Research methods and skills: A practical guide

UNIT 9. QUESTIONNAIRES AND INTERVIEWS

- A survey is a research method commonly used for researching various aspects related to
language. This research method offers self-report or retrospective data on the status quo, change
or development of something unobservable.
For example: + A survey about the covid 19 perception of people in rural areas in 2021.
+ A survey about the capacity of children to survive disasters like floods in mountainous areas in
2024.
- Surveys involve the use of various research techniques. Two common techniques are
questionnaires and interviews.
9.1. Questionnaires
a). Definition and features
+ A common survey technique is a questionnaire. It comprises a set of questions related and
structured in a certain fashion to gather information.
+ Components: A questionnaire basically includes three components: directions, demographic
questions, and main questions.
+ Usefulness: - help researchers gather both quantitative and qualitative data.
- Its strength is the capacity to gather a large amount of information within a short
time. It is also a convenient way of collecting data.
+ Limitation: limited in the capacity to elicit rich qualitative data compared to interviews.
+ Common types of questions:
- Close-ended questions are commonly used to elicit responses. In this type, a question is asked,
and predetermined answers are provided for respondents to choose (e.g., Do you like English? -
Yes/No/Neutral). This type of question allows researchers to obtain quantitative data.
- Open-ended questions may also be used to allow respondents to give answers freely (e.g., Why
do you study English?). This type of question allows researchers to obtain qualitative
information.
b). How to design a questionnaire to ensure validity (in nghieng step 1-7 la cho slide, con lai doc)
There are 7 steps to follow for designing a questionnaire:
Step 1: Decide the objectives of the questionnaire.
Step 2: Determine and define the concepts or variables to be surveyed, especially abstract multi-
dimensional concepts.
(You should review the literature to define specific attributes for the concepts. These attributes
will be designed in questions. )
Step 3: Plan what kind of questions can be asked to obtain the information.
(The questions may be choice questions (yes/no), or scale questions (e.g., strongly
agree/agree/neutral/disagree/strongly disagree) or open-ended questions.)
Step 4: Write the questions to gather information on each variable.
Simple variables like gender require straightforward questions such as 'Please indicate your
gender: Male/Female'. However, some multi-dimensional and abstract concepts (e.g.,motivation)
would require a set of related questions to gather information on various attributes that define
them.
For example, someone's motivation should be obtained by using a set of questions about his
interest, enjoyment, reasons for doing something, and other external factors.
Step 5: Write the questionnaire instructions or directions.
Respondents should understand exactly what the questionnaire is about and how to answer the
questions. Writing clear instructions thus can ensure the precise information is collected, which
could enhance validity.
Step 6: Proof-read the questionnaire and pilot with a sample of target population to receive
feedback for improvement.
Step 7: Revise the questionnaire.
c). How to write questions to enhance validity
Writing clear and precise questions helps enhance the validity of a questionnaire.
There are pitfalls that researchers should avoid in constructing questions to ensure that the
questions elicit valid information. Alternatively, you can select an existing questionnaire and
adapt it for your research.
Avoid Ensure
Leading questions Non-biased language
Ex: "Wouldn't you say that...", "Isn't it fair to Remove biased words.
say...", "How great is it to...?"

Ambiguous questions Questions should mean the same

Ex: How did you study English in thing to all
respondents. the past?

Terminology and colloquialisms Using common language so people of any

literacy level can understand the question.

Double-barreled questions Each question focuses on a single piece of

 information.
Ex: Do you enjoy speaking English?

Double negation Using only one negative word

Assumption questions Asking questions one by one

Overlapping options Clearly distinct options

Not giving enough answer Including all Including all possible options
possible options options

Table. Summary of mistakes and tips in writing questions.

9.2. Interviews
9.2.1. Definition and features
Interviews, as a tool of data collection, are usually associated with qualitative research
methodologies. Interviews are useful when the research is seeking to understand what people
understand and how they feel about the topic under investigation. (Ellis, 2016, p.84)
+ Strength: interviews can provide detailed and rich data
+ Weakness: their disadvantages involve messiness and risks of biased subjective judgements.
Interviewing is necessary to collect detailed information on unobservable behavior such as
understanding, thinking, viewpoints or feelings. Interviewing is also useful when you are
interested in past events or stories that are impossible to replicate.
9.2.2. Types of interviews
There are several types of interviews, but the following three are commonly used in research:
structured, semi-structured, and focus-group interviews.
Winwood (2019) describes structured interviews are characterized by their rigid format, where
specific questions are asked in a set order to all participants, ensuring minimal variation caused
by the interviewer or the process. This approach relies heavily on the assumption of a common
understanding of language among participants, especially in smaller groups and when familiar
terms are involved.
According to the researcher, semi-structured interviews, on the other hand, offer more
flexibility. The interviewer has the liberty to research deeper into certain topics and ask follow-
up questions for clarification. This type of interview maintains a basic structure but allows for a
more conversational and exploratory approach, potentially yielding richer data than the more
rigid structured interviews.
Finally, focus-group interviews, to Winwood (ibid.), involve a group participants who share an
interest or involvement in the research topic. These interviews are not aimed at reaching a
consensus but rather at exploring the range of opinions and perspectives within the group. The
challenge in this setting is to manage the group dynamics effectively, ensuring all participants
discussion. This approach can reveal diverse insights but requires careful have a voice and
preventing any single participant from dominating the moderation to be effective.

9.2.3. Types of interview questions

Merriam and Tisdell (2016) describe six types of interview questions:
 Background/demographic questions:
These questions are about information on interviewees as relevant to the study such as age,
income, education, number of years on the job, and so on. All interviews contain these
questions.
 Experience and behavior questions:
This type of question asks about a person's behaviors, actions, and activities.
 Sensory questions:
This type is like experience and behavior questions but aims to get more specific data about
what was seen, heard, touched, and so forth.
 Opinion and values question:
This kind of question elicits a person's beliefs or opinions.
 Feeling questions:
Questions of this type aim to elicit adjective responses namely bored, anxious, happy, afraid,
intimidated, confident, and so on. Knowledge questions: These questions elicit a participant's
actual understanding about something.

9.2.4. Questions that should be avoided

1. Multiple questions - either one question that is a multiple question or a series of single
questions.
Ex: How do you feel about the instructors, the assignments, and the schedule of classes?
which the respondent may not hold. These questions set the respondent up to
2. Leading questions - questions that contain the researcher's assumption, which the respondent
may not hold. These questions set the respondent up to accept the researcher’s point of view.
Ex: What emotional problems did you have since entering this program?"
3. Yes/No questions – any questions that can be answered with a simple yes or no may give you
almost no information. For the reluctant, shy, or less verbal respondent, they offer an easy way
out; they can also shut down or at least slow down the flow of information from the interviewee.
9.2.5. How to conduct an interview

UNIT 10. TEXTS AND RECORDINGS

Existing texts and audio-video recordings offer such naturally arising data because they offer a
useful source of information for primary research on linguistic features, language acquisition and
use. They provide the most convenient way of data gathering without having to do with people,
although copyrights must be considered.
10.1. Texts
+ Texts serve as a rich source of naturally arising data, as they are plentiful in various forms
For example:- Text in forms of books, articles, social media posts, emails, and chat conversations
(Zamanian & Heydari, 2012).
- Texts also include visual forms (e.g., photographs and pictures), and performative
media (e.g., drama). According to some researchers (Given, 2008; Flick, 2022), texts can also be
generated by using elicitation tasks (e.g., essay tasks).
+ Analyzing texts allows researchers to examine the complex structures, lexical choices,
discourse patterns, or stylistic features employed by different language users.

10.2. Audio-video recordings

Recording is a direct way of collecting the speeches and behaviors of speakers for conducting
a detailed analysis of linguistic features, content, and discourse. Audio-video recordings
precisely capture spoken language samples in real-life contexts, so they can serve to analyze
speech patterns, intonation, prosody, and non-verbal cues (Margetts & Margetts, 2012).
Specifically, audio-video transcripts derived from interviews, conversations, speeches, radio
broadcasts, podcasts, and others allow researchers to investigate spoken language phenomena,
study dialects, analyze language variation across different speakers, and explore the impact of
socio-cultural factors on communication.
According to Given (2008), researchers can extract direct quotes for presentation and analysis; or
with videos, they can even study the visual details of interaction and behavior. Below are some
tips to gather data via recording.
Where to get Apart from using radio broadcasts, podcasts, TV programs, and any
data archives for your study purpose, you can make recordings in naturalistic
settings (e.g., clubs, meetings, classrooms, cafes)

How to get data Audio recordings may be sufficient if the acoustic quality is good, but in
case of background noise, a video may support a better understanding of
what speakers say. Ensure the participants identify themselves in the
 recording, so you can identify them in transcription. Plan carefully who
and how long you will record.

Risk of losing Aware of being recorded, participants may act less losing naturalistically,
naturalness so it is crucial to be sensitive and negotiate with the participants. After a
while, they will become used to being recorded, however.

Ethics and Make sure to ask for permission to record someone. For archived
copyright recordings online or broadcasts on public channels, accept by the
copyright.

Table. Some tips to gather data via recording.