Lecture 4:

Introduction to Proofs
Section 1.7
Section Summary
● Mathematical Proofs
● Forms of Theorems
● Direct Proofs
● Indirect Proofs
○ Proof by Contraposition
○ Proof by Contradiction
Proofs of Mathematical Statements
● A proof is a valid argument that establishes the truth
of a statement.

● Proofs have many practical applications:

○ verification that computer programs are correct
○ establishing that operating systems are secure
○ enabling programs to make inferences in artificial
intelligence
○ showing that system specifications are consistent
Definitions
● A theorem is a statement that can be shown to be true using:
○ definitions
○ other theorems
○ axioms (statements which are given as true)
○ rules of inference
● A lemma is a ‘helping theorem’ or a result which is needed to
prove a theorem.
● A corollary is a result which follows directly from a theorem.
● Less important theorems are sometimes called propositions .
● A conjecture is a statement that is being proposed to be true.
Once a proof of a conjecture is found, it becomes a theorem. It
may turn out to be false.
Forms of Theorems
● Many theorems assert that a property holds for all
elements in a domain, such as the integers, the real
numbers, or some of the discrete structures that we
will study in this class.

● Often the universal quantifier (needed for a precise

statement of a theorem) is omitted by standard
mathematical convention.
For example, the statement:
“If x > y, where x and y are positive real numbers, then x2 > y2 ”
really means
“For all positive real numbers x and y, if x > y, then x2 > y2 .”
Proving Theorems
● Many theorems have the form:

● To prove them, we show that: where c is an arbitrary

element of the domain,
● By universal generalization the truth of the original
formula follows.
● So, we must prove something of the form:
Proving Conditional Statements: p → q
● Trivial Proof: If we know q is true, then
p → q is true as well.

“If it is raining then 1=1.”

● Vacuous Proof: If we know p is false then

p → q is true as well.
“If I am both rich and poor then 2 + 2 = 5.”

[ Even though these examples seem silly, both trivial and vacuous
proofs are often used in mathematical induction, as we will see in
Chapter 5) ]
Even and Odd Integers
Definition : The integer n is even if there exists an
integer k such that n = 2k, and n is odd if there exists
an integer k, such that n = 2k + 1. Note that every
integer is either even or odd and no integer is both
even and odd.

We will need this basic fact about the integers in some

of the example proofs to follow. We will learn more
about the integers in Chapter 4.
Proving Conditional Statements: p → q
● Direct Proof : Assume that p is true. Use rules of inference,
axioms, and logical equivalences to show that q must also be
true.
Example : Give a direct proof of the theorem “If n is an odd
integer, then n2 is odd.”
Solution : Assume that n is odd. Then n = 2k + 1 for an integer k.
Squaring both sides of the equation, we get:
n2 = (2k + 1)2 = 4k2 + 4k +1 = 2(2k2 + 2k) + 1= 2r + 1,
where r = 2k2 + 2k , an integer.
We have proved that if n is an odd integer, then n2 is an odd
integer.
Proving Conditional Statements: p → q
Definition: The real number r is rational if there exist
integers p and q such that r = p/q, where q≠0.
Example : Prove that the sum of two rational numbers is
rational.
Solution : Assume r and s are two rational numbers. Then
there must be integers p, q and also t, u such that

where v = pu + qt
w = qu ≠ 0

Thus the sum is rational.

Proof by Contraposition
● Proof by Contraposition : Assume ¬q and show ¬p is true also. This is
sometimes called an indirect proof method. If we give a direct proof of
¬q → ¬p then we have a proof of p → q.
Why does this work?

Example : Prove that if n is an integer and 3n + 2 is odd, then n is odd.

Solution : Assume n is even. So, n = 2k for some integer k. Thus,
3n + 2 = 3(2k) + 2 =6k +2 = 2(3k + 1) = 2j for j = 3k +1
Therefore 3n + 2 is even. Since we have shown ¬q → ¬p , p → q must
hold as well. If n is an integer and 3n + 2 is odd (not even) , then n is
odd (not even).
Proof by Contraposition
Example : Prove that for an integer n, if n2 is odd, then
n is odd.
Solution : Use proof by contraposition. Assume n is
even (i.e., not odd). Therefore, there exists an integer k
such that n = 2k. Hence,
n2 = 4k2 = 2 (2k2)
and n2 is even(i.e., not odd).
We have shown that if n is an even integer, then n2 is
even. Therefore by contraposition, for an integer n, if n2
is odd, then n is odd.
Proof by Contradiction
● Proof by Contradiction : (AKA reductio ad absurdum).
To prove p (the theorem), assume ¬p and derive a
contradiction (such as p ∧ ¬p).
Since we have shown that ¬p → F is true, it follows that the
contrapositive T → p also holds.

Example : Prove that if you pick 22 days from the calendar, at

least 4 must fall on the same day of the week.
Solution : Assume that no more than 3 of the 22 days fall on
the same day of the week. Because there are 7 days of the
week, we could only have picked 21 days. This contradicts the
assumption that we have picked 22 days.
Proof by Contradiction
● Example-1 : Use a proof by contradiction to give a proof that √2 is
irrational.
Solution: Suppose √2 is rational. Then there exists integers a and b
with √2 = a/b, where b≠ 0 and a and b have no common factors (see
Chapter 4). Then

Therefore a2 must be even. If a2 is even then a must be even (an

exercise). Since a is even, a = 2c for some integer c. Thus,

Therefore b2 is even. Again then b must be even as well.

But then 2 must divide both a and b. This contradicts our assumption
that a and b have no common factors. We have proved by contradiction
that our initial assumption must be false and therefore √2 is
irrational .
Proof by Contradiction
● Example-2 : Give a proof by contradiction of the statement: “If 3n + 2 is
odd, then n is odd.”
Solution: Let p be “3n + 2 is odd” and q be “n is odd.” To construct a
proof by contradiction, assume that both p and ¬q are true. That is,
assume that 3n + 2 is odd and that n is not odd. Because n is not odd,
we know that it is even.
-> Because n is even, there is an integer k such that n = 2k. This implies
that 3n + 2 = 3(2k) + 2 = 6k + 2 = 2(3k + 1).
-> Because 3n + 2 is 2t, where t = 3k + 1, 3n + 2 is even. Note that the
statement “3n + 2 is even” is equivalent to the statement ¬p, because
an integer is even if and only if it is not odd.
-> Because both p and ¬p are true, we have a contradiction. This
completes the proof by contradiction, proving that if 3n + 2 is odd, then
n is odd.
Theorems that are Biconditional
Statements
● To prove a theorem that is a biconditional statement,
that is, a statement of the form p ↔ q, we show that
p → q and q → p are both true .
Example : Prove the theorem: “If n is an integer, then n
is odd if and only if n2 is odd.”
Solution: We have already shown (previous slides)
that both p →q and q →p. Therefore we can conclude p
↔ q.

Sometimes iff is used as an abbreviation for “if and only if,” as in

“If n is an integer, then n is odd iff n2 is odd.”
Biconditional Statements are
useful for proving equivalence
● Example : Show that these statements about the
integer x are equivalent: (i) 3x + 2 is even, (ii) x + 5 is
odd, (iii) x2 is even. [Ch 1.7, Exercise 33]
Solution: Let, p = “3x + 2 is even”, q = “x + 5 is odd”, and r = “x2 is
even”.
Assume, 3x + 2 is even. Therefore, 3x is even. [even – even = even]
Since, 3 is odd, x must be even.
Then, x + 5 must be odd. [even + odd = odd] (proved p → q)
Also, x can be written as 2k, where k is an integer.
Then x2 = (2k)2 = 4k2. Thus, x2 is even. (proved p → r)
Now, we must prove the converse, r → p and q → p. Complete it yourself.
Then we will have, p ↔ q and p ↔ r. Therefore, p ≡ q and p ≡ r.
In other words, p ≡ q ≡ r .
What is wrong with this?
“Proof” that 1 = 2

Solution: Step 5. a - b = 0 by the premise

and division by 0 is undefined.
Assumptions are important.
What should be the assumption when we try to prove these statements?
● “if x is an irrational number and x > 0, then √x is also irrational.”
○ for direct proof: Assume x cannot be written as p/q, where q ≠ 0.
(Difficult to prove the statement, as we cannot explicitly
represent irrationality in algebra)
○ for contraposition: Assume √x is rational, therefore √x = p/q,
where q ≠ 0. (easier to proof for x from √x)
Assumptions are important.
What should be the assumption when we try to prove these statements?
● “If x, y, and z are integers and all three are even, then x +y +z is even,”
○ for direct proof: Assume x, y and z are evens, therefore, x = 2a, y
= 2b and z = 2c. (Easier to find x+y+z)
○ for contraposition: Assume x+y+z = 2k + 1. (Relatively Lengthy,
have to separately consider x, y and z and their cases)

● “if m and n are integers and mn is even, then m is even or n is even.”

○ for direct proof: Assume mn is even, therefore mn = 2k.
(Relatively Difficult, have to consider all cases of m and n)
○ for contraposition: Assume m is odd and n is odd, therefore m =
2a+1, n = 2b+1. (Easier to find mn)
Looking Ahead
● If direct methods of proof do not work:
○ We may need a clever use of a proof by contraposition.
○ Or a proof by contradiction.
○ Or try to disprove by counterexamples.
○ In Chapter 5, we will see mathematical induction and
related techniques.