11

CONFLICTS AND NEGOTIATIONS

Objective of the units
After the completion of the unit the student will be able to
1. Understand conflicts and its causes
2. Learn different approaches of conflict
3. Understand the various levels of conflict
4. Conflict resolution
5. Prejudice and its dimensions

INTRODUCTION
The concept of conflict is supposed to be an outcome of behaviours
and is an integral part of human life. The place where people
interact there is every chance of conflict. Conflict can be defined or
explain in many ways as an expression of hostility, negative
attitudes, antagonism, aggression rivalry and misunderstanding.
This also involves situation that involve contradiction between two
opposing groups. In other words, conflicts is basically a
disagreement between two or more individuals or groups, with each
individual or group trying to gain acceptance of its own view on
others.

Sometimes intense conception among the groups leads to conflicts.

But both competition and conflict should not be confused.
Competition is directed towards obtaining a goal while conflict is
directed against another group and action to frustrate other group
members towards goal achievement.

Conflict can mean many different things to many different people

and can range in intensity from a minor difference of opinion to war
between nations. Argyrols holds that given the mature, adult human
being and the nature of the formal organisation, conflict is
inevitable.

Within every individual there are usually (1) a number of competing

needs and roles, (2) a variety of different ways that drives and roles
can be expressed, (3) many types of barriers which can occur
between the drive and goal and (4) both positive and negative
aspects attached to the desired goals. These complicate the human
adaptation process and often result in conflict.

Definitions
According to S.P. Robbins, “Conflict is a process in which an effort
is purposefully made by one person or unit to block another that
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results in frustrating the attainment of the other’s goals or the

furthering of his or her interests.”

Mary Parker Follet defines conflict as, “The appearance of

difference, difference of opinions, of interests.”

Louis R. Pondy defines, “Conflict may be viewed as a breakdown

in the standard mechanism of decision making.”

On the basic of the above descriptions it may be said that conflict is

not confined at the individual level alone but is manifesting itself
more and more in organisations. Employees have become
vociferous in their demands for a better deal. Various departments
in an organisation face a situation full of conflicts on account of a
number of reasons like goal diversity, task interdependence etc.

Causes of Conflict :
We can categorise the causes of conflict into one of the following
three categories.

1. Communicational Aspect of Conflict : Poor communication

can also have a powerful effect in causing conflict. Any
misunderstanding or partial information during the communication
process is another factor supporting it. Due to the improper sending
and receiving of the information conflicts situation. The filtering of
information is also said to be playing its role at various levels of the
organisation structure. Amount of information is functional upto a
point, beyond which it becomes a source of conflict. Semantic
difficulties arise due to differences in background, training, selective
perception and incomplete or inadequate information regarding
others. In respect of completion of any job in absence of the senior
or supervisor it is essential that proper information in a correct and
understandable form must be disseminated.

2. Behavioural Aspect of Conflict : These types of conflicts arise

because of human thoughts, feelings, attitudes, emotions, values,
perceptions and reflects basic traits of a personality. So perceptions
of certain people any arise conflicts among others. On the other
hand individuals who are of low self-esteem may feel threatened by
others in simple matters and over-react causing a conflict.

Conflict in the modern society are mostly behavior oriented. They

induce unrealised expectations and complexity of social and
organisation system. Conflict may also arise due to differing views
regarding any issue or cause which is requiring participation. Under
privileged and the one having unrealised expectations also cause
conflicting situation. From organisational behaviour point of view,
there is a conflict between the goals of the formal organisation and
psychological growth of the individual.
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3. Structural Aspects of Conflict : These conflicts arise due to

issues related to the structural design of the organisation as a
whole as well as its sub-units. some of the structurally related factor
are :

(i) Size of Organisation : The larger the size of the organisation,

the more is the basis for existence of conflict. In a big organisation
there is less goal clarity, more supervisory levels and supervision
and greater chances of information being diluted or distorted as it is
passed along.

(ii) Participation : It is seen that if subordinates are not allowed to

participate in the decision-making process they show resortment
which gives rise to conflict. On the other side, if more participation
of the subordinates are allowed then also chances of conflict
increases as they become more aware of the things in detailed
manner.

(iii) Role Ambiguity : Role is a certain set of activities associated

with a certain position in the organisation. When the work is ill-
defined the person at that osition fails to perform well. This creates
conflict with that person and the others who are dependent on that
particular individual. Such conflicts can be reduced by redefining
and classifying roles and their inter-dependencies.

(iv) Scarcity of Resources : The resources are made available to

the working employees, but when there is an uneven distribution it
gives rise to dissatisfaction and resentment. Specially in declining
organisation cut back is made on personnel and services so that
the concerned unit shrinking pool of resources and this breeds
conflict. The chances of conflict rise high when resources such as
capital facilities, staff assistance and many other factors start
decreasing or are in inadequate forms.

Different Approaches of Conflict: There are several Approaches

to the Study of organizational conflict.
According to one school of thought, the human relations view
argues that conflict is a natural and inevitable outcome in any group
and that it need not be evil, but has the potential of being a positive
force in determing the group performance.
But in recent time, the belief is that conflict is absolutely necessary
for a group to perform effectively.

Traditional View
Earlier it was considered that all type of conflict is bad and harmful
for any organisation. It was also considered to be destructive force.
This view is consistent with the attitude that prevailed about group
behaviour and interaction during 1930’s and 1940’s.
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Existence of conflict gave a sign that something is wrong or

unfavourable in the existing system. The view held that conflict
must be avoided at any cost. It was even believed that existence of
conflict in an organisation projected the poor management and the
deliberate efforts of the trouble makers.

On the other hand another school of thought expressed that conflict

can be eliminated by creating an environment of goodwill and trust
within the organisation.

Conflict was viewed as a dysfunctional outcome resulting from poor

communication. Lack of openness and trust between people and
the failure of managers to be responsive to the needs and
aspirations of their employees.

The Human Relations View

The human relations position argued that conflict was a natural
occurrence in all groups and organisation. As conflict is
unavoidable, so human behaviour must start accepting conflicts.
They believed that conflict cannot be estimated and sometimes
come out to be advantageous or fruitful.

The human relations view dominated conflict theory from late

1940’s through the mid-1970s.

Interactionist View
As the earlier view i.e., the human relationship view accepted the
need of conflict, this interactions view encouraged conflict.
According to them any group where there is no conflict at all it
tends to become static, apathetic, and non-responsive to needs for
change or innovation.

Their main emphasis was on encouraging a mild and average

conflict regularly in the groups on team member. This view keep the
group viable, self-critical and creative. Whether any conflict is good
or bad or it is advantageous to an organisation depends upon the
nature of the conflict.

Types of Conflicts :

(a) Goal Conflict : Goal conflict arises when two or more motives
block one another. There are three types of goal conflict.

1. Approach-Approach-Conflict : Where the individual is

motivated to approach two or more positive but mutually exclusive
goals. For example, a young person faced with two excellent job
opportunities, or an executive who has choice between two very
attractive office to work.
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2. Approach-Avoidance-Conflict : Where the individual is

motivated to approach a goal and at the same time, is motivated to
avoid it. The single goal contains both positive and negative
characteristics for the individual. For example, Managers engaged
in Long-range planning are very confident of a goal they have
developed for the future. Yet, as the time gets near to commit
resources and implement the plan, the negative consequences
seem to appear much greater than they did in the developing stage.
The Managers may reach a point where approach equals
avoidance. The result is a great deal of internal conflict which may
cause indecision, ulcers or even neurosis.

3. Avoidance-Avoidance-Conflict : Where the individual is

motivated to avoid two or more negative but mutually exclusive
goals. For example, the worker who detests his supervisor and has
too much pride to accept unemployment compensation,. This
worker cannot easily resolve his avoidance-avoidance-conflict in a
time when jobs are very scarce.

(b) Role Conflict : A role consists of a pattern of norms and is

directly related to the theatrical use of them. A role is the position
that has expectations evolving from established norms. As a
pattern of prescribed behaviour, a role is a bundle of norms. As a
pattern of actual behaviour, a role is one side of a set of social
relationships. An individual can have many roles simultaneously.
Since the individual has many roles to play in an organisation, role
conflict is bound to exist. The classic example of role conflict is of a
first-line supervisor. The best approach to resolve this conflict
would be to recognise the existence of role conflict, attempt to
understand its causes and ramifications and then try to manage it
as effectively as possible.

(c) Inter-Personal Conflict : Conflict situations inevitably are made

of at least two individuals who hold polarised points of view, who
are somewhat indolent or ambiguous and who are quick to jump to
conclusions. Our popular framework for analysing dynamics of
interaction between self and others is JOHARI WINDOW. This
model has been developed by Joseph Luft and Harry Ingham (this
the name JOHARI).

Levels of Conflict : Newstrom and Davis refer to conflict as “any

situation in which two or more parties feel themselves in opposition.
Conflict is an interpersonal process that arises from disagreements
over the goals to attain or the methods to be used to accomplish
these goals”.
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Conflict can occur in three levels :

1. Inter-Personal Conflict
If it were true that the sole motive of all activity is the desire to avoid
pain and to secure pleasure, conflict could hardly arise. But neither
it is true nor possible as there are always incompatible motives
which impel us to incompatible goals as individual human being
and also as members of social groups and organisations.

And this is what gives birth to a conflict. When this happens within
an individual, we call it “MENTAL CONFLICT” and when it happen
two individuals or amongst many members of a group or groups, it
is known as “INTER PERSONAL CONFLICT”.

Conflict is a painful manifestation of energy and by consuming

within the organisation the energy that should be sustaining fruitful
work of mind and body, may reduce and weaken the organism and
prepare the way for disorder.

When applied to the groups or group members, this wasteful use of

energy in “inter-personal conflict” results in simple disagreement to
serious fights.

In an industry, if leads to indiscipline, poor morale, infights,

industrial strife, etc. By the same token, conflict releases energy at
every level of human affairs - energy then can produce positive and
constructive results.

It is clear from the above that conflict is natural and inevitable. It is

therefore, in the interest of all of us to understand its genesis and
the methods of resolution so that conflict could be channeled to
useful purposes rather than providing devastating results.

2. Organisational Conflict : Individuals in the organisation have

many conflicting experience is organisational setting as for example
(a) The boss wants more production, the subordinates want more
consideration. (b) Customers demand faster deliveries peers
request schedule days. (c) Consultants suggest changes,
subordinates resist change and (d) The rule book prescribes a
formula, but the staff says it will not work. These are four types of
organisational conflict.

(a) Hierachial Conflict : There may be conflict between the various

levels of the organisation. The board of directors may be in conflict
with the top management, middle management may be in conflict
with supervisory personnel, or there may be general conflict
between management and the workers.

(b) Functional Conflict : There may be conflict between various

functional departments of the organisation. Conflict between the
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production and marketing departments in an industrial organisation

is a classic example.

(c) Line-Staff Conflict : There may be a conflict between the line

and staff. It often results from situations where staff personnel do
not formally possess authority over line personnel.

(d) Formal-Informal Conflict : There may be conflict between the

formal and informal organisations. For example, the informal
organisation’s norms for performance may be incompatible with the
formal organisation’s norms of performance.

Role on Conflict in Today’s Organisations :

Today conflict has become one of the most vital aspects of
national, organisational, group and individual development. As a
result, new set of assumptions have been accepted about conflict.
These assumptions are (a) Conflict is inevitable, (b) Conflict is
determined by structural factors such as the design of a career
structure or the nature of a class system, (c) Conflict is integral to
the nature of change, (d) A minimal level of conflict is optimal.

Reduce Organisational Conflict :

Based on these assumptions, the following approaches have been
developed to reduce organisational conflict (a) Buffers can be
erected between conflicting parties. (b) To help the parties in the
conflicting situations, develop insights into themselves and how
they affect others. (c) Redesign the organisational structure in order
to reduce the conflict.

It is not always necessary to reduce the conflict as conflicts to help

development in many situations, Conflict can lead to innovation and
change, it can energise people to activity, develop protection for
something else in the organisation and be an important element in
the systems analysis of the organisation. Such factors indicate that
conflict can be managed to work for rather than in the modern
organisation.

Harmony and Conflict in Inter Group Relations

Two or more groups, like two or ore individuals, can coordinate
their activities for mutual gain. In this case they’re likely to be an
atmosphere of acceptance and goodwill. We can find such
harmonious relations at all levels, ranging from two couples on a
double date to two nations engaging in cultural exchange.

Two or more groups, like two or more individuals, can also compete
for scare resources. In this case they are likely to generate an
atmosphere of ill will, mistrust, and suspicion. This type of
relationship can also be identified at all levels, from feuding families
to nations at war.
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3. Inter Group Conflict

Definitions of conflict usually involve an element of competition and
an element of aggression (Coser, 1956; Brickman, 1974). Let’s
define inter group conflict as the state existing between two or more
groups that are competing over scarce resources when one of the
aims of the competition is to neutralise, injure or eliminate the
competitor. The resources under dispute may be physical (a good
home, farmland, oil fields), economic (money, good jobs, bright
prospects), psychological (self-esteem, self-actualisation), social
(prestige, influence) or any combination thereof. By referring to
these resources as scarce, I mean that each contending group
considers them inadequate to fulfill everyone’s needs.

In some ways, conflict between two or more groups is analogous to

conflict between two or more people. In both inter group conflict
and interpersonal conflict, own-gain and relative-gain motivation
overpowers joint-gain motivation, although in the case of inter
group conflict we must refer to “team” rather than “individual”
interests. However, inter group conflicts have at least three very
special properties that distinguish them from interpersonal conflicts.
First, the death of one of the participants ends an interpersonal
conflict. The death of one participant does not end an inter group
conflict. Because new contestants arise to take the place of the
fallen, inter group conflict can persist over generations. The conflict
may even gain the status of a tradition. For the person born into a
long-warring group, knowledge of the conflict will become one of
the earliest memories, and constrictive alternatives will be very hard
to imagine.

Second, inter group conflict is not governed by the same norms that
govern interpersonal conflicts. Whereas, norms may discourage all
violence within a group, they may systematise and organise
violence between groups. An isolated murder represents social
disorganisation, or a failure of norms to regulate individual conduct.
The near-annihilation of an enemy in warfare reflects social
organisation, or a success of norms to regulate individual conduct.
Organisation and conformity are required, for example, to quickly
mobilise an army and send it dashing off across the border.

A third factor that distinguishes individual and group conflict is that

inter group conflict is often accompanied by intra-group (within-
group) cooperation. People will pull together to subdue the enemy.
This intra-group cooperation can maintain the conflict, since it may
provide some rewards that offset poor outcomes from the
competition itself. For example, fighting units may develop a strong
feeling of camaraderie, and warfare between societies may mend,
or at least temporarily alleviate, conflicts within societies.
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Functions of Conflict
Most of the social-psychological literature on inter group conflict is
based on the premise that conflict is harmful to all participants and
must be eliminated. However, not all writers are reformers, and
some have claimed that inter-group conflict serves important
adaptive and maintenance functions for the group. Obviously,
warfare can be instrumental if it gains for the group the strip of land,
the resources, or the freedom that it seeks. (Curiously, the plum of
victory has been given scant attention in social psychology). Coser
(1956) has listed a number of other functions or uses of inter group
conflict; here we will consider three of the major arguments.

First, conflict prevents the stagnation and decay of the social

system by stimulating innovation and creativity. Conflict, my lead to
new social norms and reforms. According to Hare (1969), for
example, black rebellion did more to reduce social inequalities in
academia than did decades of “whimpering for integration”. Conflict
can also spur the economy and technology. World War II ended the
Great Depression and triggered rapid developments in such
different fields as pesticides, medicine, electronics, aviation,
nuclear engineering, and manufacture of rayon stockings. Such
expensive inventions become likely when there are serious
challenges to strong vested interests.

Of course, technological advancement, esprit de corps, and the

making of new friends would seem to be rather paltry gains if the
ultimate result is annihilation of the society. However, Coser
believes that, for three reasons, conflicts will be self-limiting. First,
conflict sometimes binds the contending groups together. In the
process of conflict, two previously unrelated groups form a negative
relationship, out of which a positive relationship can evolve. For
example, in an effort to head off war, two nations may discover a
mutually advantageous course of action (such as splitting a
contested weak nation down the middle).

Second, conflict at a low level of intensity may establish and

maintain a balance of power. Paradoxically, conflict on a small
scale may be one of the most effective deterrents to conflict on a
large scale, since small-scale conflict allows each side to show
strength and resolve, which deters the other side from escalating
the conflict.

Finally, when a war becomes large enough so that other nations

enter in, shifting coalitions and alliances may prevent the conflict
from becoming an all-out war of annihilation.

Functions of Conflict Resolution

Most writers who have dealt with inter group relations have
emphasised the negative consequences of conflict. Whether we are
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dealing with a battlefield or “merely” with the systematic blocking of

alternatives (as in the case of racial discrimination), conflict involves
personal suffering and social loss. This loss is measurable not only
in terms of material and money but also in terms of wasted human
potential.

Certainly most of the positive effects of inter group conflict can be

achieved in peaceful ways as well. Negotiation and bargaining can
lead to a favourable allocation of resources. Technological
advancements do not depend on warfare. For example, the space
program led to rapid technological developments in electronics,
plastics, nutrition and computers and nobody was deliberately killed
in the process. Cohesiveness and solidarity might be brought about
through increased rewards within the society as well as through
external threat. Thus, wars on poverty, famine, and disease, like
wars on neighbours, can raise society’s cohesiveness. Finally,
international alliances may be based on trade or cultural exchange
rather than on a pact of “mutual defense” against some third party.

Win/Lose Situations
Historically, a major source of inter-group antagonism has been
employment. (Simpson & Yinger, 1958; Bonacich, 1972). Southern
blacks emigrating north got a hostile reception from unskilled white
laborers, who felt that, their jobs might be in jeopardy. Pressures to
exclude foreigners from our shores may also have represented an
attempt to protect jobs, and there is some speculation that, when
Japanese Americans were stripped of their property and forced into
concentration camps during World War II. This action was
motivated by selfish economic considerations as well as by concern
for “national security” (Simpson & Yinger, 1958). Class struggles
and bloody battles between workers and management are
essentially conflicts between the “haves” and the “have nots”, and,
whereas, wars may be waged for “the hearts” of people, it is
amazing how often rubber, oil, tin, and land are at lease
peripherally involved. Among the more recent prizes that
contenders have seen as indivisible are Palestine, Cyprus, and the
oil wells of the Middle East.

Of course, not every resource will be disputed. For example,

although the Chamber of Commerce of Niagara Falls, New York,
might like to have the scenic Canadian side of the falls incorporated
into the United States, one hears little discussion these days about
the annexation of Canada. For a win/lose situation to develop, each
side must feel that it has claim on the resource in question.
Furthermore, not all disputed resources will spark open conflict.
The lure of specific relative-gain goals such as southern Ontario
may be offset by a recognition that, for the most part, the two
groups have had a cooperative relationship that has yielded a high
level of mutual gains. Besides, the anticipated rewards of victory
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may be offset by the anticipated costs of the conflict. In many

cases, both parties recognise that negotiated solutions provide the
best outcomes.

A particular kind of win/lose situation is the exploitative relationship,

in which one side does all the winning and the other side does all
the losing. According to Blauner’s (1970) controversial theory of
internal colonialism, discord between blacks and whites in the
United States is caused by an exploitative relationship in which
whites control all the resources. Traditionally, colonialism refers to
conditions, whereby, one country exerts economic and political
domination over another country, which is populated by people of a
different race or culture. The colonisers exploit the land, the natural
resources and above all, the people.

According to Blauner, the black ghettos in our cities are ruthlessly

exploited colonies within our national boundaries. Many groups of
immigrants have settled into ghettos in the United States, but three
features give black ghettos colonial status. First, whereas most
other ghettos were voluntarily formed, black ghettos were enforced.
Second, whereas most ghettos represented for the occupants a
stopping point on the way to becoming one more indistinguishable
mineral in the big melting pot, black ghettos have persisted over
generations and have provided dead-end streets for many black
families. Third, and most important, although in most ghettos it took
only a brief time for ghetto dwellers to become landlords,
merchants, and entrepreneurs within the ghetto, this was not true in
the case of blacks. Greek Americans, Chinese Americans, and
Polish Americans came to own their own laundries, banks and
restaurants, but the ghetto black has remained a captive patron of
white-dominated businesses.

Own-Group Bias
The attitudinal effects of win/lose competition noted in the Sherif
camp studies have also been repeatedly noted in-groups of
conflicting adults. Specifically, there have been numerous reports of
an own-group bias such that everyone within one’s own group is
favourably evaluated and everyone in the other group in
unfavourably evaluated. A number of recent experimental studies
have been aimed at pinpointing the causes of own-group bias.

Super-Ordinate Goals
A third theme in the camp studies that recurs in discussions of
inter-group conflict is that, if by the imposition of super-ordinate
goals a win/lose situation can be transformed into a situation in
which both groups can win, conflict will be reduced or eliminated.
For example, in the organisational setting, super-ordinate goals
have been used to resolve internal conflicts (Blake & Mouton, 1962;
Blake, Shepard & Mouton, 1964). In workshop settings, where
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small groups were encouraged to come up with better solutions

than those offered in competing groups, there was evidence of
inter-group antagonism. When common interests were highlighted
and the groups were encouraged to work together for the good of
the organisation, inter-group hostilities were overcome.
Inspecting the history of international relations, one can find
numerous illustrations of super-ordinate goals reducing inter-group
tensions. Unfortunately, the super-ordinate goal in these cases
usually involves the vanquishing of some third group. For example,
during the 1930s many Americans considered both the Russian
Communists and the German Nazis threatening and loathsome,
but, despite the Communists’ initial edge, the Nazis eventually
proved the more hateful of the two. With the super-ordinate goal of
defeating the Axis powers, the United States and the U.S.S.R.
became allies-at least until that super-ordinate goal was reached.
Although, this kind of historical event certainly conforms to Sherif’s
theory, it does little to help us with the problem of conflict resolution,
since, as Sherif points out, such alliances usually result in a
widening of the conflict.

It may still be possible to discover super-ordinate goals (other than

the subjugation of some third party) that could reduce the
antagonisms between traditionally conflicting social groups. This is
no easy job, for glib pronouncements such as “Let’s pull together
for peace” will not work. According to Sherif and Sherif (1969), a
super-ordinate goal must require cooperation, cannot be based on
words alone, and may not be imposed by one group on another.

Conflicts within Society

Let’s move up scale from the small groups studied by Sherif and
consider relationships among groups that constitute large
identifiable segments of the U.S. population. An ethnic group is a
collection of people who are considered by themselves and by
others to have common racial origin (as revealed by physical
factors such as skin tone and facial features). A common national
origin, a common language and cultural tradition, or some
combination of these factors (Harding et. al., 1969). Although
reference will be made to several different ethnic groups, attention
will focus on the conflict between black and white Americans,
because this conflict has been one of the most serious and also
one of the most carefully studied. A discussion of inter-group
relations forces the use of generalities. However, this should not
obscure the fact that within any given ethnic group it is possible to
find represented a wide spectrum of attitudes and behaviours
toward the members of other ethnic groups.

This section begins with a discussion of prejudice, that particular

form of in-group bias characterised by strong negative views of the
out-group. We will then consider the functions of discriminatory
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activity and will see that prejudice and discrimination tend to be

self-perpetuating. Finally, we will look at two views concerning the
best way to ensure good outcomes for one’s own ethnic group.

Prejudice
Prejudicial attitudes are negative feelings that, depart from one or
more of three ideal norms: the norm of rationality, the norm of
justice, and the norms of human heartedness. The norm of
rationality suggests that we should be accurate and factually
correct, logical in our reasoning, and cautious when making
judgments. A prejudiced attitude is likely to be inaccurate, incorrect
and illogical. The norm of justice suggests that all people should be
treated equally, except with respect to their objective abilities. A
prejudiced attitude includes the belief that differential treatment
should be based on group membership, rather than on individual
ability. The norm of human heartedness prescribes tolerance and
compassion. A prejudiced attitude often advocates kicking, rather
than rooting for, the underdog. A fully prejudiced attitude, then, is
one that is irrational, unjust, and cold hearted.

First, the arrival of a group of unskilled blacks raises the possibility

that there will be more workers than jobs and thus can result in
lowered wages and less job security for the equally unskilled white.
Prejudicial activity aimed at preventing the blacks from obtaining
jobs can have the utilitarian function of increasing the whites’ job
security. Second, the “I am better than you” attitude can serve the
ego-defensive function of giving people with little going for them a
sense of superiority. Third, prejudice against blacks can serve the
value-expressive function for any person who has been
indoctrinated in a heritage of white supremacy. Finally, the whites
can make some sense out of their observation that blacks are
treated shabbily if they draw the conclusion that “They must be bad
to deserve this treatment”. In this way prejudicial attitudes can
serve the knowledge function.

Dimensions of Prejudice
Campbell (1947) sought to determine whether prejudice is a
general attitude or factor (such that different measures of prejudice
would inter-correlate highly) or whether it is actually a number of
independent attitudes that are only loosely related. In the former
case we would expect that, if an individual believed that Croatians
were immoral, he or she would also believe that Croatians were
lazy. In the latter case it would not be possible to predict ratings of
industriousness given ratings of morality.

Campbell’s study involved five “subtopics” or prejudice : (1) Liking

or disliking of a particular group, (2) Beliefs about the degree of
blame that should be accorded the group, (3) Beliefs about the
extent to which the group should be avoided, (4) Beliefs about the
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intelligence of the group, and (5) Beliefs about the morality of the
group. Five-item scales were prepared dealing with each of these
subtopics, and subjects rated five ethnic groups on each of the five
scales. College students and high school students completed the
scales, and inter-correlations were computed. The average inter-
scale correlation’s for a given ethnic group was in the mid-50s,
which suggests a certain generality of prejudice. That is, if an ethnic
group was disliked, it was also likely to be seen as blame-worthy,
unintelligent, and immoral, and representatives were likely to be
avoided.

In a later series of three studies aimed at understanding prejudice

toward blacks, Woodman-see and Cook (1967) different facets of
prejudice are to some extent independent. They identified 11
dimensions of prejudice toward blacks :

1. Position on segregation and integration.

2. Acceptance of blacks in intimate relationships.
3. Belief in the inferiority of blacks.
4. Belief in the superiority of blacks.
5. Feelings of ease in interracial situations.
6. Expression of “derogatory beliefs” about blacks, such as
“Blacks are educationally backward” or “Some blacks are so
touchy about their rights that they are difficult to get along with”.
7. Position on the role of local autonomy in desegregation and
civil-right legislation.
8. Position on the role of individual choice in doing business with
blacks or renting to blacks.
9. Acceptance of blacks as status superiors (such as a boss or as
a teacher).
10. Sympathy for victimised blacks.
11. Position on how quickly desegregation should take place.

Prejudice and Discrimination as Self-Perpetuating

Prejudicial attitudes may lead to discriminatory behaviour.
Discrimination, in turn, may bring about behaviours on the part of
the victim that serve to justify or support the original prejudices.
That is, if we expect another person to display certain behaviour,
we may act in such a way as to bring about the anticipated
performance. This phenomenon is referred to as a self-fulfilling
prophecy. As we smugly that the other person acted as we
expected, we minimise our own role in bringing it about.

Self-fulfilling prophecies can also affect academic performance. For

example, a teacher might expect a Chicano (Mexican American)
child to do poorly in class. He or she then decides that helping this
student would be a waste of time, whereas, helping a middle-class
white student would pay rich dividends in the form of intellectual
growth for the child. The teacher thus encourages the middle-class
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student but discourages the Chicano. Then, when the Chicano

student fails and the middle-class white student flourishes, the
teacher’s expectations are strengthened. This kind of thing can
happen even if the two students are equal in motivation and ability.
Rosenthal and Jacobsen (1968) led teachers to expect that certain
students would show unusually little intellectual development,
whereas, others would show unusually great improvement, in the
course of an academic year. In fact, these two groups of students
were of equivalent promise and ability. Yet the group that the
teachers expected to improve showed a leap in performance that
the other group did not match.

Conflict Resolution Strategies : Conflict is a rift between the

worker and the management which must be managed effectively in
the organization. Conflict can also result in poor working
relationships. If hard feelings and resentment persist, they may
spoil organisational climate. Conflict can be managed in several
ways. The parties may agree about how to solve the conflict. They
might take steps to prevent such conflict in the future. Conflict can
also be resolved when one party defeats another. Sometimes there
is suppression of the conflict. This happens when the parties avoid
strong reactions or try to ignore each other when they disagree.
Conflicts can be managed successfully as follows :

1. Avoidance : Some people attempt to avoid certain types of

conflict situations or avoid conflict situations altogether. These
people tend to repress emotional reactions, look the other way, or
withdraw from a situation entirely. For example, one may resign
from a job, leave school, or become divorced. The person either
cannot face the situation effectively or does not have the skills to
resolve the conflict situation effectively.

Although avoidance strategies have survival value in those

instances in which escape is possible, they usually do not provide
the individual with a high level of satisfaction.

2. Diffusion : Diffusion strategies attempt to tone down and cool off

the situation, at least temporarily, or to keep the issues so unclear
that attempts at confrontation are unlikely. Resolving minor points
while avoiding or delaying discussion of major issues, postponing
issues underlying the conflict all are examples of diffusion tactics.
As with avoidance strategies, diffusion tactics often work when
delay is possible. However, such tactics typically result in feelings
of dissatisfaction, anxiety about the future, concerns about oneself,
and decreased self-esteem.

3. Confrontation : The third major conflict-resolution strategy is

confrontation. Confrontation may arise due to power and
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negotiation strategies. Power strategies include the use of physical

force (i.e., a punch in the nose); bribery (i.e., money and favours);
ad punishment (i.e., withholding love, money). Power tactics often
are very effective from the point of view of the “winner” or
“successful” party in the conflict.

Negotiation strategies, unlike power confrontations, present

opportunities for both sides to win. The objective of negotiation is to
resolve the conflict with a compromise solution that is mutually
satisfying to all parties involved in the conflict. Of the three conflict-
resolution strategies, negotiation seems to provide the most
positive and the least negative outcome.

There seems to be an endless list of proposals for eliminating inter-

group conflict within our society. In one group we find people who
favour conflict resolution through defeat of one side by the other. In
another group we find those who advocate some kind of mixture of
competitive and cooperative activities. Many “black power” writers,
for example, suggest that blacks should develop, through
competitive and, if necessary, aggressive activities, a position of
strength, which can then be use to induce cooperation and,
ultimately, full integration. In a third group we could find people who
favour purely cooperative means for educing inter-group tensions
and merging the conflicting groups into a larger, cohesive entity.
This third group, which operates on the assumption that it is
possible to move directly from inter-group conflict to inter-group
cooperation, would seem to include nine out of ten social
psychologists!

Techniques, approaches or mechanisms to deal with conflict :

Managers have to realise that conflict is a natural ingredient in
every organisation. Practically, there are three main strategies,
techniques, approaches or mechanisms to deal with conflict which
can be discussed as follows :

(I) Conflict Encouragement : A manager may find some situations

where conflict needs to be encouraged. This is so when certain
types and amounts of conflict are found to stimulate satisfaction
and performance of individuals or groups. The principal ways or
techniques to encourage constructive conflict may be outlined as
follows :

(a) Bringing and outside expert or consultant for the purpose of

shaking up people and thereby stimulating constructive conflict.

(b) Personally encouraging creative and innovative thinking and

action processes among people.
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(c) Fostering competitive situations in inter-personal and group

relations.

(d) Discouraging avoidance of conflict, compromises and

compatibility on goals and performance standards and also
discouraging mild acceptance of assigned roles and
responsibilities.

(e) Expressly criticising mediocrity, low levels of skills, lack of

honesty and commitment, misuse of resources, blocked
communication, poor performance, etc.

(II) Conflict Reduction : Sometimes conflicts rise to alarming

levels and thereby adversely affect the work performance in the
organisation. In such situations, the question of conflict
encouragement does not at all arise. Hence, they need to reduce,
i.e., minimise them and bring down to some tolerance level. Some
techniques of conflict reduction may be summarised as follows :
(a) In complex and dynamic organisations, conflict may be reduced
by enhancing coordination activities and better communication
flows.

(b) If the conflict stems differences over distribution of scarce or

deficient resources, the manager can reduce it by increasing the
amount of available resources.

(c) In case the excessive conflict stems from differences in goals,

the manager can reduce the conflict by focusing everyone’s
attention on a subordinate goal, such as common objective of
survival, major financial crisis, or defending against an external
threat.

(d) The managers can facilitate compromises to reduce especially

the lahour-management conflict.

(III) Conflict Resolution : Conflict in organisation is inevitable.

Sometimes even the best managers find themselves in the middle
of dysfunctional conflict, whether it is due to inattention or due to
the circumstances which are beyond their control. In such situations
managers have two options open to them : (a) avoidance, or (b)
resolution. Avoidance means to choose to do nothing, i.e., staying
neutral at all costs, downplaying disagreement, or failing to
participate in the conflict situation, by pretending that there is no
conflict and hoping that time will take care of all conflicts. Conflict
resolution means a situation in which the underlying reasons for a
given conflict are eliminated. Managers can use a number of
techniques or strategies for resolving conflict as follows :

1. Diffusion : Diffusing strategy attempts to buy time until the

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conflict between two parties becomes less emotional or less crucial.

The following methods are classified as diffusion strategy :

(a) Smoothing : Smoothing or accommodation involves (i) playing

down differences and dissensions (i.e., making them seem less
important) among the conflicting parties and highlighting similarities
and areas of agreement, and (ii) peaceful coexistence through a
recognition of common interests in the goal, in the hope that the
parties would eventually realise that they are not as far apart as
they initially believed. With this approach, problems are rarely
permitted to come to the surface and thus superficial harmony is
maintained but the potential for conflict remains.

(b) Compromise : Compromise is a ‘give-and-take’ exchange,

resulting in neither a clear winner nor loser. Compromise can be
used when the object, goal or resource in conflict, can be divided
up in some way between the competing parties. In other cases, one
party may yield on one point if it can gain something in exchange
from the other party. Compromise is the most typical way of dealing
with labour-management conflict. However, compromise takes time
which management may not be able to afford always. Moreover,
since party gains its full desires, the antecedent conditions for
future conflicts are probably established; and the conflict which
appears to be settled for a while, may well reappear at some time.

2. Power Intervention : Power interventions is a frequently used

resolution approach. It involves the use of power to end conflict.
This includes the following :

(a) Hierarchical Intervention or Forcing : Especially when time is

important, higher level management steps into a conflict and orders
the conflicting parties to handle the situation in a particular manner.
This is forcing.

(b) Use of Mediation or Arbitration : A consultant or an arbitrator

may be employed to hear and settle the dispute.

(c) Politics : Political resolution of conflict generally involves the

distribution of power between the conflicting parties. If one party
can accumulate sufficient power through resources accumulation or
the formation of a coalition, that party can exert considerable
influence over the outcome of the decision or solution to the
problem.

3. Organisational Interactions : When work needs to be

coordinated, when resources must be shared, and when other
work-flow interdependencies exist, conflict often arise. Managers
have a number options available to reduce conflicts by adjusting
the organisation design of such friction points as follows :
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(a) Buffering approach can be used when the inputs of one group
are the outputs of another group. Under this approach, an
inventory is built up between the two groups so that any output
slowdown or excess is absorbed by the inventory and does not
directly pressure that target group.

(b) Illogically sequenced procedures should be changed to remove

unnecessary difficulties.

(c) Groups, especially those which are prone to conflict, may be

separated by reducing contact between them.

(d) Training programmes may be designed and implemented for

improving interpersonal and group relationships, and for
socialisation of new members.

(e) Monetary and non-monetary incentives may be installed for

the group as a whole, instead of on an individual basis, for
higher performance and productivity.

(f) Communication systems may be redesigned so as to resolve

conflict situations.

(g) Work-group may be established with overlapping

memberships.

(h) Better coordination may be effected through a liaison-group,

which will prevent destructive clashes. Such a group may be
given formal authority to resolve conflict.

(i) Changes in the design of physical workplace may be used

effectively to resolve conflict - such as office space, desks, etc.

4. Confrontation : Three methods or techniques may be used

under confrontation strategy as follows :

(a) Problem Solving : It involves bringing together the conflicting

parties to conduct a formal confrontation meeting, so as to have the
parties present their views and opinions to each other and work
through the differences in attitudes and perceptions. An
atmosphere of trust and openness has to be built, where neither
party feels that it has to win every battle to maintain self-respect.
Instead, conflicting parties recognise that something is wrong and
needs attention. When success is achieved through problem
solving, it may be believed that true conflict resolution has
occurred.

(b) Mutual Personnel Exchange : It involves increasing the

communication and understanding between groups by exchanging
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personnel for a period of time-it is assumed that the exchanged

personnel can learn about the other group and communicate their
impressions back to their original group.

(c) Superordinate Goals : Superordinate goals are common, more

important or highly valued goals on which the conflicting parties are
asked or appealed to focus their attention. Such goals are
unattainable by one group or individual alone and generally
supersede all other goals of each group or individual.

Traditional and Modern Approaches to Conflict

Traditionally, the approach to conflict in organisations was very
simple and optimistic, it was on certain assumptions, such as :
(i) Conflict is by nature avoidable.
(ii) Rules, policies and procedures are to be emphasised.
(iii) Conflict is caused by trouble-makers, enviers of the good and
comfortable situations, and excitable self-important persons who
are always changing their minds and expect everyone to do as they
which.
(iv) Scapegoats are accepted as inevitable.
The individual managers often pretended to become critical in order
to avoid conflicts. They tried to ignore conflict. At other times, they
tried to rationalise it away with the position that there was nothing
which could be done about it.

However, in modern times, the approach towards conflict is

somewhat different. Behavioural scientists believe that there is
incongruence between individual and organisational goals. This has
caused the overall societal concern with conflict in organisations.
Some of the new assumptions about conflict may be enumerated
as follows :

(i) Conflict is inevitable.

(ii) Conflict is integral to the nature of change - conflict goes with
every change.
(iii) Conflict is determined by structural factors, such as the
physical shape of a building, the nature of a class system, and
the design of a career system.
(iv) A minimum level of conflict is optimum, desirable for growth
and development.

SUMMARY

Conflict is a dynamic concept and it is to be understood as a state

of real difference between two or more persons where overt
behaviour is characterised by differing perceptions towards goal
that, in turn, create tension, disagreement and emotionality
between/among those involved.
Conflict can be defined : as a condition of objective incompatibility
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between values or goals, and/or Conflict is also define as the

behaviour of deliberately interfering with another’s goal
achievement, and emotionally in terms of hostility.

Keeping in view that people, consider ‘conflict resolution’ a topic of

growing importance, it is essential that the relevant management
development activity should be to help people to ‘Manage Conflict’.
Some of the methods of inter-personal conflict resolutions are :

1. Withdrawal : Retreating from an actual or potential conflict

situation.

2. Smoothing : Emphasising areas of agreement and de-

emphasising areas of difference over conflicting areas.

3. Comprises : Searching for solutions that bring some degree of

satisfaction to the conflicting parties.

4. Forcing : Ederting one’s viewpoint at the potential expense of

another-often competition and win-lose situation.

5. Confrontation : Addressing a disagreement directly and in a

problem - solving mode - the affected parties work through their
disagreements.

Conflict is inevitable. It is, therefore, essential to learn to resolve

rather than running away from it. Conflict if resolved properly can
lead to better understanding and harmonious relations.
Understanding of one’s own self and of others will help reduce
conflict areas. Individuals must make efforts to cultivate/develop
some attributes which make an individual successful in conflict
management. It is possible to improve one’s ability to handle
conflict more creatively and effectively - especially if one can view
“Conflict” not as a process to be feared and suppressed, but as one
to be understood and managed.

Questions :

1. What do you mean by organisational conflict? What are

different types of conflicts situations?
2. What are the various causes of conflict?
3. What are the different approaches of conflict?
4. What are the main stages to deal with Conflict ? Explain them
in brief.
5. How would you manage Conflict in your Organisation ?
Explain.
6. “Modern Approach to Conflict is quite different from Traditional
Approach” ? Explain.
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