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American Writers IV American Writers 4 1st Edition
Unger Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Unger, Leonard
ISBN(s): 9780684136769, 0684136767
Edition: 1
File Details: PDF, 51.23 MB
Year: 1977
Language: english
AMERICAN WRITERS
 AMERICAN WRITERS
A Collection of Literary Biographies
LEONARD UNGER
Editor in Chief

VOLUME IV
Isaac Bashevis Singer
to
Richard Wright

Index

Charles Scribner's Sons

Macmillan Library Reference USA
Simon & Schuster Macmillan
NEW YORK
Simon & Schuster and Prentice Hall International
LONDON • MEXICO CITY • NEW DELHI • SINGAPORE • SYDNEY • TORONTO
 Copyright © 1974 University of Minnesota
Copyright© 1961,1962,1964,1965,1966,1967,
1968,1969,1970,1971,1972 University of Minnesota
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form
without the permission of Charles Scribner's Sons.
An Imprint of Simon & Schuster Macmillan
1633 Broadway, New York, NY 10019-6785
QD/C 28 29 30
Printed in the United States of America
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 73-1759

ISBN 0-684-16104-4 (Set) ISBN 0-684-16232-6 (Supp. I, Part 1)

ISBN 0-684-13673-2 (Vol. I) ISBN 0-684-16233-4 (Supp. I, Part 2
ISBN 0-684-13674-0 (Vol. II) ISBN 0-684-16482-5 (Supp. II, Set)
ISBN 0-684-13675-9 (Vol. III) ISBN 0-684-17592-4 (Supp. II, Part 1)
ISBN 0-684-13676-7 (Vol. IV) ISBN 0-684-17593-2 (Supp. II, Part 2)
ISBN 0-684-15797-7 (Supp. I, Set)

Acknowledgment is gratefully made to those pub- Tragedy: The Two Motions of Ritual Heroism," by
lishers and individuals who have permitted the use permission of Mr. Barth
of the following materials in copyright.
"John Berryman"
Introduction from Short Poems: The Dispossessed, copyright
from "Mr. Apollinax," Collected Poems 1909-1962, 1948 John Berryman; His Thoughts Made Pockets
by T. S. Eliot, by permission of Harcourt Brace & the Plane Buckt, copyright © 1958 John Berry-
Jovanovich, Inc. and Faber and Faber Ltd. man; Formal Elegy, copyright © 1964 John
from "Sweeney Agonistes," Collected Poems 1909- Berryman; Berryman's Sonnets, copyright 1952, ©
1962, by T. S. Eliot; copyright 1936 Harcourt Brace 1967 John Berryman; Homage to Mistress Brad-
Jovanovich, Inc.; copyright © 1963, 1964 T. S. street, copyright © 1956 John Berryman; His Toy,
Eliot, by permission of Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, His Dream, His Rest, copyright © 1964, 1965, 1966,
Inc. and Faber and Faber Ltd. 1967, 1968 John Berryman, by permission of Far-
rar, Straus & Giroux and Faber and Faber Ltd.
"Henry Adams"
from "The Lovers" and "The Imaginary Jew," first
from Henry Adams, "Prayer to the Virgin of
published in The Kenyan Review, by permission of
Chartres," Letters to a Niece and Prayer to the
Mrs. Berryman
Virgin of Chartres, by permission of Houghton Mif-
flin Company "Randolph Bourne"
from letters and manuscripts of Randolph Bourne*
"James Agee"
by permission of Columbia University Libraries
from1 "Draft Lyrics for Candide," The Collected
Poems of James Agee, ed. Robert Fitzgerald, by per- "Van Wyck Brooks"
mission of Houghton Mifflin Company and Calder material drawn from William Wasserstrom, The
and Boyars Ltd. Legacy of Van Wyck Brooks, copyright © 1971, by
Part of this essay first appeared, in a different form, permission of Southern Illinois University Press
in the Carleton Miscellany and is used by permission.
"James Fenimore Cooper"
"Conrad Aiken" material drawn from Robert E. Spiller, Introduction
from Collected Poems, copyright 1953 and Selected to Cooper: Representative Selections, copyright
Poems, copyright © 1961, by permission of Oxford 1936, by permission of the American Book Company
University Press
"James Gould Cozzens"
"John Barth" from James Gould Cozzens, Men and Brethren, Ask
from John Barth's unpublished lecture "Mystery and Me Tomorrow, The Just and the Unjust, Guard of

IV
Honor, and By Love Possessed, by permission of mission of Little, Brown and Co. No. 305 copyright
Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc. and Longman 1914, 1942 Martha Dickinson Bianchi; nos. 341 and
Group Limited 642 copyright 1929, © 1957 Mary L. Hampson
from James Gould Cozzens, 5. S. San Pedro, Cast- "Richard Eberhart"
away, and The Last Adam, by permission of Mrs. from Richard Eberhart, Collected Poems 1930-1960,
James Gould Cozzens copyright © 1960, by permission of Oxford Univer-
kt
Hart Crane" sity Press and Chatto and Windus Ltd.
from The Collected Poems and Selected Letters and from The Quarry, copyright © 1964, by permission
Prose of Hart Crane, copyright © 1933, 1958, 1966 of Oxford University Press and Chatto and Windus
Liveright Publishing Corporation, by permission of Ltd.
Liveright Publishers from The Visionary Farms, in Collected Verse
Plays, copyright © 1962, by permission of the Uni-
"E. E. Cummings" versity of North Carolina Press
"nonsun blob a," copyright 1944 E. E. Cummings;
from A Bravery of Earth, copyright 1930, by per-
copyright 1972 Nancy Andrews. Reprinted from
mission of Mr. Eberhart
E. E. Cummings, Poems 1923-1954, by permission
of Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc. and MacGibbon "Jonathan Edwards"
& Kee, Granada Publishing Limited from Robert Lowell, "Jonathan Edwards in Western
"mortals," copyright 1940 E. E. Cummings; copy- Massachusetts," in For the Union Dead, copyright
right 1968 Marion Morehouse Cummings. Reprinted © 1956, 1960, 1961, 1962, 1963, 1964, by permis-
from Poems 1923-1954 by permission of Harcourt sion of Farrar, Straus & Giroux, Inc. and Faber &
Brace Jovanovich, Inc. and MacGibbon & Kee, Faber Ltd.
Granada Publishing Limited
"T. S. Eliot"
"1 (a," from 95 Poems, copyright © 1958 E. E.
The quotations from the following works of T. S.
Cummings. Reprinted by permission of Harcourt
Eliot are reprinted by permission of Harcourt Brace
Brace Jovanovich, Inc. and MacGibbon & Kee,
Jovanovich, Inc.: Collected Poems 1909-1962, copy-
Granada Publishing Limited
right 1936 Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc.; copy-
"Emily Dickinson" right 1943, © 1963, 1964 T. S. Eliot; Murder in the
from poems 305, 341, 642, 838, 1445, 1551, 1714, Cathedral, copyright 1935, Harcourt Brace Jovano-
by permission of the publishers and the Trustees of vich; copyright 1963 T. S. Eliot; The Family Re-
Amherst College from Thomas H. Johnson, Editor, union, copyright 1939 T. S. Eliot; copyright 1964
The Poems of Emily Dickinson, Cambridge, Mass.: Esme Valerie Eliot; The Cocktail Party, copyright
The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1950 T. S. Eliot; The Confidential Clerk, copyright
Copyright 1951, 1955 by the President and Fellows 1954 T. S. Eliot; Selected Essays, copyright 1932
of Harvard College Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc.; copyright 1960
from 305, 341, and 642, Thomas H. Johnson, Editor, T. S. Eliot. Similar permission was granted by Faber
The Complete Poems of Emily Dickinson, by per- and Faber Ltd., publishers of the British editions.

Acknowledgment
The essays which comprise American Writers were originally published as
the University of Minnesota Pamphlets on American Writers. It was the late
William Van O'Connor who conceived of the pamphlet series and who per-
suaded John Ervin, Jr., Director of the University of Minnesota Press, that
it was a good idea. Editors of the pamphlet series during various periods have
been William Van O'Connor, Allen Tate, Robert Penn Warren, Richard
Foster, George T. Wright, and Leonard Unger. Advisory editors have been
Philip Rahv, Karl Shapiro, and Willard Thorp. Jeanne Sinnen has been the
publisher's editor for the entire period during which the pamphlets were
produced.

V
 Introduction

American Writers. A Collection of Literary their bibliographies) up-to-date. (Throughout

Biographies provides information about the this Introduction the authors of the pamphlets
lives, careers and works of American writers. are called authors, and the subjects of the
The essays contained here are appropriate pamphlets are called writers.)
reading for the widest audience, for students in The story of the essays, then, is the story of
high school and graduate school, for teachers the pamphlets. When the pamphlet series was
at all levels, for librarians, for editors and re- first conceived, the purpose was (as defined in
viewers, for American writers themselves, in- a statement to prospective authors) "to provide
cluding scholars and critics, and for the general introductions to the work of significant Amer-
reader. Specialists may in some instances re- ican writers." The projected pamphlets were
gard the essays as being of primary interest (or also described as follows: "These introductory
as being controversial!), and high-school stu- essays are aimed at people (general readers
dents will find them within their reach, if not here and abroad, college students, etc.) who
always entirely within their grasp. are interested in the writers concerned, but not
Such claims for the essays comprising these highly familiar with their work. Each pam-
volumes (and other relevant matters) are ex- phlet contains a brief amount of biographical
plained by the story of how and why the essays material and a selected bibliography of the
came to be written. To give first a quick sum- author's books and of books and articles about
mary of the story, these ninety-seven essays him, but the heart of the pamphlet is a critical
were first published as the University of Min- analysis and evaluation of the writer's work,
nesota Pamphlets on American Writers. The in which the pamphlet author typically uses
series of pamphlets, published over the period comment, comparison, interpretation, and dis-
1959 to 1972, has become widely known and cussion." Still another aspect of policy for the
has been highly and repeatedly praised. Its series was that an author "feels that the writer
reputation contributed to the decision to pub- he is discussing is sufficiently important to de-
lish the series in a set of volumes which would serve a place in the series, even though he
serve as a convenient and interesting reference might have some reservations to express about
work. For this purpose, authors have been in- certain aspects of the writer's work." As it
vited to review their pamphlets and (wherever turns out, the pamphlets on American writers
appropriate) to revise and bring them (and are aimed by no means exclusively "at people

vn
 viii / INTRODUCTION
. . . not highly familiar with their work," al- count of the subject's career as a writer. In
though that group of people is well served by addition to information about a poem, a story,
the essays—better served, indeed, than it would a novel, and so on, there are appreciations of
be by catalogues of hard facts and by sum- such individual works and also appreciations
maries and digests of what had already been of a writer's overall achievement throughout
said about the writers. The hard facts are al- his career, or of the degree and kind of achieve-
ways provided, but the "heart of the pamphlet" ment in the case of writers still living and writ-
is typically a critical performance where the ing. By appreciation is meant, of course, not
author interprets as well as introduces, and unqualified praise, but analysis, interpretation
evaluates as well as interprets, sometimes do- and evaluation, which does not exclude indi-
ing these things separately, and sometimes cating limitations—even aspects of fault and
doing them simultaneously and inseparably. failure at points in a career or as elements in
At this point it is useful to speak more a larger pattern of achievement.
personally. As an editor of the Minnesota One clear effect of the pamphlet series hav-
pamphlet series, I have read all the essays at ing been adopted as a reference set is the em-
least once. I wrote the essay on T. S. Eliot, phasis which this brings to the essays as
one of the earliest in the series, so I have had sources of information and also as critical
the experience of composing an introduction performances. The ninety-seven essays are,
fitting the spatial limits of a pamphlet and thus, not only a dictionary, but also an an-
otherwise appropriate to the series. On first thology of critical performances. This means
confronting this task, I had the benefit of that the essays may be interesting and useful
extensive reading in the large body of com- as examples of criticism—and as varieties of
ment that had been written on Eliot's work, criticism—since it is in the nature of an an-
and also of my own previous writing on that thology to provide variety. The variety exists,
subject. Certainly, this preparation served me of course, within a uniformity: the general pur-
at all stages of my work on the introductory pose of the essays, as stated earlier, and the
essay, and to some extent the essay was some- more-or-less standard length. I will not attempt
thing put together out of elements that were a detailed account of the variety, certainly not
already in my possession—but only to some a formal (or forced) classification, but it may
extent. One of my purposes was to provide the be interesting to consider some of the aspects
reader with an overview of Eliot's work that of variety. Most obvious is the fact that Amer-
was based on consideration of selected parts ican writers are themselves a variety, yet there
of that work, and in pursuing that purpose I are categories which constitute meaningful
was arriving at an overview, a perspective on similarities and differences. At this point I will
the development and continuity of Eliot's writ- emphasize these categories with respect to the
ing which I had not previously experienced. subjects of the essays. Henry Wadsworth Long-
The introduction, then, may be something fellow and Emily Dickinson are both New
truly experienced by the author rather than England poets of the nineteenth century, one
something merely assembled as a utility for a man and the other a woman, among other
the reader. differences. Marianne Moore and Robert Frost
This aspect of the essays as overviews is are poets of the first half of the twentieth cen-
accurately described by the subtitle Literary tury, one experimental and innovative, the
Biographies, for each essay is primarily an ac- other traditional. Whatever the differences,
 INTRODUCTION / ix

these are four poets, and the essays about writer's work themes and symbols which derive
them may be compared as critical discussions from the writer's unconscious, which are deeply
of poets and poems—as poetry criticism, just personal, obsessive, compulsive. Essays of this
as other essays serve as examples of fiction kind are Leon Edel's on Henry David Thoreau,
criticism, drama criticism, and criticism of Roger Asselineau's on Edgar Allan Poe, Philip
critics, as in the essays on Van Wyck Brooks Young's on Ernest Hemingway, and Stanley
and Edmund Wilson. Edgar Hyman's on Nathanael West. These
Such aspects of variety, of similarities and essays differ among themselves in the use made
differences, are readily evident from the cir- of psychoanalytic ideas and techniques, and
cumstances (including the work) of the writers none of them is reductive and mechanical—
themselves. Thomas Wolfe and Richard Wright the familiar, sometimes valid, criticism made
provide one more example of this kind. They of psychoanalytic interpretations of literature.
were close contemporaries, born at the start of If psychoanalytic interpretation is subject to
the twentieth century, both of them natives of controversy, the fact is that all criticism (and
the South, both writers of stories and novels much literature) is a kind of controversy, and
which were markedly autobiographical, but one there has always been some contention about
was white and the other was black. Another Thoreau, Poe, Hemingway and West.
kind of variety among the essays arises from Not all critical analysis concerned with
differences not only among writers but among themes and symbols in a writer's work is neces-
the authors of the essays and their several ap- sarily psychoanalytic or even biographical. My
proaches and methods in discussing the writers own essay on T. S. Eliot is frequently con-
and their work. In this collection there are cerned with themes and symbols, noting how
varying degrees of emphasis on the literary these relate to Eliot's career as a writer and to
and on the biographical and on the relation the continuity of his work, but the emphasis
between the two. A number of the essays are of the essay is not biographical. Sherman Paul,
examples in more or less measure of what we calling Josephine Miles's essay "an original con-
call biographical criticism, relating a writer's tribution to Emerson scholarship," says that
work to his personal history, or relating it to she "demonstrates, by inspecting vocabulary,
fixed and obsessive components of a writer's syntax, tone, theme, and form, the profound
personality, or doing both of these in some unity of Emerson's thought." The essay not
measure. C. Hugh Holman's essay on Thomas infrequently brings Emerson the person into
Wolfe and Robert Bone's essay on Richard view, but the main focus of the essay is on one
Wright are in large part biographical criticism, and another example of Emerson's writing,
as we might expect. So is Charles Shain's essay and finally on pattern and interrelation-
on F. Scott Fitzgerald. In each case the author ship within the body of the writing. Denis
is concerned with particulars by which the Donoghue takes account of Emily Dickinson's
writer failed or succeeded in transforming per- personal history and temperament, but in his
sonal material into the forms and effects of essay such information is finally assimilated
literary art. Indeed, many of the essays partake into considerations of language, imagination,
of biographical criticism in varying degrees sensibility. The information is assimilated into
and in varying ways. A number of the essays a reader's (Donoghue's) experience of the
provide examples (at least in part) of psycho- poems and his abiding awareness of the writer's
analytic criticism, where the author finds in a achievement. It is such abiding awareness of
 x / INTRODUCTION
writers and their work which the essays as have made a difference. In some instances the
overviews aim to provide. pamphlets were written by authors who did
It has already been noted that American volunteer. In a few cases, especially of writers
Writers is an anthology of critical essays, but still living and even in full career, pamphlets
it is like an anthology also with respect to the were commissioned but the essays were never
American writers included, and with respect produced during the course of the series. Such
to the questions which must arise on that sub- omissions are regrettable but probably inevi-
ject. Such questions relate finally to the pam- table where such large numbers of authors and
phlet series, and they would be questions as to writers are involved.
why some writers were omitted. To such ques- If this collection is an anthology of critical
tions there would be a variety of answers. An essays on American writers, it is also an an-
answer that comes most readily is that any an- thology of critics. Each author is a kind of
thology, any selection, extends at some points specialist in the subject by virtue of having
into the realm of the arbitrary. Another an- written the essay, but some authors were al-
swer might be that no American writer was ready well known as scholars and critics with
deliberately omitted from the pamphlet series. special qualifications for a particular American
During most of the period when the pamphlets writer. A few examples are Leon Edel on
were being published, it was the view of the Henry James, Lawrance Thompson on Robert
editors of the series that there should be pam- Frost, Mark Schorer on Sinclair Lewis, and
phlets on all major American writers, and that Philip Young on Ernest Hemingway. Besides
pamphlets on minor writers would be produced being distinguished for their work on particular
sooner or later, so that when the series was writers, these authors are of course known for
terminated (a decision based on practical and a wide authority in the world of literature.
extraliterary circumstances), there were inevi- Such wide authority belongs to most of the
tably writers who had not been included. In authors. Because they are too many to name
some instances the omissions represent the here, I will give examples by way of paying
critical priorities of the editors, and also the tribute to those who are now dead: Richard
critical priorities of the times. Such writers Chase, F. Cudworth Flint, John Gassner,
as William Cullen Bryant, Oliver Wendell Frederick J. Hoffman, Stanley Edgar Hyman,
Holmes, James Russell Lowell, John Green- William Van O'Connor, Margaret Farrand
leaf Whittier suffered from having been over- Thorp and Dorothy Van Ghent. For a few au-
rated once. Their priority was relatively low thors the pamphlets were at the time debuts
with the editors and the times, so they were in such publication, or performances at rela-
delayed and finally omitted. But Henry Wads- tively early stages of their careers. A list of
worth Longfellow is included, thus still bene- contributors gives a brief biographical note
fitting from the popular and critical esteem he about each author.
once received. Harriet Beecher Stowe and Up- Although there was no deliberate and de-
ton Sinclair have an historical importance, but tailed plan for the pamphlet series, the ninety-
not a comparable literary merit, so they were seven writers on whom essays were written are
passed by. If Edmund Wilson or Kenneth representative in ways that might be expected.
Burke or Norman Mailer or John Updike had About three-fourths of them are writers of the
volunteered to write a pamphlet on one of twentieth century, meaning writers whose
these writers, or some other, then that would careers began in or extended well into the
 INTRODUCTION / xi

twentieth century, as well as those who were with the short story. Compared to the novel,
born in the century. This ratio hardly needs the short story has a more demanding economy
explaining, or even comment. It is easily in and a greater (if also simpler) unity of form
accord with the increase of the American pop- and of effect. For some American writers the
ulation and with other obvious factors. Well short story has been the essential form of
over half of all the writers are primarily writers achievement and reputation. It is their short
of prose fiction, and these are mainly novelists. stories which give Sherwood Anderson, Ring
It is a well-known fact that the novel has been Lardner and Katherine Anne Porter secure
the characteristic and prevailing literary form places in American literature. Other writers
of the modern world. Why this is so remains an with formidable achievement in the short story
engaging question, although a number of rea- have also been eminent novelists, from Henry
sons are obvious enough. Everyone likes a James to Hemingway, Faulkner and Fitz-
good story, everyone has an appetite for gerald, from Robert Penn Warren to Flannery
vicarious experience, everyone is curious about O'Connor and John Updike.
times and places beyond his own. With the If most of the essays are predictably on
steady expansion of literacy and the printed writers of prose fiction, many other essays are
word, the novel has satisfied these interests predictably on writers who are primarily poets.
more widely and more abundantly than ever Although the novel has been the dominant
had the stage or the narrative poem (but for literary form, certain features of American lit-
some decades not more than movies and tele- erature have been more conspicuous in its
vision). It so happens that America and the poetry. Writers' reputations and popularity are
novel are about the same age, their history inevitably subject to cycles of rise and fall,
going back only two or three centuries, de- and such changes have occurred most strik-
pending on what is meant by one and the other. ingly among the poets. This is probably related
Certainly American novels—The Scarlet Let- to the fact that there has been a relative de-
ter, Moby Dick, The Adventures of Huckle- crease in the reading audience of poetry, while
berry Finn—are among the classics in that the number of readers of prose fiction mounted
form, and in the twentieth century American steadily in the nineteenth and twentieth cen-
novelists (for example, Hemingway and Faulk- turies. But while there was a decline in the
ner) have had international reputations of the popularity of poetry, a sustained and analytical
broadest range and of the highest order. But critical awareness of poetry developed. Along
this consideration is part of a larger subject: with the reaction in the twentieth century
the fact that American literature is acknowl- against tastes and values of the nineteenth
edged to be one of the major national litera- century, an increased critical awareness was
tures of the modern world. at least in part responsible for the fading of
As for the short story, it is even more recent reputations like those of Longfellow, Holmes,
than the novel, especially if it is allowed that Bryant and James Russell Lowell. An example
it was invented (as the detective story was in- of re-evaluation and rediscovery is the ad-
deed invented) by Edgar Allan Poe. In any miring attention which Robert Penn Warren
event, American writers have a large share in has given to the poetry of Whittier and Mel-
the history of the short story. The history of ville. No critical proposition remains uncon-
the novel involved publication in periodicals, tested, yet it has been a critical commonplace
and this is even more emphatically the case for some time that the greatest American
 c/i / INTRODUCTION
poets of the nineteenth century are Emily like Europe. This debate, which is reflected by
Dickinson and Walt Whitman. all kinds of American writing, seems inevitable.
There is clearly a relationship between this In this respect American society resembles
high evaluation of Emily Dickinson and Walt Russian society, for Russia, too, at the other
Whitman and the fact that they prefigure the geographical extreme, has had its continuing
modernism of twentieth-century American lit- debate with itself as to how much or how little
erature, especially poetry. Despite conspicuous it participates, or should participate in West-
differences between these two writers, they ern civilization, meaning Europe.
share some of the features which characterize In the United States, in the early decades of
more recent American poets as modernist. For the nineteenth century, Ralph Waldo Emerson
some early readers their poetry seemed to fall entered forcefully upon this debate. The de-
short of being literature because it is free of the fense and celebration of America—especially
familiar and well-worn literary conventions. in its difference from Europe—is a central
Traditional verse form is almost wholly absent theme in much of his work. In a fragment of
from Whitman and is only minimally present poetry he speaks of his country as
in Dickinson. They produced a quality of con-
Land without history, land lying all
temporaneity, of the modern, by giving expres-
In the plain daylight of the temperate zone,. . .
sion to a consciousness of their own time and
Land where—and 'tis in Europe counted a
place. Each in his (and her) own way is an
reproach—
emphatic example of the American writer ex-
Where man asks questions for which man was
ploring the profound and complex question of
made.
identity, and this has meant both personal and
A land without nobility, or wigs, or debt,
national identity. Because American writers
No castles, no cathedrals, and no kings;
were faced with the question of national identi-
Land of the forest.
ty, the question of identity itself (of personal
identity) was accentuated and intensified. Although today there is a huge debt, a pretty
"There is a new voice in the old American big wig industry, and a much smaller forest,
classics." "Somewhere deep in every American the spirit of this statement has lived on for some
heart lies a rebellion against the old parent- Americans and in some American writers.
hood of Europe." These statements are made Throughout his essays and addresses Emerson
in the opening pages of D. H. Lawrence's celebrates this "plain daylight" of his own
Studies in Classic American Literature (1923). country. He finds virtue and value in the near-
Lawrence claimed that American writers of at-hand, the contemporary and the common-
the nineteenth century were the first full- place, as against the remote, the ancient and
fledged modernists. At any rate, if American the exotic. And he does not hesitate to criticize
writers spoke with a "new voice," it is because and to scold Americans when they do not
they themselves were new, and that was a fact share this view, which is really a defense of
which operated in their concerns with personal America along the lines where it was open to
and national identity. Since the beginning of criticism. In his address called "The American
its history, American society has compared it- Scholar" he deplores greed, materialism and
self with Europe and criticized itself on both smugness in American life, and he insists that
sides of the question: as being, or trying to be, these defects follow from too great a depen-
too much like Europe; or as being not enough dence on Europe and the conventions of the
 INTRODUCTION / xiii

past. Toward the end of this address—which Twain was cool. Compared to Twain's master-
Oliver Wendell Holmes called "our intellectual ful use of the American language as a medium
Declaration of Independence"—Emerson said: of literature, Whitman seems like something
"We have listened too long to the courtly muses imported, or translated from a foreign tongue.
of Europe." Whatever their differences, the two writers do
Emerson said this, and Walt Whitman be- stand together in opposing what they regarded
lieved it. Emerson had called for a genuine as the worn-out and irrelevant traditions of an
American poet, and Whitman offered himself. old world. But what is even more interesting is
"I was simmering, simmering, simmering," he their common opposition to the code of polite
said, "Emerson brought me to a boil." In his society, to the genteel tradition, to the stan-
Preface to Leaves of Grass he said, "The direct dards of respectability. In Song of Myself
trial of him who would be the greatest poet is Whitman said that he admires the animals be-
today." Following Emerson's advice, he cele- cause they are not respectable. In Huckleberry
brated the modern and the commonplace, Finn an underprivileged boy and a Negro
and in doing this he celebrated, and hence slave, by their honesty and compassion, put
idealized, America and American society. But to shame the shams and cruelties of civilized
if Whitman was idealistic and romantic, he society. But we know now that Mark Twain
was also critical. Years after having celebrated never attacked the claims of respectability in
and sung himself and the American scene in his published writing so clearly and so sharply
unconventional verse, he turned to prose to as he did in his private notebooks. And recent
make serious criticism of business, politics and critics tell us that this represents not only a
other aspects of American life as he found it practical concession to society, but a conflict
during the unlovely years immediately follow- and a compromise within Twain himself.
ing the Civil War. Like Emerson before him, There is a continuity from Emerson's rejec-
he scolded Americans for their own shortcom- tion of the "courtly muses of Europe" to Mark
ings, and at the same time, for looking to Twain's mockery of middle-class respectability.
Europe and to the past, as in this statement There is a fairly complex pattern of common
from Democratic Vistas: "America has yet elements involved, such as, the hostility to
morally and artistically originated nothing. established institutions, the pursuit of the genu-
She seems singularly unaware that the models ine and the honest, and the extension of the
of persons, books, manners, etc., appropriate democratic principle beyond the frontiers of
for former conditions and for European lands, respectability.
are but exiles and exotics here." Nathaniel Hawthorne saw the American
In spite of all his emphasis on an inde- writer's trial in a different light from Whitman
pendent Americanism, Walt Whitman seemed and Twain. In his preface to his novel The
like an exile and an exotic to many of his own Marble Faun he spoke of the peculiar diffi-
countrymen. Not so Mark Twain. He was too culties for the American who would write a
fully American himself to feel the need of lec- novel: "No author, without a trial, can con-
turing others on how American they should ceive of the difficulty of writing a romance
be. He directed his satire against Europe, about a country where there is no shadow, no
against Europeanizing Americans, and also antiquity, no mystery, no picturesque and
against provincial and all too genuine Amer- gloomy wrong, nor anything but a common-
icans. If Whitman simmered and boiled, Mark place prosperity, in broad and simple daylight,
 xiv / INTRODUCTION
as is happily the case with my dear native A large juvenility is stamped upon the face of
land." This is not a serious complaint about things, . . . " But this is not even society.
American society. In fact, Hawthorne pictures When it came to speaking in detail about
it here as young and healthy and happy as American society, the details were negative—
compared to Europe with its shadow and mys- they made a picture of all the things that
tery and gloomy wrong. But Hawthorne does America was not. "One might enumerate,"
complain that America provides a very thin said James, "the items of high civilization, as
material for the American who would write it exists in other countries, which are absent
novels, and perhaps he is tempering his com- from the texture of American life, until it
plaint with expressions of apology and affec- should become a wonder to know what was
tion. But this passage from the preface to The left." I continue quoting. "No State, in the
Marble Faun is the best—or the worst—that European sense of the word, and indeed barely
Henry James can find to quote in his life of a specific national name. No sovereign, no
Hawthorne (1879), when it is his own purpose court, no personal loyalty, no aristocracy, no
to complain at length of the disadvantages church, no clergy, no army, no diplomatic
suffered by the American who would write service, no country gentlemen, no palaces, no
novels. Henry James's complaint is obviously castles, nor manors, nor old country-houses,
more a subjective and heart-felt complaint nor parsonages, nor thatched cottages, nor
than an objective account of Hawthorne. ivied ruins; no cathedrals, nor abbeys, nor lit-
His criticism of America and of American tle Norman churches; no great Universities nor
society is made from the point of view of the public schools—no Oxford, nor Eton, nor
novelist who needs a rich world of material, Harrow; no literature, no novels, no museums,
but in spelling out that point at considerable no pictures, no political society, no sporting
length, James reveals that his deepest sensi- class. . . . " Then James raises the question of
bilities, as well as his professional needs, were what remains, if all this is left out, and he ob-
involved. We hardly dare say this about Henry serves: "the American knows that a good deal
James without remembering that for such a remains; what it is that remains—that is his
dedicated artist there can be no separation secret, his joke, as one might say. It would be
of professional needs from deepest sensibili- cruel, in this terrible denudation, to deny him
ties. Hawthorne's America, in James's words, the consolation of his natural gift, that 'Amer-
was a "crude and simple society." He saw ican humour' of which of late years we have
his own America as not much different. "His- heard so much." Surely Henry James was hav-
tory, as yet," he said in Hawthorne, "has ing his own joke here, and a pretty cruel joke,
left in the United States but so thin and im- at that.
palpable a deposit that we very soon touch the If this negative account is somewhat unfair
hard substratum of nature, and nature herself, to Hawthorne's America and to his own Amer-
in the Western World, has the peculiarity of ica, it is still farther from the fact of what
seeming rather crude and immature. The very America has become in the twentieth century.
air looks new and young; the light of the sun But in spite of this, we can say of James what
seems fresh and innocent, as if it knew as yet we said of Emerson—that the spirit of his
but few of the secrets of the world and none of statement lives on, even though certain facts
the weariness of shining; the vegetation has the have changed. "A large juvenility" has con-
appearance of not having reached its majority. tinued to be found not so much in the atmo-
 INTRODUCTION / xv

sphere and landscape as among Americans seen from within, but seen also with critical
themselves. As for James's own fiction, there penetration, with a consciousness that is delib-
is in it very little of the texture of American erately and intensely self-consciousness. Both
life or the texture of any other kind of life. I writers, in their ultimate meanings, show a lib-
mean that he was not much interested in the eration from the genteel standard of decorum,
density and detail of the external world. It is while the style and manner which have
well known that to the end of his brilliant familiarly attended the decorum not only re-
career he was interested in the encounter of main, but have become more complicated and
sensibilities, and especially in the encounter intense." I suppose that's another way of say-
between Americans and Europeans. By now it ing that they criticized middle-class respect-
is a familiar observation that James's Amer- ability from the point of view of the eminently
icans, as compared to his Europeans, are sim- civilized European. This is certainly what
ple, naive, immature, and so on—but they are Eliot was doing in a very early poem called
also innocent, wholesome, generous, uncor- "Mr. Apollinax," from which I quote the
rupted. Although American society was too opening and closing lines:
thin a material for this novelist, he was still
writing about Americans in the great novels When Mr. Apollinax visited the United States
which close his career. James was preoccupied His laughter tinkled among the teacups.
with the mixture of the good and the bad in the
genteel tradition, in middle-class respectability, I heard the beat of centaur's hoofs over the
and Americans seemed to represent this aspect hard turf
of middle-class respectability most clearly. As his dry and passionate talk devoured the
James was certainly no enemy of respectability, afternoon.
but he was its astute and gentle critic. Let me "He is a charming man"—"But after all what
hasten at this point to connect a couple of did he mean?"—
strands of thought. While Walt Whitman and "His pointed ears... He must be unbalanced,"—
Mark Twain looked critically at American "There was something he said that I might
middle-class respectability from the point of have challenged."
view of the animal, a Negro slave, an under- Of dowager Mrs. Phlaccus, and Professor and
privileged boy, Henry James looked at it crit- Mrs. Cheetah
ically from the point of view of the eminently I remember a slice of lemon, and a bitten
civilized European. macaroon.
Henry James brings us back to the twentieth
century. He died in 1916. This was one year The fragments of conversation are the com-
before T. S. Eliot published his first small ments on Mr. Apollinax made by Mrs. Phlac-
book of poems. There is, of course, a large cus, Professor and Mrs. Cheetah, and perhaps
area of similarity between the poet and the other Americans. They recognize that he is a
novelist, these two Americans who chose to charming man, but they also know that he has
spend most of their lives in England and who unsettled and threatened their sense of respect-
chose to become Englishmen. In my essay on ability. The poet associates Mr. Apollinax
Eliot I call attention to a facet of similarity with centaurs, those splendid creatures of
between these two writers: "Eliot, like James, Greek mythology, horse from the neck down
presents a world of genteel society, as it is and then, so curiously, human from the waist
 xvi / INTRODUCTION

up. The slice of lemon and the bitten mac- do claim to be respectable. London is a little
aroon, which the poet associates with the too gay for them. They don't mean anything
Americans, are transparent enough as symbols coarse, but they're afraid they couldn't stand
of superficiality, of appetites meagre and the pace. They embody the deterioration and
atrophied, of the posture of respectability. vulgarization of respectability. If Professor and
It is perfectly clear that the Americans who Mrs. Cheetah are solemnly genteel, these busi-
have been having tea with Mr. Apollinax are nessmen are cheerfully vulgar. It is significant
utterly refined and cultivated, genteel beyond that Eliot chose to make these vulgarians
all question, the most solid members of the American. It is also significant that American
politest society. Eliot wrote about another kind middle-class respectability can be represented
of American in Sweeney Agonistes, the ex- by these opposing extremes.
periment in dramatic verse dialogue first pub- We have associated Mr. Apollinax and his
lished in 1926. Here the Americans are American friends with the world and the point
businessmen visiting in London. The scene is of view of Henry James. The American busi-
the apartment of some young ladies, to whom nessmen of T. S. Eliot's Sweeney Agonistes
they have just been introduced. When they re- may be associated with a more recent Amer-
ply in the affirmative to the question, whether ican novelist. I refer to Sinclair Lewis. The
they like London, they are then asked why special American accent and the cheerful vul-
they don't come and live in London, and they garity of these businessmen were already
answer as follows: familiar voices and types in American lit-
erature by the time Eliot was writing his
Well, no, Miss—er—you haven't quite got it satirical verses, and they had been made
(I'm afraid I didn't quite catch your name— familiar by the tremendously successful novels
But I'm very pleased to meet you all the same)— of Sinclair Lewis. Lewis has a special relevance
London's a little too gay for us to the subject of the American writer as a
Yes I'll say a little too gay. critic of American society. For this is what
Lewis was, above all else. Since his period of
Yes London's a little too gay for us
success and popularity—the twenties and early
Don't think I mean anything coarse— thirties—he has had no reputation as a literary
But I'm afraid we couldn't stand the pace.
artist or as a teller of interesting stories. He has
London's a slick place, London's a swell place, historical importance because he wrote novels
London's a fine place to come on a visit— which were effective and provocative criticisms
of American society. It was his vivid portrayal
These American businessmen are noticeably of smugness, shallowness, vulgarity, material-
different from the Americans who have tea ism, and so on, in the American middle class
with Mr. Apollinax. In presenting these two which made him for awhile the leading Amer-
kinds of Americans, Eliot has treated the sub- ican novelist, and which brought him in 1930
ject of middle-class respectability by showing the first Nobel Prize awarded to an American
both sides of the coin. The tea-party Amer- writer.
icans are so genuinely and utterly respectable Main Street (1920) and Babbitt (1922),
that they are sterile, lifeless and vapid. The Lewis's first successes and the novels where he
businessmen are not lifeless—but neither do discovered his skill as a satirist, portray the
they evoke the beat of centaurs' hoofs. They cultural bleakness and deadening provinciality
 INTRODUCTION / xvii

of life in the American Middle West. Lewis culties, and these difficulties make up the
was not primarily concerned with contrasting familiar formula of Europe versus America.
America and Europe, but the contrast with The wife, aspiring to culture and sophistica-
Europe is certainly present in his criticism of tion, criticizes America and all that is Amer-
America. We can see something of this in a ican in her husband, by applying what she
speech delivered by George F. Babbitt to a regards as superior European standards. The
meeting of the Zenith Real Estate Board. husband does not wholly escape Lewis's satire,
"Some time I hope folks will quit handing all but it is the wife who receives most of it. In the
the credit to a lot of moth-eaten, mildewed, end Sam Dodsworth divorces this wife and
out-of-date, old, European dumps, and give marries another American woman who is bet-
proper credit to the famous Zenith spirit, that ter able to appreciate the virtues of his Amer-
clean fighting determination to win Success ican middle-class character. Mark Schorer,
that has made the little old Zip City celebrated author of the extensive, detailed and penetrat-
in every land and clime, wherever condensed ing biography of Sinclair Lewis, has said of
milk and paste-board cartons are known! Be- this novel, "what Sinclair Lewis himself be-
lieve me, the world has fallen too long for lieved in, at the bottom of his blistered heart,
these worn-out countries that aren't producing was at last clear: a downright self-reliance, a
anything but bootblacks and scenery and straightforward honesty, a decent modesty,
booze, that haven't got one bathroom per hun- corn on the cob and apple pie." But the larger
dred people, and that don't know a loose-leaf context of Schorer's study of Lewis and his
ledger from a slip cover; and it's just about work shows that Lewis's position was not really
time for some Zenithite to get his back up and as clear and simple as apple pie. His attitude
holler for a show-down!" But if this is the was ambiguous and unresolved. In his attacks
voice of a man who is vulgar, immodest and on the American middle class there is an ele-
shallow, it is also the voice of a man who is ment of sympathy, and in his affirmation of it
acutely aware of the criticism that has been there is an element of criticism. Like other
levelled against the society with which he iden- American writers before him, he had mixed
tifies himself. The aggressiveness does reveal feelings and mixed attitudes toward American
a sense of inferiority. There was an admission culture and American society. And like Amer-
here that the world regarded Europe as ican writers who were to come after him, he
superior to America. exposed and berated what he found dishonest,
Lewis was as deeply immersed in the world hypocritical, pretentious, smug and phoney.
of America, both as man and writer, as Mark The subject of American literature as a
Twain had ever been. Some of his earliest inter- criticism of American society could be pur-
preters had detected a sympathy with the mid- sued through a dozen more writers, and even
dle class and the Middle West even in Lewis's several dozen, including writers of fiction,
harshest satirization. This was confirmed by his poetry and plays. I think it is safe to predict
novel Dodsworth, which came in 1929. And that we would find in other writers—even the
his subject was by now a familiar one in most recent ones—the same essential patterns
American fiction—the American in Europe. (and of course, there would also be patterns
The Americans here are a successful American that I have not considered). By now it is a
businessman and his wife, Mr. and Mrs. Sam commonplace observation that Holden Caul-
Dodsworth. They are having marital diffi- field, the "hero" of J. D. Salinger's Catcher
 xviii / INTRODUCTION
in the Rye, is a modernized and urbanized but similar forms, such as the professional
Huckleberry Finn, an unconventional boy who athlete, the prizefighter, the bullfighter, the
will not accommodate himself to the conven- professional hunter or fisherman. This char-
tions of society. The best-known character of acter has been called the "code hero," and
the modern American stage, Willie Loman of Young has found a relationship between the
Arthur Miller's Death of a Salesman, is a man code hero and the wounded hero. I will quote
whose life becomes a nightmare of frustration some of his remarks on the subject. "Now it is
because he has so blindly accepted the Amer- . . . clear that something was needed to bind
ican dream of success. these wounds, and there is in Hemingway a
Although his image seems to have receded consistent character who performs that func-
into the landscape of the past, it is still a fact tion. The figure is not Hemingway himself in
that Ernest Hemingway has been the most disguise (which to some hard-to-measure ex-
famous and most influential American writer tent the Hemingway hero was). Indeed he is
of the twentieth century. We don't readily to be sharply distinguished from the hero, for
think of Hemingway as being a critic of Amer- he comes to balance the hero's deficiencies. . . .
ican society, but we do think of him as being We generally . . . call this man the 'code hero'
decidedly American. Although he spent so —this because he represents a code according
much of his life outside the United States, he to which the hero, if he could attain it, would
never lost his American personality or his be able to live properly in the world of vio-
American point of view. Much of his writing lence, disorder, and misery to which he has
—in fact, most of his writing—is about actions been introduced and which he inhabits. The
which take place outside the United States, but code hero, then, offers up and exemplifies cer-
with few exceptions, the central characters in tain principles of honor, courage, and endur-
these actions are Americans. For this reason ance which in a life of tension and pain make
Hemingway belongs to that tradition of Amer- a man a man, as we say, and enable him to
ican writing which tells of the American conduct himself well in the losing battle that is
abroad, and especially of the American in life. He shows, in the author's famous phrase
Europe. He belongs to the tradition which for it, 'grace under pressure.' " This is a valu-
compares America with Europe or some other able explanation, I think—and I would add
part of the world, and that is a kind of only one point.
criticism. When Philip Young speaks of what it is that
Besides being the American abroad, Hem- makes "a man a man" he is, properly enough,
ingway's central character, the Hemingway speaking in Hemingway's own terms. There is
hero, is typically a man who has been a sense in which the prizefighter or the bull-
wounded, either physically or psychologically fighter or the hunter is a man's man—a full-
or both. In being wounded, the hero is a grown man, as we say. But there is also a sense
symbol of Hemingway himself, and also of in which this full-grown man is not a man's
man's plight in the modern world, and per- man at all, but a boy's man—the man as seen
haps in any world. This subject of the wounded from an immature point of view. This idea
Hemingway hero has been discussed in great brings us to a familiar criticism which has
detail by Philip Young. Other critics had al- been made of the American character, that it is
ready discovered in Hemingway's fiction an- immature. From this I will jump to the propo-
other kind of character who appears in various sition that Hemingway exemplifies this aspect
 INTRODUCTION / xix

of the American character, its immaturity. the world of black experience. Saul Bellow
Hemingway the writer and his wounded hero and other Jewish writers have portrayed the
had put away childish things, but in their pre- varieties of Jewish identity and circumstances.
occupation with and admiration for the These are only the more familiar illustrations
heroics of the code hero, they had picked them of the steadily increasing diversity of American
up again. Life is not a game or a sport, after writing. The fact is not only that American
all. It is not that simple. For all his splendid literature is a major national literature but
achievement as a stylist and a narrator, it is a that it involves international and extra-national
very limited view of life which he presents. developments. Henry James and T. S. Eliot
The immaturity for which America has so became British citizens and are claimed as Brit-
often been criticized seems to have entered ish writers. Vladimir Nabokov, because of his
deeply and seriously into one of its finest personal history, stands outside of all national
writers. This may be put another way. Hem- boundaries, yet it may be said that he devel-
ingway is one kind of typically American oped from being a Russian writer into being
writer in the respect that he has dramatized an American writer. Few novels catch the
over and over again a nostalgia for the sim- flavor of certain parts of the American scene
ple, the youthful, the past. But the nostalgia so genuinely as the once sensational Lolita.
itself is not simple—and it may not even be The same can be said of the more recent fiction
peculiarly American. (long and short) by Isaac Bashevis Singer.
Nor is the America-Europe dualism, or dis- Composing in Yiddish, collaborating with his
pute, so simple either, although it provides a translators, he defies national identity, and is
useful perspective on the course of American read more widely in English translation than in
literature. It is even useful to acknowledge the original.
that the perspective has been altered by the Diversity is a good subject for bringing an
course of history, history at large, but also lit- Introduction to its end. This anthology in-
erary history. America has moved from being cludes a body of writers whose diversity is
on the frontiers of Western culture to being almost inexhaustible. This diversity may other-
itself a center of world culture. The conditions wise be considered as range and variety, and
of American life were never as plain, as simple, such consideration calls attention to the versa-
as commonplace, as Emerson and Hawthorne tility of individual writers. It calls attention as
and Henry James believed. Now we are aware well to the continuity of literature, a continuity
of this discrepancy. America was always more that is especially well illustrated by American
than could be recognized from any single per- literature throughout its history. Emerson and
spective. And certainly in the twentieth cen- Thoreau, classics of our prose and of our in-
tury America has become aware of its great tellectual history, are also poets. Poe is poet,
diversity and complexity. It is this sharpening fiction writer, critic and editor, and so are
awareness which has given an enlarged status Allen Tate and Robert Penn Warren. Wash-
to Walt Whitman's inclusive vision. William ington Irving, Walt Whitman, Stephen Crane,
Faulkner and other Southern writers have ex- Theodore Dreiser and Ernest Hemingway are
plored and dramatized the special problems some of the writers whose earliest writing was
and experiences of Southern identity. Richard as reporters and commentators for newspapers.
Wright and other black writers have created Travel literature, reportage, autobiography
literature out of their personal knowledge of have flourished from Franklin and Irving to
 xx / INTRODUCTION
Twain and James to Norman Mailer and Mary lyzed, evaluated, introduced and recalled by the
McCarthy. Such observations only begin to essays of this collection. Whatever differences
indicate diversity, range, variety and conti- there may be from essay to essay, the common
nuity. Behind these generalizations lie the par- assumption is that the literature has been read
ticular works of American writers, the plays, and will be read, and that the experiences of
essays, poems, novels, stories which are ana- writing and of reading are experiences of living.

—LEONARD VNGER
 List of Subjects

VOLUME ONE RICHARD EBERHART 521

HENRY ADAMS 1 JONATHAN EDWARDS 544
JAMES AGEE 25 T. S. ELIOT 567
CONRAD AIKEN 48
EDWARD ALBEE 71 VOLUME TWO

SHERWOOD ANDERSON 97 RALPH WALDO EMERSON 1

JOHN BARTH 121 JAMES T. FARRELL ;>5
SAUL BELLOW 144 WILLIAM FAULKNER 54
JOHN BERRY MAN 167 F. SCOTT FITZGERALD 77
AMBROSE BIERCE 190 BENJAMIN FRANKLIN 101
RANDOLPH BOURNE 214 HAROLD FREDERIC 126
VAN WYCK BROOKS 239 ROBERT FROST 150
KENNETH BURKE 264 ELLEN GLASGOW 173
ERSKINE CALDWELL 288 CAROLINE GORDON 196
WILL A GATHER 312 NA THANIEL HA WTHORNE 223
JAMES FENIMORE COOPER 335 ERNEST HEMINGWA Y 247
JAMES GOULD COZZENS 358 WILLIAM DEAN HOWELLS 271
HART CRANE 381 WASHINGTON IRVING 295
STEPHEN CRANE 405 HENRY JAMES 319
E. E. CUMMINGS 428 WILLIAM JAMES 342
EMILY DICKINSON 451 RANDALLJARRELL 367
JOHN DOS PASSOS 474 SARAH ORNE JEWETT 391
THEODORE DREISER 497 RING LARDNER 415

xxi
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luminibus | adversus
solis impetus (25)
progrediens ad occidentem
efficit ea temperata
ad id tempus
quo his solitum est uti.
aestiva ad
 septentrionem,
quod ea regio non ut
reliquae per
solstitium | propter
145
calorem efficitur aestuosa,
eo quod est aversa
a solis cursu 20
semper refrigerata et
salubritatem et
voluptatem in usu
praestat. non minus
pinacothecae et
plumariorum
textrina
pictorumque officinae, uti
colores eorum in
opere propter
| constantiam luminis
inmutata
permaneant
qualitate. (5)

V Cum ad regiones caeli ita

ea fuerint disposita,
tunc 25
etiam animadvertendum
est quibus rationibus
privatis aedificiis
p op ia loca pat ib s
propria loca patribus
familiarum et
quemadmodum
3 explicauimus x (-bimus
Gc).
4 apte Fav.: actae(ę GS) x. |
spectare: ex(s G)pectare
x.
5 ad (occ.): uti x.
9 bibly(i GS)othecae H.
11 bibly(i GS)othecis H.
12 ab tiniis H (ab tineis S),
abtinẛ̣ is Gc (rel. locis
tinea semper x exc. tinia
G 59, 6 ubi tenia Gc).
15 orientem cum (.Cū GS) x.
16 prae(p̄ GS)tenta x.
18 his solitum (Fav.): opus
solitum x. | ad
septentrionem HS: ad
septentrionalem G.
19 regione G.
20 efficitur ęstuosa S:
efficiuntur (sic etiam
suppl. un Sc) aestuosae
HG. | eo S: ea HG.
22 textrina S (= L): extrina
 HG.
24 constantia H (-ā GS).

Plain text
communia cum extraneis
aedificari debeant.
namque ex
his | quae propria sunt, in
ea non est potestas
omnibus (10)
intro eundi nisi invitatis,
quemadmodum sunt
cubicula
triclinia balineae ceteraque
quae easdem
habent usus
rationes.
communia autem sunt in
quibus etiam
invocati 5
suo iure de populo possunt
venire, id est
vestibula cava
aedium peristyla quae|que
eundem habere
possunt usum. (15)
igitur is qui communi sunt
fortuna, non
necessaria magnifica
vestibula nec tabulina
neque atria, quod
magis aliis
2 officia praestant ambiundo
quam ab aliis
ambiuntur. qui 10
autem fructibus rusticis
serviunt, in eorum
vestibulis stabula
tabernae, in aedibus
cryptae horrea |
apothecae
ceteraque (20)
quae ad fructus servandos
magis quam ad
elegantiae
decorem possunt esse, ita
sunt facienda. item
feneratoribus
et publicanis commodiora
et speciosiora et ab
insidiis 15
tuta, forensibus autem et
disertis elegantiora
et spatiosiora
ad conventus excipiundos,
nobilibus vero qui
hono|res (25)
magistratusque gerundo
praestare debent
officia civibus,
faciunda sunt vestibula
 regalia alta, atria et
peristyla
amplissima, silvae
ambulationesque
laxiores ad decorem
20
maiestatis perfectae,
praeterea
bybliothecae
pinacothecae
basilicae non dissimili
modo quam
publicorum operum
magnificentia |
comparatae, quod in
domibus eorum
saepius 146
et publica consilia et
privata iudicia
arbitriaque
conficiuntur.
3 ergo si his rationibus ad
singulorum generum
25
personas, uti in libro primo
de decore est
scriptum, ita
disposita erunt aedificia, |
non erit quod
 non erit quod
reprehendatur. (5)
habebunt enim ad omnes
res commodas et
emendatas
explicationes.
earum autem rerum non
solum erunt in urbe
aedificiorum rationes, sed
etiam ruri,
praeterquam quod
in 30
4 balneae (-ę GS) x.
5 sunt quibus (om. in) x (cf.
p. 148, 24).
7 (et 19) peristy(i)lia x.
8 is: his x.
9 tabulina HG: tablina S (ut
rel. locis x). | magis aliis
… quam: in aliis … quae
(quę S) x.
12 criptae (-ę GS) x.
16 disertis HS(Gc): desertis
G.
19 faciunda HG: -enda S.
21 by(i GS)bliothecas ＜
pinacothecas habet solus
G＞ basilicas con(cō-
S)paratas x.
24 conficiuntur (-ciu[NT] ᷎ )
H: -ciunt GS.

Plain text
 urbe atria proxima ianuis
solent esse, ruri
autem
pseudourbanis
statim peristyla, deinde |
tunc atria habentia
circum (10)
porticus pavimentatas
spectantes ad
palaestras et
ambulationes.

Quoad potui urbanas

rationes aedificiorum
summatim 5
perscribere, proposui, nunc
rusticorum
expeditiones ut sint
ad usum commoda
quibusque rationibus
conlocare oporteat
| ea dicam. (15)

VI Primum de salubritatibus,
uti in primo
volumine de
moenibus conlocandis
scriptum est,
regiones aspiciantur
 g p
et 10
ita villae conlocentur.
magnitudines earum
ad modum
agri copiasque fructuum
comparentur.
cohortes
magnitudinesque
| earum ad pecorum
numerum atque
quot iuga (20)
boum opus fuerit ibi
versari, ita finiantur.
in cohorte
culina quam calidissimo
loco designetur,
coniuncta autem 15
habeat bubilia, quorum
praesepia ad focum
et orientis
caeli regionem spectent,
ideo quod boves
lumen et ignem
spectando hor|ridi non
fiunt. item agricolae
regionum (25)
inperiti non putant
oportere aliam
regionem caeli
 regionem caeli
boves
2 spectare nisi ortum solis.
bubilium autem
debent esse 20
latitudines nec minores
pedum denum nec
maiores quindenum,
longitudo uti singula iuga
ne minus pedes
occupent
septenos. balnearia item
con|iuncta sint
culinae, ita enim
147
lavationi rusticae
ministratio non erit
longe. torcular
item proximum sit culinae,
ita enim ad olearios
fructus 25
commoda erit ministratio,
habeatque
coniunctam vinariam
1 autem (aū): ab x.
2 peristy(i)lia x.
3 pavimenta x.
4 ambulationes .VIII. Quo
adpotui … (cum capituli
numero servato) G.
6 expeditionum (-nū S) x.
7 commodae (-ę S, -e G) x. |
collocari S.
8 eas x.
12 chortes x (cf. v. l. Varr. p.
146, 11. 14. 19. 147, 2.
217, 18. 274, 16 Keil).
13 quot S: quod HG.
14 fuerint x. | chorte x.
15 designetur GS: desi|netur
H.
16 bubilia HG: buuilia S.
18 fiunt HS: fiant G.
19 in(m S)periti (sic) x.
20 buuilium x (bubilium Gc).
21 quindenum S: v. denum
HG.
22 pedes occupent x (non
occupent pedes, ut
edd.).
23 sint HS: sunt G.
24 torcular S(Gc, ut v. 12 x):
torclar HG.

Plain text
 cellam haben̶tem ab
septentrione lumina
| fenestrarum. (5)
cum enim alia parte
habuerit qua sol
calefacere possit,
vinum quod erit in ea cella
confusum ab calore
efficietur
3 inbecillum. olearia autem
ita est conlocanda ut
habeat
a meridie calidisque
regionibus lumen.
non enim debet 5
oleum congelari sed tepore
caloris extenuari.
magni|tudines (10)
autem earum ad fructuum
rationem et
numerum doliorum
sunt faciundae, quae cum
sint cullearia, per
medium occupare
debent pedes quaternos.
ipsum autem
torcular si
non cocleis torquetur sed
 vectibus et prelo
premitur, ne 10
minus longum pedes xl
constituatur, ita
enim erit
vectia|rio spatium
expeditum. latitudo
eius ne minus
pedum (15)
senum denum, nam sic erit
ad plenum opus
facientibus
libera versatio et expedita.
sin autem duobus
prelis loco
opus fuerit, quattuor et
viginti pedes
latitudini dentur. 15
4 ovalia et caprilia ita sunt
magna facienda uti
singula
pecora areae ne | minus
pedes quaternos et
semipedem, (20)
ne plus senos possint
habere. granaria
sublimata et ad
septentrionem aut
aquilonem
 spectantia
disponantur, ita
enim frumenta non
poterunt cito
concalescere, sed ab
flatu 20
refrigerata diu servantur.
namque ceterae
regiones procreant
curculionem et reliquas |
bestiolas quae
frumentis (25)
solent nocere. equilibus
quae maxime in villa
loca calidissima
fuerint constituantur, dum
ne ad focum
spectent.
cum enim iumenta proxime
ignem stabulantur,
horrida 25
5 fiunt. item non sunt inutilia
praesepia quae |
conlocantur 148
extra culinam in aperto
contra orientem.
cum enim in
hieme anni sereno caelo in
ea traducuntur
ea traducuntur
matutino boves,
1 ab (H, a S) septentrione
HS: ad septentrionem G.
2 cum—(4) inbecillum om. S
(infra in m. suppl. Sc),
qui mox post extenuari v.
9 addit vinaria enī cella
cū aliunde quā a
septentrione habuerit
fenestrarū lumina. qua
sol … imbecillū (quae
linea perducta delet Sc).
| qua GS: quę HSc. |
calefacere S: calfacere
HG.
6 tem(ē S)pore x.
10 premet(& HS)ur x.
14 loco S(Gc): locu H, locti
G.
15 viginti HS: xx. G.
18 sublimata G: sublinata
HS.
20 poterunt S: -rint HG. |
abflatu (sic) x.
22 curculionem HG:
gurgulionem S. | quae:
 quā in ras. Sc.

26 inuestilia ante corr. G.

27 in om. G (non HS).

Plain text
 ad solem pabulum
capientes fiunt
nitidiores. horrea
fenilia
farraria pistrina extra villam
facienda videntur, ut
| ab (5)
ignis periculo sint villae
tutiores. si quid
delicatius in
villis faciundum fuerit, ex
symmetriis quae in
urbanis
supra scriptae sunt
constituta ita
struantur uti sine
inpeditione 5
6 rusticae utilitatis
aedificentur.
omniaque aedificia
ut luminosa sint oportet
curari, sed quae
sunt ad villas,
faciliora | videntur esse
ideo quod paries
nullius vicini (10)
potest obstare, in urbe
autem aut
 communium
parietum
altitudines aut angustiae
loci inpediundo
faciunt obscuritates.
10
itaque de ea re sic erit
experiundum. ex
qua
parte lumen oporteat
sumere linea
tendatur ab
altitudine
parietis qui videtur obstare
ad | eum locum quo
oporteat (15)
inmittere, et si ab ea linea
in altitudinem cum
prospiciatur
poterit spatium puri caeli
amplum videri, in eo
loco 15
7 lumen erit sine inpeditione.
sin autem officient
trabes
seu limina aut
contignationes, de
superioribus
partibus
aperiatur et ita inmittatur.
et ad summam ita |
est (20)
gubernandum ut ex
quibuscumque
partibus caelum
prospici
poterit, per eas
fenestrarum loca
relinquantur, sic 20
enim lucida erunt aedificia.
cum autem in
tricliniis ceterisque
conclavibus maximus est
usus luminum, tum
etiam
in itineribus clivis scalis,
quod in is saepius
alii aliis
obviam ve|nientes ferentes
sarcinas solent
incurrere. (25)

Quoad potui distributiones

operum nostratium,
ut sint 25
aedificatoribus non
obscurae, explicui.
nunc etiam
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