Review

A Review of Research Progress on Cables and Towed Objects of

the Ocean Engineering Towing System
Kefu Qi *, Jianing Zhang * , Lei Zhang , Jinlong Zhang and Ruijun Gan

Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering College, Dalian Maritime University, Dalian 116026, China;
[email protected] (L.Z.); [email protected] (J.Z.); [email protected] (R.G.)
* Correspondence: [email protected] (K.Q.); [email protected] (J.Z.)

Abstract: Towing operations are widely applied in various fields such as maritime accident
rescue, assisting large vessels entering and exiting ports, and transporting large ocean
platforms. Tugboats and the towed objects form a complex multi-body system connected
by flexible cables, and during operations, they are subjected to the effects of complex marine
environmental loads. Current research focuses on using numerical simulations and model
tests in water tanks to study the motion response of towed objects and cables under the
action of environmental loads. There is a lack of research that combines the mechanical
response and structural strength with the load conditions of towing operations. Taking
cables as an example, most studies focus on the mechanical properties of cables without
considering the impact of towing conditions. After reviewing the literature, this paper
summarizes the shortcomings of the existing research and points out several potential
research directions in the field of towing: the mechanical response of cables during the
initial stage of towing, experiments on towing by multiple tugboats, research on composite
fiber cables using experimental and finite element simulation methods, and structural
optimization of components related to towing operations.

Keywords: towing system; mechanical response; motion response; cables; towed objects

Academic Editor: José António

Correia
1. Introduction
Received: 24 December 2024
In recent years, with the development of large-scale shipbuilding, the towing operation
Revised: 23 January 2025 of ships has become a research hotspot. As shown in Figure 1a, this is the scene of the
Accepted: 26 January 2025 ultra-large container ship “XinFu 102” leaving the port [1]. When such large vessels enter
Published: 30 January 2025 or leave the ports, due to the limitations of narrow waterways, they must rely on tugboats
Citation: Qi, K.; Zhang, J.; Zhang, L.; to assist with a series of complex operations such as berthing, turning, and controlling
Zhang, J.; Gan, R. A Review of navigational speed. Against the backdrop of rapidly increasing shipping demands, ship
Research Progress on Cables and collisions, aging fires, groundings, and other maritime accidents are frequent. As shown in
Towed Objects of the Ocean
Figure 1b, vessels that have lost their self-propulsion capability due to collision accidents
Engineering Towing System. J. Mar.
Sci. Eng. 2025, 13, 257. https://
urgently require tugboat assistance to leave the incident area [2], otherwise, it may lead
doi.org/10.3390/jmse13020257 to serious consequences such as waterway blockages, fuel leakage, and even secondary
accidents. In addition, offshore oil and gas platforms, floating wind turbines, and resource
Copyright: © 2025 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
exploration robots, which lack self-propulsion capabilities, also rely on towing technology.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license
(https://creativecommons.org/
licenses/by/4.0/).

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2025, 13, 257 https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse13020257

 in Figure 2, in order to meet different operational requirements, it is necessary to choose
the appropriate tug arrangement scheme. According to the U.S. Navy Towing Manual [3],
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2025, 13, 257 the tug arrangement scheme is divided into double towing, catenary towing, tandem tow-2 of 25
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2025, 13, 257 2 of 26
ing, and side-by-side towing.

in Figure 2, in order to meet different operational requirements, it is necessary to choose

the appropriate tug arrangement scheme. According to the U.S. Navy Towing Manual [3],
the tug arrangement scheme is divided into double towing, catenary towing, tandem tow-
ing, and side-by-side towing.

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 1. Towing
1. Towing operation
operation application
application scenarios
scenarios [1,2].
[1,2]. (a)(a)
TheThe “XinFu
“XinFu 102”towing
102” towingoperation
operationsite.
site.
(b) Damage to the barge collision accident.
(b) Damage to the barge collision accident.

Ship towing refers to the process of using tugboats to tow the ship from one location
to another; in accordance with the purpose, it can be broadly divided into harbor towing,
point-to-point towing,(a)rescue towing, salvage towing, and emergency (b)towing. As shown in
Figure 2, in order to meet different operational requirements, it is necessary to choose the
Figure 1. Towing
appropriate tugoperation application
arrangement scenarios
scheme. [1,2].to(a)
According The
the “XinFu
U.S. Navy102” towing
Towing operation
Manual site.
[3], the
(b)tug
Damage to the barge
arrangement collision
scheme accident.
is divided into double towing, catenary towing, tandem towing,
and side-by-side towing.

(a) (b)

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Figure 2. Composite of arrangement scheme. (a) Double towing; (b) catenary towing; (c) tandem
towing; (d) side-by-side towing.

The towing process involves the tugboat, the towed objects (such as cargo ships, oil
drilling platforms, and disabled vessels), and the connecting cable, which together form a
complex multi-body system. (c) In the system, the towing force provided (d) by the tugboat is
transmitted to the towed objects through the cable, and its motion state (such as speed
Figure
Figure 2. 2. Composite
Composite ofofarrangement
arrangementscheme.
scheme.(a)(a)Double
Double towing;
towing; (b)(b) catenary
catenarytowing;
towing;(c)(c)tandem
tandem
andtowing;
direction)
(d)
directly affects
side-by-side towing.
the tension of the cable and the movement of the towed
towing; (d) side-by-side towing.
objects. The cable, acting as a medium, has characteristics such as stiffness, length, and
mass perThe towing
unit lengthprocess involves the tugboat,
that determine manner and the towed objects
efficiency (suchtransmission.
of force as cargo ships, oil
The
The towing process involves the tugboat, the towed objects (such as cargo ships, oil
drilling platforms, and disabled vessels), and the connecting cable,
size, shape, mass, and hydrodynamic characteristics of the towed object affect its responsewhich together form
drilling platforms,
a complex and disabled
multi-body system. vessels),
In the and the connecting cable, whichby together form a
to the cable tension, thus influencing thesystem,
motionthe towing
state of theforce provided
tugboat. To addressthe the
tugboatnu-
complex
is multi-body
transmitted to the system.
towed In the
objects system,
through the
the towing
cable, andforce
its provided
motion stateby the
(such tugboat
as speed is
merous challenges involved in the towing process, researchers have conducted extensive
transmitted to the towedaffects
objects through the cable, and itsthe
motion state (such as speed
andand direction)
in-depth directly
research. However, the mosttension of the
of the existing cable and
review articlesmovement
focus on ofthethe towed
analysis
and direction)
objects. directly
The cable, actingaffects the tension
as a medium, of the cable and
has characteristics such the movement
as stiffness, of and
length, the mass
towed
objects. The cable, acting as a medium, has characteristics such as stiffness,
per unit length that determine the manner and efficiency of force transmission. The size, length, and
mass permass,
shape, unit length that determine
and hydrodynamic the manner
characteristics ofand efficiency
the towed objectofaffect
forceits
transmission.
response to the The
size, shape, mass, and hydrodynamic characteristics of the towed object affect its response
to the cable tension, thus influencing the motion state of the tugboat. To address the nu-
merous challenges involved in the towing process, researchers have conducted extensive
and in-depth research. However, most of the existing review articles focus on the analysis
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2025, 13, 257 3 of 25

cable tension, thus influencing the motion state of the tugboat. To address the numerous
challenges involved in the towing process, researchers have conducted extensive and in-
depth research. However, most of the existing review articles focus on the analysis of the
overall motion characteristics of the towing system or specific application scenarios, and the
systematic review of the mechanical and dynamic responses of the tow cable and the towed
object is relatively rare. By leveraging databases such as Web of Science, ScienceDirect, and
ResearchGate, this paper systematically reviews the relevant literature in the field of marine
engineering towing. This study primarily focuses on research related to towing cables and
towed objects within towing systems, with an emphasis on summarizing and discussing the
latest research progress on their mechanical and motion responses. The research directions
are categorized as follows: the motion response of the ship towing system, the research of
cable mechanical performance and dynamic model, and the mechanical response analysis
of the towed object. In addition, the current research status in each direction is sorted out
and summarized, which will provide references for scholars who will further study this
field. The current state of research in each direction is reviewed, providing a reference for
scholars who will delve deeper into this field in the future.

2. Motion Response of Towing System

During the towing process, the tugboat, towed object, and cable are subjected to
the combined loads of wind, wave, and current, and the special connection relationship
among the three makes their motion response interrelated and influences each other,
which constitutes an extremely complex dynamic response system. At present, researchers
all over the world have carried out a lot of scientific research on the motion response
problems involved in the towing process by using different methods, including, but not
limited to, numerical simulation methods, theoretical model methods, and experimental
methods, which are suitable for solving different towing problems. This section introduces
innovative and representative research cases in detail, using research methods as the thread,
and elaborates on the advantages and disadvantages of some studies.

2.1. Numerical Simulation Method

Scholars from various countries have conducted extensive theoretical research on the
motion response of towing systems from multiple perspectives. Numerical simulation
methods have become an indispensable key technology in research across various fields
due to their high efficiency, high precision, and low cost. Advanced CFD (Computational
Fluid Dynamics) technology and innovative numerical models can be employed to deeply
analyze the dynamic interaction effects of towing systems under different conditions [4,5].
These models are not only capable of accurately simulating fluid resistance and motion re-
sponse on calm water surfaces, but also take into account the complex dynamic interactions
under wave conditions [6]. As shown in Figure 3, the use of multi-zone overlapping grid
technology achieves a more precise simulation of the dynamic interaction effects between
the towing system and the mother ship, better capturing the subtle interactions between the
towing systems, and enhancing the accuracy of simulation results. Figure 3 illustrates the
variation of the six degrees of freedom of the tugboat over time during towing operations
in calm water conditions, with particular attention to the significant vibrations in heave
and pitch during the tugboat’s startup phase.
J. Mar. Sci.
J. Mar. Sci.Eng.
Eng.2025,
2025,13,
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257 4 of 26
4 of 25

Figure 3.
Figure Mesh division
3. Mesh division and
and simulation
simulationcalculation
calculationresults [6].
results [6].

CFD technology can reduce reliance on physical model experiments, lowering research
CFD technology can reduce reliance on physical model experiments, lowering re-
costs and time, while improving the flexibility and repeatability of tests. To verify the
search costs and time, while improving the flexibility and repeatability of tests. To verify
installation of temporary fins at the stern to improve the steering stability of FPSO (Floating
the installation of temporary fins at the stern to improve the steering stability of FPSO
Production Storage and Offloading) during towing, Li used the Vortex Lattice Method to
(Floating Production Storage and Offloading) during towing, Li used the Vortex Lattice
predict the hydrodynamic lift coefficient of fins [7]. A three-degrees-of-freedom numerical
Method to predict the hydrodynamic lift coefficient of fins [7]. A three-degrees-of-freedom
towing system model is established, considering the interaction of hydrodynamic forces,
numerical towing system model is established, considering the interaction of hydrody-
the hull, and other appendages, as well as the influence of towing cables. It is noteworthy
namic forces,
to combine thethe hull,
fluid and other
dynamic appendages,
prediction as well
of fins with theas the influence
dynamic response of analysis
towing cables.
of the It
istowing
noteworthy to combine the fluid dynamic prediction of fins
system, thereby providing researchers with a comprehensive assessment framework. with the dynamic response
analysis
Furthermore,of thethetowing
impactsystem,
of fins on thereby
the dynamicproviding researchers
response and stabilitywithofathecomprehensive
towing systemas-
sessment
is assessed framework.
in sync throughFurthermore,
time domainthe impact of fins
simulation andoneigenvalue
the dynamic response
analysis, andissta-
which
bility of the towing system is assessed in sync through time domain
relatively rare in previous studies. Similarly, Figari presented an all-round design-to- simulation and eigen-
value analysis,
simulation whichfor
approach is relatively
a new Z-drive rare escort
in previous studies.
tug class, Similarly,
combining CFDFigari presented
calculations and an
all-round design-to-simulation approach for a new Z-drive
towing tank tests to optimize the hull design and predict the maneuvering capabilities escort tug class, combining
CFD
of thecalculations
tug in different andoperational
towing tank tests to [8].
scenarios optimize the hull
Their study design and
highlights predict theofma-
the importance
neuvering
integratingcapabilities of the tug and
numerical simulations in different
experimentaloperational
validations scenarios [8]. Their
to improve studyand
the design high-
performance
lights of towingofvessels.
the importance integrating numerical simulations and experimental validations
In the realm
to improve of resolving
the design towage issues,
and performance Workbench
of towing AQWA has garnered widespread
vessels.
recognition for its comprehensive functional
In the realm of resolving towage issues, Workbench platform in frequency
AQWA domain calculations.
has garnered wide-
OrcaFlex
spread stands out
recognition forfor
itsits convenient and
comprehensive efficient platform
functional user interface, as well domain
in frequency as its high-
calcu-
performance
lations. OrcaFlexand precise
stands computational capabilities
out for its convenient andin efficient
the time domain analysisas
user interface, of well
models.
as its
Consequently, AQWA and OrcaFlex have gradually become
high-performance and precise computational capabilities in the time domain analysis of key tools for researchers
employing
models. numerical simulation
Consequently, AQWA and methods
OrcaFlexto study
havetowing
gradually and become
mooringkey problems.
tools forIn re-
the field of ocean engineering towing, the Munk moment is an important concept that
searchers employing numerical simulation methods to study towing and mooring prob-
significantly affects the hydrodynamic response and motion stability of towing systems.
lems. In the field of ocean engineering towing, the Munk moment is an important concept
Figure 4 presents a schematic diagram of the ocean towing cable-array system model.
that significantly affects the hydrodynamic response and motion stability of towing sys-
Zhang and colleagues used the lumped mass method to discretize the towing cable into
tems. Figure 4 presents a schematic diagram of the ocean towing cable-array system
a series of concentrated mass points, forming a lumped mass model [9]. This method,
model. Zhang and colleagues used the lumped mass method to discretize the towing cable
based on a series of assumptions, establishes the relationship between the expression of the
into a series of concentrated mass points, forming a lumped mass model [9]. This method,
Munk moment in classical towing body kinematics and that in the hydrodynamic analysis
based
softwareon OrcaFlex.
a series ofThe assumptions,
research results establishes
indicatethe thatrelationship
the maximum between
effectivethe expression
tension of the of
the Munk moment in classical towing body kinematics and that
towing cable exhibits a periodic fluctuation trend along its length under the influence of a in the hydrodynamic
analysis
single Munk software
moment OrcaFlex. The research
coefficient. Moreover, results
when indicate
the Munk thatmoment
the maximum effective
coefficient ranges ten-
sion
fromof 0.5the towing
to 0.9, cable exhibits
the effective tension ofa periodic
the towing fluctuation trend along
cable demonstrates itssynchronization
better length under the
influence
along its length. As the Munk moment coefficient increases, the pitch angle ofmoment
of a single Munk moment coefficient. Moreover, when the Munk the towing coef-
ficient
body in ranges from 0.5
the steady to gradually
state 0.9, the effective
increases tension of the towing
and eventually cable demonstrates
approaches better
a stable value.
synchronization
This study reveals along its length.
the impact AsMunk
of the the Munkmoment moment coefficient
coefficient on the increases,
tension and the pitch an-
bending
gle of theof
moment towing body cable,
the towing in the as steady
well asstate
its gradually
role in the increases
stable state andandeventually approaches
dynamic response
acharacteristics
stable value. of This
thestudy
towing reveals the impacta of
body, providing newthemethod
Munk for moment
assessingcoefficient on the ten-
the performance
of towing
sion systems moment
and bending under complex of the sea conditions.
towing cable, as well as its role in the stable state and
dynamic response characteristics of the towing body, providing a new method for as-
sessing the performance of towing systems under complex sea conditions.
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2025, 13, 257 5 of 26
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2025, 13, 257 5 of 25

Figure 4. Schematic diagram of the ocean towing cable-array system model [9].
Figure 4. Schematic diagram of the ocean towing cable-array system model [9].

Moreover, significant progress has been made in utilizing numerical simulation meth-
Moreover, significant progress has been made in utilizing numerical simulation
ods to investigate the maneuvering characteristics of Escort Tugs, which play a pivotal
methods to investigate the maneuvering characteristics of Escort Tugs, which play a piv-
role in marine engineering towing systems. Particularly crucial when assisting large ves-
otal role in marine engineering towing systems. Particularly crucial when assisting large
sels in entering and exiting ports, executing rescue missions, and towing large offshore
vessels in entering and exiting ports, executing rescue missions, and towing large offshore
platforms, the maneuvering performance of Escort Tugs directly impacts the safety and
platforms, the maneuvering performance of Escort Tugs directly impacts the safety and
efficiency of towing operations. Piaggio employed the Reynolds-Averaged Navier–Stokes
efficiency of towing operations. Piaggio employed the Reynolds-Averaged Navier–Stokes
(RANS) approach within Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD), combined with Open-
(RANS) approach within Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD), combined with Open-
FOAM software, to conduct numerical simulations of the maneuvering characteristics of
FOAM software, to conduct numerical simulations of the maneuvering characteristics of
Escort Tugs [10,11]. The research focused on analyzing the hydrodynamic properties of the
Escort Tugs [10,11]. The research focused on analyzing the hydrodynamic properties of
tug’s hull and skeg (a rudder-like appendage) and how these properties influence the tug’s
the tug s hull and skeg (a rudder-like appendage) and how these properties influence the
maneuvering performance. The study encompassed pure drift, pure yaw, and combined
tug s maneuvering performance. The study encompassed pure drift, pure yaw, and com-
drift–yaw conditions, and by altering the size and shape of the skeg, the mechanisms
bined drift–yaw conditions, and by altering the size and shape of the skeg, the mecha-
through which it affects hydrodynamic properties and maneuvering performance were
nisms through which it affects hydrodynamic properties and maneuvering performance
analyzed. Mauro proposes an improved method based on a nonlinear thrust distribution
were analyzed. Mauro proposes an improved method based on a nonlinear thrust distri-
algorithm, including thruster interactions, and adds lateral balance modeling of the tug
bution algorithm, including thruster interactions, and adds lateral balance modeling of
to assess the stability of the tug during escort operations, providing a flexible method for
the tug to assess the stability of the tug during escort operations, providing a flexible
initial prediction of the tug’s escort capability [12,13].
method for initial prediction of the tug s escort capability [12,13].
These studies not only provide essential theoretical foundations for the design of
These studies not only provide essential theoretical foundations for the design of Es-
Escort Tugs, but also offer scientific guidance for the selection and operation of tugs in
cort Tugs, but also offer scientific guidance for the selection and operation of tugs in tow-
towing systems. The maneuvering performance of Escort Tugs directly affects the dynamic
ing systems. The maneuvering performance of Escort Tugs directly affects the dynamic
response and stability of towing systems. By optimizing the hydrodynamic characteristics
response and stability of towing systems. By optimizing the hydrodynamic characteristics
of tugs, the overall performance of towing systems can be enhanced, minimizing tension
of tugs, the overall performance of towing systems can be enhanced, minimizing tension
fluctuations in towlines and reducing potential safety hazards during towing operations.
fluctuations in towlines and reducing potential safety hazards during towing operations.
These studies offer new perspectives for the design and operation of towing systems,
These studies offer new perspectives for the design and operation of towing systems, es-
especially in complex marine environments, where the maneuvering performance of Escort
pecially in complex marine environments, where the maneuvering performance of Escort
Tugs is crucial to the safety and efficiency of towing systems.
Tugs is crucial to the safety and efficiency of towing systems.
By integrating AQWA and STAR-CCM+ along with various empirical formulas, Chen
By integrating
conducted AQWA
an in-depth studyandonSTAR-CCM+
the wet towing along with various
operation empirical formulas,
of semi-submerged floating
Chen conducted an in-depth study on the wet towing operation of semi-submerged
wind turbines [14]. As shown in Figure 5, the numerical model of the floating wind turbine float-
ing wind towing
(FOWT) turbinessystem
[14]. As
wasshown in Figure
constructed in 5, the numerical
AQWA modelthe
to investigate of effects
the floating wind
of different
turbine
towing speeds and environmental loads on the hydrodynamic characteristics and powerofof
(FOWT) towing system was constructed in AQWA to investigate the effects
different
the FOWT towing
towing speeds andBy
system. environmental
comparing theloads on from
results the hydrodynamic characteristics
different standards and those
and power of the FOWT towing system. By comparing the results from
from STAR-CCM+, a refined empirical formula for calculating the towing resistance different stand-
of
ards
FOWT andwas
those from STAR-CCM+,
determined a refined
and validated usingempirical
the resultsformula for calculating
from AQWA. the not
This study towing
only
resistance
optimizedofthe FOWT was determined
calculation method for and validated
towing using the
resistance, but results from AQWA.
also proposed This
the optimal
study not only
correction optimized
schemes under thedifferent
calculation method for towing
environmental resistance,
conditions, but also
providing an proposed
important
the optimal correction schemes under different
reference for practical engineering applications. environmental conditions, providing an
important reference for practical engineering applications.
J.J. Mar.
Mar. Sci. Eng. 2025,
2025, 13,
13, 257
257 6 of6 25
of 26

Figure 5.
Figure 5. Numerical
Numerical model
modelof
ofthe
thetowing
towingsystem
systemofof
the FOWT
the in in
FOWT various environmental
various load
environmental direc-
load
directions in AQWA
tions in AQWA [14].[14].

The
Thecombined
combineduse useofofthe
thestrengths
strengthsofofthese
these twotwosoftware
software packages
packages to solve towing
to solve towing
problems is one of the important methods in the numerical simulation
problems is one of the important methods in the numerical simulation approach. AQWA approach. AQWA is
used
is usedto calculate
to calculate thethe
hydrodynamic
hydrodynamic coefficients
coefficients of FPSO
of FPSO in the frequency
in the frequency domain,
domain,while
while
OrcaFlex is used to simulate the wet towing transportation process in the time domain.
OrcaFlex is used to simulate the wet towing transportation process in the time domain.
By establishing a complex system model that includes a tugboat, towing cable, and FPSO,
By establishing a complex system model that includes a tugboat, towing cable, and FPSO,
and considering environmental factors such as wind, waves, and currents, Huang can
and considering environmental factors such as wind, waves, and currents, Huang can re-
realize synchronous simulation of dynamic response and structural interaction of the entire
alize synchronous simulation of dynamic response and structural interaction of the entire
wet towing system [15]. On this basis, by setting different parameters (such as towing
wet towing system [15]. On this basis, by setting different parameters (such as towing
speed, sea conditions, cable length, etc.), the impact of these parameters on wet towing
speed, sea conditions, cable length, etc.), the impact of these parameters on wet towing
transportation can be analyzed. It is possible to achieve synchronous simulation of the
transportation can be analyzed. It is possible to achieve synchronous simulation of the
dynamic response and structural interaction of the entire wet towing system. On this
dynamic response and structural interaction of the entire wet towing system. On this ba-
basis, by setting different parameters, including acceleration, displacement, attitude, and
sis, by setting
structural different
interaction parameters,
between FPSO andincluding
the towingacceleration, displacement,
cable, guidance can beattitude,
providedand
structural
for interaction
actual towing between
operations. InFPSO
recentand the with
years, towing thecable, guidanceofcan
development be provided
automation and for
intelligence of towing systems, more and more attention has been paid to the impact intel-
actual towing operations. In recent years, with the development of automation and of
ligence of towing systems, more and more attention has been
environmental interference on towing safety. Zhang propose a framework for preventing paid to the impact of envi-
ronmental
collisions in interference
ship towing on towing safety.
operations Zhang propose
in the presence a framework
of environmental for preventing
disturbances [16]. Incol-
lisions in ship towing operations in the presence of environmental
this study, the direction and magnitude of the towing force of the tugboat can be adjusted disturbances [16]. In
this
in study,
real the direction
time through and magnitude
a multi-agent of the towing
control strategy to ensureforce ofthe
that thetowing
tugboat can becan
system adjusted
sail
along the predetermined trajectory while maintaining a safe distance between the tugboatcan
in real time through a multi-agent control strategy to ensure that the towing system
sail the
and along the predetermined
towed boat. This method trajectory while
not only maintaining
improves a safe
the safety ofdistance between the
towing operation, buttug-
boatprovides
also and the atowed boat.forThis
new idea the method
automatic not only improves
control of towing the safety of towing operation,
systems.
but also provides a new idea for the automatic control of towing systems.
2.2. Theoretical Model Method
When studying
2.2. Theoretical Modelcomplex
Method towing problems, transforming the challenges of actual
engineering
When studying complexproblems
into mathematical through a series
towing problems, of reasonable
transforming assumptions
the challenges of and theen-
actual
neglect of interference
gineering terms isproblems
into mathematical an extremely important
through research
a series approach.
of reasonable By establishing
assumptions and the
mathematical models to describe the mechanical and kinematic responses of the tugboat–
neglect of interference terms is an extremely important research approach. By establishing
towline–towed body system, a crucial method of investigation is employed [17,18]. Zhu
mathematical models to describe the mechanical and kinematic responses of the tugboat–
and Hu, taking the TLP (Tension Leg Platform) as the object of study, propose an analytical
towline–towed body system, a crucial method of investigation is employed [17,18]. Zhu
method for studying the wave resistance and maneuverability of multi-link towing systems
and Hu, taking the TLP (Tension Leg Platform) as the object of study, propose an analyt-
based on Newton’s laws and the general formulas for rigid body motion. According to
ical method for studying the wave resistance and maneuverability of multi-link towing
the seakeeping and maneuverability models, the motion equation of the ith object can be
systems based on Newton s laws and the general formulas for rigid body motion. Accord-
expressed as [19]:
ing to the seakeeping and maneuverability models, the motion equation of the ith object
can be expressed as [19]:
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2025, 13, 257 7 of 25

. .
MRBi νi + CRBi (νi )νi + A(0)i νsi + C A (νsi )νsi + Nn (νsi )
rigid-body forces maneuvering terms
 Z t 
. (1)
+ ∑ Aij (∞)ν f j +
0
Kij (t − τ, U )ν f j (τ )dτ + Di ν i + D q i ν i | ν i | + gi ( ηi ) = τmi + τwi , (i, j = 1 → anchor, 2 platform)
j =1 damping terms hydrostatic forces
seakeeping terms

where vs and vf are the slowly and fast varying velocity components of v, referred as
low-frequency velocity and wave-frequency velocity, respectively. A(0) and A(∞) are the
low-frequency and infinite-frequency added mass matrices, respectively, CA denotes the
hydrodynamic Coriolis–Centripetal matrix, Nn (vs ) is the nonlinear damping force on the
hull in the maneuvering model, K(t, U) represents the speed-dependent retardation function
at forward speed U, Dv and Dqv|v| are damping forces excluded from the seakeeping and
maneuvering models, g(η) is the restoring force, τ m is the towing force, and τ w represents
the wave excitation loads. The innovative aspect of this theoretical model lies in the use
of a low-pass filter to separate the slow and fast motion components in maneuvering
and seakeeping calculations, enabling the simultaneous resolution of maneuvering and
seakeeping issues on the same timescale. The limitation of the model is that it only considers
the effects of towing forces and wave loads, neglecting the impact of wind and current
loads. The combined effects of wind, waves, and currents are a key and challenging factor
threatening the safety of towing operations. One direction for future development of
towing mathematical models is to fully consider the combined effects of wind, wave, and
current loads.
The stability of the heading in ship towing systems is of paramount importance. In
actual operations, both the tugboat and the towed vessel are subject to varying degrees of
wind influence. Early research considered that the course stability of the towed barge is
typically unstable under conditions ranging from crosswind to oblique wind. Subsequently,
Kijima’s theoretical modeling and linear analysis revealed that as the wind direction
changed from headwind to tailwind, the course stability of the two towed vessels tended to
be unstable [20,21]. In a recent representative study, Fitriadhy proposed a numerical model
to analyze the course stability of tugboats under uniform and constant wind conditions.
Under uniform and constant wind conditions, the stable and unstable towing conditions
at different wind speeds and angles were identified using linearized motion equations.
Nonlinear time domain simulations captured the dynamic interactions during the towing
process and analyzed their stability. This research provided new perspectives and tools in
the establishment and analysis of mathematical models, especially in considering the effects
of wind and nonlinear dynamic responses, offering a more precise and comprehensive
method for the stability analysis of towing systems [22,23]. Furthermore, Sinibaldi and
Karasuno regarded the tugboat as a mass point with predetermined motion, while the
towed vessel was considered a 4-degrees-of-freedom (surge/sway/yaw/roll) nonlinear
dynamic system. The model took into account the influence of wind on the towed vessel
and employed novel computational theories to solve for the maneuvering forces and
moments at large drift angles, overcoming the deficiencies of traditional derivative models
under such conditions [24,25]. In the study of towing systems, the use of bifurcation
analysis to investigate the stability of towing systems is innovative because it can identify
the stability and instability of the system under different parameters.
When conducting towing operations in broken ice areas, the presence of ice blocks of
varying sizes, shapes, and thicknesses may pose additional challenges to towing operations.
Therefore, reliable prediction of the ice area towing system is necessary, especially for large
floating bodies that require multiple tugs to navigate cooperatively, as shown in Figure 6.
Han established a 3-degrees-of-freedom (3-DOF) maneuvering model group (MMG) model
to simulate the coupled motion of tugboat and towed structure, taking into account the
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2025, 13, 257 8 of 26

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2025, 13, 257 8 of 25

Figure 6. Han established a 3-degrees-of-freedom (3-DOF) maneuvering model group
(MMG) model to simulate the coupled motion of tugboat and towed structure, taking into
account the surge,
surge, sway, sway,
and yaw andresponses
motion yaw motion responses
of both of both
the tugs the towed
and the tugs and the towed
structure [26].struc-
It is
ture [26]. It is
noteworthy noteworthy
that Marnix andthatMatuttis
Marnix proposed
and Matuttisthe proposed
mechanism theofmechanism
ice contact of ice contact
force on the
force onsystem
towing the towing system
(Figure (Figure 7),
7), including theincluding
Centroid the Centroid
Voronoi Voronoi(CVT)
Tessellation Tessellation
algorithm(CVT)to
algorithm
generate to generate
a random a random
broken broken
ice field ice field with polygonal-shaped
with polygonal-shaped ice blocks, andicetheblocks, and
use of the
the use of the two-dimensional
two-dimensional Discrete Element Discrete Element
Method (DEM) Method (DEM)
to simulate thetobehavior
simulate of
theice
behavior
blocks
of ice blocks
during during
the towing the towing
process process [27,28].
[27,28].

Figure6.6.Ice
Figure Iceregion
regionmulti-tug
multi-tugtowing
towingsystem
system[26].
[26].

Figure7.7.Polygonal
Figure Polygonalparticle
particlecontact
contactmodel
model[26].
[26].

2.3.
2.3.Experimental
ExperimentalMethod
Method
Since the environmental loads in
Since the environmental loads inthethetowing
towingprocess
processare
areextremely
extremely complex
complex and
and in-
involve multi-body coupled motions, it is difficult to accurately simulate the real
volve multi-body coupled motions, it is difficult to accurately simulate the real working working
conditions
conditionsby byusing
usingonly
onlymathematical
mathematicalmodels
modelsor ornumerical
numericalsimulation;
simulation;therefore,
therefore,many
many
researchers obtain reliable data by using towing model experiments or full-scale towing
researchers obtain reliable data by using towing model experiments or full-scale towing
experiments. In addition, the reliability of mathematical models and simulation models
experiments. In addition, the reliability of mathematical models and simulation models
can be further verified by using experimental data [29–31].
can be further verified by using experimental data [29–31].
2.3.1. Reduced-Scale Model Towing Experiment
2.3.1. Reduced-Scale Model Towing Experiment
Simulating ship towing in a water tank using ship models can yield relatively rich
Simulating ship towing in a water tank using ship models can yield relatively rich
and accurate experimental data while keeping costs relatively controllable, thus it has been
and accurate experimental data while keeping costs relatively controllable, thus it has
widely applied by researchers. As shown in Figure 8, Guo designed a novel marine towing
been widely applied by researchers. As shown in Figure 8, Guo designed a novel marine
experimental device, which differs from traditional towing experimental methods. The
towing experimental device, which differs from traditional towing experimental methods.
cable is constrained on the carriage frame through a connecting joint, and a motor-driven
The cable is constrained on the carriage frame through a connecting joint, and a motor-
carriage simulates the motion speed and depth of the cable during towing to explore
driven carriage simulates the motion speed and depth of the cable during towing to ex-
the dynamic response characteristics of the cable, as well as the response amplitude and
plore the dynamic response characteristics of the cable, as well as the response amplitude
frequency characteristics under different conditions. Research findings indicate that ship
and frequency characteristics under different conditions. Research findings indicate that
motion can lead to parametric excitation, causing an increase in the vibration amplitude of
the cable [32]. A team from Seoul National University in South Korea conducted model
tests in a towing tank to investigate the effects of cable types, the attitude of the towed
 ship motion can lead to parametric excitation, causing an increase in the vibration am
ship motion can lead to parametric excitation, causing an increase in the vibration ampli-
tude of the cable [32]. A team from Seoul National University in South Korea condu
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2025, 13, 257 tude of the cable [32]. A team from Seoul National University in South Korea conducted 9 of 25
model tests in a towing tank to investigate the effects of cable types, the attitude o
model tests in a towing tank to investigate the effects of cable types, the attitude of the
towed object, and additional devices (such as fins, streamlined brackets, and spoiler
towed object, and additional devices (such as fins, streamlined brackets, and spoilers) on
object, towing devices
stability.(such
The study found that the brackets,
type of cable
andhas a significant impact on to
towingand additional
stability. The study found asthe
that fins, streamlined
type of cable has a significantspoilers)
impact on ontowing
towing
stability. stability, with non-rotating steel cables being the most effective in suppressing yaw
stability,The
withstudy found that
non-rotating thecables
steel type of cablethe
being hasmost
a significant
effectiveimpact on towing
in suppressing stability,
yaw mo-
with tion, andcables
a lower center
theofmost
gravity enhancing towing stability [33].
tion, non-rotating steel
and a lower center being
of gravity enhancing effective
towing in suppressing
stability [33]. yaw motion, and a
lower center of gravity enhancing towing stability [33].

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 8. Motor-driven cable towing(a)experiment [32]. (a) Schematic diagram of the towing
Figure8.8.Motor-driven
Figure Motor-drivencable cabletowing
towingexperiment
experiment[32]. Schematic
[32]. (a) diagram
Schematic diagram of of
thethe
towing cable
towing test;
cable
(b) detailed test;
view view (b) detailed
of theofcable view of
suspension the cable
module. suspension module.
test; (b) detailed the cable suspension module.

Towing experiments Towingcan experiments can also be conducted

also be conducted using relatively using relatively simple equipment
simple equipment
Towing experiments can also be conducted using relatively simple equipment (Fig-
(Figure 9) [34]. ureIn 9) [34]. In a circulating
a circulating water channel
water channel (CWC) (CWC) with a with length a length
of 4.0 ofm,4.0
a m, a width of 1
width
ure 9) [34]. In a circulating water channel (CWC) with a length of 4.0 m, a width of 1.8 m,
of 1.8 m, and aand deptha depth
of 1.2ofm,1.2 them,freethefall
freeoffall of weights
weights serves serves
as theaspower
the power source,
source, and and the
and a depth of 1.2 m, the free fall of weights serves as the power source, and the sine
the sine movement movement of the rail
of the guide guide rail simulates
simulates the directional
the directional changes changes
duringduring ship towing. B
ship towing.
movement of the guide rail simulates the directional changes during ship towing. By us-
By ing the reflective devices on the FPSOand model and a three-dimensional displacement m
ingusing the reflective
the reflective devices devices
on theon FPSOthe model
FPSO model a three-dimensional
and a three-dimensional displacement
displacement meter,
meter, dataship’s
on the ship s motion are extracted to study the towing stability and course sta
data ondata
the on
shipthe
s motion motion are extracted
are extracted to studyto thestudy
towing thestability
towing stability
and course and course
stability
stability of the of the
FPSO FPSO under the influence of the tug s lateral motion. The innovation of this ex
of the FPSO under theunder
influencethe ofinfluence
the tug soflateral
the tug’s lateral
motion. Themotion.
innovation Theofinnovation
this experi-of
this experimental mental scheme lies insimulation
the simulation of the impact of the tuglateral
s lateral motion onon the m
mental scheme liesscheme lies in
in the simulation the of the impact of of
thetheimpact of the
tug s lateral tug’s
motion on the motion
motion
the response
motionofresponse of
ofobject the
the towed towed object with a relatively simple device, which was rarely consid
was rarely
response the towed with aobject with simple
relatively a relatively
device, simple
which device, which
was rarely considered
considered in previous experiments. There are shortcomings: the tug s motion is simplified to
in previousinexperiments.
previous experiments.
There are There are shortcomings:
shortcomings: the tug’s
the tug s motion ismotion is simplified
simplified to sine
to sine motion, motion, which
which deviates deviates significantly
significantly from the actual situation; the self-elasticity and
motion, which deviates significantly from the from
actualthe actual situation;
situation; the self-elasticity
the self-elasticity and stiff-
and
nessstiffness ofness
of the cable the of theare
arecable
cable
neglected;
are neglected;
neglected; and the
and the effects
and the effects
effects
of wind of wind
and
of windwaves
wavesand
and waves
are ignored.
are ignored.
areInignored.
addition,In
In add
addition, numerous
numerous researchers
researchers have
have conducted conducted studies on towing problems from different
numerous researchers have conducted studies studies
on towing on towing
problems problems from different
from different per-
perspectives spectives
using various using
types various
of watertypes of water
tanks [35,36]. tanks [35,36].
spectives using various types of water tanks [35,36].

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 9. Weight-gravity-driven ship towing experiment
Figure 9. Weight-gravity-driven [34].experiment
ship towing (a) Layout [34].
drawing of the drawing
(a) Layout towing test;
of the towin
Figure 9. Weight-gravity-driven ship towing experiment [34]. (a) Layout drawing of the towing test;
(b) details of the (b)
testdetails
systemofcomponents.
the test system components.
(b) details of the test system components.
2.3.2. Full-Scale Towing Experiment
It is undeniable that, compared to towing experiments using ship models, data ob-
tained from actual ship towing experiments possess greater reference value. The training
vessel “SAE YU DAL” from the National Mokpo Maritime University, South Korea, con-
ducted a sea towing experiment, with experimental data collected through load sensors
and other measuring equipment. The results indicate that towing speed is the primary
factor determining the towing force, and the ship’s rolling and yawing movements have
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2025, 13, 257 10 of 25

a significant impact on the towing force, which need to be considered in the total towing
resistance [37]. The main advantage and innovation reside in conducting towing experi-
ments with real vessels in open and real maritime environments, rendering the measured
data highly reliable. The shortcomings of the experiment are that the dynamic motion of
the ship’s influence on the towing force was not fully accounted for, such as the dynamic
changes in rolling and yawing; the versatility of the experimental vessel is uncertain, which
may affect the extrapolation of the experimental results; and the experiment did not cover
common factors affecting the towing force, such as ocean currents.
As shown in Table 1, scholars have used different methods to study the complex
multi-object coupled motion problems involved in towing operations, among which, the
numerical simulation method has the advantages of high efficiency, low cost, and high
accuracy, and it can establish numerical models of ship towing, underwater equipment
towing, and other numerical models according to the research needs, and set up a variety
of environmental loading conditions to carry out the research, which can visually and
accurately demonstrate the motion response of the towing system. In contrast, the theo-
retical model method is more abstract, and the research of the towing problem needs to
rely on certain reasonable assumptions and is more difficult to study, but this method is an
exploration of the mathematical nature of the motion problem of the towing system, and
the progress of the research of this method can promote the overall enhancement of the
level of research in this field. The advantage of the experimental method of researching this
problem is that the difficulty is relatively small, and there is a certain degree of authenticity
and reliability of the rich data at the same time, but the disadvantage is that it is costly, so
future researchers should design the experimental method. Therefore, when designing
the experimental program, future researchers need to ensure the accurate reduction of real
working conditions and hydrodynamic characteristics of the ship, and also need to simplify
the experimental equipment and reduce the cost as much as possible.

Table 1. Summary of solving methods of motion response problems involved in towing process.

Methods Advantages Disadvantages Representative Articles

The numerical simulation method
considers the complex dynamic
interactions under wave conditions
It may not be able to fully and through numerical models [6]. The
High efficiency, low cost, high-precision
accurately reflect the dynamic response hydrodynamic lift coefficient of the fins
Numerical Simulation Method simulation, comprehensive functions,
of the towing system in a complex was predicted by using the vortex grid
and flexible parameter analysis.
marine environment. method [7]. The dynamic response of
towed system with different Munk
moment coefficients is simulated based
on OrcaFlex [9].
The theoretical model method
considers the influence of wind and
nonlinear dynamic response, and
Through reasonable assumption and provides a more accurate and
Transform practical engineering
ignoring interference terms, the model comprehensive method for the stability
challenges into mathematical problems,
Theoretical Model Method may have certain deviation from the analysis of towed systems [22,23]. This
innovative analysis, and new
actual situation. Not all factors model uses a novel computational
perspectives of stability analysis.
are considered. theory to solve the control force and
moment under large drift angle,
overcoming the shortcomings of the
traditional derivative model [24,25].
Towing experiments are carried out
The influence of hull dynamic motion
with this method, and the towing
on the drag force is not fully considered,
stability and course stability of FPSO
The data are real and reliable, and the and the generality of the experimental
Experimental Method under the influence of tugboat lateral
experimental equipment is simple. ship is uncertain, which may affect the
motion are studied by using reflector
extrapolation of the results. The cost of
and three-dimensional displacement
the experiment is relatively high.
meter to extract ship motion data [34].
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2025, 13, 257 11 of 25

3. Dynamics Model and Mechanical Response of Cables

The towing cable, as a core component of the entire towing system, has a significant
impact on the mechanical and kinematic responses of the tugboat and the towed object.
Internationally, 20% of the total loss accidents involving large mobile installations during
towing operations are caused by cable breakage, with the root cause of many accidents
being the extreme and complex working conditions of the cables. The length of the cable
typically ranges from 180 m to 300 m, and its motion and mechanical responses under
the coupled loads of wind, waves, currents, and the combined tension of the tugboat
and the towed object are extremely complex. It is particularly important to note that
the instantaneous tension in the cable at the initial stage of the tug’s start-up may reach
1.5 to 9 times that of the stable condition, which is highly likely to cause breakage accidents.
The corrosion resistance, wear resistance, and structural strength of the cable under
dry and wet conditions are key factors affecting the safe conduct of towing operations.
According to the specification requirements [38], the cable used for towing should be
flexible galvanized steel wire ropes with a tensile strength of not less than 1.37 kN/mm2 .
The length and minimum breaking load of the cable should be limited by the number of
fittings, N. The number of fittings for the towing vessel is calculated as follows [38]:

2
  A
N = ∆ 3 + 2 Bh + S f un + (2)
10

where ∆ is the displacement of the hull below the summer load waterline, t (tone); B is the
width of the ship, m (meter); h is the effective height from the summer load waterline to
the top of the topmost compartment, m (meter); Sfun is the effective positive projection area
of the chimney, m2 (square meter); A is the sum of the side projection areas of the hull and
superstructure above the summer load waterline, as well as the deckhouse and chimneys with
widths greater than B/4 on each floor within the length range L of the ship, m2 (square meter).

3.1. Modeling of Cable Dynamics

During the towing operation, the cable is in a complex nonlinear motion state, and
the hydrodynamic forces acting on the cable vary with time, thus numerical methods are
relied upon for approximate solutions. There are three main approaches to studying the
dynamic motion of cables: the lumped mass method, the finite element method, and the
finite difference method. The fundamental idea behind these three cables hydrodynamic
theoretical models is to establish a cable model by considering the material properties of
the cable and the hydrodynamic loads, then to spatially and temporally discretize the cable
motion equations, transforming them into a system of nonlinear equations for temporal
integration [39]. In summary, the motion of the cable must satisfy the following two
basic conditions:
(1) Newton kinetic condition: F = ma. In the formula, F is the force, m is the mass, kg, and
a is the acceleration, m/s2 ;
(2) Continuity conditions: for stretchable cables, the stress–strain relationship is used as
the continuity condition, T = f (ε); for non-stretchable cables, a kinematic continuity
condition is required [40]:
   
∂ ∂r ∂ ∂r
= (3)
∂s ∂t ∂t ∂s
where r is the position vector of a point on the cable, represented in vector form as r = xi + yj + zk,
and x, y, and z are the coordinate components of the point in the fixed Cartesian coordinate
system. s represents the length coordinate when the cable is not stretched, which is used to
 J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2025, 13, 257 12 of 25

describe the position of a point on the cable. t is the unit tangent vector at a point on the cable,
pointing in the direction of the cable’s motion.
Building on the aforementioned two preconditions, the dynamic solution methods for
cables established by scholars are summarized as follows:

3.1.1. Lumped Mass Method

The lumped mass method discretizes the cable into a series of elastic, frictionless
springs connected by nodes, with the cable’s mass, fluid resistance, inertial forces, gravity,
and buoyancy all concentrated at the corresponding nodes. The kinematic relationships
between nodes are considered as continuity conditions, with the influence of added mass
also being included. The time differential vector is discretized to establish a system of
differential equations for the motion of the cable. Walton [40] was a pioneer in using
the lumped mass method to solve cable problems, and Polachek [41] built upon this by
considering the stretchability of the cable, spatially discretizing the cable, and establishing
a system of equations for cable motion, laying the foundation for the lumped mass method.
Since then, numerous researchers have improved, iterated, and applied the lumped
mass method from different perspectives [42–47]. One of the latest applications of this
method is in the study of the dynamic characteristics of hydrofoil control in underwater
towing systems (Figure 10), in which Yang’s modeling of the towing cable applied the
concept of the lumped mass method (Figure 11) [48]. Innovatively, the Morison equation
was combined with a CFD solver to determine the fluid resistance on each segment, with
this combination capable of considering more complex interactions between the cable
ar. Sci. Eng. 2025, 13, 257
and fluid, including both tangential and normal forces. Mathematical modeling and
experimental validation methods were used to explore issues such as hydrofoil shape
optimization, speed control, and control methods.

Figure 10. Schematic diagram of the towing test [48].

Figure 10. Schematic diagram of the towing test [48].
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2025, 13, 257 13 of 25
Figure 10. Schematic diagram of the towing test [48].

Figure 11. Modeling idea of cable centralized quality method [48].

Figure 11. Modeling idea of cable centralized quality method [48].
The lumped mass method is not only used for towing cables in ship towing, but is also
appliedThe to thelumped massseismic
study of towed methodcableissystem
not only usedSince
exploration. for towing
vibrationscables in ship
can affect
signal transmission through vortex shedding, which in turn impacts exploration efficiency,
also applied to the study of towed seismic cable system exploration. Since
it is of great significance to study the dynamic response characteristics of towed cables for
affect signal
vibration transmission
suppression and enhancingthrough vortex
the reliability shedding,
of marine seismicwhich in turn
exploration impacts e
systems.
ficiency,
Guo it is of great
et al. investigated significance
the dynamic responseto characteristics
study the dynamic response
of towed cable systemscharacter
in
marine
cablesseismic exploration,
for vibration and they also and
suppression employed the lumped
enhancing themass method of
reliability in their
marine se
dynamic analysis model of the towed cables [49]. The study found that the cable weight
tion systems. Guo et al. investigated the dynamic response characteristics o
and length have a minor impact on the towed cable configuration, mainly affecting the
systems
natural in marine
frequency seismic velocity.
and encounter exploration,
Towingandspeedthey
and also employed
the weight the lumped
of the towing
body significantly influence the towed cable configuration.
in their dynamic analysis model of the towed cables [49]. The studyThe dynamic response of the found
towed cable exhibits characteristics of multi-mode participation, amplitude modulation,
weight and length have a minor impact on the towed cable configuration, m
time-frequency sharing, and mode jumping.
the natural frequency and encounter velocity. Towing speed and the weigh
3.1.2. Finite Difference Method
body significantly influence the towed cable configuration. The dynamic r
The finite difference method involves expanding the dynamic and continuity equations
towed cable exhibits characteristics of multi-mode participation, amplitud
in the local coordinate system of the cable, establishing the governing equations for the
time-frequency
cable’s micro-elements,sharing, and
and using mode jumping.
the Newton iteration method for numerical solution. In
1983, Ablow first applied the finite difference method to the study of cable motion [50],
and subsequently,
3.1.2. Milinazzo’sMethod
Finite Difference revisions and expansions have led to a more efficient and
stable form [51]. The advantage of this method is the use of implicit time and spatial
The which
integration, finiteallows
difference method
it to remain involves
stable when handlingexpanding the dynamic
larger time steps; furthermore,and co
ittions in the
demands less local coordinate
computational system
effort and of the
is suitable cable, establishing
for simulating the time
motions over large governing
scales. However, this theory is based on the assumption of linear material properties for the
the cable s micro-elements, and using the Newton iteration method for n
towing cable, and due to the limitations of the model’s algorithm itself, it cannot simulate
tion. of
states Inzero
1983, Ablow
tension first
within theapplied
cable. Thethe finite difference
derivatives method
in the direction tolength
of cable the study o
[50], that
imply andthesubsequently, Milinazzo
physical properties s revisions
of the towing cable should and expansions
be uniform have led to a
and consistent,
without large discontinuities. For non-uniform cables, improper handling may likely result
in significant computational errors. The finite difference method has been widely applied,
with numerous scholars using it to solve different types of cable motion problems [52–54].
For instance, when studying the vibration of cable tension during variable speed towing
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2025, 13, 257 14 of 25

systems, reasonable simplifications are made based on the classical cable dynamics model,
using the box format derived by Burgess as a foundation, and incorporating a slack factor
within each time step to solve the discrete equations [55]:

h i +1
Yji+ 1 −Yj
i +1h i Y i −Y i
Mij+ 1 i +1
+1 + M j ∆S j + Mij+1 + Mij j+∆S 1 j
=
j
h i Y i + 1 −Y i h i Y i + 1 −Y i (4)
+1
Nji+ 1 + Nj
i +1 j +1
∆tk
j +1
+ N i +1
j + Nj
i j
∆tk
j
+ Qij+ 1 i +1
+1 + Q j + Qij+1 + Qij

where M represents the mass coefficient matrix, which is used to describe the mass proper-
ties of the towed body; Y refers to the motion state vector of the towed body, encompassing
the velocity and position information of the towed body in various directions; N denotes
the time-related coefficient matrix, which is related to the coefficients that vary with time
and affect the changes in the motion state of the towed body; S is the vector of unknowns,
comprising unknowns such as the cable tension, cable motion velocity, and phase angle;
and Q represents the source term vector, indicating the external forces acting on the towing
system, such as fluid resistance.

3.1.3. Finite Element Method

The finite element method is based on Hamilton’s principle of virtual work and derives
the motion equations for cables. Similar to the lumped mass method, the finite element
method discretizes the cable into a series of straight-line elements in space. Its advantage
lies in overcoming the deficiency of the lumped mass method, which concentrates mass
at discrete points, by enabling the integral calculation of cable elements along the entire
length of the cable. Numerous scholars have utilized this method to conduct extensive
research on slender structures such as cables or marine pipelines, significantly enhancing
the precision and efficiency of marine engineering research [56–63]. During the towing
process, the deformation of the towing cable is extremely complex and is influenced by
various loads such as waves, wind, and the reaction forces from the vessel’s structure.
It is worth noting that the finite element method (FEM) excels in dealing with complex
geometries, nonlinear problems, and fluid–structure interaction (FSI) issues. Therefore,
the application of the finite element method in marine engineering towing systems has
significant advantages. The convergence of finite element results is an important indicator
for evaluating the accuracy of numerical simulations. The control of convergence mainly
considers the following aspects: the rationality of mesh generation, the precision of iterative
calculations, and numerical stability. For example, in the study of the dynamic stiffness
characteristics of synthetic fiber cables, Zhang used the finite element software Abaqus to
solve the motion response of synthetic fiber cables. During modeling, one-dimensional
beam elements are employed, and after incorporating the dynamic stiffness empirical
formula, the Jacobian matrix is [64]:

∂σ h i
= E = α + βLm − γL a MBL /A (5)
∂ε
where E represents the element stiffness; A represents the cross-sectional area of the moor-
ing cable; MBL represents the minimum breaking load of the cable; Lm represents the
average tension as a percentage of MBL; La represents the dynamic tension amplitude
as a percentage of MBL; α, β, and γ are parameters related to the cable’s structure and
material; and ∂σ
∂ε represents the Jacobian matrix (stress–strain relationship). The method is
traditionally suitable for solving static or quasi-static problems and is difficult to apply to
dynamic equations that are inherently nonlinear in nature, such as those involving large
motion accelerations and large deflections. Consequently, the finite element method is
mostly applied to the static analysis of towed cables and is not suitable for describing the
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2025, 13, 257 15 of 25

hydrodynamic performance of towed cables under unsteady conditions. In recent years,

with the improvement of computer performance, the application scenarios of the finite
element method have become more extensive, and the corresponding commercial software
has become more abundant. It has been promoted and applied in various disciplines,
including naval architecture and ocean engineering, civil engineering, and others.
As shown in Table 2, the following is a summary and refinement of the three dynamic
solution methods for mooring cables mentioned above. It focuses on analyzing the applica-
ble conditions, as well as the advantages and disadvantages of each method, and provides
an overview of representative studies and their contributions. In future research on the
dynamic response of mooring cables, the most optimal solution method can be matched
according to the research focus, in order to reduce computational effort, enhance accuracy,
and achieve greater efficiency.

Table 2. Summary of Dynamic Solution Methods for Towing cables.

Methods Advantages Disadvantages Representative Articles

The lumped mass method was
The performance is poor when
first applied to solve the
dealing with non-elastic
Clear physical meaning, simple dynamics of cable systems [40].
problems, the computational
Lumped Mass Method algorithm, and considerable A relatively complete solution
load is large, and it is not easy
applicability and extensibility. system for the concentrated
to converge when dealing with
mass method has been
violent motion of cables.
essentially established [41].
The finite difference method
When zero tension occurs in the
was first applied to solve the
cable, the results become
It remains stable when dealing dynamics of cable systems [49].
singular, causing the calculation
with large time steps, has a The latest representative
to become unstable; significant
Finite Difference Method smaller computational load, research is the application of
errors are likely to occur when
and is suitable for simulating this method to study the
dealing with cables with
motions on a large time scale. vibration of cable tension
non-uniform physical
during variable-speed towing
properties or abrupt changes.
operations [54].
It overcomes the shortcomings
The most representative recent
of the lumped mass method,
The material properties of the research is that this method has
breaks free from the
cable are assumed to be linear, been used to address the motion
constraints of the Courant
and due to the limitations of the response issues of synthetic
Finite Element Method condition, thus allowing for
model’s own algorithms, it is fiber cables, with a focus on
greater flexibility in the
unable to simulate the state where studying the impact of cable
selection of spatial and
there is zero tension in the cable. dynamic stiffness on its
temporal step sizes in the
dynamic characteristics [64].
simulation of system motion.

3.2. Mechanical Properties of Composite Cable

The rapid development of material science has greatly enriched the types of cables, and
composite cables such as aramid fiber, polyester fiber, and polyester have been gradually
recognized in the field of ship towing with the advantages of light weight, high strength,
strong corrosion resistance, and excellent economy [65]. At the same time, the mechanical
and geometric nonlinearities of composite cables have also become a new challenge for the
promotion and application of composite cables, for which many scholars have carried out
research from the perspectives of abrasion resistance, tensile strength, weaving methods,
and material types.
Material diversity is one of the characteristics of composite fiber cables, which allows
for the customization of fiber and matrix materials according to different application
scenarios. The mechanism by which different materials used in cable making affect its
mechanical properties has become an issue that warrants investigation. It is worth noting
 weaving methods, and material types.
Material diversity is one of the characteristics of composite fiber cables, which allows
for the customization of fiber and matrix materials according to different application sce-
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2025, 13, 257 narios. The mechanism by which different materials used in cable making affect its me- 16 of 25
chanical properties has become an issue that warrants investigation. It is worth noting
that Huang s study on the impact of cable material diversity (Figure 12) on the stability of
thatsystems
towing Huang’sisstudy on the impact
representative of cable
in this material
field [66]. Thediversity (Figurecables
study selected 12) onmadethe stability
from of
polyester, aramid, and HMPE as the base materials and introduced parameters such asfrom
towing systems is representative in this field [66]. The study selected cables made
polyester,
static stiffness aramid, and HMPEαasand
Ks and coefficients theβbase materialsstiffness
of dynamic and introduced
to define parameters
the mechanical such as
static stiffness Ks and coefficients α and β of dynamic stiffness
properties of different materials. Its innovation lies in proposing a numerical model thatto define the mechanical
propertiesthe
can calculate of dynamic
different stiffness
materials. of Its
theinnovation
cable basedlies
on initsproposing
average load. a numerical model
It discussed the that
dynamic yaw and lateral offset performance of the tugboat under various wind speeds the
can calculate the dynamic stiffness of the cable based on its average load. It discussed
and dynamic
investigatedyawthe
and lateral offset
influence performance
of different types ofoffiber
the tugboat
cables on under various
the cable wind speeds
s properties
and investigated the influence of different types of fiber cables on the
and initial length. The results indicate that the choice of cable material significantly affects cable’s properties
and initial
the steering length.ofThe
stability theresults
towingindicate
system;that
the the choice
greater theofstiffness
cable material significantly
of the cable, affects
the faster
the steering stability of the towing system; the greater the stiffness
the vessel s yaw and offset can decay to a stable state. The influence of cable length is alsoof the cable, the faster
the vessel’s
significant; yaw and
the shorter offsetlength,
the cable can decay to a stable
the smaller state. The
the induced influence
offset and yawofangle cablemo-
length
tion.is also significant; the shorter the cable length, the smaller the induced offset and yaw
angle motion.

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 12. Composite
12. Composite fiber cables
fiber cables [66].
[66]. (a) (a) Composite
Composite materialmaterial cables
cables used in used in operations.
towing towing operations.
(b)
(b) Three composite material cables and their
Three composite material cables and their structures. structures.

The aforementioned conclusions have certain guiding significance for the application
The aforementioned conclusions have certain guiding significance for the application
of composite cables in towing operations. Compared to traditional cables, aramid fibers and
of composite cables in towing operations. Compared to traditional cables, aramid fibers
high-modulus polyethylene materials can achieve the same breaking load requirements at
and high-modulus polyethylene materials can achieve the same breaking load require-
a smaller diameter, which can save storage space and greatly enhance the convenience of
ments at a smaller diameter, which can save storage space and greatly enhance the con-
crew operations. It is foreseeable that composite material cables have a broad application
venience of crew operations. It is foreseeable that composite material cables have a broad
prospect in future towing operations.
application prospect in future towing operations.
During the towing operation, the prolonged and repeated tension and friction can
During the towing operation, the prolonged and repeated tension and friction can
easily lead to fatigue fracture of the cable, which is undoubtedly a major cause of towing
easily lead to fatigue fracture of the cable, which is undoubtedly a major cause of towing
accidents. Due to the geometric nonlinearity and material nonlinearity of composite
material cables, which differ from traditional steel wires, accurately studying their fatigue
and fracture mechanisms is extremely challenging. As shown in Figure 13, researchers have
proposed an empirical model for predicting the service life of braided HMPE synthetic
cables under cyclic bending over sheaves (CBOS) loading. By combining experiments
and numerical simulation, a life prediction model based on fracture patterns is proposed
to predict and optimize the utilization of synthetic fiber cables in deepwater operations.
MecTest software is used to test stainless steel wires and HMPE fibers of different diameters,
simulating the wet underwater conditions, and testing the impact of fracture loads and
repeated bending on material performance. Davies used linear regression analysis, residual
strength measurement, and nonlinear regression analysis to evaluate the fatigue strength
and service life of fiber ropes, as well as fracture behavior under different loads [67]. This
research is of great significance for predicting the service life of synthetic fiber ropes used
in deep-sea engineering applications.
 ysis, residual strength measurement, and nonlinear regression analysis to e
fatigue strength and service life of fiber ropes, as well as fracture behavior und
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2025, 13, 257 loads [67]. This research is of great significance for predicting the 17service
of 25 life
fiber ropes used in deep-sea engineering applications.

Figure 13. 1000 kN cyclic tensile test and cyclic bending wear test [67].

In addition to material diversity, another characteristic of comp

the diversity of their geometric structures. As shown in Figure 14, Li co
investigations on the dynamic stiffness and fatigue performance of
with
Figure
Figure 13.varying
13.
10001000 diameters
kN
kN cyclic cyclic tensile
tensile test and
and testbraiding
cyclic and cyclic
bending techniques
wear test [67]. wear[68].
bending Initially, based
test [67].
ments, the nonlinear
In addition dynamic
to material diversity, anotherstiffness of high-modulus
characteristic polyethylene
of composite fiber cables is the
In addition to material diversity, another characteristic of composite fib
under of
diversity long-term cyclic
their geometric loading
structures. was investigated,
As shown discussing
in Figure 14, Li conducted the impac
systematic
the diversity
investigations on of
thetheir geometric
dynamic structures.
stiffness and As shown
fatigue performance in Figure
of HMPE 14, Liwith
fiber cables conducted
cess
varying
of average
diameters and
load and load amplitude on axial stiffness. The e
investigations on braiding
the dynamictechniques [68]. Initially,
stiffness and based
fatigue on full-scale experiments,
performance of HMPE
showed
the nonlinearthat thestiffness
dynamic dynamic stiffness polyethylene
of high-modulus of cables (HMPE) with different
with varying diameters and braiding techniques [68]. Initially, based on full-s
braiding s
fiber cables under
long-term cyclic loading was investigated, discussing the impact and evolution process
eters varied slightly, primarily attributed to variations in braiding
(HMPE)a
ofments,
averagethe loadnonlinear dynamic
and load amplitude onstiffness of high-modulus
axial stiffness. The experimental polyethylene
results showed
time,
under
that along-term
newly
the dynamic derived
cyclic
stiffness of cablesempirical
loadingwith was formula
investigated,
different that considers
discussing
braiding structures thebraiding
and diametersimpact
variedandstru
ev
slightly,
input primarily
cess ofload average attributed
conditions
load and to variations
wasload in
proven braiding
amplitude angles.
to have At the same
goodstiffness.
on axial time,
reliability a newly
Thewhen com
experime
derived empirical formula that considers braiding structure, diameter, and input load
showed results.
mental that the dynamic stiffness of cables with different braiding structure
conditions was proven to have good reliability when compared with experimental results.
eters varied slightly, primarily attributed to variations in braiding angles. A
time, a newly derived empirical formula that considers braiding structure, di
input load conditions was proven to have good reliability when compared w
mental results.

Figure 14. Fiber cables with different diameters and braided methods [69]. (a), (b) and (c) represent
ropes with three different manufacturing methods, while (d) illustrates the functional layers of the
rope cross-section.

In subsequent research, Lin studied the fatigue performance of high-modulus polyethy-

lene (HMPE) fiber cables under dynamic loading through full-scale experiments and found
that the stability of the internal structure has a significant impact on fatigue resistance [69].
A thermodynamics-based viscoelastic, plastic, creep model for loading cycles model was
established to predict the fatigue life of HMPE fiber cables, taking into account the effects
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2025, 13, 257 18 of 25

of internal friction and thermal effects on the long-term accuracy of the model. A new life
estimation formula was proposed: log n(t) = log n(NP) + αt − βt. The coefficients were
solved using the method of least squares, considering the impact of cable length changes on
fatigue life, and adjusting coefficients for cables of different materials and sizes to improve
prediction accuracy.

4. Mechanical Response Analysis of Towed Objects

In towing operations, the towed objects not only include conventional vessels, but
also offshore operating platforms, caissons, jacket structures, and the like. Research on
the mechanical responses of the overall or local components of the aforementioned towed
objects under towing conditions is becoming a new hot topic. Scientists and researchers
primarily model the local or entire towed object, define the displacements and loads
generated during the towing process within the model, and conduct numerical analysis.
The existing research subjects are generally categorized as jack-up platforms with floating
pontoons, Spar platforms, and other large components.

4.1. Offshore Platforms

4.1.1. Mat-Supported Jack-Up Platform
During the towing process, the lifting legs, reaching tens of meters in height, stand
above the main hull and are subjected to the forces of wind, inclined gravity, and inertial
forces due to motion. This results in significant bending moments at the root of the legs.
Whether the root of the legs and key components such as the leg-supporting frame possess
adequate structural strength is crucial to the safety of the entire platform. To address these
issues, Teng attempted to calculate the dynamic wave pressure using potential flow theory
and define three sets of design waves [70]. Based on the finite element model, the stress
distribution of a mat-supported jack-up platform in the towing state can be analyzed, taking
into account the connection methods of the mat, legs, and main hull, as well as their load
characteristics. Research has found that the structural response of the mat under oblique
waves is a limiting factor for the feasibility of platform towing; appropriately lowering the
position of the mat while ensuring the platform’s stability can significantly improve the
platform’s towing strength; and the most critical area is the region between the mat and the
main hull.

4.1.2. Spar Platform

As resource exploration and development gradually move towards deep waters, based
on the research of mat-supported jack-up platforms, many researchers have conducted
systematic studies on the mechanical properties of Spar platforms under towing conditions.
One of the representative studies is Abraham’s use of Ansys software to build detailed
finite element models of the Spar hull, supporting framework, and transportation ship
using Ansys software. The WAMIT (Version 5.4) software was used to calculate the
acceleration, hydrodynamic pressure, and forces acting on the ship–Spar system, assessing
the fatigue damage of the Spar hull during towing, the vibration of trusses, risers, and
tension members, as well as the impact and immersion of the hull’s overhanging parts by
waves. The study also investigated the structural strength, deflection, acceleration, and
pressure of the Front Runner hull during towing, as well as fatigue damage and wind-
induced vibration [71]. The systematic research path in this field, from the performance of
Truss Spar structures under different environmental conditions, to the detailed design of
wave plates leading to fatigue analysis of key connection points, and finally to the overall
structural analysis under wet towing conditions, provides comprehensive technical support
for the design and safe operation of Truss Spars [72–74]. The hydrodynamic performance
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2025, 13, 257 19 of 25

and structural strength issues of Truss Spar platforms during loading, dry towing, floating
unloading, and wet towing processes are very complex. The reference research approach
is to establish the structural finite element model of the Truss Spar platform and analyze
the structural strength during loading; use three-dimensional potential flow theory and
design wave methods to assess the hydrodynamic performance of the semi-submersible
ship towing the Spar platform, and calculate the structural strength caused by waves;
propose a load solution and structural strength analysis plan for the double-hull phase
during the floating unloading process, and solve the motion equations in the frequency and
time domains based on three-dimensional potential flow theory; solve the wave loads and
static loads on the Spar platform during the wet towing process, and propose an overall
strength analysis plan for the platform considering the combined effects of wind, waves,
and towing forces [75].

4.2. Other Large Components

Offshore substations are a crucial component of offshore wind farms, which are
typically constructed, equipped, and commissioned onshore in factories before being trans-
ported as a whole to the target sea area via towing operations. The structural strength of the
topside module of the offshore substation during towing is key to the safe transportation
of the entire assembly. Lin designed the topside module using finite element analysis
software based on the calculation method for heave acceleration applicable to the towing
transportation of the topside module. By adjusting the ballast to ensure the center of
gravity aligns with the barge, and using VBA programming to extract node masses and
calculate loads under different conditions, the goal of optimizing the topside structure
design is ultimately achieved [76]. When transporting jacket structures or large modules,
Lu can utilize the same dry towing method as offshore substations. Structural strength
finite element analysis is conducted on the towing/launching barge design scheme for
jacket structures using Ansys software, and corresponding improvement suggestions and
safe operating environment requirements are proposed for its structure [77]. The static
stability and seakeeping performance of submerged floating tunnel modules (SFTMs) dur-
ing wet towing operations have been investigated by Lee et al. [78]. Their study provides
insights into the motion response and stability of large underwater structures under towing
conditions, which is relevant to the transportation of other large offshore components.
Additionally, the flexibility of the barge exerts a certain degree of impact on the structural
strength of the module. Based on the design wave method in the frequency domain, Liang
conducted three-dimensional fully coupled numerical simulation and calculation analysis
of the transportation of a certain large module, establishing an overall structural model and
hydrodynamic model. The research results indicate that analyzing the module and barge
as a single system, taking into account the elastic influence of the barge structure, can more
realistically reflect the interaction between the module and barge, enhancing the accuracy
and reliability of transportation analysis [79]. The dynamic responses of multi-float systems
during wet towing have been investigated by Cao et al. [80]. Their study provides insights
into the motion characteristics and cable tensions of multi-float systems under various sea
conditions. The findings highlight the importance of considering the interactions between
multiple floating modules and their connectors during towing operations.
As shown in Table 3, the current analysis of the mechanical response of the towed
objects primarily employs finite element modeling methods to simulate the environmental
conditions of the towing operation and their impact on the overall and local aspects of the
towed objects. The main subjects of research are mat-supported jack-up platform, Spar
platforms, and other large components. The main shortcomings in the current research are
the lack of model experimental methods to study such issues, the absence of exploration
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2025, 13, 257 20 of 25

in local structural optimization, and the deficiency in optimization of towing-related

components such as mooring posts, guideposts, bridle cables, and towing triangles. As the
core target of towing operations, studying the mechanical properties of the towed objects
to ensure structural safety is extremely important and contributes to enhancing the safety
of towing operations.

Table 3. Summary of the research status of the mechanical response analysis of towed objects.

Towed Objects Research Content Research Method Representative Articles

The large bending moment
generated at the root of the pile Wave dynamic pressure is Ref. [69] attempted to calculate
leg and the pile-fixing frame calculated by potential flow the dynamic wave pressure using
Mat-Supported Jack-Up Platform
during towing due to the effects theory and stress distribution is potential flow theory and to
of wind force, tilting gravity, and analyzed by finite element model. define three sets of design waves.
inertial force of motion.
Ref. [70] investigated the
structural strength, deflection,
acceleration, and pressure of the
Front Runner hull during towing,
as well as fatigue damage and
The finite element model was
wind-induced vibration.
The mechanical properties of Spar established by Ansys software
Refs. [71–73] provided
Spar Platform platform under towing operation and the hydrodynamic
comprehensive technical support
were systematically studied. performance was calculated by
for the design and safe operation
WAMIT software.
of Truss Spars. Ref. [74] proposed
an overall strength analysis plan
for the platform considering the
combined effects of wind, waves,
and towing forces.
Ref. [75] used VBA programming to
extract node masses and calculated
loads under different conditions.
Ref. [76] conducted a finite
element analysis on the structural
The structural strength of the
Finite element analysis software strength of the jacket structure
block in the offshore booster
was used to design the upper towing/launching barge design,
Other Large Components station during towing is the key to
block, and VBA programming and proposed corresponding
the safe transportation of the
was used to calculate the load. improvement suggestions and
whole assembly.
safe operating environment
requirements for its structure.
Ref. [77] indicated analyzing the
module and barge as a
single system.

5. Challenges and Opportunities

Towing technology is widely used in the fields of marine accident rescue, port entry
and exit of large ships, and transportation of large offshore platforms, but its research and
development also face many challenges and opportunities. First of all, the towing system is
a complex multi-body coupling system, and the motion response among the tug, the towed
object, and the cable is interrelated, which is affected by the complex marine environmental
loads such as wind, wave, and current, which makes it extremely difficult to accurately
simulate and predict the dynamic response of the towing system. For example, in the
starting stage of a tugboat, the large vibration of heave and pitch will affect the tension
of the cable and the motion of the towed object, increasing the complexity of the system
control. In addition, the study of mechanical properties of cable is also facing challenges,
especially the mechanical nonlinearity and geometric nonlinearity of composite cable,
which bring new research topics to its application in towing. However, with the continuous
development of numerical simulation techniques, such as computational fluid dynamics
(CFD) and finite element analysis (FEA), researchers are able to more accurately simulate
the dynamic interaction effects of towing systems under different conditions, providing a
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2025, 13, 257 21 of 25

powerful tool to solve the above challenges. The light weight, high strength, and corrosion
resistance of composite cables also bring new opportunities for the development of towing
technology, which is expected to play an important role in future towing operations. At the
same time, the continuous deepening of interdisciplinary research provides a broad space
for the innovation and development of towing technology. By integrating the theories
and methods of ship and ocean engineering, mechanics, materials science, and other
disciplines, complex problems in towing systems can be solved more comprehensively, and
towage technology can be promoted to a more efficient, safer, and more environmentally
friendly direction.
Combined with the current research status, the possible future development directions
and research ideas for towing technology are proposed:
(1) The research on cable mechanical response in the initial stage of towing was
emphasized. During towing operation, the cable tension in the initial acceleration stage is
much greater than that in the stable stage, especially the sudden tension phenomenon at
the beginning moment, which may lead to cable break or reduce the fatigue life of the cable
to a certain extent. However, the traditional fatigue test and empirical formula usually
neglect the impact of this phenomenon; a towing experiment and numerical model method
can be used to study the change law of cable tension in the initial stage of towing, so as
to carry out targeted fatigue experiments on cables and optimize the fatigue theory of
towing cables.
(2) The formation towing experiment was carried out. At present, the test of simulated
towing operation is mainly single towing, which has the advantages of being a relatively
mature test, relatively simple operation, low cost, and little difficulty. The actual single
towing operation must meet the following conditions: smaller tonnage of the towed vessel,
closer towing distance, better operating sea conditions, and so on. However, with the
gradual development of large ships, towing usually requires multiple tugs to work together
to complete the operation. Therefore, it is of practical significance to try to carry out the
towing test with the participation of multiple tugs and large tonnage of the towed ship
model in the experimental study of the towing problem [81–83].
(3) The experimental and numerical simulation methods are employed to conduct an
in-depth study on composite cables. The geometric nonlinearity and material nonlinearity
of composite cables are the key points and difficulties in the research. To address these,
a series of tests, including tension, fatigue, wear, and corrosion, are conducted to obtain
relevant data. Furthermore, a refined finite element model of the cable is established and
its accuracy is verified. This allows for the simulation of real-world towing conditions
using finite element methods, providing guidance for the application of composite cables
in towing operations.
(4) Structural optimization of components related to towing operations. Towing op-
eration involves a range of relevant structural components on the tugboat and the towed
objects. Especially when large vessels are being towed, the concentrated loads generated
by the cables are significant, which places high demands on the structural strength of
the components. To mitigate the effects of stress concentration, plastic deformation, and
other phenomena generated by the transient load during the towing operation, the struc-
tural design of the relevant components can be optimized to improve the safety of the
towing operation.
(5) Towing technology is advancing towards unmanned and automated operations.
Traditional maritime towing operations face challenges such as safety risks, high costs,
and strong operational dependencies. The development of unmanned ships and multi-
agent technologies offers the potential to address these issues. Currently, research on
coordinated towing by unmanned vessels is limited, primarily focusing on trajectory
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2025, 13, 257 22 of 25

control of large vessels by multiple tugs. These studies often simplify the role of tugs
and towing ropes, without considering their dynamic responses. With the progress of
intelligent ship technology, research has begun to focus on multi-agent systems, treating
tugs as independent entities with dynamic responses. However, most of these studies
are based on linear models, which may not accurately reflect the nonlinear characteristics
of ships and could affect towing accuracy. Meanwhile, the computational complexity of
multi-ship coordinated control algorithms may limit their real-time application.

6. Conclusions
The Ocean Engineering Towing System is widely applied in various fields, includ-
ing the entry and exit of large vessels into ports, the rescue of distressed ships, and the
transportation of large offshore platforms. The motion response and structural strength
of the towing cable and the towed object are crucial factors affecting the safety of tow-
ing operations. The slender and flexible nature of the towline results in highly complex
motion. Sudden changes in instantaneous tension during towing operations may lead to
the breakage or damage of the towing cable. Compared with self-propelled vessels, the
motion response of the towed object, influenced by both environmental loads and towline
tension, is more variable, and the structural loading is more complex. To this end, this
paper summarizes previous research and points out its deficiencies and areas that have not
been fully explored or delved into, following a logical sequence from the whole (towing
system) to the local component (cables, towed objects). First of all, for the research on the
motion response of the towing system, this paper analyzes and reviews the classification of
the numerical simulation method, theoretical model method, and experimental method,
and summarizes the advantages and disadvantages of the different methods. Then, the
development and latest research of three methods commonly used in the study of cable
dynamics model (concentrated mass method, finite difference method, and finite element
method) are described, and the necessity of studying the wear resistance, tensile strength,
structure, and material type of composite cables is discussed. The towed object is a very
important part of the towing system, the current research is biased to the dynamic research,
and the analysis of the structure and mechanical response is less. This paper summarizes
the current research on mechanical response analysis of the towed object, and proposes
the direction of in-depth research on the optimization of key structural topology and the
analysis of structural mechanical response under complex sea conditions.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, K.Q. and J.Z. (Jianing Zhang); methodology, K.Q. and J.Z.
(Jianing Zhang); validation, L.Z.; investigation, K.Q.; resources, K.Q. and R.G.; writing—original draft
preparation, K.Q., J.Z. (Jinlong Zhang) and L.Z.; writing—review and editing, K.Q., J.Z. (Jinlong Zhang)
and R.G.; supervision, J.Z. (Jianing Zhang); funding acquisition, J.Z. (Jianing Zhang). All authors have
read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding: This research was funded by the Foundation of CHINA COSCO SHIPPING GROUP,
(Grant No. 2023-2-Z001-02-01), and the Dalian City’s Public Recruitment Project for Key Technical
Challenges (Grant No. 2023JB11SN006).

Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement: Data will be made available upon request.

Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2025, 13, 257 23 of 25

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