Linguistics

First language acquisition:

1 lesson: Stages of language acquisition:

Stages of First Language Acquisition

a. Babbling Stage (around 4–6 months)

Description: Infants begin to produce repetitive consonant-vowel combinations such as

“ba-ba,” “da-da,” or “ma-ma.”
Purpose: Practicing the sounds of their language; not meaningful words yet.
Example: A baby might repeat “ba-ba” even though they don’t mean “bottle.”

b. First Word Stage (around 12 months)

Description: The child begins to use single words that carry meaning (holophrases).
Function: One word often expresses a whole idea.
Example: Saying “milk” may mean “I want milk” or “There is milk.”

c. Two-Word Stage (18–24 months)

Description: Children begin to use two words together, showing an understanding of basic
grammar and word order.
Example: “Mommy go,” “want juice,” “baby sleep.”

d. Telegraphic (Hierarchy) Stage (2–3 years)

Description: Speech resembles telegrams — short and grammatically simplified but with
correct word order.
Content: Mostly content words (nouns, verbs); function words (the, is, on) are often omitted.
Example: “Daddy go work,” “cat eat fish.”

Lesson 2 Acquisition of Linguistic Subsystems(phonology, morphology, syntax and

semantics)

a. Phonology
Definition: The sound system of a language.
Development: Children first produce basic sounds, then more complex sound combinations.
Example: A child might say “wabbit” instead of “rabbit” (trouble with /r/ sound).

b. Morphology
Definition: The structure of words and how morphemes (smallest units of meaning) are used.
Development: Children learn to add suffixes like -s for plurals or -ed for past tense.
Example: “goed” instead of “went” (overgeneralization of regular past tense rule).
c. Syntax

Definition: The rules for forming sentences (grammar and sentence structure).
Development: Children progress from one-word to complex multi-word sentences with
subject-verb-object structures.
Example: “Me want toy” becomes “I want the toy.”

d. Semantics
Definition: The meaning of words and sentences.
Development: Vocabulary grows rapidly; children start using words more precisely and
understand multiple meanings.
Example: A child first calls all four-legged animals “dog” but later learns to distinguish
between “dog,” “cat,” “cow,” etc.

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Lesson 3 :Theories of First Language Acquisition

a. Behaviorist Theory (B.F. Skinner)

Main Idea: Language is learned through imitation, reinforcement, and conditioning.

Mechanism: Children learn language by mimicking adults and receiving positive
reinforcement when they use words correctly.

Criticism: Doesn’t explain how children form new sentences they’ve never heard before.

Example: A child says “cookie” and gets a cookie — positive reinforcement.

b. Nativist Theory (Noam Chomsky)

Main Idea: Humans are born with an innate ability to learn language — a “Language
Acquisition Device” (LAD).

Mechanism: Children naturally acquire language as long as they are exposed to it.

Support: Children learn complex rules without formal teaching, and all children go through
similar stages.

Example: Even without being corrected, a child learns how to form questions and past tense.

c. Cognitive Theory (Jean Piaget)

Main Idea: Language acquisition is part of overall cognitive development.

Mechanism: Children must understand certain concepts (like object permanence) before
they can use related words.

Stages: Language development depends on the child’s stage of mental development.

Example: A child starts using the word “gone” only after understanding that something can
disappear from sight but still exist.

Learning a second language

Lesson 1 Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH) – Simplified

What is it?
The Critical Period Hypothesis says there is a special time in life (from birth to around
puberty) when the brain is best at learning a language naturally and easily.

When is the critical period?

From birth to about age 12 or 13 (puberty).
After this period, it's much harder to learn a language perfectly — especially the grammar
and pronunciation.

Why is this important?

It explains why Children can learn languages quickly and sound like native speakers.
Adults often have an accent and make more grammar mistakes, even after years of practice.

Example:
A baby who moves to France will grow up speaking perfect French.
An adult who moves to France might still speak with an accent and have difficulty using
correct grammar — even after many years.

Real-Life Support:
The case of Genie, a girl who was kept in isolation until age 13 — she was not able to fully
learn language even with help.

Young children who have brain injuries often recover their language skills better than adults
with similar injuries.

Lesson 2 learning a second language

a. Second Language vs Foreign Language

Second Language (L2):
Learned in an environment where the language is used regularly for communication.
Example: Learning English in Canada or the US.

Foreign Language:
Learned in a setting where the language is not commonly spoken in daily life.
Example: Learning English in Japan or Arabic in France.

b. Acquisition vs Learning
Acquisition:
Natural, subconscious process (like first language).
Focus on meaning and communication.
Happens in real-life interactions.

Learning:
Conscious study of rules (grammar, vocabulary).
Often in classroom settings.
Involves correction and explanation.

Lesson 3 . Comparing First and Second Language Acquisition

First language (L1) acquisition typically begins at birth or even before. It occurs naturally and
immersively, as children are constantly surrounded by the language in their home and
community. As a result, the learning process is usually very fast during the early years, and
the outcome is almost always full fluency and native-like use. Mistakes made during L1
acquisition are a normal part of development and usually self-correct over time. Children
also develop a native-like accent because they are exposed to the sounds of the language
early on. Motivation for learning the first language is internal — it's driven by the basic
human need to communicate with others.
In contrast, second language (L2) learning usually begins later in life, often in school
settings. It can happen in formal environments like classrooms or informally through
exposure, such as through travel or media. The learning process is generally slower than
first language acquisition, especially for adults. Achieving fluency in an L2 varies from
person to person and is not guaranteed. Errors in L2 learning may become permanent if not
corrected — a phenomenon known as fossilization. Second language learners often retain a
noticeable accent, especially if they start learning the language after puberty. Motivation for
learning an L2 is usually external, such as for academic success, job opportunities, or travel.

Lesson 4 Factors Influencing Second/Foreign Language Learning

a. Age
Younger learners are better at pronunciation and acquiring native-like fluency.
Older learners may learn grammar and vocabulary more quickly at first due to cognitive
maturity.

b. Neurological Factors
The plasticity of the brain decreases with age.
After puberty, the brain becomes less flexible in forming new language patterns.

c. Cognitive Factors
Memory, intelligence, and analytical skills help in learning.
Metalinguistic awareness (understanding how language works) is stronger in older learners.

d. Personality Factors
Extroverted learners may take more risks and practice speaking more.
Introverted learners may hesitate but can be better at listening and reading comprehension.

e. Psychological Factors
Motivation (integrative or instrumental) greatly affects success.
Integrative: Wanting to be part of the culture (e.g., marrying a native speaker).
Instrumental: Learning for practical reasons (e.g., job, test).

Anxiety and self-confidence also play big roles.

f. Sociocultural Factors
Exposure to the language in the community or media.
Supportive environment from teachers, family, and peers.
Cultural attitudes toward the language and its speakers.

important exam-style questions with clear answers:

1. What is the Critical Period Hypothesis, and why is it important in language learning?

Answer:
The Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH) suggests there is a limited window during early life —
from birth to around puberty — when the human brain is especially capable of acquiring
language naturally and fully. After this period, it becomes much harder to achieve native-like
fluency, especially in pronunciation and grammar. This explains why children can easily learn
multiple languages without an accent, while adults often struggle.

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2. How does Chomsky’s Nativist Theory explain language acquisition?

Answer:
Chomsky’s Nativist Theory argues that humans are born with an innate ability to acquire
language, through a mental mechanism called the Language Acquisition Device (LAD). This
theory suggests that exposure to language triggers this built-in ability, allowing children to
naturally learn complex grammar rules without explicit teaching. It explains why all children
follow similar stages of language development.

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3. What are the key differences between language acquisition and language learning?

Answer:
Language acquisition is a subconscious, natural process — like how children pick up their
first language through interaction and exposure. It focuses on communication and meaning,
not on rules. Language learning, on the other hand, is a conscious process that involves
studying grammar and vocabulary, often in a classroom. It typically involves correction and
formal instruction.

2. Diagram of Stages of L1 Acquisition

You can add a simple flowchart:

Babbling (4–6 mo)

↓
First Word (12 mo)
↓
Two-Word (18–24 mo)
↓
Telegraphic (2–3 yrs)
↓
Complex Sentences (3+ yrs)

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3. Quick Definitions Section

Phoneme: Smallest unit of sound

Morpheme: Smallest unit of meaning

Syntax: Rules for sentence structure

Semantics: Study of meaning

Fossilization: Persistent L2 errors

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4. Practice Questions

Which theory says language is innate?

→ Nativist (Chomsky)

What’s the difference between acquisition and learning?

→ Acquisition is subconscious; learning is conscious