CLASSIFICATION OF WOODS
a. Softwoods
- Softwood is wood from gymnosperm trees such as conifers. The term is
opposed to hardwood, which is the wood from angiosperm trees.
Examples: Cedar, Douglas fir, Juniper, Yew, Pine and Hemlock.
b. Hardwoods
- The term “hardwood tree” is a botanical grouping of trees with similar
characteristics. Hardwood tree characteristics apply to many of the tree
species in this country. The trees have broad leaves rather than needle-like
leaves. They produce a fruit or nut, and often go dormant in the winter.
Examples: Oak, Maple, Hickory, Walnut, Cherry.
ADVANTAGE OF WOOD
- Renewable, Recyclable, Natural
- Carbon Positive
- Carbon Storage Benefits
- Low Energy Production
- Production Energy Comparison
- Health and Wellbeing
- Fire Performance
- Natural Insulation
TYPES OF NATURAL WOOD
1. Pine.
A pine is any conifer tree or shrub in
the genus Pinus of the family Pinaceae.
Pinus is the sole genus in the subfamily
Pinoideae. The World Flora Online created
by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew and
Missouri Botanical Garden accepts 187
species names of pines as current, together
with more synonyms.
2. Oak.
An oak is a tree or shrub in the
genus Quercus of the beech
family, Fagaceae. There are
approximately 500 extant
species of oaks. The common
name "oak" also appears in the
names of species in related
genera, notably Lithocarpus, as
well as in those of unrelated
species such as Grevillea robusta and the Casuarinaceae.
3. Mahogany.
Mahogany is a straight-grained,
reddish-brown timber of three tropical
hardwood species of the genus Swietenia,
indigenous to the Americas and part of the
pantropical chinaberry family, Meliaceae.
Mahogany is used commercially for a wide
variety of goods, due to its coloring and
durable nature.
4. Taek.
Teak is a tropical hardwood tree
species in the family Lamiaceae. It is a
large, deciduous tree that occurs in
mixed hardwood forests. Tectona
grandis has small, fragrant white flowers
arranged in dense clusters at the end of
the branches. These flowers contain
both types of reproductive organs.
Cherry wood
Classified as a “softer” hardwood, cherry wood is still a
hardwood and it's no wimp. Cherry remains strong and
durable over time.
Cherry is used in a wide variety of applications,
including Furniture: From cabinetry to tables to veneer,
cherry is a staple in practically every American
woodshop; Millwork: Interior millwork such as doors,
moldings, and trim; Flooring: Cherry is durable and
sometimes used as flooring.
Cherry has medium density, with good wood bending
properties, medium strength, and shock resistance, but
low stiffness, and can be steam bent with care. Being
hard and stable when dry the wood is very easy to stain and finish to an excellent surface. It
is highly prized for furniture and interior joinery.
Walnut wood
Well known for its characteristic dark
colored wood with attractive grain
patterns, Walnut is a dense and
strong wood that is highly desired for
expensive furniture and carpentry.
Uses: Walnut is commonly used for
furniture, musical instruments,
carvings, trims, and veneers.
Walnut is a tough hardwood of
medium density, with moderate
bending and crushing strengths, and
low stiffness. It has a good steam-bending classification.
Pros: Walnut is a very strong and stable wood that can take intricate carving. The color can
be beautiful. Cons: Some may not like the variation from dark to light that's sometimes
found on a single wide board. Walnut is also one of the more costly woods.
Red wood
Redwood is structurally durable and easy to
work with. This makes it a great candidate for
furniture. Although it is most used in building
patio furniture, it is a beautiful wood and will
make great looking interior furniture as well.
often used for decks, fences, and arbors
Redwood is a very weather-resistant, durable,
and highly sustainable wood used in outdoor
structures because it can withstand the elements
without getting damaged over time.
With time, redwood loses its vibrant contrast and becomes more of a medium brown color.
Yearly maintenance is required to keep the color rich. During the deck maintenance
process, you need to be especially careful with the soft redwood decking so as not to
damage the wood under high pressure.
Redwoods are naturally resistant to insects, fungi, and fire because they are high in tannin
and do not produce resin or pitch. Their thick, reddish, pithy bark also provides protection
and insulation for the tree.
Square shape
Square wood is wood with rectangular
cross sections. Square timber is
generally used to reinforce formwork
in buildings, to minimize the
deformation of formwork, and to
prevent the deformation of concrete
structures.
Wooden moldings
wooden moldings can enhance the design, change its aesthetics, and conceal unsightly
gaps, coarse edges, or joints. Wooden Mouldings are generally used as an option for
designers, homeowners, and builders to make a statement.
Wood moldings can be anything from the trim that lines the frames of your windows, or
doors, to even the more decorative wooden protrusions from walls, ceiling, or surrounding
large room fixtures like fireplaces.
Dowel rods
Dowel rods are often cut into short lengths called dowel pins. Dowels are commonly used
as structural reinforcements in cabinet making and in numerous other applications,
including Furniture shelf supports.
Dowels are in transverse joints of Jointed Plain Concrete Pavements (JPCP), and they are
used to provide load transfer between individual slabs, reduce faulting and improve
performance.
Wooden dowels are generally made with hardwood such as beech and poplar, which
makes them reliably strong.
ADVANTAGES OF WOOD CONSTRUCTION
Versatility and Durability
One of the most adaptable materials utilized in the construction industry is timber. This
material can be connected to other materials, bent into the desired shape, and more. Many
sorts of lumber are fit for enduring brutal weather patterns and are safe.
Cost
Due in part to its speed of construction, timber buildings can be less expensive than
masonry or steel-framed structures.
Insulation
Timber can be excellent for sound and heat insulation in buildings. Lumber will in general
play out much better compared to steel or block when utilized in outside cladding to assist
with keeping the intensity in, and this can be beneficial for those hoping to make a
construction that is more effective and harmless to the ecosystem.
DISADVANTAGE OF WOOD CONSTRUCTION
Shrinkage and Swelling
Timber is a natural material that can absorb water and may contract or expand. Timber
should always be treated appropriately based on its use and exposure; if it is left to water
rot, it can lose its quality.
Condensation
condensation happens when warm air from within contacts a virus wall which has not been
protected well. If this happens to a building with a timber frame, the building's skeleton
could rot.
Fire
fire breaks out, a wood outlined house cannot endure the intensity and blazes similarly a
block or steel construction would. Fire retardants can be applied to a timber-framed house,
but this tends to slow down the surface spread of flames and reduce smoke production.
HARDWOOD
Hardwood are types of wood that come from deciduous trees. Deciduous trees are
broad-leafed that go into a phase known as dormancy to survive the winter and preserve
water. They lose all of their leaves for a certain period of the year, often winter (directree,
2020). One of the reasons hardwoods are named as such is because they grow much
more slowly than other tree species do. This causes the trunk, bark, and branches to get
denser, because of this the wood is more “heavy duty” than its soft counterparts, which is
ideal for carpenters, other people who use wood frequently, and frequently used to make
furniture like tables, chairs, chest drawers and so forth (G&S Specialist Timber, 2017).
Wood floors whether solid or engineered are highly durable and resistant to daily wear and
tear. Because they are constructed out of natural materials, they retain heat far better than
laminates, tiles, or stone floors made of artificial materials, making them much cozier to
walk on, especially during colder months of the year. Made out of planks milled to make
hardwood floors. Solid hardwood floors were initially installed for structural purposes, to
wooden support beams of a building known as joists or bearers. (ambience hardwood
flooring, retrieved 2023).
EXAMPLE OF HARDWOOD
Mahogany
Mahogany is a reddish-brown, straight-grained wood
from one of the three tropical hardwoods in the genus
Swietenia, which is native to the Americas and a
member of the Meliaceae family of pantropical
chinaberries. Due to its coloration and durability,
mahogany is utilized commercially for a wide range of
goods. (wikipedia, 2023) Mahogany floor planks are
often sawed from quartered logs and feature wavy
striped grains, making them more durable, less likely to warp, and last a lifetime (weekand,
retrieved 2023).
Softwood
Softwoods are conifers. Conifers are evergreen trees with cone-shaped branches that
produce scale or needle-like leaves. The majority of trees that thrive in these forest areas
are gymnosperms that bear cones, which means that their seeds are bore exposed and
lack an outer cage. (Conifeousforest, 2013)
Stress-Graded Lumber
When softwood is being utilized in a load-bearing capacity and operating stresses are
going to be imposed, for example, it is used as beams, posts, studs, rafters, and joists. To
determine the stress gradings visually or mechanically the ASTM standards and
procedures can be used, creating standard working values for mechanical parameters like
the modulus of elasticity and the bending moment. The term “structural lumber” is used to
describe these items (thomasnet, retrieved 2023)
reference:https://www.thomasnet.com/articles/plant-facility-equipment/lumber-grades/
Timber - A type of wood which has been processed into beams and planks. It is
also known as lumber . Timber or lumber is essentially the firewood or wood growing trees.
Any wood that has the ability to produce a minimum dimensional size is referred to as
lumber or timber. It is a step in the process of making wood. For structural purposes,
timbers are utilized. Timbers are woods that have been prepared for use in construction.
(Bhuyan, 2013)
Post and beams - A derivative of classic timber frame construction that strengthens the
structure. A construction method that uses vertical (posts) and horizontal (beams) timber
structures to produce a building’s frame, allowing for expansive floors and flexible wall
structuring (Valle, retrieved 2023).
STRUCTURAL FRAMING:
Joints - primarily concerned with joining end to edge. Joints represent points of
connection between structural members.
Rafters - one of a number of sloped structural parts, such as wooden beams, that
run from the ridge or hip to the wall plate, downslope perimeter, or eave and are intended
to support the roof deck, roof shingles, and the loads they are meant to carry. A pair of
rafters is called a couple. (wikipedia, retrieved 2023)
Studs - Wall studs, commonly referred to as “studs,” are vertical framing
components that aid in building walls. Wall studs, which are often made of wood or metal,
are an essential component of the building process since they create the foundation of a
structure. (Maronda Homes, retrieved 2023)
Decking - Deck or decking are the boards used to support the finishing layer on
floors and flat roofs. The support framework is used to cast horizontal slabs of concrete in
situ, the flat roofs, upper floors, and ground floors that are made of precast concrete
boards. (Designing Buildings Wiki, 2021)
The availability of softwoods may be limited if seasoned stock has been largely replaced
by parallel laminated wood in heavy timber of this type of construction. installation should
be inspected to ascertain that the proper grade of lumber is being used.
APPEARANCE GRADED LUMBER
- Lumber used for trim and other nonstructural purposes in building construction is
often graded according to utility and look of the best face. Because the best face is
frequently the only face that will be visible when the lumber is in use, appearance
lumber is assessed according to its best appearance. (Science Direct, retrieved
2023)
reference:https://www.thomasnet.com/articles/plant-facility-equipment/lumber-grades/
NON STRESS-GRADED LUMBER
- In the case of non stress-graded timber, serviceability is the main criteria for
grading, although appearance is also taken into account, especially in higher
grades. Imperfections such as knots and knot holes are allowed to become larger
and more frequent as the grade drops. (woodbin, retrieved 2023)
reference:https://www.thomasnet.com/articles/plant-facility-equipment/lumber-grades/
MAPLE WOOD PROPERTIES
Physical features: wood type is heavy, hard, strong, tough, stiff, close-grained,
possesses a uniform texture
Uses: Furniture, Cabinets, decorative woodwork, flooring, cutting surfaces, musical
instruments, bowling pins, utensils, and bowls:, takes stain satisfactorily and polishes well.
TEAK WOOD PROPERTIES
Physical features: Moderately hard and heavy, low stiffness, shock resistance,
moderate bending strength, and steam bending, excellent decay resistance and
dimensional stability: Stains and finishes well although natural oils can cause adhesion
difficulties.
Uses: ship building (especially decks), indoor or outdoor furniture, high class
joinery, flooring, paneling, plywood, decorative veneers, turnery,carving, chemicals.
Pine Wood Properties
Physical Features: has a medium texture and a straight grain, which guarantees solidity
when used as furniture. However, certain varieties will appear to have knots and have an
uneven texture.
Uses: used in the construction of doors, windows, partitions, decks, railings, paneling, wall
cladding, interior trims, molds, etc.
Walnut Wood Properties
Physical Features: It can withstand warping and
experiences very little shrinking thanks to its hardness,
weight, and resilience. It is well renowned for its
distinctive dark-colored wood with appealing grain patterns. The texture is medium and
the grain is uneven but usually straight. It has prominent growth rings and a semi-porous
endgrain.
Uses: widely used for veneers, carvings, trims, gunstocks, flooring, musical instruments,
and furniture.
Mahogany Wood Properties
Physical Features: The color of mahogany wood can
vary from light pink to a deep reddish brown. Depending
on the mahogany species and the particular piece of
wood, the color may vary slightly. Mahogany ages similarly
to other hardwoods and develops a reddish-purple hue.
The natural hue of the mahogany can be preserved
through finishing and sealing. Depending on the species,
mahogany grain may be straight, interlaced, uneven, or wavy. Its texture is even and silky.
Uses: The majority of applications for mahogany are industrial. It is well-liked due to its
splendor, toughness, and color. In addition to other things, it is often used in furniture, boats,
musical instruments, and floor veneers.
Ebony Wood Properties
Physical Features: With little to no variation or
discernible grain, heartwood is often jet-black in color.
Streaks of dark brown or grayish brown may periodically
be visible. Usually straight, but not always, grain can be
interlaced. Exceptionally high natural shine and fine,
uniform texture.
Uses: Utilized for cabinetry and inlaying, piano keys, knife
handles, and turned items because of its color, toughness,
longevity, and capacity for a high polish.
Rosewood Properties
Physical Features: With darker brown streaks,
the heartwood of East Indian Rosewood can
range in color from golden brown to deep purple
brown. As the wood ages, it usually turns a rich
brown. It has medium texture, with relatively small
pores. Typically, the grain is closely interlaced.
Uses: Frequently seen in turned, veneered, fine furniture, musical instruments, and other
speciality wood artifacts.
Willow Wood Properties
Physical Features: Tan or pinkish brown describes the
heartwood. Heartwood and sapwood are not always distinct from
one another and are both yellowish white in color. White Willow has
a fine to medium homogeneous texture and a straight grain.
Uses: Typically found in furniture, cricket bats, carvings, utility
wood, crates, baskets, and other tiny speciality wood items.
CHARACTERISTICS
● Each year, it generates sheaths of fresh wood along its stem and branches that
resemble a stack of ever bigger cones.
● The wood that is produced first in the year in Southern pines, known as Earlywood
(EW), has lower density and lighter in color than the wood that is produced later in
the year, known as Latewood (LW).
GROWTH SHEATHS
Growth rings, or the increment of wood generated over a single growth phase, are visible in
a cross section of the stem of a woody plant. In tropical regions, growth rings may not be
visible or may not be annual, although in temperate regions the growth time is typically one
year, in which case the growth ring may be referred to as an "annual ring."
Wood Direction
1. Long fibers in a wood run at an angle to the board's surface. The direction of the
fibers can be observed by splitting the board.
2. Tear-out
- One of the main issues that arise as an outcome of planing a board against the
grain. A log's fibers frequently run perpendicular to the surface when it is cut into
boards. Along the fibers, wood always wants to split. When your plane is incorrect,
tiny splits dive forward and downward in front of the blade, and tiny pieces of wood
lift up and break off, leaving the jagged divots known as tear out.
3. Grain direction can be misleading
- The split-off piece of red oak below illustrates that the "grain" and fiber directions do
not always correspond. In Plainsawn oak, small cells known as rays are actual
indicators of fiber direction.
4. Feel the texture of the grain
- The fibers feel smooth when they move in one direction, whereas they feel rough
when they move in the other direction. In fact, the rough surface of lumber has many
individual fibers that emerge.
5. Know where to look
- The surface of smooth lumber contains hints about the direction of the fibers.
However, simply looking at the part of the surface you wish to plane will not allow you
to determine the fiber direction. On the edge close to the surface you will plane, you
should look for hints.
6. The best indicators are rays
- The strongest indicators of fiber direction in hardwoods are rays. This typical piece
of red oak is simple to read since the oak's rays are quite evident. The overall angle
of the rays on the plainsawn face of a board invariably points in the same direction
as the wood's fibers. Sycamore and beech also have broad rays. Some
hardwoods, such as ash and walnut, contain rays that are too small to notice.
Cherry, maple and many other kinds of wood have rays that are paler and much
smaller, but you can discover them if you look attentively.
7. Search for vessels
- When rays can't be found, look for vessels to show the direction of the fiber. Once
you know what to look for, it's simple to identify the vessels on this particular piece of
walnut because they resemble long, black dashes. Along with many other woods,
mahogany, butternut, and birch, all feature visibly noticeable vessel cells.
Mahogany Butternut Birch
8. The last option is the figure
- If rays and vessels can’t be seen, follow the angle of the dark lines instead known as
the grain board.
9. The direction of the fiber
- It's common for fiber direction to go both ways. No matter which way you plane the
board shown below, tear-out is likely to occur, but you can reduce it by using the
hints provided here about the direction of the fibers. The sole evident indication in
this piece of ash is the figure created by the growth rings. This figure has a steeper
slope at one end of the board than the other; always plane according to the
direction.
10. Marking the direction of the fiber
- As you mill your lumber's faces or edges, indicate the direction of the fibers on the
end of the board. This mark signals to start planing the top surface, and it can't be
unintentionally erased.
Spiral Grain
Spiral grain is a distinct pattern of wood fibers that travel in a helical or spiral pattern
throughout the length of a tree trunk. When a tree grows in a twisted or spiral pattern, the
wood fibers twist along the length of the tree, resulting in this pattern. Spiral grain can occur
naturally in some tree species, such as cedar, spruce, and some hardwoods, or it can be
induced by external forces such as wind or soil conditions. The existence of spiral grain
can affect the strength and stability of the wood and is frequently considered when
evaluating timber quality.
Other lumber sawing options
- Plain Sawn - The first cut is made through the middle of the log to create
plain (flat) sawn hardwood lumber. The heart side of the half log is
positioned flat against the slicer's flitch table. Slices are made parallel to a
line running through the log's center. The most popular and widespread form
of sawing is called "plain sawn," and it produces lumber with a distinctive
cathedral look on the face of the boards.
Advantages of Plain Sawing :
● Faster to produce.
● More affordable.
● Displays varied grain patterns & a unique “cathedral” appearance.
● Readily available.
- Rift Sawn - The logs' growth rings are milled perpendicularly to create this
linear grain pattern. The angle at which the log is machined ranges from 45°
to 75°. In terms of dimension, rift-sawn lumber is preferable to quarter and
plain-sawn lumber. It costs more per board foot than either quarter-sawn or
plain-sawn lumber, but it also generates the most waste.
Advantages of Rift Sawing:
● Excellent for tables, chairs, and other straight components for making
custom furniture.
● The cut of lumber is the most dimensionally stable.
● Both sides of the lumber planks have a distinctive, linear appearance.
- Quarter Sawn - Each log is sawed into four quarters at a radial angle to
produce quarter-sawn wood. Each quarter is then plain-sawn. As a result, the
grain pattern is linear and straight. Though far less than rift-sawn lumber, this
method of quarter sawing does produce some waste.
Advantages of Quarter-Sawing:
● decreases the width of hardwood lumber expanding and contracting.
● decreases warping, cupping, and twisting.
● less likely to engage in surface inspection.
● more impervious to moisture intrusion
● and has a smooth surface because of the lack of obvious elevated grain.
● Ribbon or "fleck" designs
- Live Sawn - Lumber that has been sawed straight through the log from top
to bottom is known as live-sawn lumber. It is distinguished by having board
edges with a rift or quartersawn construction that blends into a flat-sawn
center. It is frequently offered without an edge. When a board is live sawn, it
is also referred to as "French Cut" because the cathedral grain returns to run
through the middle third of the board.
APPLICATIONS
Pinewood flooring - Though it displays dents and dings more easily than hardwood
floors, pine is nevertheless a beautiful and popular choice for wood floors. Unfinished pine
boards feature hues of yellows, reds, and honey browns, as well as darker knots that
provide character to the flooring. The wood is protected by sealing the pine. Pine darkens
somewhat over time for extra beauty, and its inherent color differences shine through.
Oakwood flooring - one of the more popular hardwood flooring choices. It's relatively
hard, looks pleasing, is not the most expensive wood, and comes in a number of colors.
Mahogany flooring - Because it is so durable and can withstand heavy usage, mahogany
is an excellent hardwood for floors. However, it darkens with age, so if you don't want such
black floors in your home, start with a light stain or go for another wood that is just as sturdy
but lighter in color, such as oak.
WOOD CONSTRUCTION
What is Mass-timber construction?
In contrast to light-frame wood building, mass timber construction employs a class of
engineered wood products made of immense, solid wood panels, columns, or beams that
are often fabricated off-site for load-bearing wall, floor, and roof construction. Mass timber,
like concrete and steel, is manufactured for high strength ratings but is substantially lighter
in weight. Mass timber products are thick, compacted layers of wood that combine to form
strong, structural load-bearing elements that can be panelized. Lamination, fasteners, or
adhesives are commonly used to create them. Mass timber may supplement light-frame
and hybrid solutions and is a greener alternative to carbon-intensive materials and building
processes.
REFERENCES
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d%20always%20wants%20to%20split%20along%20the%20fibers.,fibers%20will%20lie%
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