BY SYDNEY NJABULO SITHOLE…Diplo in Edu.

(University of Zimbabwe)

Ecosystem Studies

Master Soul Studios

2021

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Introduction
Under the topic of ecosystem, we will cover the following that includes the components of
the ecosystem, independence of the ecosystem (food chain and food web), tropical rainfall
ecosystem, biochemical cycles (Nutrient cycle, Nitrogen cycle and carbon cycle), wetlands and
soil, conservation, restoration and benefits of the Ecosystem

Definition of key terms

1. Ecosystem is a shortened term for ‘ecological system’. Ecology is the study of plants and
animals and how they fit into their environment. A system is a set of components connected
together in an organized way.
2. Ecosystem refers to the links or relationship or interaction between living organisms
(biotic) and non-living organism (abiotic) in relation to the environment. Ecosystem vary in
size, examples include the Equatorial, the Savanna and the hot deserts.
3. Biodiversity is the variety (number) of flora(plants) and fauna(animals) on planet earth.
4. Biomass is the total mass of all living things within a specific area, habitat
5. Omnivore is an animal which is able to consume both plants (like herbivore) and meat (like
carnivore) e.g. Bears and humans
6. Herbivore is an animal or organism that feeds on vegetation as main part of its diet.
7. Carnivore is an organism or animal that feed chiefly on animals or meat.
8. Biome is any major regional biological community such as of forest or desert
9. Photosynthesis is a process by which plants convert light energy (sun) into chemical energy
10. Respiration is the process of breathing (inhaling and exhaling)
11. Leaching is the loss of plants nutrients from the soil, contributes to ground water
contamination.
12. Humus is the large group of natural organic components, found in the soil, formed from
the chemical and biological decomposition of plants and animal residues and from the
synthetic activity of microorganisms.

Components of the Ecosystem

• An ecosystem is made of two components
1. The Biotic components are all living components which include all the living organisms
like plants and animals.
2. The abiotic components are all the non-living components which include the soil,
sunshine, temperature, precipitation and water or moisture
• The key processes in the ecosystem include the capture of light energy and carbon
through photosynthesis, the transfer of carbon and energy through the food web and
the release of nutrients and carbon through decomposition.

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 • The living components can be producers, consumers/converters/decomposers and
these links with the abiotic elements to form a food chain.

Independence of the ecosystem

• The independence of the ecosystem includes the food web and food chain.
1. Food web

• In the food web, energy comes from the Sun, which then transfers energy to the grass
and trees.
• Primary consumers eat from these producers, collecting energy from their roots,
leaves or barks
• Secondary consumers then prey and dine on the primary consumers and they collect
energy from the animals
• This cycle continues through the Tertiary consumers and so on.

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2. Food chain

• In a food chain plants and trees are the producers who photosynthesize, creating
macromolecules which primary consumers such as Zebra, Steenbock, or Elephants use
to get energy.
• These primary consumers are then in turn eaten by Secondary consumers such as
cheetahs, hyenas or lions.
• These Secondary consumers often travel in packs in order to take down their prey.
• Finally, the scavengers and decomposers such as vultures or termites who feed on the
dead bodies of primary and secondary consumers

Biodiversity
• It refers to the variety of the fauna (animals) and flora (plants) within the planet earth
Importance of biodiversity
1. Insects, birds, bats and animals are pollinators and seed dispersal agents.
2. Parasites and predators are natural population controls.
3. Earthworms and bacteria recycle organic materials and help raise soil productivity.
4. Legumes such as beans and peas fix atmospheric nitrogen and fertilise the soil
5. Wetlands act as the sponges to decrease the impact of floods and also filter and
cleanse rivers
Types of biodiversity

• The types of biodiversity include genetic biodiversity, habitat diversity and species
diversity
Genetic biodiversity

• It refers to the variation of genes within a population of the same species or varieties
within a species.
• For example, there is a wide range of local varieties of the sweet potato which is a
plant.

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Habitat diversity

• Habitat is the type of place or site where an organism or population of organism

occurs.
• It refers to the environmental factors such as food, and shelter which support life.
• Pool of water or puddle – is an aquatic ecosystem which supports micro-organism,
insects and plants that depends on the water, sunlight, temperature and nutrients.
• Tree – a single tree provides habitats for nesting birds, parasites, fruit-eating
herbivores, snakes and monkeys.
Species diversity

• it refers to the variety of species within a habitat, measured as the number of species
present e.g. the number of birds, mammals, reptiles in a local park.

Tropical Ecosystems
• Under tropical ecosystem we will cover tropical rainfall, tropical continental
(Grassland Savana) and desert ecosystem.
Tropical Rainforest Ecosystem

• The vegetation zone is also known as Equatorial forest, rain forest or Selvas.
• The tropical rainforests are found between 5o North and 5o South of the Equator in
lowlands.
• West Africa: Coastal belts of Sierra Leone, Liberia, Ivory Coast, Nigeria, the Western
Coastline of Cameroon and the South-Western coastal belt of Ghana and west of
Accra.
• Zaire Basin: Gabon, Republic of Congo, Cabinda, Equatorial Guinea and Northern
Zaire (DRC)
Natural inputs
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1. Temperature

• The midday sun in equatorial regions is always direct overhead throughout the year.
• The average temperature is high and ranges from 26-27oC
2. Humidity

• The humidity is always high over 90% even during the morning due to the high
temperature throughout the year.
• The water vapor from water bodies (seas, lakes and rivers) and vegetation (tree
leaves) is added to the atmosphere.
3. Rainfall

J F M A M J J A S O N D
oC 20 19 24 30 31 29 28 25 26 27 24 22
mm 80 60 152 200 167 117 106 310 142 207 200 210

400

350
310
300

250
200 207 200 210
200
167
152 142
150
117
106
100 80
60
50

• There is very high rainfall due to the high temperature and high humidity which is
experienced every day.
• The type of rainfall is conventional rainfall and it is often associated by lightning
thunder and light winds.
• In the Zaire Basin, the annual rainfall ranges from 1500-2500mm
• In the West Africa, rainfall is much higher ranging from 1500-3050mm. The higher
rainfall totals in west Africa are a result of the monsoons winds.
4. Soil

• The Equatorial soils are easily drained in most parts, and they allow roots to penetrate
and provide easy passage for rain water.
• The soil is good for growing conditions for trees.

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 • Deforestation and easily drained soils also promote soil leaching. This means minerals
salts are washed down to deeper levels by the heavy rainfall.
Natural outputs

1. Vegetation adapts to the climate. For example, buttress roots to support tall trees,
drip tips to help remove excess moisture.
2. Tallest trees can be over 50m high. Some of these trees includes Shrubs, bananas,
ferns, palm trees.
3. Where forests are near the coast Mangrove swamps may be found.
4. There are hardwoods like teak, ebony, mahogany, Iroko, wawa, obeche, rosewood,
green heart and baku.
5. There are jungles of trees and vines

The picture shows structure of the Tropical rainforest vegetation zones

Effects of people

1. There is deforestation due to Mineral extraction, Logging for tropical hardwoods,

Energy production (dams for HEP), Tourism, Population pressure, Wood pulp for
paper mills Banana and coffee plantations.
2. The rising population in countries like Nigeria, Ghana and Western Zaire has forced
people to clear forests to establish homes, cultivation and cut trees for poles to
construct shelters.
3. Mining oil in the Niger Delta and in Coastal Gabon had forced developers to input
labour and money to cut down trees to establish mines, roads, railway lines, pipelines,
settlements, towns etc.
4. Trees of economic value are exploited, for example, hardwoods used for flooring,
furniture, railway sleepers, and carving. These hardwoods include Mahogany, Iroko,
Wawa, Obeche, Ebony, Rosewood, Green heart and Baku.

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The natural vegetation in the tropical rainforest is characterized by:

1. Great floral (trees) diversity that is 100 different tree species.

2. Tall, lowering trees with a canopy at 25-35 metres above the ground that prevents the
sunlight from reaching the ground.
3. Fast growing plants that compete for sunlight.
4. Great diversity of plants that produce fruits and shed their leaves at different times
throughout the year.
5. Thin tree bark for fast evaporation of water.
6. Plants that have large drip leaves to quickly shed rain water.
7. Micro-organism such as bacteria and fungi that quickly in the hot, humid environment.

Grassland Savanna/Tropical Continental

•
It is also called the Sudan type, True Savanna, Tropical Continental or Tropical grass.
•
They are found between Guinea Savanna and Acacia Savanna.
•
It stretches from Senegal through the Eastern Africa platue to the Southern African
highveld.
Natural inputs
1. Temperature

•Summers are very hot with temperature averaging 32oC. They are hotter than the
Equatorial and Guinea Savana because cloud cover and rainfall are less.
• Winters are cool to warm, with an average temperature of 20 oC.
2. Rainfall

• The grassland savanna has a long dry season and a shorter wet season of about five
months. The annual rainfall is about 500-1000mm. Rainfall is Convectional and heavy.

J F M A M J J A S O N D
oC 22 25 24 25 18 14 13 17 20 21 24 24
mm 200 180 120 0 0 0 0 0 50 100 120 180
300

250
200
200 180 180

150
120 120
100
100
50
50
0 0
0

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Natural hazards
1. Lightning often associated with Conventional rainfall cause veld fires. They are most
common at the beginning of the rainy season in October.
2. Strong winds and cyclones that lead to destruction of the grassland Savanna.
3. Fungus that lead to the slowing down of the growth of plants.
4. Insects also destroy plants by burrowing into tress trunks or by eating grass.
Natural outputs
1. There is big game such as the big five, many birds, and snakes.
2. The cool dry winters discourages the growth of plants and trees and scattered trees.
3. There are widespread grasses which grow very quickly during the wet season and dry
up during the dry seasons.
4. Water loggings and compact soil such as clay discourages tree growth.
5. Most of the Savanna grassland have long tap roots, and rough bark, thick and often
twisted trunks. Examples of trees found are Musasa, Mutondo, Baobab, Mupfuti,
UMgusa, Mukarati, teak, Shea butter, and African locust bean.
Effects of the people
1. Cutting of trees and burning grass has led to widespread soil erosion in heavily
cultivated and populated areas.
2. There is widespread destruction of trees and grass through farming and grazing
activities.
3. Commercial farming has huge expanses of cleared ground for extensive farming.
4. Veld fires by burning grass.
5. Establishment of irrigation schemes led to the destruction of vegetation.

Semi desert and desert Ecosystem

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 •This climatic vegetation zone occurs mostly between 15o North and South of the
Equator, in areas receiving less than 250mm of rain a year.
• In Africa, south of the Sahara, desert occur in Southern Mauritius, Central Mali,
Southern Niger, Central Chad, central Somalia, western Botswana, central and
Southern Namibia and North-Western Cape provinces in South Africa.
Natural inputs
1. Temperature
• There is high temperature average during the day ranging from 32 oC to 38oC and the
temperature fall during the night.
2. Rainfall
• The total annual rainfall is always about 250mm because there is no rainy season.
• Rain fall in any month of the year.

J F M A M J J A S O N D
oC 35 40 27 30 31 39 28 35 38 40 34 39
mm 10 40 0 20 0 35 50 40 0 20 30 25

100
90
80
70
60
50
50
40 40
40 35
30
30 25
20 20
20
10
10
0 0 0
0

3. Strong winds
• Strong winds blow over the desert and the winds that blows are the North East Trades
or Harmattans winds.
4. Soils
• Desert soils are sandy, coarse, poorly developed, and shallow, a reflection of
inadequate and incomplete weathering.
• The soils are also saline and unfertile due to the lack of vegetation cover which is
essential for humus accumulation.
• As a result, the desert soils are incapable of supporting crops production and the
growth of vegetation cover.

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Natural outputs
1. Sandy, general poor soils without humus
2. Top layers of soil contain salt (salinization)
3. Desert vegetation has adapted to survive long period of drought and huge
temperature.
4. Hardy animals like Camels and donkeys, nocturnal birds and reptiles.
5. Common desert plants and semi-desert plants include the cactus, aloe, bunch grass,
low hook thorns, knob thorn and sweet thorn.
Adaptation of plants and animals in desert

• The flora and fauna in deserts display a wide variety of structural, physiological and
behavioural forms of adaptations to the current prevailing conditions.
The adaptation of desert plants
1. Long tap roots to draw underground water.
2. Cactus hake spikes or thorns in places of leaves in order to minimize evapo-
transpiration.
3. Waxy covered leaves to reduce water loss.
4. Huge trunks and tubers to store water e.g. Baobab trees

5. Fleshy stems to store water.

6. Produce seeds which lie dormant for a long time and germinate when little rainfall
falls: these seeds are covered with hard crusts or shells to extend the lifespan.
7. Short life cycle e.g. flowering plants and herbs to maximise chances of survival of future
generations by providing humus through decomposition.
The adaptation of desert animals
1. Nocturnal activity – to prevent excessive heat during the day e.g. through sweating
and respiration. Animals also sleep during the day in shades and caves to prevent
daytime heat.
2. Animals also barrow into the ground e.g. reptiles, rodents and mice and snakes (during
the winter)

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 3. Animals pass out concentrated urine and dry faeces in order to minimize water loss
from their bodies.
4. They also adapt to desert conditions by strong fat at the humps of their backs for use
during the absence of food e.g. Camels. Camels also have the capacity to go for days
without drinking water due to the absence of reliable of water.
5. Animals also develop large broad hooves to be able to walk in desert sands
Effects of people
1. The little vegetation that grows is destroyed by people through cutting the bushes for
firewood or through grazing their domesticated animals like camels and goats and
donkeys.
2. They have set up irrigation schemes e.g. Gezira scheme in Sudan
3. The oases (underground water) is used by the people to grow food.
4. The discovery and exploitation of minerals in the desert has meant development in
some places.
The natural vegetation in the desert is characterized by:
1. Short grass, shrubs and bushes in response to limited water resources.
2. Small leaves, spines and thorns reduce evapotranspiration
3. Long tap roots get water from underground.
4. Shallow, extensive roots to collect water from a wide area
5. Umbrella canopies of plants protect roots from overheating.
6. Nocturnal creatures like lizards, snakes, birds and turtles dominate the cool nights and
evenings.
7. Animals have water proof skins to reduce evaporation.
8. Animals are light in colour to hide in the light coloured sand
9. Animal body fats deposits store energy.
10. Hardy domestic animals such as goats, sheep and donkeys are adapted to the hars

Biochemical cycles
• The biochemical cycles include the water cycle, hydrogen cycle, phosphorus cycle,
nutrient cycle, nitrogen cycle and carbon cycle.
• We will cover three which are the Nutrient cycle, Nitrogen cycle and Carbon cycle.
Nutrient Cycle

• Nutrient cycling is referred to as the continuous chemical movements of nutrients. It

is also called the matter cycling
• As plants die, they release nutrients to the soil, when we grow crops nutrients are
transferred to the living organism, when the animals die the nutrients are transferred
back to the soil. The continuous movement of nutrients is always in a state of
equilibrium as nothing is lost or gained. (Geography module level II, Volume 1, 2020,
page 169)
• Nutrients are taken up when animals eat plants and they are returned to the soil when
animals die and the body is broken down by decomposers.

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 • In all nutrient cycles there are interactions between the atmosphere and soil and many
food chains are involved.
• Nutrient cycle varies greatly between ecosystems, as the rate of nutrients transfer is
dependent on the amount of moisture, heat, vegetation and the length of the growing
season

Nitrogen Cycle

• Nitrogen is the most important gas in the atmosphere where it constitutes 78% of the
air. It is found in molecules and oxides
• The nitrogen cycle is a complex biochemical cycle in which nitrogen is converted from
its inert atmosphere molecular form (N2) into a form that is useful in biological
process.
• Nitrogen found in the atmosphere is fixed into the soil through lightning. It is also fixed
in the form of ammonia and is transferred to nitrates by nitrogen fixing bacteria. It is
found in plants like beans, dover and alfalfa
• Protein is synthesized from inorganic compounds found in the soil or free nitrogen in
the air.
• This process is helped by nitrogen fixing bacteria in the soil.
• Certain Bacteria have a symbiotic (beneficial) relationship with other plants.
• The small organism usually lives on the host (large organism)

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The Carbon Cycle

• Carbon cycle is the movement of carbon elements between the organic and inorganic
components. (Geography module level II, Volume 1, 2020, page 169)
• Carbon is removed from the atmosphere through the action of photosynthesis from
trees and plants.
• Carbon is put back into the atmosphere by cellular respiration from organism living in
the biome, these organisms include giraffes, rhinos, birds, lions amongst others.
• Carbon can also be put back when wild fires erupts in the tropical grasslands and
Savanna. However, it can be taken out of the atmosphere via photosynthesis from
producers or it can be dissolved in the little bit of water that is present in the biome.
• Another way that carbon dioxide can be emitted into the atmosphere is when fossil
fuels like coal and oil are burned. Carbon dioxide will be released into the atmosphere.
• Volcanic emissions also emit carbon dioxide to the atmosphere.
• Carbon is important because when it mixes with oxygen it forms carbon dioxide which
is important for photosynthesis.
• Carbon also help in the formation of carbohydrates, fats and proteins. It is also the
main mineral in the formation of limestone rock.

• The picture shows the main processes in the carbon cycle. The main processes in the
picture are carbonification, respiration, photosynthesis and combustion.
• Human beings can affect the carbon cycle though the increased burning of plastic and
industrial gases, burning of forests and over extraction of minerals.

Wetlands
• Wetland is any land which is periodically or permanently water logged e.g. marshes

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 • Wetlands are areas of marsh, fen, peatland or water, whether natural or artificial,
permanent or temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt,
including rapirran land adjacent to wetlands.
• Wetland are water covered or water-logged areas that give rise to unique form of
plant and animal life and play an important ecological role.
• Estuaries, deltas, bogs, swamps and marshes are all kind of wetlands.
• In Zimbabwe, wetlands cover approximately 4.6% of the land, and the wetlands are
also known as Matoro (Shona), Mapani (Shona) and Amaxhaphozi (Ndebele)
• In Zimbabwe, seven sites have been designed as protected wetlands and these are:
Victoria Falls, Driefontein, Middle Zambezi/Mana pools, Lake Chivero, Monavale Vlei,
Chinhoyi Caves and Cleverland Dam.

The importance of wetlands

1. Provide important habitat for a variety of wildlife.
2. Ensure food security.
3. Trap moderate amount of soil running off nearby uplands before they enter lakes and
streams.
4. Maintain and improve water quality
5. Renew ground water supplies
6. Help and control flooding and reduce flood damage.
7. Fire control
8. Support recreational activities such as fish, hunting, nature appreciation, bird
watching and so much more.
9. Provide opportunities to participate in no outdoor educational activities and to enjoy
the aesthetic (beautiful) quality of wetlands.
10. Provide a source of economically valuable products such as wild rice and commercial
farming.

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 11. Irrigation purposes
12. Promotion of tourism e.g. Tourism
13. Source of raw materials for craft industries e.g. reeds
14. Research purposes
15. Biodiversity, availability of different species of plants and animals.
16. Aquatic plants found in these areas remove nitrates, phosphorus and pesticides from
agricultural runoff.
17. Plants and animals in the wetlands act as a filtering system as they remove dirty
through filtration and sedimentation.
18. Trees and grass help by reducing the speed of moving water, this helps in distributing
water into the flood plains
The effects of wetlands
1. Spreading of water borne diseases easy. Diseases such as cholera, typhoid, dysentery
and diarrhea
2. Drowning and death
Causes of wetland degradation
1. Agriculture activities
2. Drilling of boreholes
3. Commercial and residential development; road construction, impoundment,
resources extraction, industrial siting, and waste, dredge disposal, care and cultivation
of forest trees (silviculture), and mosquito control through drainage, channelization
and use of toxic pesticides
Measures to maintain wetlands
1. Plant native species to maintain natural balance of the wetlands. The plants in and
around a wetland trap and filter out sediments and chemical pollutants and aid in
ground water recharge by retaining runoff waters.
2. Direct storm water into wetlands especially in urban areas because they supply much
of the water necessary to maintain wetlands
3. Maintain a green belt around the wetland
4. Fence the wetland against animals that may destroy vegetation
5. Do not cut down trees and clear grass.
6. Do not introduce trees like Gumtrees in wetlands because they drain a lot of water.
7. Use organic manure instead of fertilizers and pesticides.
8. Avoid dumping waste on wetlands, this causes land and water pollution.

The Soil
• Soil is the uppermost layer of earth’s crust, which support growth of plants
• Soil is a renewable as well as no-renewable resource
• Soil is renewable because its productivity can be maintained with fertilizers and
manures rich in humus.

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 • If the soil has been removed from a certain place by erosion, it is particularly non-
renewable because formation on new soil may take hundreds and thousands of years
Factors affecting Soil formation
1. Nature of the parent rock

• The parent rock material is the rock material that breaks down into rock particles and
may influence the nature of the soil in terms of fertility.
• The mineral composition of the parent rock determines the nature of the soil nutrients
or fertility.
• Rocks of limestone nature will give rise to soils that are rich in lime
• Mineral composition may determine the nature and rate of chemical decomposition
of the rocks.
• Non-permeable rocks may lead to the formation of thin soils because of the low rate
of soil formation.
2. Climate

• Climate influences soil formation through its role in weathering that leads to the
formation of the soil
• In areas of heavy rainfall adequate moisture is provided for the process of chemical
weathering
• In the desert areas soil formation through physical weathering processes like
exfoliation are common.
• High temperature accelerates chemical weathering leading to high rate of soil
formation unlike in areas of low temperature where soil formation through chemical
weathering is limited.
• In very cold regions like mountain tops, the nature of soil formation is through physical
weathering processes like Frost action or Freeze and Thaw.
• Climate also determines the nature of vegetation and animals’ life that consequently
contribute to the soil formation through the addition of humus,
3. Living organism or Biota

• They include bacteria, animals, human beings (mammals) and plants.

• Bacteria plays an important role in the break down of rocks through complex
processes.
• Organism such as earthworms, termites breaks down the rocks into smaller
substances that constitute soil.
• Rodents like rats, moles and squirrels breaks down rocks as they dig holes into the
ground.
• Man influence soil formation through activities like mining, quarrying and digging
• Plant roots break down rocks as they grow into the ground
• Plant leaves and branches fall down and decay to form humus that is added to the soil.
4. Relief

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 • Relief influences soil formation through erosion and deposition
• Steep slopes are easily eroded. The rate of soil formation is high because erosion
exposes the parent rock to further weathering
• In the gentle slopes, soil tends to de deep, mature and with a well-developed profile.
• In the lowlands or flatlands where rainfall is high, leaching takes place and may lead
to the formation of Laterite soils that are poor in terms of plant nutrients.
5. Time

• Soil formation requires adequate time, time is important in that the nature of the soil
depends on how long the processes and factors have been interacting
• If a parent rock has been exposed to the processes for a long time, soil formation will
complete as compared to a parent rock exposed for a relatively shorter period.
Soil components

• The soil is complex mixture of different kinds of particles. There are 4 soil components
and each of the component is important in supporting plant growth.
• The components of soil are mineral matter (45%), organic matter (5%), soil water
(25%), soil air (25%)

1. Mineral matter

• Minerals make up 45-50% of the soil and it is the largest component of the soil.
• There are two types of minerals which are primary and secondary.
• Primary minerals are found in sand and silt areas where the soil materials are similar
to the parent rock.
• Secondary minerals are formed from weathering of stable minerals like silicate clay.
2. Water.

• It is the second biggest component of soil, it constitutes about 25 % of the soil.

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 • Water moves nutrients from one part to another and it also helps in biological and
chemical decay.
• Water holding capacity depends on the size of its particles. The smaller the particles
the more they can hold water.
• Clay has the biggest holding capacity whilst sand has the lowest.
3. Air

• It makes up 25% of the soil.

• Air is very important component because it is used by micro-organism for respiration
and for movement of nutrients.
• Air in the soil has similar amounts of nitrogen except that of oxygen, carbon dioxide
and water vapour.
• Sandy soil has the highest percentage of air followed by loam soils and then clay soil
at the bottom.
4. Organism matter

• Organic matter makes about 5% of the soil.

• The organic components of the soil include the residue of dead plants, animals like
bacteria and worms.
• Soils rich in organic matter have potassium, nitrogen and magnesium
Soil forming processes

• Soil is formed by the weathering or breakdown of the parent rock

• The soil forming processes include gleization, chelluviation, salinization, leaching,
calcification, mineralization, horrification, eluviation, podsolization, lessivage
1. Gleization/Gleying

• This soil forming process occurs in climatic environments where there are swamps and
wetlands.
• The areas that are water logged lack oxygen promoting the process of anaerobic
respiration and oxygen is removed. This process has an effect on soil colour and
nutritional status of the soil.
• The process leads to the development of hydromorphic soil. Such soils are intrazonal
hydromorphic soils with poorly developed profiles.
2. Cheluviation

• This process involves chemical bonding of metal irons and organic matter.
• It is a soil forming process whereby plants acid help in the movement of metallic
compounds like aluminium and iron from the upper horizon to the lower zone of the
soil profile.
• The soil then develops a brick layer which can be referred to as a lateritic layer.
3. Salinization

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 • It is the process by which soil are enriched with salt. This is due to evaporation from
the soil surface which draws up soils in solution by capillary movement.
• Intense irrigation also causes salinization because it gives rise to the saline top soils of
high salt concentration especially in the semi-arid areas.
• Salinization give rise to a poor A-horizon.

The pictures show salinization in process

4. Leaching

• Leaching refers to the removal of solvable mineral nutrients by water from the upper
layers of the soil profile to the underlying ones.
• Minerals like salt and carbonates dissolve in water in top soil and move in solution
form to the sub soil.
• Calcium and magnesium are removed from the A-horizon and then deposited in the
B-horizon.
• Leaching results into an impoverished A-Horizon
Composition and properties of the Soil
1. Soil profile – a vertical cross section of the soil showing its four horizons
2. Soil depth – varying properties depending of the maturity of the soil and the nature of
the rock below

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 3. Soil color – color is determined by mineralogical components of the soil.
4. Soil texture – the degree of the fineness of the soil
5. Soil porosity – total volume of empty spaces between the particles of the soil material.
6. Soil structure – the arrangement of the soil particles.
Soil profile

• It describes the section down wards through the soil which comprises differing
characteristics in terms of texture, color, mineral composition, ratio of combination
organic and inorganic matter, hardness and rate of weathering.
• There are four horizons namely: A Horizon, B horizon, C horizon and D Horizon.
• Each horizon has different physical and chemical properties, which results from
various soil forming processes such as weathering, introduction of humus and
movements of minerals.

A Horizon

• This known as the topsoil and it is rich in organic matter which organic matter accounts
for the dark color.
• Leaching and Eluviation (the sideways or downward movements or dissolved or
suspended materials within the soil caused by rainfall) may at time impoverish the
topsoil
B Horizon

• It is the sub soil

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 • Nutrients removed from the A Horizon through leaching and Eluviation are deposited
in this horizon
• This horizon is also characterized by hard pans due to the accumulation of large
quantities of clay and other nutrients.
C Horizon

• This consists of weathered rocks. This is because weathering and other soil forming
processes may not effectively operate at this depth.
D Horizon

• This consists of the soil parent rock or un-weathered rock.

• It is also known as the bed rock
• It has no soil particles but has potential for future soil formation.
Soil types

1. Sandy soil

• They are usually formed in areas with a lot of granite rocks, these soils have large
crystal and are usually used to grow leguminous crops like groundnuts.
• They are dry and gritty.
• They have the largest soil particles that holds little water because they have gaps that
allows water to move through very fast.
• Movements of nutrients is very fast as this soil has large pore spaces.
2. Podzol

• the group of soil which occur mostly in moist cool temperate climates
3. Red lateric soils

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 • are soil types rich in iron (causing red from oxidation) and aluminium, formed in hot
and wet tropical areas
4. Loam soil

• The soil particles are of varied nature and are able to hold soil moisture.
• These soils drain quickly because they are aerated (supplied with air or oxygen)
• Plants are able to access moisture in these soils.
5. Clay soil

• They have the smallest soil particles and its particles are settling together.
• These soils have a tighter hold on nutrients and this makes fertile.
• The disadvantage of these soil is that they are badly aerated and heavy to work with
its particles stick together.
6. Azonal soils

• These are soils forming in eolian, alluvial and colluvial

7. Zonal Soils

• are soils which occur in definite regions of climate and vegetation

8. Intrazonal soils

• have well defined soil profile characteristics that reflects the dominant influence of
some factors of relief or parent material over the classical zonal effects of climate and
vegetation.
Conservation of soils
1. Maintainance of soil fertility by adding manure and fertlizers as by crop rotation
2. Control of grazing through paddocking systems
3. Reforestation
4. Terracing – dividing slopes into several flat fields to control rapid runoff of water
5. Contour ploughing
6. Ploughing across slopes

Methods of restoring the Ecosystem

1. Gully filling
2. Proper drainage
3. Grass planting
4. Tree plantation
5. Repairing and replanting wetlands, creek beds, forest lands and habitats
6. Replacing turf grass with native species
7. Eradicating invasive species
8. Planting rain gardens to absorb rain water running off roots

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 9. Monitoring pond and lake habitats and preparing reports on findings to government
authorities

Methods of conserving the Ecosystem

1. Afforestation
2. Game parks or nature parks
3. Education
4. Fines
5. Use of totems and taboos
6. Paddocking
7. Use stock feed
8. Grass plantation
9. Government legislation
10. Nature preserves
11. Reducing invasive species
12. Habitat restoration
13. Captive breeding and seed banks
14. Research
15. Reduce climate change
16. Purchase sustainable products
17. Sustainable living

Benefits of the Ecosystem

1. Humans get oxygen from trees
2. Reduce soil erosion
3. Fruits and honey
4. Habitant for different species
5. Timber for furniture
6. Manure
7. Humus which is the substance that forms from the complex decomposition of
organism in an ecosystem. It is vital for the fertility of the soil.
8. Medicines e.g. herbs, ginger, aloe leaves that contains fluids to treat a number of skin
conditions
9. Carbon sinks – trees absorb carbon dioxide and use it to make their own food and
grow. This reduces the effects of global warming.
10. Increase in precipitation

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