its properties,
RCA often meets or exceeds standard requirements, sometimes performing comparably
to or even better than natural aggregates. Notably, RCA benefits from secondary
cementation, which can enhance strength and stiffness over time, although it may
require careful management to prevent issues such as shrinkage-induced cracking.
However, challenges such as the presence of adhered mortar, which influences its
engineering characteristics, still needs to be addressed.
• RCB offers both opportunities and challenges as an alternative material for pavement
construction. While its particle level properties generally meet the criteria for unbound
base and subbase materials, its high-water absorption capacity, due to its porous nature,
poses challenges for compaction and may affect its mechanical performance. The
presence of adhered mortar further exacerbates these issues, influencing its engineering

50
 behaviour. In comparison to RCA, it exhibits a lower density, higher moisture
absorption, and inferior abrasion resistance. These limitations underscore the
importance of blending RCB with other aggregates to enhance its overall performance.
• RCG stands out due to its unique properties, including insensitivity of dry density to
moisture content variations. It exhibits lower MDD, CBR, and shear strength compared
to typical natural aggregates. Consequently, blending RCG with natural or other
recycled aggregates is recommended to enhance its performance and achieve suitable
engineering properties.
• Blending recycled aggregates with other materials often addresses some of the
challenges associated with individual materials. For instance, blending RCA with
bitumen reduces water absorption but may increase permanent deformation under
repeated loading. Adding cement to RCA improves its mechanical properties, though
the gains are less pronounced compared to natural aggregates. Similarly, blending RCA
with RCB and RCG, alongside additives like cement, has shown to mitigate issues such
as shrinkage-induced cracking, thereby enhancing overall performance.
• Previous studies reveal considerable variability in the resilient modulus of recycled
aggregates, influenced by factors such as composition, source, moisture content and
stress state. Notably, RCA often exhibits a higher resilient modulus than natural
aggregates, primarily due to the secondary cementation of unhydrated cement. The
empirical model used to predict resilient modulus provides predictions that closely
match laboratory data, validating its application for performance evaluation of various
recycled materials and their blends.
• The cumulative permanent deformation in recycled aggregates and their blends is
influenced by several factors, including aggregate type, source, moisture content, and
stress state, among others. The empirical model for predicting permanent deformation
provides reasonable predictions, affirming its utility in assessing the long-term
performance of recycled aggregate and their blends.
• Field investigations consistently demonstrate that pavements constructed using
recycled aggregates exhibit performance comparable to those built with natural
quarried materials. Some studies demonstrated that recycled aggregates not only
maintained performance but also had a lower environmental impact, with leaching tests
indicating non-hazardous levels of contaminants. These findings indicate that recycled
aggregates are a viable alternative to natural materials, offering comparable
performance in various pavement applications.

Despite these positive outcomes, the full potential of recycled materials remains underutilised.
Challenges such as variability in material quality and conservative industry practices continue
to hinder broader adoption. Addressing these issues through improved quality control, updated
guidelines, a better understanding of engineering characteristics and long-term performance,
and increased awareness of the benefits of recycled aggregates could facilitate more
widespread use in flexible pavement construction.

Acknowledgements

The authors thank the anonymous reviewers for their valuable comments and suggestions to
improve the technical merit of this study.

51
CRediT authorship contribution statement

Piyush Punetha: Conceptualisation, Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation,

Methodology, Software, Visualisation, Writing – original draft.

Sanjay Nimbalkar: Conceptualisation, Funding acquisition, Resources, Supervision,

Visualisation, Writing – review and editing.

Funding sources

This work was financially supported by the SmartCrete CRC and the industry partners (the
Scenic Rim Regional Council, Queensland, Australia; and the Queensland Government
Department of Environment and Science, Queensland, Australia) [SmartCrete CRC
21.PP.0120 project, 2023].

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare no known competing financial interests or personal relationships.

Data availability statement

Data will be made available on reasonable request.

52
Appendix A. Mechanical Properties of Recycled Aggregates Reported in Literature

Tables A.1, A.2 and A.3 list the properties of RCA, RCB and RCG reported in past studies,
respectively.

Table A.1 Properties of recycled concrete aggregates reported in past studies

Mean Standard Typical

Property Unit References
value deviation range

Liquid limit (LL) % 28 6.2 23 – 35 [20, 42]

[19, 20, 36, 37, 40,

Maximum dry 1810 –
kg/m3 1967 83 42, 44, 45, 48, 68,
density (MDD) 2210
102]

[19, 20, 36, 37, 40,

Optimum moisture
% 11.9 1.2 9 – 14.9 42, 44, 45, 48, 68,
content (OMC)
102]

Flakiness index % 13.1 2.9 11 – 16.4 [18, 42, 48]

Los Angeles [17, 18, 20, 37, 40,

% 31.7 6.4 21 – 43.6
abrasion loss 45, 48, 67, 99]

pH – 11 1.5 8.6 – 13.1 [18-20, 37, 48, 75]

California bearing 74.2 –

% 140.5 38.4 [18, 19, 40, 100]
ratio (CBR) 184

Unconfined
0.44 –
compressive strength MPa 0.62 0.2 [20, 43, 100]
0.88
(UCS)

44 –
Apparent cohesion, c kPa 80.8 42 [36, 37, 40, 43]
169.7

Friction angle, φ ° 50.9 5.2 41.5 – 57 [36, 37, 40, 43]

53
 Table A.2 Properties of recycled crushed brick reported in past studies

Mean Standard Typical

Property Unit References
value deviation range

Maximum dry density 1990 – [36, 48,

kg/m3 2013 14
(MDD) 2022 102]

Optimum moisture [36, 48,

% 11 0.36 10.7 – 11.4
content (OMC) 102]

Flakiness index % 20 8.4 14 – 25.9 [33, 48]

Los Angeles abrasion

% 40.4 8 35.5 – 49.6 [33, 48, 70]
loss

pH − 9.7 1 9.1 – 10.9 [36, 48]

California bearing ratio

% 131 10.6 123 – 138 [33]
(CBR)

Apparent cohesion, c kPa 41 – – [93]

Friction angle, φ ° 49 – – [93]

54
 Table A.3 Properties of recycled crushed glass reported in past studies

Mean Standard Typical

Property Unit References
value deviation range

Maximum dry 1451 – [35, 36, 41, 50, 51,

kg/m3 1747 174
density (MDD) 1990 64, 72, 84]

Optimum moisture [35, 36, 41, 51, 64,

% 10.3 1.9 8 – 13.6
content (OMC) 84]

85.4 –
Flakiness index# % 90.1 6.6 [35]
94.7

Los Angeles
% 27.6 5.7 24 – 42 [35, 36, 50, 64, 84]
abrasion loss

pH – 9.9 0.3 9.6 – 10.1 [35]

California bearing
% 42.4 21.9 18 – 76 [34, 35]
ratio (CBR)

Apparent cohesion kPa 0 – – [35, 51]

Friction angle ° 41.3 5 37 – 48 [35, 51, 84]

#For medium and coarse RCG

References

1. Edge Environment Pty Ltd. Construction and demolition waste guide - Recycling and
re-use across the supply chain. Canberra, Australia: Department of Sustainability,
Environment, Water, Population and Communities; 2011.

2. Pickin J, Wardle C, O’Farrell K, Stovell L, Nyunt P, Guazzo S, et al. National Waste

Report 2022. Melbourne, Australia: The Department of Climate Change, Energy, the
Environment and Water; 2022.

3. Zheng L, Wu H, Zhang H, Duan H, Wang J, Jiang W, et al. Characterizing the

generation and flows of construction and demolition waste in China. Construct Build
Mater 2017;136:405-413. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.01.055.

55
4. US EPA, Construction and Demolition Debris: Material-Specific Data.
https://www.epa.gov/facts-and-figures-about-materials-waste-and-
recycling/construction-and-demolition-debris-material, 2023 (accessed 23/08/2024).

5. Eurostat, Generation of waste by waste category, hazardousness and NACE Rev. 2

activity (env_wasgen).
https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/api/dissemination/sdmx/2.1/data/env_wasgen?format=TS
V&compressed=true, 2024 (accessed 23/08/2024).

6. Department of Industry Innovation, Science, Research and Tertiary Education.

Australia's sustainable aggregates industry: Building our nation through smarter
resource use. Canberra, Australia: Department of Industry Innovation, Science,
Research and Tertiary Education; 2012.

7. Gonzalez GP, Moo-Young HK. Transportation applications of recycled concrete

aggregate. Washington DC, United States: Federal Highway Administration; 2004.

8. ARRB. Best Practice Expert Advice on the Use of Recycled Materials in Road and
Rail Infrastructure: Part A Technical Review and Assessment. Melbourne, Australia:
Australian Road Research Board; 2022.

9. Pereira PM, Vieira CS. A Literature Review on the Use of Recycled Construction and
Demolition Materials in Unbound Pavement Applications. Sustainability 2022;14(21).
https://doi.org/10.3390/su142113918.

10. Hansen TC. Recycling of Demolished Concrete and Masonry. Oxon, United
Kingdom: Taylor and Francis; 2002.

11. Molenaar AAA, van Niekerk AA. Effects of Gradation, Composition, and Degree of
Compaction on the Mechanical Characteristics of Recycled Unbound Materials.
Transp Res Rec 2002;1787(1):73-82. https://doi.org/10.3141/1787-08.

12. Marek CR, Gallaway BM, Lone RE. Look at processed rubble - it’s a valuable source
of aggregates. Roads and Streets 1971;114(9):82-85.

13. Nixon P. The use of materials from demolition in construction. Resour Policy
1976;2(4):276-283. https://doi.org/10.1016/0301-4207(76)90082-9

14. Robnett QL. Use of marginal materials in highway construction. Atlanta, United
States: Georgia Institute of Technology; 1980.

15. Hansen TC. Recycled aggregates and recycled aggregate concrete second state-of-the-
art report developments 1945–1985. Mater Struct 1986;19:201-246.

16. Paul RH. Use of recycled crushed concrete for road pavement sub-base. In: National
Symposium on the Use of Recycled Materials in Engineering Construction. Barton,
ACT, Australia: Institution of Engineers; 1996.

17. Nataatmadja A, Tan YL. Resilient response of recycled concrete road aggregates. J
Transp Eng 2001;127(5):450-453. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-
947X(2001)127:5(450).

56
18. Arulrajah A, Piratheepan J, Ali MMY, Bo MW. Geotechnical Properties of Recycled
Concrete Aggregate in Pavement Sub-Base Applications. Geotech Test J
2012;35(5):1-9. https://doi.org/10.1520/gtj103402.

19. Aatheesan T, Arulrajah A, Newman G, Bo MW, Wilson J. Crushed brick blends with
crushed concrete for pavement sub-base and drainage applications. Aust Geomech J
2009;44(2):65-72.

20. Gabr AR, Cameron DA. Properties of Recycled Concrete Aggregate for Unbound
Pavement Construction. J Mater Civ Eng 2012;24(6):754-764.
https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0000447.

21. Department of Transport and Main Roads. TN193: Use of recycled materials in road
construction. Brisbane, Australia: State of Queensland (Department of Transport and
Main Roads); 2020.

22. Groves S. Standards to facilitate the use of recycled material in road construction.
Sydney, Australia: Standards Australia; 2023.

23. Dhir RK, de Brito J, Ghataora GS, Lye CQ. Use of Glass Cullet in Geotechnical
Applications. 1st ed. Sustainable Construction Materials: Glass Cullet. Duxford,
United Kingdom: Elsevier Science & Technology; 2018.

24. Huwaldt JA, Steinhorst S. Plot digitizer 2.6.8. Version 2.6.8 [software]. PlotDigitizer-
Software; 2015. http://plotdigitizer.sourceforge.net.

25. Nimbalkar S, Punetha P, Kaewunruen S. Performance improvement of ballasted

railway tracks using geocells: present state of the art. In: Sitharam TG, Hegde A,
Kolathayar S, editors. Geocells. Springer Transactions in Civil and Environmental
Engineering. Singapore: Springer; 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-6095-
8_11.

26. Huang YH. Pavement Analysis and Design. New Jersey, United States: Pearson
Prentice Hall; 2004.

27. Pooni J, Robert D, Giustozzi F, Gunasekara C, Setunge S. A review on soil

stabilisation of unsealed road pavements from an Australian perspective. Road Mater
Pavement Des 2022;24(4):1005-1049.
https://doi.org/10.1080/14680629.2022.2060122.

28. Australian Road Research Board. Unsealed Roads: Best Practice Guide. Melbourne,
Australia: Australian Road Research Board; 2020.

29. Department of Transport. TRH 20: Unsealed roads: Design, construction and
maintenance. Pretoria, South Africa: Department of Transport; 2009.

30. Austroads. Guide to Pavement Technology Part 6: Unsealed Pavements. Sydney,

Australia: Austroads; 2018.

31. Austroads. Guide to Pavement Technology Part 4: Pavement Materials. Sydney,

Australia: Austroads; 2018.

57
32. Portas S. Case Study: Mechanical Reliability of Sub-Grade Layer Built with
Demolition Waste Materials. In: 2nd Int. Congress on New Technologies and
Modelling Tools for Roads. Florence, Italy: Societa Italiana Infrastrutture Viarie;
2004.

33. Arulrajah A, Piratheepan J, Aatheesan T, Bo MW. Geotechnical Properties of

Recycled Crushed Brick in Pavement Applications. J Mater Civ Eng
2011;23(10):1444-1452. https://doi.org/10.1061/(asce)mt.1943-5533.0000319.

34. Disfani MM, Arulrajah A, Bo MW, Sivakugan N. Environmental risks of using

recycled crushed glass in road applications. J Clean Prod 2012;20(1):170-179.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2011.07.020.

35. Disfani MM, Arulrajah A, Bo MW, Hankour R. Recycled crushed glass in road work
applications. Waste Manag 2011;31(11):2341-51.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2011.07.003.

36. Arulrajah A, Piratheepan J, Disfani MM, Bo MW. Geotechnical and

Geoenvironmental Properties of Recycled Construction and Demolition Materials in
Pavement Subbase Applications. J Mater Civ Eng 2013;25(8):1077-1088.
https://doi.org/10.1061/(asce)mt.1943-5533.0000652.

37. Wang C, Chazallon C, Braymand S, Hornych P. Influence of self-cementing

properties on the mechanical behaviour of recycled concrete aggregates under
monotonic loading. Construct Build Mater 2023;367.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2022.130259.

38. Yaghoubi E, Ghorbani B, Saberian M, van Staden R, Guerrieri M, Fragomeni S.

Permanent deformation response of demolition wastes stabilised with bitumen
emulsion as pavement base/subbase. Transp Geotech 2023;39.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trgeo.2023.100934.

39. Senanayake M, Arulrajah A, Maghool F, Horpibulsuk S. Evaluation of rutting

resistance and geotechnical properties of cement stabilized recycled glass, brick and
concrete triple blends. Transp Geotech 2022;34:100755.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trgeo.2022.100755.

40. Naeini M, Mohammadinia A, Arulrajah A, Horpibulsuk S. Recycled Glass Blends

with Recycled Concrete Aggregates in Sustainable Railway Geotechnics.
Sustainability 2021;13(5). https://doi.org/10.3390/su13052463.

41. Saberian M, Li J, Perera STAM, Ren G, Roychand R, Tokhi H. An experimental

study on the shear behaviour of recycled concrete aggregate incorporating recycled
tyre waste. Construct Build Mater 2020;264.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.120266.

42. Saberian M, Li J, Setunge S. Evaluation of permanent deformation of a new pavement

base and subbase containing unbound granular materials, crumb rubber and crushed
glass. J Clean Prod 2019;230:38-45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.05.100.

58
43. Mohammadinia A, Arulrajah A, Disfani MM, Darmawan S. Small-Strain Behavior of
Cement-Stabilized Recycled Concrete Aggregate in Pavement Base Layers. J Mater
Civ Eng 2019;31(5). https://doi.org/10.1061/(asce)mt.1943-5533.0002671.

44. Melbouci B. Compaction and shearing behaviour study of recycled aggregates.

Construct Build Mater 2009;23(8):2723-2730.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2009.03.004.

45. Park T. Application of Construction and Building Debris as Base and Subbase
Materials in Rigid Pavement. J Transp Eng 2003;129(5):558–563.
https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-947X(2003)129:5(558).

46. Department of Transport and Main Roads. MRTS05 Unbound Pavements. Brisbane,
Australia: State of Queensland (Department of Transport and Main Roads); 2022.

47. Australian Standard. AS 1289.3.6.1: Methods of testing soils for engineering

purposes, Method 3.6.1: Soil classification tests— Determination of the particle size
distribution of a soil—Standard method of analysis by sieving. Sydney, Australia:
Standards Australia; 2022.

48. Mohammadinia A, Arulrajah A, Sanjayan J, Disfani MM, Bo MW, Darmawan S.

Laboratory Evaluation of the Use of Cement-Treated Construction and Demolition
Materials in Pavement Base and Subbase Applications. J Mater Civ Eng 2015;27(6).
https://doi.org/10.1061/(asce)mt.1943-5533.0001148.

49. Arnold G, Werkmeister S, Alabaster D. The effect of adding recycled glass on the
performance of basecourse aggregate. Wellington, New Zealand: New Zealand
Transport Agency (351); 2008.

50. Dames and Moore Inc. Glass Feedstock Evaluation Project - Engineering Suitability
Evaluation. Seattle, United States: Clean Washington Center; 1993.

51. Grubb DG, Gallagher PM, Wartman J, Liu Y, Carnivale III M. Laboratory evaluation
of crushed glass–dredged material blends. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng
2006;132(5):562-576. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2006)132:5(562).

52. Henry KS, Morin SH. Frost susceptibility of crushed glass used as construction
aggregate. J Cold Reg Eng 1997;11(4):326-333. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0887-
381X(1997)11:4(326).

53. Altuhafi FN, Coop MR, Georgiannou VN. Effect of particle shape on the mechanical
behavior of natural sands. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 2016;142(12):04016071.
https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0001569.

54. Behera M, Bhattacharyya S, Minocha A, Deoliya R, Maiti S. Recycled aggregate

from C&D waste & its use in concrete–A breakthrough towards sustainability in
construction sector: A review. Construct Build Mater 2014;68:501-516.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2014.07.003.

55. Alshibli KA, Alsaleh MI. Characterizing Surface Roughness and Shape of Sands
Using Digital Microscopy. J Comput Civ Eng 2004;18(1):36-45.
https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0887-3801(2004)18:1(36).

59
56. Cardoso R, Silva RV, Brito J, Dhir R. Use of recycled aggregates from construction
and demolition waste in geotechnical applications: A literature review. Waste Manag
2016;49:131-145. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2015.12.021.

57. Khalaf FM, DeVenny AS. Recycling of demolished masonry rubble as coarse
aggregate in concrete. J Mater Civ Eng 2004;16(4):331-340.
https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0899-1561(2004)16:4(331).

58. Austroads. ATS 3050: Supply of Recycled Crushed Glass Sand. Sydney, Australia:
Austroads; 2022.

59. Hansen TC, Narud H. Strength of recycled concrete made from crushed concrete
coarse aggregate. Concr Int 1983;5(1):79-83.

60. Olorunsogo F, Padayachee N. Performance of recycled aggregate concrete monitored

by durability indexes. Cem Concr Res 2002;32(2):179-185.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0008-8846(01)00653-6.

61. Sherwood PT. Alternative materials in road construction. London, United Kingdom:
Thomas Telford; 1995.

62. Sivakumar V, McKinley JD, Ferguson D. Reuse of construction waste: performance

under repeated loading. Proc Inst Civ Eng: Geotech Eng 2004;157(GE2):91-96.
https://doi.org/10.1680/geng.2004.157.2.91.

63. El-Hassan H, Kianmehr P, Tavakoli D, El-Mir A, Dehkordi RS. Synergic effect of

recycled aggregates, waste glass, and slag on the properties of pervious concrete. Dev
Built Environ 2023;15:100189. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dibe.2023.100189.

64. Lee LT. Recycled glass and dredged materials. Vicksburg, United States: Engineer
Research And Development Center; 2007.

65. García-González J, Rodríguez-Robles D, Juan-Valdés A, Morán-del Pozo JM,

Guerra-Romero MI. Porosity and pore size distribution in recycled concrete. Mag
Concr Res 2015;67(22):1214-1221. https://doi.org/10.1680/macr.14.00218.

66. De Juan MS, Gutiérrez PA. Study on the influence of attached mortar content on the
properties of recycled concrete aggregate. Construct Build Mater 2009;23(2):872-877.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2008.04.012.

67. Chini AR, Kuo S-S, Armaghani JM, Duxbury JP. Test of recycled concrete aggregate
in accelerated test track. J Transp Eng 2001;127(6):486-492.
https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-947X(2001)127:6(486).

68. Poon CS, Chan D. Feasible use of recycled concrete aggregates and crushed clay
brick as unbound road sub-base. Construct Build Mater 2006;20(8):578-585.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2005.01.045.

69. Albayati A, Wang Y, Wang Y, Haynes J. A sustainable pavement concrete using

warm mix asphalt and hydrated lime treated recycled concrete aggregates. Sustain
Mater Technol 2018;18:e00081. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.susmat.2018.e00081.

60
70. Bolouri Bazaz J, Khayati M. Properties and performance of concrete made with
recycled low-quality crushed brick. J Mater Civ Eng 2012;24(4):330-338.
https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0000385.

71. Khalaf FM, DeVenny AS. Properties of new and recycled clay brick aggregates for
use in concrete. J Mater Civ Eng 2005;17(4):456-464.
https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0899-1561(2005)17:4(456).

72. Amlashi SMH, Carter A, Vaillancourt M, Bilodeau JP. Physical and hydraulic
properties of recycled glass as granular materials for pavement structure. Can J Civ
Eng 2020;47(7):865-874. https://doi.org/10.1139/cjce-2019-0089.

73. Müllauer W, Beddoe RE, Heinz D. Leaching behaviour of major and trace elements
from concrete: effect of fly ash and GGBS. Cem Concr Compos 2015;58:129-139.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2015.02.002.

74. Chen J, Tinjum JM, Edil TB. Leaching of alkaline substances and heavy metals from
recycled concrete aggregate used as unbound base course. Transp Res Rec
2013;2349(1):81-90. https://doi.org/10.3141/2349-10.

75. Gupta N, Kluge M, Chadik PA, Townsend TG. Recycled concrete aggregate as road
base: Leaching constituents and neutralization by soil Interactions and dilution. Waste
Manag 2018;72:354-361. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2017.11.018.

76. Kravchenko E, Lazorenko G, Jiang X, Leng Z. Alkali-activated materials made of

construction and demolition waste as precursors: A review. Sustain Mater Technol
2024;39:e00829. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.susmat.2024.e00829.

77. Afshar T, Disfani MM, Arulrajah A, Narsilio GA, Emam S. Impact of particle shape
on breakage of recycled construction and demolition aggregates. Powder Technol
2017;308:1-12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.powtec.2016.11.043.

78. Rahman MA, Imteaz M, Arulrajah A, Disfani MM. Suitability of recycled

construction and demolition aggregates as alternative pipe backfilling materials. J
Clean Prod 2014;66:75-84. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2013.11.005.

79. Atyia MM, Mahdy MG, Abd Elrahman M. Production and properties of lightweight
concrete incorporating recycled waste crushed clay bricks. Construct Build Mater
2021;304:124655. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.124655.

80. Dyer TD, Dhir RK. Chemical reactions of glass cullet used as cement component. J
Mater Civ Eng 2001;13(6):412-417. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0899-
1561(2001)13:6(412).

81. Idir R, Cyr M, Tagnit-Hamou A. Pozzolanic properties of fine and coarse color-mixed
glass cullet. Cem Concr Compos 2011;33(1):19-29.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2010.09.013.

82. Sabbrojjaman M, Liu Y, Tafsirojjaman T. A comparative review on the utilisation of

recycled waste glass, ceramic and rubber as fine aggregate on high performance
concrete: Mechanical and durability properties. Dev Built Environ 2024;17:100371.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dibe.2024.100371.

61
83. Xiao R, Dai X, Zhong J, Ma Y, Jiang X, He J, et al. Toward waste glass upcycling:
Preparation and characterization of high-volume waste glass geopolymer composites.
Sustain Mater Technol 2024;40:e00890.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.susmat.2024.e00890.

84. Wartman J, Grubb DG, Nasim A. Select engineering characteristics of crushed glass.
J Mater Civ Eng 2004;16(6):526-539. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0899-
1561(2004)16:6(526).

85. Lade PV, Yamamuro JA, Bopp PA. Significance of Particle Crushing in Granular
Materials. J Geotech Eng 1996;122(4):309-316. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-
9410(1996)122:4(309).

86. Nimbalkar S, Indraratna B, Dash SK, Christie D. Improved performance of railway

ballast under impact loads using shock mats. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng
2012;138(3):281-294. https://doi.org/10.1061/(asce)gt.1943-5606.0000598.

87. Hardin BO. Crushing of soil particles. J Geotech Eng 1985;111(10):1177-1192.

https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9410(1985)111:10(1177).

88. Tavares LM, King RP. Single-particle fracture under impact loading. Int J Miner
Process 1998;54(1):1-28. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0301-7516(98)00005-2.

89. Sagoe-Crentsil KK, Brown T, Taylor AH. Performance of concrete made with
commercially produced coarse recycled concrete aggregate. Cem Concr Res
2001;31(5):707-712. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0008-8846(00)00476-2.

90. Su Y, Zhong H, Wang Y, Lv Y. Economical Recycled Concrete Aggregates to

Attenuate Successive Rockfall Impacts: Large-Scale Field Modeling. Rock Mech
Rock Eng 2023;56(10):7269-7280. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00603-023-03423-y.

91. Cai X, Wu K, Huang W, Yu J, Yu H. Application of recycled concrete aggregates and

crushed bricks on permeable concrete road base. Road Mater Pavement Des
2021;22(10):2181-2196. https://doi.org/10.1080/14680629.2020.1742193.

92. Hagerty M, Hite D, Ullrich C, Hagerty D. One-dimensional high-pressure

compression of granular media. J Geotech Eng 1993;119(1):1-18.
https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9410(1993)119:1(1).

93. Arulrajah A, Piratheepan J, Bo MW, Sivakugan N. Geotechnical characteristics of

recycled crushed brick blends for pavement sub-base applications. Can Geotech J
2012;49(7):796-811. https://doi.org/10.1139/t2012-041.

94. Leek C, Siripun K, Nikraz H, Jitsangiam P. An Investigation into the Performance of

Recycled Concrete Aggregate as a Base Course Material in Road Pavements. In:
International Conference on Advances in Geotechnical Engineering. Perth, Australia;
2011.

95. Azam AM, Cameron DA. Geotechnical Properties of Blends of Recycled Clay
Masonry and Recycled Concrete Aggregates in Unbound Pavement Construction. J
Mater Civ Eng 2013;25(6):788-798. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-
5533.0000634.

62
96. Silva R, De Brito J, Dhir R. Properties and composition of recycled aggregates from
construction and demolition waste suitable for concrete production. Construct Build
Mater 2014;65:201-217. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2014.04.117.

97. Nagataki S, Gokce A, Saeki T, Hisada M. Assessment of recycling process induced

damage sensitivity of recycled concrete aggregates. Cem Concr Res 2004;34(6):965-
971. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2003.11.008.

98. Gabr AR, Cameron DA, Andrews R, Mitchell PW. Comparison of Specifications for
Recycled Concrete Aggregate for Pavement Construction. J ASTM Int 2011;8(10).
https://doi.org/10.1520/jai103646.

99. Pasandín AR, Pérez I. Mechanical properties of hot-mix asphalt made with recycled
concrete aggregates coated with bitumen emulsion. Construct Build Mater
2014;55:350-358. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2014.01.053.

100. Yaghoubi E, Arulrajah A, Wong YC, Horpibulsuk S. Stiffness Properties of Recycled

Concrete Aggregate with Polyethylene Plastic Granules in Unbound Pavement
Applications. J Mater Civ Eng 2017;29(4). https://doi.org/10.1061/(asce)mt.1943-
5533.0001821.

101. Arulrajah A, Piratheepan J, Disfani MM, Bo MW. Resilient Moduli Response of

Recycled Construction and Demolition Materials in Pavement Subbase Applications.
J Mater Civ Eng 2013;25(12):1920-1928. https://doi.org/10.1061/(asce)mt.1943-
5533.0000766.

102. Yaghoubi E, Sudarsanan N, Arulrajah A. Stress-strain response analysis of demolition

wastes as aggregate base course of pavements. Transp Geotech 2021;30:100599.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trgeo.2021.100599.

103. Witczak M, Uzan J. The universal airport pavement design system, Report I of IV:
Granular material characterization. College Park, United States: University of
Maryland; 1988.

104. AASHTO. Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guide: A manual of practice.

Washington DC, United States: American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials; 2008.

105. Azam AM, Cameron DA, Rahman MM. Model for prediction of resilient modulus
incorporating matric suction for recycled unbound granular materials. Can Geotech J
2013;50(11):1143-1158. https://doi.org/10.1139/cgj-2012-0406.

106. Montgomery D, Runger G. Applied Statistics and Probability for Engineers. New
Jersey, United States: John Wiley and Sons, Inc; 2011.

107. Tseng KH, Lytton RL. Prediction of Permanent Deformation in Flexible Pavement
Materials. In: Schreuders HG Marck CR, editors. Implication of Aggregates in the
Design, Construction, and Performance of Flexible Pavements, ASTM STP 1016.
Philadelphia, United States: American Society for Testing and Materials; 1989. p.
154-172.

63
108. Austroads. AG:PT/T053: Determination of permanent deformation and resilient
modulus characteristics of unbound granular materials under drained conditions.
Sydney, Australia: Austroads; 2007.

109. Won J, Tutumluer E, Byun Y-H. Predicting permanent strain accumulation of

unbound aggregates using machine learning algorithms. Transp Geotech
2023;42:101060. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trgeo.2023.101060.

110. Ghorbani B, Arulrajah A, Narsilio G, Horpibulsuk S, Bo MW. Dynamic

characterization of recycled glass-recycled concrete blends using experimental
analysis and artificial neural network modeling. Soil Dyn Earthq Eng
2021;142:106544. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soildyn.2020.106544.

111. Zhang P, Yin Z-Y, Jin Y-F, Liu X-F. Modelling the mechanical behaviour of soils
using machine learning algorithms with explicit formulations. Acta Geotech
2022;17(4):1403-1422. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11440-021-01170-4.

112. Alnedawi A, Al-Ameri R, Nepal KP. Neural network-based model for prediction of
permanent deformation of unbound granular materials. J Rock Mech Geotech Eng
2019;11(6):1231-1242. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrmge.2019.03.005.

113. Hanandeh S, Ardah A, Abu-Farsakh M. Using artificial neural network and genetics
algorithm to estimate the resilient modulus for stabilized subgrade and propose new
empirical formula. Transp Geotech 2020;24:100358.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trgeo.2020.100358.

114. Ghorbani B, Arulrajah A, Narsilio G, Horpibulsuk S, Bo MW. Development of

genetic-based models for predicting the resilient modulus of cohesive pavement
subgrade soils. Soils Found 2020;60(2):398-412.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sandf.2020.02.010.

115. Baghbani A, Choudhury T, Costa S, Reiner J. Application of artificial intelligence in

geotechnical engineering: A state-of-the-art review. Earth-Sci Rev 2022;228:103991.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2022.103991.

116. Ullah S, Tanyu BF, Zainab B. Development of an artificial neural network (ANN)-
based model to predict permanent deformation of base course containing reclaimed
asphalt pavement (RAP). Road Mater Pavement Des 2021;22(11):2552-2570.
https://doi.org/10.1080/14680629.2020.1773304.

117. Oskooei PR, Mohammadinia A, Arulrajah A, Horpibulsuk S. Application of artificial

neural network models for predicting the resilient modulus of recycled aggregates. Int
J Pavement Eng 2020;23(4):1121-1133.
https://doi.org/10.1080/10298436.2020.1791863.

118. Wu M, Xia Z, Wang J. Constitutive modelling of idealised granular materials using

machine learning method. J Rock Mech Geotech Eng 2023;15(4):1038-1051.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrmge.2022.08.002.

119. Ghorbani B, Yaghoubi E, Arulrajah A, Fragomeni S. Long-Term Performance

Analysis of Demolition Waste Blends in Pavement Bases Using Experimental and

64
 Machine Learning Techniques. Int J Geomech 2023;23(6).
https://doi.org/10.1061/ijgnai.Gmeng-7291.

120. Saha S, Gu F, Luo X, Lytton RL. Use of an Artificial Neural Network Approach for
the Prediction of Resilient Modulus for Unbound Granular Material. Transp Res Rec
2018;2672(52):23-33. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361198118756881.

121. Heidarabadizadeh N, Ghanizadeh AR, Behnood A. Prediction of the resilient modulus

of non-cohesive subgrade soils and unbound subbase materials using a hybrid support
vector machine method and colliding bodies optimization algorithm. Construct Build
Mater 2021;275:122140. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.122140.

122. Poon C-S, Qiao XC, Chan D. The cause and influence of self-cementing properties of
fine recycled concrete aggregates on the properties of unbound sub-base. Waste
Manag 2006;26(10):1166-1172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2005.12.013.

123. Bennert T, Maher A. The Use of Recycled Concrete Aggregate in a Dense Graded
Aggregate Base Course. New Jersey, United States: U.S. Department of
Transportation Federal Highway Administration; 2008.

124. Zhang J, Zhang A, Huang C, Yu H, Zhou C. Characterising the resilient behaviour of

pavement subgrade with construction and demolition waste under Freeze–Thaw
cycles. Journal of Cleaner Production 2021;300:126702.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.126702.

125. Soleimanbeigi A, Shedivy RF, Tinjum JM, Edil TB. Climatic effect on resilient
modulus of recycled unbound aggregates. Road Mater Pavement Des 2015;16(4):836-
853. https://doi.org/10.1080/14680629.2015.1060250.

126. Saberian M, Li J. Effect of freeze–thaw cycles on the resilient moduli and unconfined
compressive strength of rubberized recycled concrete aggregate as pavement
base/subbase. Transp Geotech 2021;27:100477.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trgeo.2020.100477.

127. Bestgen JO, Hatipoglu M, Cetin B, Aydilek AH. Mechanical and Environmental
Suitability of Recycled Concrete Aggregate as a Highway Base Material. J Mater Civ
Eng 2016;28(9):04016067. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0001564.

128. Mills-Beale J, You Z. The mechanical properties of asphalt mixtures with Recycled
Concrete Aggregates. Construct Build Mater 2010;24(3):230-235.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2009.08.046.

129. Aghililotf M, Palassi M, Ramezanianpour AM. Mechanical and durability assessment

of unconfined recycled concrete aggregates and natural aggregates used in road
constructions. Int J Pavement Eng 2021;22(12):1518-1530.
https://doi.org/10.1080/10298436.2019.1701190

130. Ghorbani B, Arulrajah A, Narsilio G, Horpibulsuk S. Experimental and ANN analysis

of temperature effects on the permanent deformation properties of demolition wastes.
Transp Geotech 2020;24:100365. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trgeo.2020.100365.

65
131. Wang C, Chazallon C, Jing P, Hornych P, Latour B. Effect of self-cementing
properties on the mechanical behaviour of recycled concrete aggregates in unbound
pavement layers. Transp Geotech 2023;42:101054.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trgeo.2023.101054.

132. de Rezende LR, Marques MdO, de Oliveira JC, de Carvalho JC, Guimarães RC,
Resplandes HdMS, et al. Field Investigation of Mechanic Properties of Recycled
CDW for Asphalt Pavement Layers. J Mater Civ Eng 2016;28(3).
https://doi.org/10.1061/(asce)mt.1943-5533.0001420.

133. Jiménez JR, Ayuso J, Galvín AP, López M, Agrela F. Use of mixed recycled
aggregates with a low embodied energy from non-selected CDW in unpaved rural
roads. Construct Build Mater 2012;34:34-43.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2012.02.042.

134. Waste Authority. Roads to Reuse pilot project: A case study. Perth, Australia: Waste
Authority, The Government of Western Australia; 2020.

135. Tavira J, Jiménez JR, Ledesma EF, López-Uceda A, Ayuso J. Real-scale study of a
heavy traffic road built with in situ recycled demolition waste. J Clean Prod
2020;248:119219. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.119219.

136. Zhang Y, Cetin B, Edil TB. Seasonal Performance Evaluation of Pavement Base
Using Recycled Materials. Sustainability 2021;13(22):12714.
https://doi.org/10.3390/su132212714

137. Pourkhorshidi S, Sangiorgi C, Torreggiani D, Tassinari P. Assessment of construction

and demolition waste materials for sublayers of low traffic rural roads. In: Eleventh
International Conference on the Bearing Capacity of Roads, Railways and Airfields.
Norway; 2022.

138. Tam VWY, Tam CM. Crushed aggregate production from centralized combined and
individual waste sources in Hong Kong. Construct Build Mater 2007;21(4):879-886.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2005.12.016.

139. Hellweg S, Fischer U, Hofstetter TB, Hungerbühler K. Site-dependent fate assessment

in LCA: transport of heavy metals in soil. J Clean Prod 2005;13(4):341-361.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2003.10.003.

140. Susset B, Grathwohl P. Leaching standards for mineral recycling materials – A

harmonized regulatory concept for the upcoming German Recycling Decree. Waste
Manag 2011;31(2):201-214. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2010.08.017.

141. EPA Victoria. Solid industrial waste hazard categorization and management,
industrial waste resource guidelines. Melbourne, Australia: Environmental Protection
Agency of Victoria (IWRG 631); 2009.

142. EPA Victoria. Waste categorization, industrial waste resource guidelines. Melbourne,
Australia: Environmental Protection Agency of Victoria (IWRG 600.2); 2010.

66
143. Wu S, Zhu J, Zhong J, Wang D. Experimental investigation on related properties of
asphalt mastic containing recycled red brick powder. Construct Build Mater
2011;25(6):2883-2887. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2010.12.040.

144. Lee JC, Edil TB, Tinjum JM, Benson CH. Quantitative assessment of environmental
and economic benefits of recycled materials in highway construction. Transp Res Rec
2010;2158(1):138-142. https://doi.org/10.3141/2158-17.

145. Lu D, Qu F, Punetha P, Zeng X, Luo Z, Li W. Graphene oxide nano-engineered

recycled aggregate concrete for sustainable construction: A critical review. Dev Built
Environ 2024;18:100444. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dibe.2024.100444.

146. Bloom E, Del Ponte K, Natarajan B, Ahlman A, Edil T, Whited G. State DOT Life
Cycle Benefits of Recycled Material in Road Construction. In: Geo-Chicago.
Chicago, United States; 2016.

147. Del Ponte K, Madras Natarajan B, Pakes Ahlman A, Baker A, Elliott E, Edil TB.
Life-Cycle Benefits of Recycled Material in Highway Construction. Transp Res Rec
2017;2628(1):1-11. https://doi.org/10.3141/2628-01.

148. Lim AJ, Cao Y, Dias-da-Costa D, Ghadi AE, Abbas A. Recycled materials in roads
and pavements: A technical review. Sydney: Local Government NSW; 2020.

149. Access Economics. Employment in waste management and recycling. Canberra,

Australia: The Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts; 2009.

150. Mulder E, de Jong TPR, Feenstra L. Closed Cycle Construction: An integrated

process for the separation and reuse of C&D waste. Waste Manag 2007;27(10):1408-
1415. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2007.03.013.

151. Akbarnezhad A, Ong KCG, Zhang MH, Tam CT, Foo TWJ. Microwave-assisted
beneficiation of recycled concrete aggregates. Construct Build Mater
2011;25(8):3469-3479. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2011.03.038.

152. Tam VWY, Tam CM, Le KN. Removal of cement mortar remains from recycled
aggregate using pre-soaking approaches. Resour Conserv Recycl 2007;50(1):82-101.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2006.05.012.

153. Ismail S, Ramli M. Engineering properties of treated recycled concrete aggregate

(RCA) for structural applications. Construct Build Mater 2013;44:464-476.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2013.03.014.

154. EPA Victoria. Use of biosolids as geotechnical fill. Melbourne, Australia:

Environmental Protection Agency of Victoria; 2009.

155. Hjelmar O, Holm J, Crillesen K. Utilisation of MSWI bottom ash as sub-base in road
construction: first results from a large-scale test site. J Hazard Mater
2007;139(3):471-480. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2006.02.059.

156. Austroads. Guide to Pavement Technology Part 4E: Recycled Materials. Sydney,
Australia: Austroads; 2022.

67
157. Premathilaka K, Liyanapathirana D, Leo CJ, Hu P. Application of recycled waste
glass to replace traditional quarried aggregates: A comprehensive review. J Build Eng
2024:108846. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2024.108846.

158. Gao J, Yang J, Yu D, Jiang Y, Ruan K, Tao W, et al. Reducing the variability of
multi-source reclaimed asphalt pavement materials: A practice in China. Construct
Build Mater 2021;278:122389. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.122389.

68