Late Cenozoic Evolution of the Eastern Andean Foothills of Neuquén

between 37° and 37°30'S

Cannibalization of the Lower Pleistocene volcanic front by the Guañacos fold

and thrust belt

Andrés Folguera†

Víctor A. Ramos

Universidad de Buenos Aires, Laboratorio de Tectónica Andina, Argentina

Emilio F. González Díaz

Universidad de Buenos Aires, SEGEMAR, Argentina

Reginald Hermanns

Geological Survey of Canada, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada

†
E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract

The Neuquén fold and thrust belt between 37° and 37°30´S can be divided in two

sectors with contrasting evolutions: an outer sector where deformation started during the

Late Cretaceous, and continued into the Late Miocene, and an inner sector where the

deformation started during the Late Miocene and is ongoing.

The inner sector forms the Neuquén Andes, corresponding to the Guañacos fold and

thrust belt, and was formed by the tectonic inversion of a previous Oligocene-Miocene

1
intra-arc rift. It is a narrow stripe coincident with the maximum heights of the orogen,

proximal to the present volcanic arc with a width of 60 km. Only the easternmost 40 km of

this stripe have indications of tectonic activity, characterized by an out-of-sequence fold

and thrust belt developed to the west of the Cretaceous to Miocene Agrio and Chos Malal

fold and thrust belts.

During the last 5 m.y., the fold and thrust belt incorporated the Pliocene to Lower

Pleistocene volcanic arc, which was mainly situated east of the Upper Pleistocene to

Holocene volcanic arc. The Pliocene to Quaternary Trohunco caldera and Los Cardos-

Centinela volcanic sequences were deformed and incorporated into the present fold and

thrust belt.

Introduction

Several Tertiary to Quaternary fold and thrust belts have been identified along the

Southern Central Andes and Northern Patagonian Andes (Fig. 1), which reflect a distinctive

mechanics of deformation.

The Neuquén Andes are located in the Southernmost Central Andes and outline a

narrow belt, less than sixty kilometers in width, which is characterized by the minimum

heights of the entire Andes from Colombia to Tierra del Fuego (2,500 meters as a

maximum medium height) (Fig. 1). This segment is formed by two series of fold and thrust

belts: the eastern one, corresponding to the fairly well studied Agrio and Chos Malal fold

and thrust belts (Ramos, 1977; Kozlowski et al., 1996; Zapata et al., 2002), and the western

belt represented by the poorly known Guañacos fold and thrust belt (Fig. 2). Five transects

have been studied in detail from north to south at the eastern slope of the northern Neuquén

Andes to determine the age and development of the Guañacos fold and thrust structure (Fig.

2
2A): 1) The northern one corresponded to the Huaracos valley (37°05´-37°10´S) that is

formed over the flank of the Upper Pliocene to Quaternary Los Cardos-Centinela strato-

volcano, which is moderately eroded, by mass wasting phenomena; 2) the next to the south

is located in the Lileo valley (37°13´S), where the absence of Neogene sequences allows

the study of the Paleogene successions; 3) the Guañacos valley (37°16´S) where the

structures recognized to the north are deforming a Pliocene caldera; 4) the Reñileuvú valley

(37°20´S), where subtle changes in the orogenic front geometry and mechanics of

deformation are achieved (Folguera et al., 2004); 5) and the Ñireco valley (37°25´S) where

the inners sectors are covered by Neogene successions allowing to constraint the youngest

deformation in the area. The five transects are associated with Pliocene to Quaternary

calderas and stratovolcanoes forming part of an ancient and deformed volcanic arc (Fig. 2)

(Rovere, 1993; 1998; Miranda et al., 2004).

A series of 10 to 12 emergent thrusts, were identified, which shows an eastward

propagation of the deformation since the Late Pliocene to the Quaternary. The outer and

eastern thrusts have Quaternary activity, with different amounts of denudation (Fig. 3).

The westernmost area is covered by volcanic products related to an Upper

Pleistocene to Holocene volcanic arc front. The corresponding retro-arc volcanic products

are scattered to the east, mixed with a previous stable position of the arc front during Late

Pliocene-Early Pleistocene (Muñoz and Stern, 1988; Stern, 1989; Lara et al., 2001; Lara

and Folguera, this volume). This situation makes the Neuquén Andes a rather unique

segment of the Andes, because the arc front reinstalled inwards instead of being

continuously propagating away from the trench, as in most subductive systems along the

world and particularly along the Central and Southern Andes from Perú to Tierra del Fuego

(Mpodozis and Ramos, 1989). Moreover, the orogenic front has also shifted to the inner

3
retroarc area along this orogenic segment, between Late Miocene and Quaternary (Ramos

and Folguera, 2004; Zapata and Folguera, 2004), as evidenced by seismicity (Barrientos

and Acevedo, 1992; Folguera et al., 2003; Zapata and Folguera, 2004) and distribution of

neotectonic deformation (Folguera and Ramos, 2002; Folguera et al., 2004). Moreover,

GPS measurements (Kendrick et al., 1999) at the western boundary of the Central

Depression in Chile (Fig. 2) show that at 37°-38°S the hinterland is eastwardly transported,

being necessary to absorb such displacements in the retro-arc (Fig. 1). The absence of

reported compressive neotectonics in the Agrio and Chos Malal fold and thrust belts

(Folguera et al., this volume), and the existence of Ar/Ar and fission track data in the inner

sectors of this belt corresponding to the Cretaceous-Miocene interval (Fig. 2B) (Burns,

2002; Kay 2002, 2004), suggest that such displacements are absorbed in an area closely

related to the Quaternary arc front.

The most prominent structural feature developed at these latitudes at the Present arc

front is the La Laja dextral strike-slip system (Melnick et al., 2003; Melnick et al., this

volume). This fault system has Quaternary activity with a not well constrained oldest age of

deformation. However a symmetric design of Neogene structures at both sides of the fault

system suggests a probable control in the development of contraction in the arc and inner

retroarc zone.

Regional Geology of the study area

Two morphostructural units can be identified between 37° and 37°30´S along the

eastern slope of the Neuquén Andes (Fig. 2). From west to east these are (1) the Main

Cordillera, corresponding to the Guañacos fold and thrust belt, and (2) the Agrio and Chos

Malal fold and thrust belts of which the cordillera del Viento is its inner part (Figs. 1 and

4
2). The first is a fairly smooth feature, where a series of Upper Paleogene-Neogene to

Quaternary volcanic sequences are exposed (Fig. 4). In contrast the cordillera del Viento

constitutes a narrow and steep sloped sector which has Upper Paleozoic to Mesozoic

sediments thrusted on Paleogene volcanics (Ramos, 1977; Kozlowski et al., 1996; Zapata et

al., 1999). Their respective history of uplift seems to be contrasting. While Ar/Ar data and

fission track ages in the cordillera del Viento reveal an initial episode of uplift in the Late

Cretaceous, supported by related unconformities along its eastern slope (Zapata et al., 1999;

2002; Kay, 2002; 2004), the identification of synorogenic strata shows a series of

reactivations during Eocene and Late Miocene (Ramos, 1998; Zapata et al., 1999; Zapata

and Folguera, 2004). The Main cordillera has experienced a first episode of uplift in the

Eocene as inferred by fission track data at the innermost sector of the fold belt, only south

of 38ºS (Gräfe et al., 2002). However, this relief has been destructed by orogenic collapse

at Late Oligocene (Ramos and Folguera, 2004; Zapata and Folguera, 2004). This sector has

not been finally uplifted until the Late Neogene, when the Guañacos fold and thrust belt

was formed by inversion of a series of intra-arc extensional depocenters (Jordan et al. 2001;

Radic et al., 2002).

The stratigraphic sequence of the main cordillera starts with Permian volcaniclastic

successions and Jurassic to Cretaceous igneous rocks in its eastern and western flanks

respectively (Zollner and Amos, 1973; Niemeyer and Muñoz, 1983; De la Cruz and Suárez,

1997; Suárez and Emparán, 1997). These are overlain by volcaniclastic sequences, with

ages between 25 Ma and a few thousand years. These volcanics are grouped in three to four

main groups by Niemeyer and Muñoz (1983) and Suárez and Emparán (1995).

The volcaniclastic successions with ages between 25 and 8 Ma are considered as

part of the Cura Mallín basin (Suárez and Emparán, 1995, Jordan et al., 2001 and Radic et

5
al., 2002). They outline a series of diachronous depocenters that occupied the intra-arc

region and are correlated to an episode of extension between 33° to 46°S (Dalla Salda and

Franzese, 1987; Spalletti and Dalla Salda, 1996; Vergara et al., 1997 a, b, c; Godoy et al.,

1999). In the study area three units of this formation were mapped (Fig. 3). The first is

mainly composed of non-marine sedimentary sequences (Sarris, 1964; Zanettini et al.,

1987; Leanza et al., 2002) and is located at the easternmost edge of the Oligocene to

Miocene basin. The two others are displaced to the west by 10 kilometers in comparison to

the first depocenter, and are composed of arc-derived products, which are the predominant

facies in the western slope of the cordillera between 37° and 37°30´S (Niemeyer and

Muñoz, 1983). The Cura Mallín Formation is constituted at the inner sector of the working

area by two distinctive members. The oldest part of the sequence is composed of non-

marine white tuffs and its base is not exposed. The youngest part is constituted by nearly

300 meters of non-marine andesitic breccias and small amounts of basaltic to andesitic lava

flows. This upper section has a very irregular distribution, being completely absent in many

sections through the area (Fig. 3).

Younger volcanic rocks are part of the Cola de Zorro magmatic belt with an age

between 5 and 3.5 Ma (Vergara and Muñoz, 1982; Suárez and Emparán, 1997). These are

only locally superimposed to the previous volcanic rocks, and are characterized by a much

narrower arc than the Upper Oligocene to Lower Miocene volcanic arc.

Finally two positions of the arc front, one of Late Pliocene to Early Pleistocene age

and the other of Late Pleistocene to Hologene age (Muñoz and Stern, 1988; Muñoz Bravo

et al., 1989; Stern, 1989; Lara et al., 2001; Ramos and Folguera, 2004) are partly

overlapped to the previous stable position of the arc (Fig. 2).

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 Locally, on the eastern slope of the Andes between 37° and 37°30´S (Fig. 3), there

are outcrops of volcaniclastic sequences of the Cura Mallín, Cola de Zorro, Los Cardos-

Centinela Formations, and younger generations of strato and monogenetic volcanoes,

landslide, glacial and Quaternary fluvial deposits.

An almost flat succession of andesitic lavas, breccias, and non-marine alluvial fan

deposits corresponding to the Cola de Zorro Formation were not uniformly accumulated

over a regional angular unconformity through the basin locally reaching 1,200 meters (Fig.

4) (Vergara and Muñoz, 1982; Suárez and Emparán, 1997).

The most outstanding feature related to the Lower Pliocene sequences in the area is

a semi-circular shaped depression nearly 15 kilometers in diameter, located between

37°10´and 20´S, and 70°50´and 71°10´W. Pliocene lavas are radially disposed with respect

to the depression, dipping outwardly, and describing a moderately eroded caldera

denominated here as Trohunco caldera (Figs. 2 and 3).

Upper Pliocene to Lower Quaternary volcanic products were mainly emplaced in

the NE of the study area (Figs. 3 and 4) related to amalgamated Los Cardos-Centinela and

Palao strato-volcanoes. Los Cardos-Centinela volcano is constituted by basal breccias and

lavas of 3.2-2.6 Ma (Rovere, 1993, 1998, Rovere et al. 2000), and pre-glacial Pleistocene

younger generations of small strato-volcanoes located at the NW part of the main volcanic

edifice, up to syn-glacial scattered pillow lavas, whose age is estimated to be between (2

Ma?) 640 and 30 Ka because of the several pulses of glaciations registered in the Chillán

strato-volcano and its basement to the west (Dixon et al., 1999) (Figs. 2, 3, 4).

Glaciation has been an important agent modifying the landscape in the study region,

particularly west of 71°W where a series of erosive glacial forms were conserved (Fig. 4)

(González Díaz, 1998). At least one episode of glaciation reshaped Los Cardos-Centinela

7
and Palao volcanoes (Figs. 4 and 5). These indicate that a glacier filled its summit caldera,

which opened and eroded the volcanic morphology. The northern and eastern flanks of Los

Cardos-Centinela volcano are still preserved (Figs. 3 and 4). At the northeastern flank and

over extra-caldera products, alpine glacial forms are present (Fig. 4). However, a relatively

more distal position of the ice is evidenced by remnants of marginal moraines and terraced

out-wash deposits, north of the Huaraco glacial valley. This position is at a broad scale

coincident with scattered syn-glacial products which are covering the eastern flank of the

volcano (Fig. 4). In the downward direction, alluvial deposits are spatially associated with

marginal moraines corresponding to an out-wash fan, which was terraced by later fluvial

incision of the Huaraco lower valley. These deposits indicate the maximum advance of the

ice over Los Cardos-Centinela volcanic slope (Fig. 4).

Widespread till-like deposits, accumulated to the west, correspond to avalanche

deposits associated with the collapse of the western and southern flanks of Los Cardos-

Centinela and Palao volcanoes respectively (Figs. 3, 4, 5) (González Díaz et al., 2005).

More than 50 landslide deposits of volume higher than 1 x 106 m3 were identified

and mapped through the Andean retro-arc area between 36° and 39°S (González Díaz et al.,

2000; 2004; González Díaz, 2003; Hermanns et al., 2003). Their temporal occurrence

seems to be restricted to postglacial times, or perhaps in some cases interglacial times,

based on morphological evidence and preliminary (36Cl) ages obtained in some of them.

The Palao upper valley has a glacial morphology, which is suddenly interrupted by

Los Cardos-Centinela´s avalanche distal facies fifteen kilometers up to the Lileo valley

(Figs. 3 and 5). The deposits have climbed the opposite western side of the Palao valley.

Besides this, neither erosional glacial features nor glacial material has been recognized over

the avalanche, suggesting a postglacial age, like the other landslides over the region.

8
 Structure in the Guañacos fold and thrust belt

STRUCTURE ALONG THE HUARACO VALLEY

The Huaraco valley was the northernmost transect, where the structure of this

segment was analyzed because of its association with a series of very young and fairly well

constrained units, particularly Los Cardos-Centinela and Palao volcanic sequences.

Two areas can be separated along this transect (Fig. 3): An eastern portion where

the eastern slope of Los Cardos-Centinela volcano, composed of basalts and andesitic flows

are locally folded with an eastward vergence (Fig. 6A), and a western one where the core

and basement of the volcano are exposed by active tectonic deformation (Fig. 7).

The eastern area comprehends lavas of two contrasting ages: (1) Upper Pliocene to

Lower Pleistocene basal lavas forming part of the conical eastern half of the Los Cardos-

Centinela volcano, and (2) Upper Pleistocene younger scattered small cones. These last

cones contain indicators of under-water eruptivity, typical of Pleistocene syn-glacial

activity, as other neighbor strato–volcanoes in the region (Dixon et al., 1999; Melnick et al.

2003).

A K/Ar age of the cone of the volcano yielded an age of 3.2-2.6 Ma (Rovere, 1993),

which assigns this volcanic center to the Upper Pliocene to Lower Pleistocene volcanic arc

mainly located to the east of the main Upper Pleistocene to Holocene volcanoes (Figs. 3

and 4) (Muñoz and Stern, 1988). The presence of younger generations of small centers over

this rather old volcanic structure is common in other polygenetic centers of ancient volcanic

arcs, such as the Copahue volcano 70 kilometers to the south (Fig. 2) (Melnick and

9
Folguera, 2001; Melnick et al., 2004) and the Chillán volcano only 30 kilometers to the

west (Dixon et al., 1999).

The occurrence of two different generations of volcanic products related to the

central Los Cardos-Centinela activity, one of Late Pliocene age and the other circumscribed

to the Quaternary (Fig. 3 and 4) allows to differentiate an older pre-deformation basement

and a post-deformation pulse of activity. It also allows identifying unconformities related to

these pulses of deformation (Fig. 6A).

Outer part of the Huaraco transect

Twelve low amplitude anticlines and synclines were formed at the eastern slope of

Los Cardos-Centinela volcano restricted to a narrow band of five kilometers measured in a

horizontal direction (Figs. 6A). These folds have an eastward vergence and affected a

primary volcanic slope dipping 15° to the east. This volcanic slope is only locally folded

from 4 kilometers over the base of the volcano up to the 1,200 m height (Fig. 3).

Additionally a kink produces an increase in the average eastern slope of the volcano

from 15° to 25°E at a height of 1,750 m (Fig. 7). This slope-break is coincident with an

eastward vergent thrust associated with an anticline exhuming the core and basement of the

Los Cardos-Centinela volcano over an altitude of 1,900 meters (Fig. 7). This indicates a

vertical offset of nearly 700 meters in the basement of the Plio-Quaternary sequences which

was produced by different contributions in slip: (1) the narrow fan of folds located at the

eastern face of the Los Cardos-Centinela volcano, (2) the reverse fault outcropping into the

volcanic core.

Inner part of the Huaraco transect

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 An anticline with a half wave length of 3 to 4 kilometers is exposed on the southern

margin of the Huaraco valley. Its core is formed by Miocene volcanic rocks corresponding

to the Cura Mallín Formation and its flanks by the oldest products of the Los Cardos-

Centinela volcano (Late Pliocene?) (Fig. 7). The anticline has a rather symmetric shape

with its frontal and eastern limb slightly steeper (30°E) than the western limb (25°W).

The anticline is associated at the surface with a 20°W low angle reverse fault which

thrusts Paleogene volcanic rocks over Pleistocene moraine deposits located at the bottom of

the Huaraco valley (Fig. 8). The dorsal flank of the anticline is unconformably overlain by

Quaternary pre–glacial younger generations of moderately big strato-volcanoes, located at

the northern rim of Los Cardos-Centinela edifice (Fig. 4).

To the west, the Palao Fault (Fl9) juxtaposes Miocene Cura Mallín strata over Los

Cardos-Centinela rock avalanche deposits through more than eight kilometers in plan view

(Fig. 5).

The westernmost part of the transect corresponds to the eastern flank of Cerro Los

Tejos (Figure 3). This hill is uplifted by a reverse fault which dips to the west. Further

description of the hanging and footwall structure is outlined in the next section

corresponding to the Lileo transect, where it is better exposed. However, at this latitude the

best evidence of Cerro Los Tejos´s young deformation is revealed. Post-glacial avalanche

deposits associated with Los Cardos-Centinela and Palao volcanoes are overridden by

Miocene breccias of the Cura Mallín Formation (Fig. 9). Other evidence of young

deformation is present in the Palao valley, immediately to the east of the Cerro Los Tejos.

There, Los Cardos-Centinela´s avalanche deposits are folded describing a syncline and an

anticline (Figs. 3 and 10). The anticline have a low eroded aspect, defining the morphology

11
of the fluvial valley (Fig. 10A). Moreover, an east looking scarp flanks this structure

affecting the last soil horizon (Fig. 10B).

STRUCTURE ALONG THE LILEO VALLEY

Eleven reverse faults form the eastern slope of the Andes at 37°13´S (Fig. 3), which

were numbered from west to east (1-11). Similarly to the previous transect, styles of

deformation can be divided in two sectors: (1) an outer one where a narrow band

concentrates a high amount of reverse faults and low-amplitude folds, and (2) an inner one

between Cerro Los Tejos and western foothills of Los Cardos-Centinela volcano, where a

series of volcaniclastic Cura Mallín sheets are imbricated.

Outer part of the Lileo transect

The easternmost fault of this transect (Fl1) has a poor morphological expression,

although it affects 1.7 Ma lavas (Folguera et al., 2004) together with Los Chacayes fault

(Fl2), which constitutes two reverse faults separated only by 30 meters, also offsetting

Pliocene to Lower Quaternary volcanic beds, affecting up to Quaternary piedmont deposits

(Fig. 11A). The resulting vertical displacement along the Los Chacayes fault is 30 meters,

as indicated by the offset of the contact of the lavas and upper piedmont Quaternary

sediments (Fig. 11A). To the north of the Lileo valley the Los Chacayes´s westernmost

fault overrides Los Miches avalanche deposits.

Fl3 is the first fault which juxtaposes Miocene sedimentary strata over Pliocene

volcanic rocks. Fl5 thrusts 70°W inclined sedimentary beds of the Cura Mallín Formation

over a 35°W panel. The sheet formed between Fl5 and Fl4 thrusts 60°W dipping

12
sedimentary beds of the same unit over 35°W ones, very similarly to the structural relation

defined by Fl5.

Inner part of the Lileo transect: Cerro Los Tejos, Palao, and Perquiñane-Antiñir regions

The Pichilenga fault (Fl6) overrides a broad and symmetric syncline with 25°

dipping flanks over a series of folds at the footwall and a wedge of Cola de Zorro

Formation overlying unconformably the folded structure, constraining its Upper Pliocene to

Quaternary activity. The Pichilenga fault is associated with the main topographic break of

the transect, as well as it would be related to a major structural limit in the Paleogene basin.

To the west of the Pichilenga fault, the thrust sheets stack volcaniclastic facies, while to the

east the facies are of sedimentary origin.

Fl7 juxtaposes a high amplitude anticline over a tight anticline, a syncline and

finally a broad anticline, which in turn are faulted by a minor reverse offset (Los Rojos

fault) over a broad syncline in the footwall affecting up to Quaternary fluvial sediments.

This fault has a recent morphological expression through the southern flank of the Los

Cardos-Centinela volcano to the north of the Lileo valley, forming an eastward-looking

scarp, although was considered of having a minor displacement.

Fl8 overrides a tight anticline over less than 30,000 years avalanche deposits

associated with the southern flank of the Los Cardos-Centinela volcano. The Palao fault

(Fl9) juxtaposes tuffs of the Cura Mallín Formation over avalanche deposits related to the

western flank of the Los Cardos-Centinela volcano through a high angle reverse fault (Fig.

5).

Cerro Los Tejos is an asymmetric range with a steeper eastern slope associated with

an active fault (Fl10). The internal structure of this hill is variable depending on the

13
considered latitudinal transect. Cerro Los Tejos structure corresponds to two tight synclines

and an anticline at a hangingwall fault affecting the Cura Mallín Formation, thrusted over

tuffs and ignimbrites of the basal part of the same sequence, defining a normal relation. As

it was also described, the upper part of the Cura Mallín sequence at these latitudes is

formed by mainly volcanic breccias and minor amounts of andesitic lavas, and these were

preferentially accumulated at the hangingwall of Los Tejos fault, suggesting that the fault

represents the inversion of an extensional depocenter corresponding to the eastern part of

the Cura Mallín basin.

At 37°13´S, corresponding to the Lileo transect, Los Tejos fault is not longer a

single fault and has been splayed in two proximal reverse faults (Fl10, Fl11), which

override two gentle synclines affecting the upper levels of the Cura Mallín Formation.

At the hangingwall of the Los Tejos fault the Cola de Zorro Formation is

unconformably overlying the Miocene folded structure. This unconformity dips 5ºW.

STRUCTURE ALONG THE GUAÑACOS VALLEY

A series of high angle reverse faults formed the eastern slope of the Andes at

37°14´S. The difference in altitude between the level of exposure of the first and the

thirteenth faults is around 1,000 meters in 20-21 kilometers.

The most clear evidence of Quaternary activity is located at the first two thirds of

the transect from east to west. The rest third could correspond to sealed Upper Miocene

structures (Fig. 12), even though the proximity to the others and the absence of

unconformities make difficult to discard a Quaternary activity. Even though along these

inner sectors the structure has no evidence of recent faults, to the north and south along the

14
Huaraco and Ñireco transects respectively, even the inner structures have Quaternary

displacements.

Outer part of the Guañacos transect

The easternmost fault at the Guañacos valley, here referred as Fg1, affects the

youngest products of the entire area (Figs. 3, 11 and 12). A volcanic plateau of probable

Pliocene age, together with upper conglomerates and fluvial deposits are offset forming a

tongue of synorogenic sediments at the footwall of the fault (Folguera et al., 2004). These

sediments were also accumulated in a gentle syncline with flanks dipping 6°E and 12°W at

the hangingwall and to the east in a wedge that thickens to the Andean axis where a second

reverse fault, Fg2, thrusted the Cura Mallín Formation over these deposits. The beds in the

hangingwall dip 30° to the west, until Fg3 juxtaposes the Cura Mallín Formation with a dip

of nearly 60°W. No evidence of Quaternary activity was found along the trace of this fault.

Fg4 repeats the Cura Mallín Formation affecting Quaternary alluvium channeled in

the Guañacos valley (Fig. 11C). Quaternary sediments are tectonically repeated at the

lowest floor of the valley, where a 25°W-dipping panel thrusts a broad zone of cataclastic

material. A narrow tongue of alluvium thickens to the west from the trace of the fault and is

only locally deformed with a dip angle of 25°W at the proximity of the trace of the fault.

One kilometer to the west appears Fg5, a high angle 55°W-dipping reverse fault,

which at the most superficial expression offsets a Quaternary terrace of the Guañacos river

(Fig. 11B), and produces the emplacement of another Cura Mallín sheet. Less than 600

meters in the westward direction another sheet of 28°W-dipping Cura Mallín volcanics,

Fg6, thrusted Quaternary sediments and is associated with progressive unconformities at

15
the back of the fault, corresponding to debris talus sediments (Fig. 6C). Another thrust Fg7

brings 45°W-dipping Cura Mallín volcanic rocks over Quaternary fluvial deposits.

Fg8 can be considered as the first fault from east to west that is not associated with

evident young deformation (Fig. 6B). The fault does not cut horizontal volcanic rocks

overlying unconformably the Cura Mallín Formation, although a slight flexure is indicating

some degree of activity after the emplacement of these volcanic sequences (Fig. 6B). A

progressive fan of volcanic beds is developed at the back limb of the fault with an apex

next to the fault trace and rapidly broadening to the west of the fault, suggesting syn-

orogenic accumulation of these units (Fig. 6B). Two main packages, separated by an

unconformity, form this fan: the basal one would be Pliocene in age by lateral correlation,

while the upper one could be even younger up to Quaternary age, based on new dating of

similar units next to this locality (Folguera et al., 2004). Fg8 thrusts 45°W-dipping Cura

Mallín Formation that flattens to the west through two kinks. This fault is associated with

the main topographic break of the segment, and separates two clear and distinctive

domains: (1) an eastern one, 7 km long from Fg1 to Fg8 characterized by Holocene deep

fluvial incision superimposed to Pleistocene glacial morphology and with Quaternary

tectonic activity, and (2) a western one where only locally thrusts have Quaternary activity

and the valley morphology is mainly inherited since glacial times.

Inner part of the Guañacos transect

The first fault of this inner segment is Fg9, which produces the emplacement of a

45°W-dipping sheet of Cura Mallín Formation. This is completely sealed by Pliocene

volcanic beds of the Cola de Zorro Formation. A very broad syncline west of this fault,

16
folding the Cola de Zorro Formation with flanks of 5°W and 7°E-dipping and an half wave

length of 6 km, is unconformably sealing an Upper Miocene folded structure.

Fg10 thrusts Cura Mallín syncline over Cola de Zorro Formation at the footwall

(Fig. 13). This is the first thrust which affected the Cola de Zorro Formation. Another

thrust, Fg11, uplifted two tights syncline and anticline which are in turn overridden, in less

than 1 kilometer, by another syncline with a 80° dipping frontal limb corresponding to

Cordillera de Reñileuvú.

Finally an anticline with a vertical frontal limb corresponds to the first sheet from

east to west in the inner part of the transect, that is unconformably overlain by the Cola de

Zorro Formation at the back-limb of the fold (Fig. 9C). This unit has been dated next to

Paso de Pichachén in 3.6 Ma (Muñoz Bravo et al., 1989). The Pliocene units have

preserved there a primary morphology, corresponding to a half broad Trohunco caldera

with a diameter next to 15 kilometers (Fig. 12A). The corresponding inner caldera facies

are the levels which are folded and thrust between Fg8 and Fg10 (Fig. 12B). The outer rim

is only preserved at the back of Fg11 and Fg12. Fg10 overrides Miocene Cura Mallín rocks

over Pliocene units, coinciding with another important topographic break.

STRUCTURE ALONG THE REÑILEUVÚ VALLEY

The structure along this transect is very similar to the previous one. However, some

relationships are particularly well displayed: Fg10 overrides Miocene ignimbrites over

Lower Pliocene volcanic rocks, as to the north (Fig. 12B) and two synclines are

unconformably superimposed, indicating and confirming two pulses of deformation along

the Guañacos fold and thrust belt, one in the Late Miocene and a younger into the

Quaternary (Fig. 12D).

17
STRUCTURE ALONG THE ÑIRECO VALLEY

The upper part of this valley has been filled with sediments of deltaic origin during

postglacial times, in response to the formation of a lake formed by mass wasting

phenomena (Folguera et al., 2004; González Díaz et al., 2005). The result is that the valley

floor is relatively high and therefore lateral fluvial erosion during post glacial times has

been minimal due to a high local base level, being possible to observe the upper

stratigraphic levels, which are generally removed through the fold and thrust belt. The Cola

de Zorro Formation is gently folded through the western sectors of the basin. A symmetric-

high amplitude anticline with limbs of 5º and NS trending axis is present which reveals

Plio-Quaternary deformation next to the water divide (Fig. 3).

Discussion

LOCALIZATION OF THE QUATERNARY ACTIVITY

The complete length of the Reñileuvú and Guañacos transects, 18 to 22 km

respectively, and two thirds of the Lileo transect with 17 km reveal the presence of faults

with Quaternary activity. This means that approximately 20 km of 42 km corresponding to

the total width of the eastern slope of the Main Cordillera, around half of the entire Andean

amplitude at these latitudes, has some amount of evident Quaternary activity. This is

striking because permit to re-evaluate the main age of formation of the Andes between

36°30´ and 37°30´S which become much younger than previously thought. Between the

early ´80s and late ´90s the unconformity located between the Miocene and Lower Pliocene

beds was undoubtedly assigned to the main and unique phase of deformation of this

18
orogenic segment, mainly due to the lack of studies along the eastern slope of the cordillera

(Niemeyer and Muñoz, 1982; Suárez and Emparán, 1997; Jordan et al., 2001; Radic et al.,

2002). However, as new field data reveal, at least half of the Andes at these latitudes,

around 2/3 of their eastern slope, has been built or at least highly reshaped during the

Quaternary. It is worth noting that in any case this is a very conservative assumption

because upper levels of erosion of the fold and thrust belt such as those kept at the

Guañacos, Reñileuvú, and Ñireco transects show that the whole longitude of the eastern

flank of the Neuquén Andes, even at the inner parts of the transects, has some degree of

Late Pliocene to Quaternary deformation.

Additionally, reverse faults with normal relationships and Quaternary activity, such

as Los Tejos fault, and too large offsets to be accommodated only in 2 Ma, such as the

Huaraco anticline, reveal that deformation at the eastern flank of the Andes north of

37º30´S could have started during the stage of Cura Mallín basin inversion, in the Late

Miocene, as the regional angular unconformity indicates. However, the eastern slope of the

Andes can be considered still active, and under continuous uplift.

EVOLUTION OF THE GUAÑACOS FOLD AND THRUST BELT BETWEEN 37°

AND 37°30´ S

The observation of the superficial geology in the area sows that broad folds mostly

associated with high angle reverse faults are alternated with minor-wave length folds

related to low angle thrusts. High angle faults have younger-over-older relations and

systematically they overthrust not uniform, in terms of thickness, volcanic products. On the

other hand low angle thrusts are associated with sedimentary non-marine facies and reverse

offsets and are part of low amplitude imbricated fan sheets. An evident relation arises

19
between deformational styles and lithology, which could be in turn related to basin

location. Even though, no clear relation exists between sedimentary facies and volcanics

located at the inner sectors of the Guañacos fold and thrust belt, when compared the scarce

radiometric ages with the studied fossils are slightly younger (Sarris, 1964; Jordan et al.,

2001; Leanza et al., 2002). Another indirect evidence of their relative stratigraphic position

comes from the fact that sedimentary facies are absent at the inner sectors of the fold and

thrust belt (both the Chilean western side of the Andes and the political border area), which

could indicate differential levels of exposure and therefore an older age for the volcanic

products.

A plausible model could be that volcaniclastic rocks of the Cura Mallín Formation

have constituted, as reflection seismic lines show (Jordan et al., 2001), synrift deposits

while sedimentary facies would be included in younger sag sedimentation of the Cura

Mallín basin. Therefore, upper sag levels only would have been conserved where the

denudation have been minimal, and that is at the orogenic front area where deformation is

incipient (Figs. 3 and 13).

However, deformation could have occurred in more than one single way. First,

important deformation took place before Cola de Zorro accumulation (Fig. 14), which is in

turn deformed, indicating two clear episodes of deformation in the area, one in the Late

Miocene and another during Plio-Quaternary times. Additionally, deformation could have

passed under different circumstances. A first possibility is that only thin skinned stacking

affected the area linked to basemental and crustal deformation further west beyond the area

of interest during an initial stage of the fold and thrust belt, and then a second wave of

deformation overprinted the first as basement uplifts (Fig. 14). Therefore sag imbricated

sequences would have been cannibalized by inversion of previous normal faults. This

20
possibility is based on the observation that shortenings computed for low wave length

structures are higher than shortenings associated with high angle reverse faults, suggesting

non coetaneous development. A second possibility is that all the system, through two pulses

differentiated in time, evolved as a single deformed wedge: thin skinned deformation and

tectonic inversion were mechanically coupled. Therefore, high angle reverse faults would

have intersected detachment levels located in the sag column producing local-thin skinned

deformation. The apparent discrepancy proposed for the first case could be solved evoking

flux of material in the core of low amplitude anticlines, without substantial amounts of

shortening.

Finally, even though the Late Miocene has been a moment of widespread

compressive deformation through the fold and thrust belt north of 37º30´S, this has been

much more limited to the surroundings of the La Laja strike-slip system, in the Quaternary

volcanic arc front, during Late Pliocene to Quaternary times: there are neither evident signs

of reactivation of inverted Cura Mallín westernmost faults nor reverse faults related to the

Agrio and Chos Malal fold and thrust belts (Fig. 15). A plausible hypothesis related to the

final stages of formation of the Guañacos fold and thrust belt is that its frontal part is

mechanically coupled with dextral strike-slip displacements registered at the La Laja fault

system. Therefore, basement blocks stacked by transpression at the arc front would have

transferred shortening to the Upper Oligocene detachment at the retroarc zone (Fig. 15).

Conclusions

The Guañacos fold and thrust belt is an out of sequence fan of thrusts, respect to the

Agrio and Chos Malal fold and thrust belts, which was formed through two stages: one

during Late Miocene and a second during Late Pliocene to Quaternary, both related to the

21
closure of the Cura Mallín basin. This last phase of basin closure cannibalized the Upper

Pliocene to Early Quaternary volcanic arc, and probably an early phase of thin skinned

deformation developed during the Late Miocene, both at the eastern flank of the Andes.

Even though inversion of an Upper Oligocene to probably Mesozoic detachment is the

most plausible mechanics of development of the Guañacos fold and thrust belt, we

proposed a possible linkage to the La Laja strike-slip system during the last phase of

deformation.

Acknowledgments

This study has been made with funding from PICT 06729/99 of Agencia Nacional

de Promoción Científica y Tecnológica to V.A. Ramos.

Fieldwork by R. Hermanns was financed by the GeoChungsZentrum Potsdam and

supported by the Collaborative Research Centre 276 “Deformation Processes in the

Andes”.

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32
 Figure Captions

Figure 1. A-Location of the Andes of Neuquén at the transition between the Southern
Central Andes and the Northern Patagonian Andes, and main fold and thrust belts. B-
Convergence between Nazca plate and South American plate and location of the study area
in the southern tip of the Southern Central Andes. Note the decrease in topography at that
point. C- 3D elevation model of the study area where the arrow indicates rates and vector of
GPS displacement corresponding to the volcanic arc at these latitudes, measured at the
Antuco locality in the western side of the Andes (based on Kendrik et al. 1999).

33
Figure 2. A- Shaded relief topographic image between 36º30´and 37º45’ S, where transects
mentioned through the paper are located as well as profile corresponding to figure 14.
Schematic orogenic front corresponding to the Antiñir-Copahue fault zone in white and
Cordillera del Viento back thrust in black are displayed. B- Ages of deformation through
the area obtained from regional studies, fission track analysis and cooling ages (Niemeyer
and Muñoz, 1983; Burns, 2002; Kay 2002, 2004). C- Main units from the arc to the retroarc
area and localization of present study.

34
35
36
Figure 3. Geological map of the area located between the Reñileuvú and Buraleo valleys
on the eastern slope of the Andes, where is displayed the easternmost portion of the
Guañacos fold ad thrust belt.

37
Figure 4. Main Neogene units described in the text: Cola de Zorro Formation (Early
Pliocene) and pulses of volcanic activity corresponding to the Upper Pliocene-Quaternary
Los Cardos-Centinela volcano (Rovere, 1993). Its northeastern slope is partially covered by
syn-glacial products, which suggest a much younger evolution of this volcanic center up to
Quaternary times.

38
Figure 5. A, B- Aerial development of the avalanche associated with the Palao and Los
Cardos-Centinela volcanic centers. B- Geomorphology between the Los Cardos-Centinela
volcano and Cerro Los Tejos. Note that no glacial incision has affected Los Cardos
avalanche and moreover it obtrudes the previous glacial morphology. C- Subsequent
incorporation of materials displayed in A and B into the Guañacos fold and thrust belt (see
text for further details).

39
Figure 6. Multiple evidences of syn-growth strata through the region, at the eastern section
of the Guañacos fold and thrust belt. A- Low amplitude anticline in the Lower Huaraco
valley folding Upper Pliocene to Quaternary lavas and sediments belonging to the Los
Cardos-Centinela volcano eastern slope. B- Syn-growth Cola de Zorro strata at Upper
Guañacos valley. C- Quaternary sediments at lower Guañacos valley associated with Fg6.

40
Figure 7. A- Huaraco anticline. Note that an angular unconformity exists between folded
Miocene strata (M Cm) and the basal products of the Los Cardos-Centinela volcano (Pl/Q
C), showing that the main phase of folding occurred previously to the Los Cardos-
Centinela´s eruptions. B- Same anticline to the south in the Guañacos valley. C- Deformed
Pleistocene out-wash deposits at the frontal part of the structure displayed in B.

41
Figure 8. Reverse fault associated with the forelimb of the Huaraco anticline, overriding
Lower Miocene breccias over Pleistocene till deposits accumulated into Los Cardos-
Centinela crater.

42
Figure 9. Los Tejos fault. A- Younger-over-older relationship produced by thrusting. Note
that the darker unit (Ucm) is only exposed at the hangingwall of Los Tejos fault, which
suggests that it was a syn-extensional member of the Cura Mallín basin. B- Cura Mallín
strata thrusted over avalanche deposits associated with collapse of Los Cardos-Centinela
and Palao volcanoes. C- Fg12 at Guañacos valley (southern continuation of Los Tejos
fault).

43
Figure 10. Eastern deformation associated with Los Tejos active front. The youngest
deformed materials are avalanche deposits of the Los Cardos-Centinela and Palao
volcanoes.

44
Figure 11. Different styles of deformation at the orogenic front. Note that while Fl2 and
Fg4 (A-C) (see Figs. 13 and 15 for further details about the faults) are low angle faults, Fg5
(B) has a high angle reverse offset.

45
Figure 12. Trohunco caldera and its association with the Guañacos fold and thrust belt and
the orogenic front. Note that this center is formed by well dated volcanic rocks at the next
Chilean sector (Vergara and Muñoz, 1982). A-Southern rim of Trohunco caldera, located
eastward of the present volcanic front (see Sierra Velluda volcano to the west). B- Oligo-
Miocene tuffs overriding Trohunco intracaldera facies in the southern margin of the
Reñileuvú river. C- Same relation such as B, at Guañacos valley. D- Overlapped synclines
separated by an angular unconformity, showing two superimposed deformational phases at
the eastern side of the Andes (water divide between Guañacos and Reñileuvú valleys).

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Figure 13. Structural cross-sections along the eastern foothills of the Andes between 37º
and 37º20´S, with indication of the main structures described in the text. See location in
Figure 3.

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Figure 14. A- Uplifted areas during the Late Miocene, corresponding to the closure of the
Cura Mallín basin in the inner sectors and inversion of Lower Jurassic detachment at the
external area. Note the different mechanics of deformation at the inner sectors of the fold
and thrust belt, corresponding to basement faults at the western part of the basin, and thin
skinned deformation of sag facies at the eastern part. B- Final stage of deformation. Note
that the Agrio and Chos Malal fold and thrust belts become fossilized as well as innermost
faults corresponding to the closure of the Cura Mallín Basin, and all the deformation occurs
next to the La Laja strike-slip system.

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Figure 15. Conceptual model of the Guañacos fold and thrust belt and its relation to the
structure corresponding to the Chilean sector. The structure has been achieved through two
stages: a) an Upper Miocene inversion of the Cura Mallín basin, when the western side of
the Andes were formed and incipient deformation affected the eastern side of the Paleogene
basin; and b) the Plio-Quaternary development of the system La Laja strike-slip system-
Guañacos fold and thrust belt and final stacking of the Present eastern side of the Andes.

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