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Chakraborty Clarias Gariepinus

Clarias gariepinus, a catfish native to Africa and southwestern Asia, is widely cultured for aquaculture but poses significant ecological risks as an invasive species. Its rapid growth, high fecundity, and adaptability threaten local biodiversity and fisheries, leading to bans on its introduction in countries like India and Bangladesh. Despite its economic benefits in fish production, concerns about its nutritional value and contamination with heavy metals have raised alarms regarding its impact on food security.

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Chakraborty Clarias Gariepinus

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PUBLISHED ONLINE 16 DECEMBER 2024

VIEW THE DATASHEET ONLINE: HTTPS://WWW.CABI.ORG/ISC/DATASHEET/88683

The live CABI Compendium datasheet includes additional dynamic elements that are omitted from this static PDF
copy (e.g. distribution table, map and links between datasheets).

Clarias gariepinus
Binay Chakraborty

Summary
Datasheet Type(s)
Natural Enemy
Cultured Aquatic Species
Invasive Species
Host Animal

Summary of Invasiveness
Clarias gariepinus is a catfish native to Africa and south-western Asia. It has many positive attributes making it suitable for aquaculture,
and in recent decades it, together with its hybrids with other Clarias spp., has become an important aquacultured species and been
widely introduced in other parts of the world, particularly Asia and Europe.
However, it has all the qualities of an aggressive and successful invasive species. Its high fecundity, flexible phenotype, rapid
growth, wide habitat preferences, tolerance to extreme water conditions and ability to subsist on a wide variety of prey can
devastate indigenous fish and aquatic invertebrate populations. It is because of these characteristics that countries such as India
and Bangladesh have imposed a ban on the introduction and culture of C. gariepinus. Nevertheless, the effects of the illegal and
indiscriminate introduction of this fish into India, as in other countries, have brought about potential ecological problems such as
the loss of biodiversity in natural inland waters and adverse effects on fisheries. Genetic introgression of native wild clariid catfish by
escapees of hybrid catfish (C. gariepinus x C. macrocephalus) from fish farms have been reported in Thailand, with similar problems
involving C. batrachus in Bangladesh. It has been reported that although the culture of C. gariepinus has significantly raised overall fish
production, it has harmed food security as it is less nutritious than many of the threatened native fishes of Bangladesh and is often
contaminated with excessive heavy metal residues.

Pictures
Picture Title Caption Copyright
Clarias gariepinus (African
sawtooth catfish); Adult on a ford
after jumping upsteam. Mlondozi ©Bernard Dupont-2014/via Flickr
Adult
Ford, S129 Road North of Lower - CC BY-SA 2.0
Sabie, Kruger NP, South Africa.
January 2014.

Clarias gariepinus (African

©Wibowo A. Djatmiko-2008/via
sawtooth catfish); Adult, captive
Adult Wikimedia Commons - CC BY-SA
specimen. Bogor, West Java,
3.0
Indonesia. May 2008.

Clarias gariepinus (African

©Wibowo A. Djatmiko-2008/via
sawtooth catfish); Adult anterior
Adult Wikimedia Commons - CC BY-SA
section, captive specimen. Bogor,
3.0
West Java, Indonesia. May, 2008.

Clarias gariepinus (African

sawtooth catfish); Juvenile
Juvenile ©Wing-Keong Ng
showing distinct mottled body
coloration.

KNOWLEDGE FOR LIFE

CABI COMPENDIUM | Clarias gariepinus 2

Picture Title Caption Copyright

Clarias gariepinus (African

Gravid female sawtooth catfish); Gravid female ©Wing-Keong Ng
caught from a broodstock pond.

African catfish are harvested and

placed onto the back of a truck
for transport to the processing
Transportation ©Wing-Keong Ng
site. The air-breathing ability
of this catfish enables it to be
transported with very little water.

Identity
Preferred Scientific Name
Clarias gariepinus Burchell, 1822

Other Scientific Names

Clarias capensis Valenciennes, 1840
Clarias depressus Myers, 1925
Clarias guentheri Pfeffer, 1896
Clarias lazera Valenciennes, 1840
Clarias longiceps Boulenger, 1899
Clarias macracanthus Günther, 1864
Clarias malaris Nichols & Griscom, 1917
Clarias micropthalmus Pfeffer, 1896
Clarias moorii Boulenger, 1901
Clarias mossambicus Peters, 1852
Clarias muelleri Pietschmann, 1939
Clarias notozygurus Lönnberg & Rendahl, 1922
Clarias orontis Günther, 1864
Clarias robecchii Vinciguerra, 1893
Clarias smithii Günther, 1896
Clarias syriacus Valenciennes, 1840
Clarias tsanensis Boulenger, 1902
Clarias vinciguerrae Boulenger, 1902
Clarias xenodon Günther, 1864
Silurus gariepinus Burchell, 1822

International Common Names

Arabic: abu shanab; balbout; garmut; karmut
English: African catfish; African magur; catfish African; mudfish; North African catfish; sharptooth catfish
French: poisson-chat nord-Africain
Russian: yuzhnoafrikanskaya zubatka
Spanish: pez gato

Local Common Names

Angola: mburi
Cambodia: trey andaing Afrik
Ethiopia: ambaazaa

© CABI 2024
Downloaded from https://cabidigitallibrary.org by 197.211.63.34, on 04/17/25.
Subject to the CABI Digital Library Terms & Conditions, available at https://cabidigitallibrary.org/terms-and-conditions
CABI COMPENDIUM | Clarias gariepinus 3

Germany: aalbuschelwels; Afrikanischer raubwels; Afrikanischer Wels; kiemensackwels

Greece: klarias
Indonesia: keli Afrika
Israel: sfamnun matzui
Japan: namazu
Kenya: mumi
Malawi: mlamba
Malaysia: keli Afrika
Mozambique: nsomba
Namibia: skerptandbaber
Netherlands: Afrikaanse meerval
Nigeria: arira; aro; ejengi; imunu; kemudu; tarwada
Poland: stawada
Senegal: baleewu; bambara; talage; toucouleurs; yess
Sierra Leone: harlei; thamba; t-nima
South Africa: skerptandbaber
Sudan: attek; cik; cogo; kor; pet cick; pet der; tukpe
Tanzania: kambale; mlamba; mumi
Uganda: eyisombi
Zambia: mulonge; muta

Overview
Clarias gariepinus is a catfish that is indigenous to the inland waters of much of Africa and is cultured commercially in a number
of African countries including Nigeria, Zambia, Ghana and South Africa (Beveridge and Haylor, 1998), making it the most cultured
catfish on the African continent. Despite its being endemic to Africa, commercial culture of this catfish only started there in the early
1970s and remained modest until a rapid expansion (particularly in Nigeria) in the early 21st century. C. gariepinus is also endemic
in western Asia in countries such as Israel, Syria and the south of Turkey. It has been widely introduced to other parts of the world
including the Netherlands, Hungary, much of Southeast Asia and East Asia. The introduction of this African species for aquaculture in
many parts of Asia, and its successful hybridization with Asian species such as Clarias macrocephalus, have led to increased interest
in the commercial culture of clariid catfishes, with African catfish and African-Asian Clarias hybrids tending to replace the aquaculture
production of many native catfish species in Asia. This has often been economically beneficial. World production of clariid catfishes
is second only to ictalurid catfishes and has expanded rapidly worldwide to reach over 1.5 million tonnes, although only 235,000
tonnes is recorded as C. gariepinus specifically and 100,000 tonnes as one of its hybrids (FAO, 2021).
Many researchers and fish farmers agree that C. gariepinus is probably one of the most ideal aquaculture species in the world. Its
many positive attributes such as wide native distribution, air-breathing ability, high fecundity, fast growth rate, resistance to disease,
tolerance of high stocking density and high feed-conversion efficiency have been reviewed by Haylor (1993). Much research has
been done in various countries on important culture parameters of this species which has contributed to the successful farming of
C. gariepinus and its hybrids in various parts of the world (Haylor, 1993; Tonguthai et al., 1993; Graaf and Janssen, 1996). Different
systems are currently being used to grow the species including the traditional flooded ponds, pits or ditches, earthen ponds, tanks,
raceways and cages.
However, in Bangladesh, after initial favourable results, it was found that the species was highly invasive, with adverse effects on
biodiversity and fisheries (as well as a tendency to be contaminated by heavy metals and be less nutritious than threatened native
species). Its culture is now banned in that country. Concerns about invasiveness have also been expressed in some other countries
outside the native range. Culture of the species is also prohibited in India (Dhawan and Kaur, 2001; Chirwa et al., 2016).

Description
Clarias gariepinus are readily recognized by their elongated cylindrical body with scaleless skin, flattened bony head, small eyes,
elongated spineless dorsal fin and four pairs of barbels around a broad mouth. The upper surface of the head is coarsely granulated
in adult fish but smooth in young fish (Oijen, 1995). The anal fin is also fairly long. The species has strong pectoral fins with spines that
are serrated on the outer side (Teugels, 1986).
The four pairs of barbels are: nasal, maxillary (the longest and most mobile), outer mandibular and inner mandibular. The fish can
move the maxillary barbels independently of its mouth. The barbels serve as tentacles. Close to the nasal barbels, two olfactory
organs are located. The fish recognizes its prey mainly by touch and smell.
There are no dorsal spines and dorsal soft rays (total) number 61-80. There are no anal spines and anal soft rays number 45-65.
The recorded vertebrae number is 56-63. The body depth is one-sixth to one-eighth of the standard length, and the head about
one-third, or 30-37% (Bailey, 1994). Head somewhat between rectangular and pointed in dorsal outline; snout broadly rounded;
eyes supero-lateral and relatively small (Teugels, 1986). Teeth on premaxilla and lower jaw small, fine and arranged in several rows;

nasal barbels 1/5-1/2 times as long as head in fishes longer than 12 cm, and 1/2-4/5 of head length in smaller individuals; maxillary
barbels rarely shorter than head, usually somewhat longer and reaching to a point midway between origin of dorsal fin and insertion
of pelvic fins; outer mandibular barbel longer than inner pair (Bailey, 1994). Postorbital bones in contact; lower part of head with
two black, lateral bands (Oijen, 1995). Unlike other Clarias species, C. gariepinus has a high number of gill rakers varying from 24-110
(Teugels, 1986; Teugels et al., 2007), the number increasing with size of the fish; gill rakers long, slender and closely set (Teugels, 1986;
Oijen, 1995). Distance between occipital process and base of dorsal fin is short; dorsal fin almost reaches caudal fin; anal fin origin
closer to caudal fin base than to snout, nearly reaching caudal fin. Pelvic fin closer to snout than to caudal fin base (Teugels, 1986) or
about midway (Bailey, 1994). Pectoral fin extends from operculum to below first dorsal fin rays (Teugels, 1986). Pectoral spine robust,
serrated only on its outer face (Teugels, 1986; Teugels et al., 2007), the number of serrations increasing with age (Teugels, 1986).
Lateral line appears as a small, white line from posterior end of head to middle of caudal fin base; openings to secondary sensory
canals clearly marked (Teugels, 1986).
This species can attain sizes of up to 1.7 m including the tail and can weigh up to 59 kg when fully grown.
The colouring is dark grey or black dorsally and cream coloured ventrally. Adults possess a dark longitudinal line on either side of
the head; however, this is absent in young fish. The head is large, depressed, and heavily boned. The mouth is quite large and sub-
terminal (Teugels, 1986; Skelton, 1993).

Distribution
The family Clariidae at present consists of 14 genera containing 92 species distributed in Africa and Southeast Asia (Teugels, 1986).
C. gariepinus is indigenous to the inland waters of much of Africa, with an almost Pan African distribution (absent from the Maghreb,
upper and lower Guinea, the Cape province, and probably Nogal province -- Froese and Pauly, 2024), and also naturally occurs in
Jordan, Israel, Lebanon, Syria and southern Turkey (Teugels, 1996). It has been widely introduced to other parts of the world including
the Netherlands, Hungary, and much of Southeast and East Asia. It is cultivated in areas with a tropical climate, access to geothermal
waters or the use of heated recirculating water systems. It is a hardy fish that can be cultured at dense stocking levels in low oxygen
waters making it ideal for culture in areas with a limited water supply.

Introductions
Established Established
in wild in wild
Introduced Introduced Introduced
Year Reason through through References Notes
to from by
natural continuous
reproduction restocking
Aquaculture
Welcomme
Bangladesh Thailand 1989 (pathway Unknown Yes No
(1988)
cause)
Cambodia 1982 Unknown No No Csavas (1994)
Welcomme
Cameroon 1972 Unknown No No
(1988)
Aquaculture
Central African Welcomme
China 1981 (pathway Private sector Yes No
Republic (1988)
cause)
Congo 1973 Unknown No No FAO (1997)
Congo
Welcomme
Democratic 1972 Unknown No No
(1988)
Republic
Welcomme
Côte d'Ivoire 1972 Unknown No No
(1988)
Gabon Unknown No No FAO (1997)
Shaji et al.
India Unknown No No
(2000)
Aquaculture
(pathway
cause);
Indonesia Netherlands 1985 Government Yes No Csavas (1994)
Research
(pathway
cause)
Laos 1980 Unknown No No Kottelat (2001)
Aquaculture
1986-
Malaysia Thailand (pathway Private sector Yes No Csavas (1994)
1989
cause)
Mauritius 1989 Unknown No No FAO (1997)
Myanmar 1990 Unknown No No FAO (1997)

Established Established
in wild in wild
Introduced Introduced Introduced
Year Reason through through References Notes
to from by
natural continuous
reproduction restocking
Aquaculture
(pathway
cause); Government; Welcomme
Netherlands Côte d'Ivoire No No
Research Individual (1988)
(pathway
cause)
Aquaculture
Juliano et al.
Philippines Thailand 1985 (pathway Private sector Yes No
(1989)
cause)
Thailand 1987 Unknown No No FAO (1997)
Aquaculture
Central African
Vietnam 1974 (pathway Private sector Yes No FAO (1997)
Republic
cause)

Anatomy
Clarias gariepinus have tooth plates on the jaws and on the vomer. Based on the small gut:body length ratio and the absence of
pyloric caeca, they are generally considered to be carnivores. They are continuous, facultative air breathers and are able to live
for long periods out of water due to the presence of an accessory air-breathing organ. This consists of a pair of pear-shaped
air chambers containing two arborescent structures located on the fourth branchial arcs. Sexes are separate with males having
elongated urogenital papillae around the anus and females a simple round opening. Using their strong pectoral fins, these catfish
are able to move on land from one water body to another.
The shape of the head is flat, with a relatively wide mouth, and accompanied by four pairs of tentacles. On the pectoral fin, a pair of
hard barbels or protrusions is used for defence. At the top of the gill cavity, there is as mentioned above an arborescent organ, which
has a shape resembling a branching tree and is used for breathing air (Oladosu et al., 2013).
The fish cranium is divided into two main parts, namely the neurocranium and branchiocranium/splanchnocranium. The C. gariepinus
neurocranium is divided into four regions (ethmoidal, orbital, oticum and occipital regions), while the splanchnocranium is divided
into five regions, namely the maxillary, mandibular, arcus mandibular, arcus hyoideus and opercular apparatus. African catfish have
a solid and thick neurocranium structure. Orbital, arcus hyoideus and opercular apparatus regions are not well developed (Zulfahmi
et al., 2022). The species tends to have a solid and robust jawbone structure that can exert a considerable bite pressure on the prey
during the jaw-closing process (Wainwright and Longo, 2017).

Habitat
Clarias gariepinus inhabits natural lakes, fishponds, streams and natural ponds in both deep and shallow waters. It has pseudo-lungs
(enabling air breathing), a long body, high growth rate and a remarkable capacity to live in stagnant environments and adapt easily
to new environments (Mwebaza-Ndawula, 1984).

Habitat List
Sub category Habitat Presence Status
Freshwater|

Climate
Climate type Status Description Remarks
A - Tropical/Megathermal climate Preferred

Water Tolerances
Minimum Maximum
Parameter Typical Value Status Life Stage Notes
Value Value
Cadmium (mg/l) 10.85 Harmful Adult
Carbon Dioxide (mg/l) 5 6 Optimum Aquatic|Egg Janssen (1987)
Carbon Dioxide (mg/l) 5 6 Optimum Aquatic|Larval Janssen (1987)
Maximum 6 for
Carbon Dioxide (mg/l) 5 15 Optimum Aquatic|Fry early fry. Janssen
(1987)
Carbon Dioxide (mg/l) 5 15 Optimum Aquatic|Adult Janssen (1987)

Minimum Maximum
Parameter Typical Value Status Life Stage Notes
Value Value
Copper (mg/l) 1.29 1.38 Harmful Adult
Ammonia [unionised]
0.1 Optimum Aquatic|Egg Janssen (1987)
(mg/l)
Ammonia [unionised]
0.1 Optimum Aquatic|Larval Janssen (1987)
(mg/l)
Maximum 0.15
Ammonia [unionised]
0.1 0.15 Optimum Aquatic|Fry for early fry.
(mg/l)
Janssen (1987)
Ammonia [unionised]
0.1 0.15 Optimum Aquatic|Adult Janssen (1987)
(mg/l)
Dissolved oxygen For advanced fry
3 5 Optimum Aquatic|Fry
(mg/l) Janssen (1987)
Dissolved oxygen
>3 Optimum Aquatic|Adult Janssen (1987)
(mg/l)
Nitrate (mg/l) 70 90 Optimum Aquatic|Egg Janssen (1987)
Nitrate (mg/l) 70 90 Optimum Aquatic|Larval Janssen (1987)
70-90 for early
fry; 80-100 for
Nitrate (mg/l) 70 100 Optimum Aquatic|Fry
advanced fry.
Janssen (1987)
Nitrate (mg/l) 80 100 Optimum Aquatic|Adult Janssen (1987)
Nitrite (mg/l) 0.5 Optimum Aquatic|Egg Janssen (1987)
Nitrite (mg/l) 0.5 Optimum Aquatic|Larval Janssen (1987)
Maximum 0.5 for
Nitrite (mg/l) 0.5 0.7 Optimum Aquatic|Fry early fry. Janssen
(1987)
Nitrite (mg/l) 0.5 0.7 Optimum Aquatic|Adult Janssen (1987)
Phosphate (mg/l) 0.5 Optimum Egg
Phosphate (mg/l) 0.5 Optimum Larval
Phosphate (mg/l) 0.5 Optimum Fry
Salinity (part per
>6 Harmful Broodstock
thousand)
According to
Salinity (part per
7.5 Harmful Larval Janssen (1987),
thousand)
10 ppt is suitable
According to
Janssen (1987),
Salinity (part per
0 2 Optimum Broodstock 10-16 ppt is
thousand)
suitable for
adults.
According to
Salinity (part per
0 5 Optimum Larval Janssen (1987),
thousand)
10 ppt is suitable
Spawning
temperature (ºC >22 Optimum Broodstock
temperature)
Spawning
temperature (ºC >30 Harmful Broodstock
temperature)
Water pH (pH) 6 8.5 Optimum Aquatic|Egg Janssen (1987)
Water pH (pH) 6 8.5 Optimum Aquatic|Larval Janssen (1987)
Maximum 8.5 for
Water pH (pH) 6 9 Optimum Aquatic|Fry early fry. Janssen
(1987)
Water pH (pH) 6 9 Optimum Aquatic|Adult Janssen (1987)
Water temperature
<15 Harmful Egg
(ºC temperature)
Water temperature
>22 Optimum Broodstock
(ºC temperature)

Minimum Maximum
Parameter Typical Value Status Life Stage Notes
Value Value
Water temperature
>30 Harmful Broodstock
(ºC temperature)
Water temperature
10 Harmful Larval
(ºC temperature)
Water temperature
20 35 Optimum Egg
(ºC temperature)
Water temperature
25 33 Optimum Larval
(ºC temperature)
Water temperature
30 Optimum Aquatic|Fry Janssen (1987)
(ºC temperature)

Diseases, Disorders and Natural Enemies

Health
Clarias gariepinus are hardy fish, able to tolerate poor water quality and not easily susceptible to most common diseases encountered
by other cultured fish species. Nevertheless, with increasing intensification of culture practices, disease problems will become more
frequent. Graaf and Janssen (1996) reported on three major diseases encountered in intensive rearing systems in Africa:
• ‘crack head’ disease
• infections by myxobacteria
• oedema in the yolk-sac larvae
The ‘crack head’ disease or syndrome is speculated to be caused by adverse water quality and vitamin C deficiency. The other two
diseases are described below under ‘bacterial diseases’.
Other health problems encountered by C. gariepinus are described by Haylor (1993). These include infections by protozoan parasites,
metazoan parasites (such as Platyhelminthes), nematodes, arthropods, and fungal, bacterial and viral infections. The larvae and fry
of C. gariepinus appear to be very sensitive to prophylactic treatment with formalin and malachite green, so there should be severely
limited use of these chemicals in controlling protozoan and fungal infections (Schoonbee et al., 1980). Good hatchery management
practices are therefore imperative in preventing infections by these ubiquitous pathogens.
(Information in the rest of this section is based partly on Kozlov et al., 2021).
Viral diseases
Viral disease caused by channel catfish virus or ictalurid herpesvirus 1 entered the farms of Europe and the Russian Federation
together with fish stock of C. gariepinus from southeast Asia. Even in the absence of clinical signs, the fish is the carrier of a disease
that manifests itself in other fish (Wolf and Darlington, 1971). Clinical signs occur if catfish are cultivated at high temperatures. Viral
diseases affect individuals of various ages, while the clinical manifestations of the disease can be of a different nature, the most
common of which are: changes in behaviour, refusal to feed, violation of the integrity of the skin and a number of others (Plumb et
al., 1975). In the case of infection with the herpes virus disease caused by the RNA virus (Wolf, 1988), mostly young fish were affected,
while adults older than 6 months were indifferent to infection. Infected fry move weakly near the surface of the water, and after
sinking to the bottom, they die. Measures against this virus were to destroy infected fish, drain water from the pool and disinfect it
with bleach.
Bacterial diseases
Infections by myxobacteria are a major problem in hatcheries where fish are unduly stressed due to poor husbandry techniques.
Infected fish can be treated with a furazolidone bath at a dose of 50 ppm for 1 h.
Oedema during the yolk-sac stage can result in heavy mortalities (up to 90%). Larvae are believed to be infected by Aeromonas
bacteria transmitted from female broodstock. The use of oxytetracycline (50 ppm) as a bath is practised in Africa.
The dangerous diseases of a bacterial nature are caused by Aeromonas caviae, A. hydrophila, A. salmonicida, A. sobria, Bacillus sp.,
Edwardsiella tarda, Plesiomonas shigelloides, Pseudomonas sp., P. aeruginosa, Salmonella sp., Streptococcus sp., Staphylococcus aureus
and Staphylococcus epidermidis (El-Sayyad et al., 2010). The most common are Aeromonas hydrophila and Flexibacter columnaris
[Flavobacterium columnare] (Chowdhury, 1998; Abo-Esa, 2008). The F. columnaris strain found in India (Kumar et al., 2012) showed
resistance to 29 of the 37 antibiotics tested. This happened because antibiotics were used everywhere, which led to the emergence
of a new strain resistant to them. The main factors promoting bacterial infections are considered to be a combination of temperature,
organic pollution of the aquatic environment and high stocking density. Prevention of bacterial diseases involves water treatment
with ultraviolet light, the use of probiotic drugs, and ozonation of water. Preparations that include the bacteria Bacillus subtilis and
Bacillus licheniformis have a positive effect, as these micro-organisms inhibit a large number of gram-positive and gram-negative
pathogenic bacteria (Bychkova et al., 2007; El-Sayyad et al., 2010). Also, an increase in resistance to A. hydrophila in catfish is known
when garlic (Allium sativum) is added to food (Thanikachalam et al., 2010).
Parasitic diseases
Of the parasites of C. gariepinus, the most frequently mentioned are the protozoans Trichodina sp. (found in 20% of individuals)
and Epistylis sp. (in 15%), which can cause the death of individual fish specimens (Bowser et al., 1986), and the monogenean worm
Gyrodactylus spp., which can be found in 30% of individuals (Ghoneim et al., 2015), on the gill lobes (Schachte, 1978). Fish affected by
the protozoan ectoparasites are characterized by blanching of the skin, excessive secretion of mucus, and ulcers on the lower body.

The species is also susceptible to the disease Ichthyophthyroidism (White Spot Disease), the most common and persistent disease
in many commercial fish species (Osman et al., 2009). This disease is caused by the ectoparasitic ciliate infusorium Ichthyophthirius
multifiliis, which mainly affects fins and gills, but is characterized by white spots over the entire surface of the fish’s body. The Ich
vaccine is used against this disease (Xu et al., 2000).
Parasitic nematode worms of the genera Capillaria and Contracaecum can also be found in this species (Hussen et al., 2012). These
types of worms can cause damage or destruction of internal organs, in some cases leading to infertility or blindness. They are
especially dangerous for juvenile fish, as they significantly reduce the growth rate. Helminth parasites can cause point necrosis of
epithelial tissues, as well as provoking inflammatory processes (Hassan et al., 2010).
Predation
Natural predators of catfish larvae and fry include tadpoles and other aquatic insects such as water scorpions, water beetles, water-
boatmen and dragonfly larvae (Graaf and Janssen, 1996). Prior to catfish stocking in outdoor ponds, kerosene (0.5 L per 100 m2) is
normally used to thinly cover the water surface to prevent surface respiration of these insects, eventually causing their death.

Natural enemies
Biological Biological
Natural enemy Type Life stages Specificity References
control in control on
Aquatic|Adult Whitfield and
Crocodylus niloticus Predator
Aquatic|Broodstock Blaber (1979)
Adeyemo et al.
Cybister Predator Aquatic|Larval
(1997)
Adeyemo et al.
Eretes Predator Aquatic|Larval
(1997)
Adeyemo et al.
Notonecta Predator Aquatic|Larval
(1997)

Impact Summary
Category Impact
Biodiversity (generally) Negative
Environment (generally) Negative
Fisheries / aquaculture Positive
Native fauna Negative

Impact: Environmental
Clarias spp. inhabit waters of lakes, streams, rivers, swamps and floodplains. Many of these are subject to seasonal drying. The
most common habitats frequented are floodplains and swamps in which the catfish can survive during the dry seasons due to the
presence of their accessory air breathing organs (Clay, 1977).
If cultured C. gariepinus escape into the wild they can have a number of environmental impacts.
Impact on Habitats
In Bangladesh, the Department of Fisheries has identified many negative impacts of C. gariepinus (cultured or escaped). These are:
• The fish is very ferocious and predatory to other aquatic animals and birds and can even attack humans.
• It threatens the biodiversity of inland fisheries and pushes rare fish species, snakes, frogs, etc., towards extinction.
• It takes the fry, eggs, juveniles, etc. of the same or other species and so adversely affects fish populations.
• The water body loses its quality and fertility needed for future aquaculture.
• The practice causes severe environmental pollution due to plankton blooms.
Impact on Biodiversity
Many exotic species have been introduced in Bangladesh for aquaculture in the past few decades, and some play important roles
in aquaculture production. A few have been proven detrimental to aquatic biodiversity and eventually been banned for aquaculture
in Bangladesh. C. gariepinus is among these; it was introduced to Bangladesh in 1989 from Thailand by the Ministry of Fisheries and
livestock (MoFL) but has been banned from aquaculture since 2014 (DOF (Department of Fisheries), 2014). However, continued
availability of this species has been reported by consumers and farmers.
The introduction of C. gariepinus caused native biodiversity loss due to its predatory nature (Thakur, 1998). Although attempts at
hybrid vigour production between C. batrachus × C. gariepinus have attained limited success, the potential of hybrids to cause a decline
in the abundance of C. batrachus in the Chao Phraya and Mekong Basins has been considered (Rahman et al., 1995). Hybridization of
C. batrachus × C. gariepinus has been known to occur in India (Khedkar et al., 2016) and in the Mekong Basin of Vietnam and Thailand
(Rahman et al., 1995). Unplanned hybridization between C. gariepinus and C. batrachus is considered illegal in Bangladesh. Hybrids
are less accepted by consumers due to differences in appearance and taste. In addition, the escape of the hybrids in natural water
bodies could cause irreversible loss of native biodiversity. If the purity of native stock is compromised in the natural population, this
would be an irreversible problem for the future.

As well as the issue of hybridization with C. batrachus, some researchers in Thailand have expressed concern that the wild populations
of clariid catfishes might be threatened with competition, predation and genetic introgression due to interbreeding by escapees of
hybrid catfish (Clarias gariepinus x Clarias macrocephalus) from fish farms (Senanan et al., 2004). Adverse environmental impact of the
culture of C. gariepinus or its hybrid could include the loss of genetic distinctiveness of entire native catfish species in Asian countries.

Environmental Impact of Culture

The stagnant water in production ponds, especially in rain-fed ponds, can sometimes be quite foul smelling. This is compounded
by the high stocking density of catfish and the use of trash fish and poultry processing wastes as feeds which causes further water
quality deterioration.
Singh et al. (2012) studied water quality of C. gariepinus culture ponds (n=27) in India. This revealed poor physico-chemical conditions
and metal contaminants in fish tissues (n=324). Human health risk assessment for heavy metal contamination indicated low risk in
general except for aluminium (Al), iron (Fe) and lead (Pb) which accumulated significantly (p<0.05) in tissues. Health risk values were
6.3 × 10-3 - 9.6 × 10 -3 for Al, 3 × 10-3 - 9.7 × 10-3 for Fe and 1.15 × 10-5 - 9.3 × 10-6 for Pb, respectively, suggesting that contamination
of Pb particularly in ponds fed with chicken waste (CW) was posing high risks.
A survey of exotic fish species in culture was conducted in Uttar Pradesh, India, by Singh and Mishra (2001). The culture and
feeding details of unofficially introduced C. gariepinus were collected from 419 ponds existing in rural areas of 23 districts of Uttar
Pradesh. The data indicated that 32% of ponds were culturing exotic fishes, of which 79% were monoculture of exotic African
catfish. Feeding analysis of these exotic African catfish revealed that, in 7% of cases, they subsisted on natural pond feed; in 29% on
slaughterhouse waste; in 32% on chicken waste; and in 11% on fish waste. The threats and environmental risks of such unauthorized
and indiscriminate culture of C. gariepinus include it being a health hazard for the human population.

Impact: Social
In Bangladesh, the Department of Fisheries identified many negative social effects of C. gariepinus (cultured or escaped) (DOF
(Department of Fisheries), 2014).These are:
• The culture technique is not yet socially or religiously acceptable in Bangladesh.
• This practice causes severe environmental pollution. In most cases, farmers cannot hope for proper utilization of the entire
trophic levels of the water bodies, so plankton blooms can result.
• The water of the cultured pond cannot be used for other domestic purposes or to drink because of the presence of pollutants
such as sewage, animal waste, etc.
• The fish are very ferocious and predatory to other aquatic animals and birds and can even attack humans.
• The biodiversity of the open water is seriously affected.
It is also reported that, although the culture of C. gariepinus has significantly raised overall fish production, it has harmed food security
as it is less nutritious than many of the threatened native fishes of Bangladesh and often contains excessive heavy metal residues.

Uses List
Human food and beverage
Cured meat
Fresh meat
Frozen meat
Live product for human consumption
Whole

Animal feed, fodder, forage

Bait, attractant

Products
The high-quality flesh of C. gariepinus is characterized by:
• white colour
• no bones
• high fillet yield
• good flavour and texture.
Clarias gariepinus are usually sold whole and fresh in wet markets. While the fillet can be fried, baked, broiled, etc. for eating, the
large head can be used for making soups, stews and curries. Traditional smoking of whole gutted catfish is practised especially in
Africa and adds both value and extended shelf-life to the product. Efiuvwevwere and Ajiboye (1996) reported a significant reduction
in microbial populations in catfish samples after smoking, and the moisture content decreased sharply. This postharvest treatment
is important in many parts of Africa as proper handling, processing and holding facilities are often lacking in this part of the world.

Fillet composition and product quality of farmed C. gariepinus is known to be influenced by the diet given (Wedekind, 1995a).
Singh et al. (2012) studied water quality of C. gariepinus culture ponds (n=27) in India. This revealed poor physico-chemical conditions
and metal contaminants in fish tissues (n=324). Human health risk assessment for some heavy metal contamination indicated
low risk in general except for aluminium (Al), iron (Fe) and lead (Pb) which accumulated significantly (p<0.05) in tissues. Health risk
values were 6.3 × 10-3 - 9.6 × 10 -3 for Al, 3 × 10-3 - 9.7 × 10-3 for Fe and 1.15 × 10-5 - 9.3 × 10-6 for Pb respectively, suggesting that
contamination of Pb particularly in ponds fed with chicken waste (CW) was posing high risks.
Abdel-Mobdy et al. (2021) designed an experiment on the chemical composition, mineral content, amino acid composition and
fatty acid profile of C. gariepinus meat. Moisture, protein, lipid and ash content were measured at 71.30%, 19.03%, 8.10% and 1.5%,
respectively. The meat had high levels of calcium, phosphorus and iron, at 304.82, 279.45 and 17.03 mg/100 g, respectively. The
essential amino acid content was 41.81 g/100 g protein. Oleic, linoleic and palmitic acids were the most common fatty acids. Oleic
acid made up more than a third of the fatty acid content. Because of its high oleic acid content, catfish meat has been linked to a
lower risk of cardiovascular disease.
It has been reported that C. gariepinus is less nutritious than many of the threatened native fishes of Bangladesh.
In Kenya (at least), C. gariepinus fingerlings are much used as bait for catching Nile Perch (Lates niloticus) (Charo-Karisa et al., 2008).

Prevention and Control

Due to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should
be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should
always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
In Bangladesh, social awareness is raised against illegal culture of African Catfish through media partners (TV, radio, mobile phones),
seminars and symposia, and by using banners, posters, placards, etc. A proper monitoring system for the hatcheries should be
developed so that illegal seed production and exportation can be prevented. The Department of Fisheries must prohibit the
hatcheries with legal actions if necessary.

Behaviour
Clarias gariepinus is a nocturnal fish like many catfish.
It is able to crawl on dry ground to escape drying pools. Further, it is able to survive in shallow mud for long periods of time, between
rainy seasons.
African catfish sometimes produce loud croaking sounds, not unlike the voice of the crow.
Feeding Behaviour
Clarias gariepinus is omnivorous (Yalçın et al., 2001a). Being opportunistic feeders, C. gariepinus are known to feed on a wide variety
of both animal and plant materials (depending on availability). They feed on living, as well as dead, animal matter (such as insects,
plankton, snails, crabs, shrimp, other invertebrates, birds, reptiles, amphibians, small mammals, other fishes and eggs) and plant
matter such as fruit and seeds. In the wild, C. gariepinus are opportunistic carnivores and swallow prey whole with the large mouth,
but they are also known to eat decomposing plant matter, and some researchers prefer to call them omnivorous scavengers (Jubb,
1967). C. gariepinus larvae are filter feeders that start to forage for prey, using their extended barbels for prey detection, as they grow
larger.
Live prey is caught and swallowed by creating a strong suction from a sudden enlargement of the bucco-pharyngeal chamber.
The wide mouth enables the species to swallow relatively large prey whole. It has been known to take large waterbirds such as the
common moorhen (Anoop et al., 2009).
Even though individual bottom foraging is the normal feeding behaviour, groups of larger catfish (40-80 cm total length) have also
been reported to exhibit social hunting to capture live prey (Bruton, 1979b). In culture systems where sufficient feed is not given,
larger catfish larvae and juveniles have been observed to cannibalize the slower growing (smaller) catfish. When food was available
24 h a day, Hossain et al. (1999) reported that over 70% of the daily feed ration was taken at night, making C. gariepinus a mostly
nocturnal feeder.
Dadebo (2000) found that fish was the most important food item. It contributed 81.7% of the food items of the juveniles and 86.80%
of the food of the adults by volume. Food items found in the stomach also included insects, fish eggs, gastropods, macrophytes,
detritus and zooplankton. Micha (1973) considered the species as an omnivorous fish with a high tendency for predation. Different
kinds of food items were found in the stomach of specimens captured from natural waters. The food items reported are aquatic and
terrestrial insects, fish, molluscs, fruits, diatoms, arachnids, plant debris, seeds, detritus, bird eggs, young birds, droppings of poultry
and zooplankton.
Four modes of feeding behavior were observed in C. gariepinus by Bruton (1976): a. Feeding by grasping from the surface in groups
or individually (e.g. in poultry-fish integrated ponds); b. Group feeding by forming a circle (e.g. zooplankton grazing); c. Individual
foraging of food; d. Individual shoveling of feed. Slow, methodical searching for food is their normal tactic.
The fish recognizes its prey mainly by touch and smell. This is of relevance during feeding at night and in highly turbid or muddy
waters where visibility is less.
Sexual Behaviour
The sexual and spawning behaviour of C. gariepinus has been described in detail by Bruton (1979a) from Lake Sibaya, South Africa.
Briefly, the courtship behaviour takes place in shallow recently inundated areas, usually at night. During this aggregation of catfish,
highly aggressive encounters between males are observed before mating takes place between isolated pairs of male and female

catfish. Milt and eggs are observed to be released (followed by a vigorous swish of the female's tail to distribute the eggs over a
wide area) after the male catfish lies in a ‘U’-shaped curve around the head of the female and holds this mating posture for several
seconds. The mating pair has been observed to resume their courtship ritual after resting for a brief period of time. Unlike their Asian
clariid counterparts, C. gariepinus do not show parental protection of their young beyond selecting a suitable spawning site (Bruton,
1979a; Owiti and Dadzie, 1989).
Social Behaviour
Clarias gariepinus larvae and fry exhibit territorial behaviour which often results in body and head biting, leading to body wounds.
Haylor (1991) recommended that the stocking density of fry be increased from 50 to 150 fry/litre to reduce territoriality. The provision
of shelter and adequate feed may also reduce the aggressive behaviour of these catfish.
Cannibalism is also a behavioural problem in the rearing of catfish below 80 mm in length or when there is a large size variation in
bigger fish. Adequate feeding, sorting by fish size and appropriate stocking densities are some recommended remedial actions that
can be taken (Haylor, 1993).

Reproduction
Clarias gariepinus exhibits seasonal reproduction with high fecundity (Yalçın et al., 2001b). Gonadal maturation is associated with
periods of flooding. The maturation process is influenced by changes in water temperature and photoperiod, but the increase of
water level is the principal factor (Graaf et al., 1995; Yalçın et al., 2001b).
In a study in the wild in Ethiopia, breeding started at the beginning of the early rains in February and continued until June, after
which the proportion of breeding females declined gradually and the proportion of males declined sharply. The sex ratio was not
significantly different from unity -- 50.4% females and 49.6% males were caught during the investigation. The smallest ripe female
measured 34.0 cm total length (TL) and the smallest ripe male 33.0 cm TL. The weight of the ripe ovaries ranged from 11.2 to 962.0
g and the number of eggs ranged from 8000 to 650,000. The number of preserved eggs per gram wet weight ranged from 435 to
1176 with a mean of 669 (Dadebo, 2000).
Broodstock Culture Conditions
Clarias gariepinus grows and matures in captivity but there is no spontaneous reproduction. Female fish mature in captivity at about
6-9 months and males at an age of 8-12 months, dependant to a large extent on culture conditions. Spawning of mature fish can be
induced in ponds by raising the water level to simulate events which occur during the rainy season which is known to trigger mating
and spawning behaviour. Spawning usually occurs at night and the breeders are removed the next day. The production of fingerlings
using this method is usually low (Haylor, 1993; Graaf and Janssen, 1996).
The preferred method of artificial propagation is to induce spawning by injection of hormones and stripping the eggs. A detailed
summary of the type of hormones used and dosages administered has been previously published (Haylor, 1993) and a step-by-step
procedure has been described by Graff and Janssen (1996). In captive C. gariepinus, hand-stripping of semen from males is practically
impossible (unlike stripping of the eggs), and the male broodfish has to be sacrificed and the testes removed and macerated to
obtain milt to fertilize the stripped eggs. This induced spawning method using hormones followed by artificial fertilization is most
suitable for the production of catfish larvae in large quantities, as is needed in large commercial farms. However, in smaller farms in
Africa, after hormone injection, male and female broodfish can also be placed in ponds, hapas or concrete tanks for natural release
and fertilization of eggs (Graaf and Janssen, 1996).
For hormonal treatment of broodfish, the morning period is suggested instead of the evening, as the temperature of water and air
is lower in the morning which facilitates handling of broodfish. The suggested volume of injection is not more than 1.0 cm3/fish. The
place of injection is the dorsal muscle. Carp PG or human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) is recommended for injection of broodfish,
the dose being the same for both the sexes. Female and male fish have to be injected at same time. The proper dose of PG is 4-6 mg/
kg; the HCG dose is 2-4 IU/g. Janssen (1987) suggested changing the doses based on ripeness of females. Data from Janssen (1987)
showed that the latency time (time between injection and ovulation) is different at different water temperatures.
Males should be introduced to females a few (1-2) hours before estimated time of ovulation. The proper time of stripping is after
the second ‘wild spawning’. Since ovulation of females of similar background (age, body weight and hormone treatment) happens
at the same time, after stripping of the first female to spawn with the ‘signaller male’, the whole group of females is usually ready for
stripping, regardless of whether each individual has spawned or not with the male.
The testis is removed after slaughtering the male fish. It should be wrapped in dry cloth and can be stored at room temperature or
in a refrigerator for 1-3 h (Waal, 1985). Janssen (1987) suggested squeezing the sperm from the testis and keeping it in physiological
solution (0.65% salt solution) in the refrigerator. Viveen et al. (1986) reported no deterioration of sperm quality in such conditions
for 2 days.
According to Waal (1985), stripping of females should be easy -- no strong pressure is necessary. The volume of eggs stripped in
one pot should not exceed 150-200 g. Some forecast of egg quality can be made while stripping. This may be done on the basis of
colour and density of stripped eggs. Eggs of immature females are green. Good eggs are brownish or brownish pink. Eggs stripped
earlier than the proper time are dense; small batches of eggs remain together and do not disperse uniformly on bottom of the pot
used for egg collection. Eggs stripped at the proper time are not so dry and are similar to eggs of mirror carp stripped at ovulation
(Waal, 1985).
The dry method of fertilization is suggested. The sperm should be squeezed on eggs after incision of the surface of testes. (White
drops of sperm should appear following the incision of testes containing ripe sperm). For pressing out sperm, the testis should be
covered with a plankton net or other fine mesh size plastic net and squeezed with strong pressure of the fingers. Approximately 7-10
drops of sperm (0.5 ml) have to be pressed onto 150 g eggs. Clean water is used for fertilization. The volume of this water should not
exceed 1/3 of the volume of eggs. Fertilization is accomplished by gently shaking the plate containing eggs, sperm and water. A little

more water should be poured onto the fertilized eggs in 15-20 seconds and after further shaking and dilution the eggs should be
spread on the surface of the hatching frame. Eggs should be distributed within 1.0-1.5 min after fertilization and before developing
stickiness, because the survival of embryos in eggs which are distributed after the start of stickiness is usually low. The fertilized
eggs should be poured into jars 1 min after fertilization and should be dispersed in 10 h with smooth stirring. The percentage of
developing eggs should be counted 12-15 h after fertilization; it is usually 50-80% in reproduction carried out in the peak season
(Hogendoorn and Vismans, 1980).
Ataguba et al. (2012) designed an experiment to determine the effect of varying broodstock weight in crosses on fecundity, fertilization
and hatchability of C. gariepinus under hatchery conditions. Broodstock at the age of 1.3 years used for the study were obtained
from a homogenous source. Combinations of broodstock used for the study were within size ranges: 200-300 g (A), 400-500 g
(B), 600-700 g (C) and 800-900 g (D). It was observed that broodstock combination involving D females had the highest fecundity
(61700.0-74100.0), fertilization (77.3%-83.7%) and hatchability (74.4%-88.7%). Of all the crosses, smaller size homogeneity did not
favour fertilization and hatchability. D x D had the best hatchability (88.7%). The finding of the study was that fecundity, fertilization
and hatchability increased significantly as the size of broodstock increased.
Viveen et al. (1986) suggested one broodfish/m2 stocking density for semi-intensive management. Broodfish were fed with artificial
food containing 35-40% digestible protein at a daily rate of 1% body weight.
For accurate selection of females for breeding, a small sample of eggs was taken from the ovary by catheter or sucking with a special
narrow tube (canula) fitted with a syringe. Thin empty ink-tubes of ball-point pens were used for preparation of the canula. The
majority of the eggs (more than 90%) had diameter bigger than 1 mm in the ripe ovary. This method is suggested for selection of
broodfish in the off-season period or to select fish available for reproduction from young populations (Viveen et al., 1986).
The broodfish tanks should carry an average number of 5-6 broodfish for injection. For maintenance of fish, a tank area of 1.0-1.5 m2,
at least, is necessary, but 3-4 m2 will be more comfortable. A tank containing such a broodfish group requires approximately 5 liter/
min water supply. Depth of broodfish tanks should be 0.5-0.6 m. All types of tanks with sufficient water supply or aeration facilities
are suitable for broodfish manipulation. Oxygen level in the tanks should exceed 3 mg/L (Waal, 1985).
According to Janssen (1987), 10 g MS 222, 2.5 ml Quinaldine or 30 ml Phenoxy ethanol diluted in 100 L of water are the proper
concentrations of different tranquilizers. He also suggested disinfecting the fish with formaldehyde at the rate of 0.15 ml/10 L of
water for 6 h before stocking them into broodfish tanks.
Egg Nursery Conditions
Fertilized eggs are usually spread out in a single layer onto incubation trays which are made of horizontal screens (mesh size 1 mm)
placed below the water surface of tanks in a controlled environment. The use of high-quality water with a good supply of dissolved
oxygen is of great importance during this egg incubation phase. Plants with extensive root systems such as water hyacinth [Eichhornia
crassipes] can also be used to allow the sticky eggs to adhere to the roots. The incubation period is temperature dependent, and
hatching takes place about 20 h after fertilization at a water temperature of about 30°C.
For incubation of the eggs from one group (5-6 individuals) of females of approximately 0.6-0.7 kg, 4-5 hatching troughs are necessary.
The surface area of troughs is 1 m2, dimensions being 2 m × 0.5 m × 0.25 m, with little sloping of sidewalls. The most suitable material
for troughs is galvanized iron sheet. For avoiding the direct contact between metal and fish, it is better to cover the inner surface
of the trough with polyethylene sheet. A special overflow has to be arranged, covered with brass net of mesh size 0.4-0.5 mm for
filtering of shallow tube well water. A short movable PVC pipe should be installed in the water outlet for maintenance of the necessary
water level. The water volume in a trough should be 50-100 L. The required water supply is 3-6 L/min. Water should be sprayed in
the tank from a perforated PVC tube. The water outlet pipe is installed before filling up the filter bed. The space between inner and
outer walls must be filled with pebbles of 3-7 mm size (Hogendoorn, 1980).
Dead eggs are usually infected by fungi and bacteria during incubation. No treatment is necessary for controlling this infection above
25°C. If the incubation is performed at lower temperature, malachite green (5 mg/L), methylene blue (0.1-0.2 mg/L) or formalin
treatment (1 ml/5 L of water) is necessary following the fertilization, and subsequently in 12 h. After hatching, the majority of viable
embryos escape from the inner hatching frame and gather at the corners of the trough. At that time, the mass development of fungi
on the inner hatching frame holds together the dead eggs, empty eggshells and deformed embryos. The frames should be cleaned
with high pressure water and sun-dried for disinfection (Peteri et al., 1992).
The speed of embryonic development is high. One hour after fertilization the fourth cleavage is completed. After 9 h, the embryonic
shield is developed at 25-27°C. Hatching starts 23-28 h after fertilization at this temperature. It is completed within 2-3 h, if the tray
method of incubation is used.
Larval and Fry Nursery Conditions
The tiny larvae gather near the water outlet on the first day. If the filter is not fixed properly a significant number of fry may escape
from the tank. To avoid this type of loss, frequent checking is necessary by installing a bucket or basin to collect escaping fry from
the outlet water.
The newly hatched fry are 3.5-4.0 mm in length. They can swim actively immediately after hatching. They prefer the dark corners of
incubation tanks. Though they have a sucker on the ventral part of their body, the adhesiveness of newly hatched fry is not strong.
Colour of fry is reddish on first day after hatching and becomes dark by the third day. Simultaneously, the barbels start to develop
and the fish scatter in the tanks. The yolk sac is absorbed within 4-5 days, but the fish can consume external food earlier, after partial
absorption of the yolk sac on the second or third day after hatching. The mouth develops quickly. Only rotifer-size food (50-400 am)
is accepted by fry on the first day of feeding. They can consume much bigger food particle from the second day.
Larvae are usually capable of swimming within 48-72 h after fertilization at 23-28°C (Graaf and Janssen, 1996). Britz and Pienaar
(1992) recommended that the rearing of C. gariepinus larvae should be done in conditions of continuous darkness or low light
intensity, due to the higher growth rates and reduction in stress observed under these conditions. The larvae of C. gariepinus subsist

on their yolk sac for 3-6 days with the onset of exogenous feeding taking place when they are about 6 mm in size. Catfish larvae are
usually raised in the same incubation tank until first feeding when they are transferred to nursery ponds or to hatcheries.
The direct transfer of first feeding larvae into nursery ponds has the advantage of access to large quantities of natural food such as
zooplankton if an appropriate fertilization regime is used. However, mortality of the larvae in these unprotected nursery ponds can
be high due to predation and poor water quality. The optimal stocking density for larval catfish was 100/m2, harvesting about 35-40
fingerlings/m2 after 5 weeks, each fingerling weighing 2-3 g (Graaf et al. 1995). Increasing the initial stocking density did not increase
the production and lower stocking density resulted in fewer but larger fingerlings being harvested. The same study reported a
survival rate of 0 to 27.2% when larvae were nursed in unprotected nursery ponds in Congo-Brazzaville, Africa. The survival of fry in
protected nursery ponds (e.g. completely covered with nylon nets) is much better (Graff et al., 1995). The nursing of larvae and fry in
more controlled hatchery conditions is recommended for a more intensive and reliable production of larvae and fry for later stocking
in growout ponds. Larval feeds used for the nursing of C. gariepinus include cultured zooplankton such as Daphnia sp. and Artemia
nauplii with a gradual weaning onto dry commercial feeds (Haylor, 1993). Graaf and Janssen (1996) advocated that the harvesting of
catfish fingerlings for stocking in growout ponds should be conducted before variation in fish size occurs, as cannibalism commences
with the bigger fish eating the smaller fish.
Janssen (1987) compared three different methods for production of 1-2-inch size fingerlings. Each of them has different labour
requirements, production costs and hazards. Pond production of fingerlings is simplest of the technologies. About three-day-old
larvae are stocked in well-prepared ponds for 2-3 weeks. The main hazard of this technique is predation by aquatic insects and
copepods. With appropriate chemical treatment of pond water, this problem should be eliminated or decreased. The survival rate
of fry in this type of nursing is 30-60%. The second method is the combination of hatchery and pond rearing. In this method, the fry
are reared in a hatchery for approximately 10 days and then stocked in ponds when they are 20-40 mg in body weight. The main
advantage of this method is that fry are not sensitive to copepod predation at this age, and it is easier to protect them from aquatic
insects. The disadvantage of the method is the labour-intensive hatchery nursing. The survival rate of fry is 50-80%. The duration
of nursing period is 3-4 weeks. The most laborious and expensive method of fingerling production is hatchery nursing. Moreover,
it is the most hazardous way of fingerling production, as there is a risk of frequent infection caused by myxobacteria. Duration of
fry production by this method is 3-5 weeks, depending on the final size of produced fry or fingerlings. Survival can exceed 85-90%.

Growout Management Table

Adult stocking density (m3)
Growout
Ecosystem Inland Coastal Semi-
systems Extensive Intensive
intensive
Floodplains Ponds Yes Yes
Ricefield
Irrigation canals Yes
aquaculture
Freshwater
recirculating
Peri-urban areas systems Yes
Ponds
Tanks
Pig farms Ponds Yes
Poultry farms
(ducks, fowls and Ponds Yes
turkeys)
Ricefield
Ricefields Yes
aquaculture
Freshwater
recirculating
systems
Rural areas Ponds Yes
Ricefield
aquaculture
Tanks

Growout Management
The production of C. gariepinus is carried out using extensive, semi-intensive or intensive growout systems depending on various
local conditions. In most African nations, extensive and semi-intensive culture systems are used which are most appropriate for
these resource-poor countries. In more affluent Asian countries such as Thailand and Malaysia, African catfish are usually cultured
in semi-intensive and intensive systems with the use of trash fish/rice bran or commercial feeds. In Europe, African catfish are
usually cultured intensively in recirculated-thermoregulated systems and occasionally in outdoor ponds during the summer season
(Proteau et al., 1996).
Various stocking strategies have been recommended by various researchers (reviewed by Haylor, 1993). Catfish larvae are usually
introduced into growout ponds 3 to 40 days after hatching. In extensive systems in Africa, stocking density per hectare varies from
5900 to 27,400 fingerlings with a production of about 1 ton or less per hectare after 5 to 6 months of culture. In semi-intensive
systems, stocking densities range from 12,500 to 100,000 fingerlings per ha giving a crop of 1.1 to 65 tons after 6-12 months of

culture. In the Netherlands, production levels of 1 ton per m3 tank volume in recirculation systems are possible (Eding et al., 2002)
with water discharges amounting to about 100 L/kg feed per day.
In Africa, C. gariepinus have been successfully used in polyculture with tilapia (Graaf and Janssen, 1996). In these polyculture systems,
C. gariepinus is used as a predator fish to control the overpopulation of tilapia fingerlings from initially stocked tilapia. Stocking
densities of one catfish fingerling (8-10 g) per m2 are used in combination with tilapia at 2.2 fingerlings (20-30 g) per m2. This system
results in larger adult tilapia and higher-valued catfish at harvest time.
The suitability of C. gariepinus for use in integrated systems such as polyculture with common carp in sewage maturation pond water
(Prinsloo and Schoonbee, 1992), and polyculture with tilapia and carps with poultry (Rahman et al., 1992) has been demonstrated.
Water quality parameters
Clarias gariepinus can tolerate more unfavourable conditions than carps and other cultured species. Water quality requirements are
shown in the Water Tolerances table.
In winter months (December to February) when water temperature goes below 20°C, appetite and growth are reduced.

Seed Supply and Species Availability

The increasing demand for C. gariepinus fry and fingerlings for stocking into culture ponds across Asia and Africa makes it difficult
to obtain a reliable supply from natural water bodies. Much research has gone into the artificial propagation of this species and
numerous scientific and technical reports have been generated to help farmers obtain their supply of fish fry from captive broodfish
(Huisman and Richter, 1987; Haylor, 1993; Graaf and Janssen, 1996). Captive broodfish can be induced to spawn in captivity either by
the administration of reproductive hormones or by altering environmental conditions, or a combination of both.

Natural Food Sources

Artificial Food Sources

Contribution
Feeding Feeding Feed
Food Source Life Stage to Total Food Details
Methods Frequency Characteristics
Intake (%)
Aquatic|Adult; powder, Feed with
mustard oil cake Aquatic|Broodstock; rice bran and other
Aquatic|Fry food ingradients

Fertilizers
Fertilizer Type Life Stage Unintentional Intentional Details
Chicken manure (dry) Fry, Fingerlings, Adult 750kg/ha (Bruton, 1979b)
Cow dung Fry, Fingerlings, Adult 1200kg/ha(Bruton, 1979b)
Urea Fry, Fingerlings, Adult 60kg/ha(Bruton, 1979b)
Triple Super Phosphate Fry, Fingerlings, Adult 21kg/ha(Bruton, 1979b)

Nutrition and Feeding

Clarias ariepinus is an omnivorous fish that feeds on a wide variety of both animal and plant materials (depending on availability),
including living, as well as dead, animal matter (such as insects, plankton, snails, crabs, shrimps, other invertebrates, birds, reptiles,
amphibians, small mammals, other fishes and eggs) and plant matter such as fruit and seeds.
Nutrition
Differences in protein requirement values reported by various researchers may be due to differences in fish size used, dietary
energy, experimental conditions and the quality of dietary protein source used. Recommended dietary protein levels for C. gariepinus
are generally high. The quantitative lysine requirement for C. gariepinus was reported to be 57 g per kg protein (Fagbenro et al.,
1998b). Based on actual growth trials with C. gariepinus, the essential amino acid (EAA) requirement values for arginine (Fagbenro et
al., 1999), methionine (Fagbenro et al., 1998a) and tryptophan (Fagbenro and Nwanna, 1999) were reported to be 45, 32 and 11 g/
kg protein, respectively. Energy requirements of C. gariepinus expressed as optimum energy to protein ratios of 24 to 36 mg protein/
kJ have been reported.
Dietary protein and energy requirements reported for C. gariepinus

Protein:Energy ratio
Species Protein (%) Initial weight (g) Ref.
(mg/kJ)
C. gariepinus 40 31-36 10-12 Degani et al. (1989)
33.5 29.1 1.8 Hossain et al. (1998)
50 24 40 Henken et al. (1986)

Dietary energy in C. gariepinus diets is usually supplied by carbohydrate sources which are relatively cheaper compared to lipid
sources. Carbohydrate levels in clariid catfish diets are usually found at high levels ranging from 15 to 66% (Weerd, 1995). An
optimum dietary lipid level of 15% has been reported for C. gariepinus (Trzebiatowski et al., 1993). Lim et al. (2001) showed that the
inclusion of at least 8% palm oil in C. gariepinus diets improved growth performance and protein retention. Very little is known about
the mineral and vitamin requirements of C. gariepinus (Ng, 2002).
The fish requires a high level of protein in the diet and protein is one of the most expensive dietary components. Although defined
as an omnivore, it is more carnivorous in nature and thus requires relatively high levels of protein and fat. The gross dietary protein
requirement of African catfish is in the region of 40% (Machiels and Henken, 1986). This table shows the approximate minimum
dietary requirements for catfish during the growout phase:

Feed ingredient % inclusion

Digestible energy 12 kJ/g
Crude protein level 40
Total lipid 11
Calcium 1.5
Phosphorus 0.7

The best growth rates and feed conversion ratio (FCR) are achieved with a diet containing between 38% and 42% crude protein and
an energy level of 12 kJ/g (Machiels and Henken, 1985). The specific requirements of the African catfish for essential amino acids,
essential fatty acids, vitamins and minerals have not yet been determined; most formulations use the levels determined for the
channel catfish (Mgbenka and Agua, 1990).
Natural Food Sources and Fertilizers
Natural food sources for C. gariepinus include aquatic insects, small fish, molluscs, plant debris, zooplankton and fruit (Graaf and
Janssen, 1996). The relative contribution of these organisms (found in natural water bodies or culture ponds) to the diet depends
on the size of the fish and the type of prey or food available. Natural food sources are most often used in the initial stages of

culture when chemical and organic fertilizers are added to ponds to stimulate the growth of zooplankton and benthos. Chemical
or inorganic fertilizers usually contain concentrated amounts of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium in various combinations.
However, chemical fertilizers are too expensive for many small-scale catfish farmers in many parts of Africa and Asia, and organic
fertilizers such as poultry, duck, pig, sheep and cow manure are usually added. Animal manure should be added at frequencies and
rates that will avoid anoxic conditions since it exerts biological oxygen demand (BOD) on the pond’s dissolved oxygen levels. Various
fertilization regimes have been applied for nursery ponds in Africa; these were reviewed by Haylor (1993).
Artificial Food Sources
The growing intensification in the commercial culture of C. gariepinus and its various hybrids has resulted in the need to use formulated
pelleted diets. The development of a balanced diet for the Clarias catfish will become increasingly important and much research has
been conducted on the specific nutrient requirements of C. gariepinus (Weerd, 1995; Ng, 2002; Ng et al., 2003).
Melesse (2023) reviewed dietary strategies for C. gariepinus in aquaculture. The larval stage has no fully developed digestive system
but can be habituated gradually to exogenous feed within 5-7 days to enhance survival of larvae. The effects of feed ingredients,
plant-based diet and feed additives (probiotics, prebiotics, phytogenic materials, enzymes, hormones, binders and organic acids)
are reported. Replacement of costly and unavailable feed ingredients with cheap, easily available, low cost, nutritionally acceptable
and environmentally friendly plant protein sources is also reported. Fish farmers need to understand the feeding behaviour and
nutritional requirements of the fish and choose ingredients based on nutrient content and availability with respect to sustainability
and cost effectiveness.
Agricultural and animal slaughterhouse wastes and by-products are major supplementary feed inputs in the commercial culture of
C. gariepinus in many Asian and African countries. Locally available feed ingredients such as rice bran, cottonseed cake, palm kernel
cake, groundnut cake, poultry offal, brewery wastes, etc. are often added as is into growout ponds. In countries like Thailand, rice
bran is mixed with trash fish and poultry offal, ground into a wet paste, collected into buckets and fed to C. gariepinus in large scale
semi-intensive systems. In European countries where catfish are cultured in recirculating water systems, only commercial extruded
catfish pellets are used. In Africa, feed-conversion ratios vary from 1:6 using agricultural wastes to 1:1 using formulated commercial
feeds (Hecht et al., 1996).
Larval feeds used for C. gariepinus include cultured zooplankton such as Daphnia sp. and Artemia nauplii with a gradual weaning onto
dry commercial feeds (Haylor, 1993).
Using high-quality feed will lead to better growth and production results for the growth of catfish. This table shows the advantages
of high-quality feeds, to more than the direct growth response of the fish:
Comparison of high- versus low-quality feed for catfish

Type of feed High quality Low quality

% Protein 35-40% 7-20%
Price (approx. US$) 1 per kg 0.5 per kg
Feed conversion ratio (FCR) 1:1.0-1.2 1:2.0-2.5
Growth rate to market size 5-6 months 12-14 months
Water contamination Low High
Profitability High Low

Low digestibility of the feed will also cause water contamination and be detrimental to fish growth.

Genetics
Kovács et al. (2000) first isolated sex-specific DNA markers from C. gariepinus which allowed for rapid molecular sexing of the species.
Specific microsatellite primers for C. gariepinus have been developed which can be used to perform paternity tests and characterize
the genetic background of wild and cultured catfish populations (Galbusera et al., 1996).
The mitochondrial genes were analysed to identify the native and hybrid Clarias species in Bangladesh. DNA sequencing was used
because the mutation rate is low enough to allow distinguishing of closely related species (Hebert et al., 2003). Mitochondrial genes
based on cytochrome C oxidase subunit I (COI) and cytochrome b (cytb) were targeted for analysis. These mitochondrial genes have
been used in evolutionary and phylogenetic analyses of fishes, including authentication of pure-bred specimens of different fish
species and families including the Clariidae and Pangasiidae families (Wong et al., 2011), and fish species identification including
catfishes in Korea (An et al., 2012) and Puntius genus in Indian rivers(Pallavi et al., 2012). In this experiment, COI and Cytb based DNA
barcoding techniques was targeted to identify C. batrachus, C. gariepinus, and the suspected hybrids in Bangladesh.
Domestication of cultured species or captive holding on fish farms has resulted in a certain amount of genetic deterioration. Bank
(1998) found that mean heterozygosity in a captive population (0.3%) of C. gariepinus was an order of magnitude less than in a wild
population (5%). Another study found that wild C. gariepinus grew 15-43% better under culture conditions than populations that had
been held on-farm. Walt et al. (1993b) reviewed genetic variability in C. gariepinus and found strong evidence of inbreeding, founder
effects and genetic drift in most captive populations. Bank et al. (1992) and Grobler et al. (1997) showed that outcrossing to other
captive stocks and with wild fish raised mean heterozygosity of a farmed population to 7.6% compared to 5% in a wild stock. Similarly,
according to Teugels et al. (1992) the populations of C. gariepinus purposefully outcrossed among research stations were significantly
more heterozygous than fish held in isolation on a single station. Among C. gariepinus stocks, significant variation in growth indicates
that selection for better performance in aquaculture is possible (Bank, 1998). Walt et al. (1993a) showed that a well-maintained
experimental line of C. gariepinus outperformed wild strains and a population held in a local hatchery. Matos Martins et al. (2005)

documented significant variation in growth among juvenile C. gariepinus, implying that selection is possible. In Southeast Asia, hybrids
between C. gariepinus and C. batrachus or C. macrocephalus have been widely produced, reportedly combining the faster growth of
the African catfish with the more appealing culinary attributes of those from Asia (Uraiwan, 1993). (Much of this paragraph adapted
from Agnèse et al., 2017).
Parvez et al. (2022) set up an experiment on 20 specimens of native and suspected hybrid catfish using sequence data analysis which
is considered reliable for molecular phylogeny. The native C. batrachus of Bangladesh formed a cluster with both the introduced
exotic African C. gariepinus and the suspected hybrid. The level of genetic variation and cluster formation of the hybrid with the
invasive C. gariepinus is alarming for the native species, so an immediate intervention was taken to prevent unplanned hybridization
between native and exotic species.

Genetic Resources and Breeding

Hybridization of C. gariepinus with other catfish species has resulted in improved growth performance and product quality of the
resultant hybrids. Heterobranchus longifilis, another catfish species endemic to Africa, grows faster than C. gariepinus. Nwadukwe
(1995) reported that the fry of C. gariepinus (male) x H. longifilis (female) hybrids had better growth and survival rates after 18 days of
nursing. Wedekind (1995b) reported higher growth rates and superior product quality of these hybrids compared to purebred lines
of C. gariepinus after a feeding trial of 8.5 months in a heated flow-through culture system. Clarias hybrids have also been produced
between male C. gariepinus and female Asian species such as C. macrocephalus, C. batrachus and C. fucus. The hybrids usually inherit
the better tasting flesh from the female Clarias species and the improved growth rate from the male C. gariepinus.
The feasibility of hybrid vigour production between C. batrachus × C. gariepinus has been assessed but attained limited success
(Rahman et al., 1995). Hybridization of C. batrachus × C. gariepinus has been known to occur in India (Khedkar et al., 2016) and in
the Mekong Basin of Vietnam and Thailand (Rahman et al., 1995). Hybridization of C. gariepinus male × C. macrocephalus female
in Vietnam has been widely practiced (Welcomme and Vidthayanon, 2003). However, the potential of hybrids to cause a decline
in the abundance of C. batrachus in the Chao Phraya and Mekong Basins has been considered (Rahman et al., 1995). Unplanned
hybridization between C. gariepinus and C. batrachus is considered illegal in Bangladesh. Hybrids are less accepted by consumers
due to differences in appearance and taste. In addition, the escape of the hybrids in natural water bodies could cause irreversible
loss of native biodiversity.
In African catfish, sex reversal to produce monosex male population by using the hormone 17 α-methyltestoterone is not effective
(Pongthana, 2001). Chromosome research in this species has included meiogynogenesis (Volckaert et al., 1994) and mitogynogenesis
(Váradi et al., 1999). By applying physical shocks (either cold or heat) to produce diploids, the success rate is relatively high regarding
survival and hatchability (up to 81%: Váradi et al., 1999). However, a considerable amount of residual heterozygosity is still found, i.e.
the gynogenes are not fully homozygous (Galbusera et al., 2000). In these studies, the survival rate and the growth rate were always
lower for the gynogenetic individuals than for their parents. (Paragraph based on Nguyen and Ponzoni, 2008).
Nguyen and Ponzoni (2008) discuss the prospects for the development of a genetic improvement programme for C. gariepinus,
although they make it clear that it is not an exhaustive review of the literature.

Genetics Table
Chromosome number Identified
Country Locality References
Haploid/Gamete Diploid/Zygote Genetic Markers
Klinkhardt et al.
Côte d'Ivoire 28 56 n
(1995)

Electrophoretic Studies
Heterozygosity Polymorphic
Country Locality Total Loci References
Observed Expected Loci
Teugels et al.
Côte d'Ivoire 13 0.17 0.1746 0.539
(1992)
Teugels et al.
Côte d'Ivoire 13 0.17 0.18 0.46
(1992)
Teugels et al.
Nigeria 13 0.6 0.0673 0.154
(1992)

Performance
Growth performance of C. gariepinus is highly dependent on a variety of factors such as genetic strain, feed quality, water quality,
fish husbandry, culture system, etc. In Africa, production levels range from less than 1 ton to 40 tons per ha per year, depending on
culture system (Hecht et al., 1996) and can exceed 800 kg per m3 per year in very high-density commercial culture conditions. Specific
growth rates (%/day) of C. gariepinus of various sizes in different feeding and culture conditions reported in scientific literature varied
from 1.3 to 12 (compiled by Weerd, 1995). Various authors have developed simulation models to predict the relationship between
growth and the effects of feeding level and temperature (Machiels and Henken, 1986; Verreth and Bieman, 1987) and concluded
that C. gariepinus utilizes nutrients at maximum biochemical efficiency. Male C. gariepinus have been reported to grow faster and have
better feed conversion efficiencies compared to female fish (Henken et al., 1987). Since growth and feed utilization of the mixed-sex

group were not significantly different compared to the all-male group, Henken et al. (1987) suggested that monosex culture of C.
gariepinus could still be advantageous with regard to the higher yield obtained after gutting.

Marketing
In many parts of Asia and Africa, C. gariepinus are often sold live in wet markets. Because of the presence of an accessory air-
breathing organ, the catfish can be kept alive and remain fresh in containers with very little water which makes transportation and
marketing of live fish much easier.
In European countries, about 90% of C. gariepinus are processed into fillets which are then sold fresh or frozen (Proteau et al., 1996).
The major markets for Clarias products in Europe are Germany, Italy, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom (Verreth and Eding,
1993).
Charo-Karisa et al. (2008) describes the situation in Kenya. Fingerlings are sold live as baitfish or seed for stocking. They are sold at the
farm gate directly by the farmer or by middlemen to other fish farmers. Nile perch fishers buy them at fish landing beaches. Table-
size fish are sold live at the farm gate or at market outlets. At the market, catfish are sold as whole fish, in pieces, or semi-processed
(i.e. dried, smoked, fried or filleted). Because of the dwindling capture fisheries, demand for catfish products exceeds supply, offering
great market potential. Prices of table-size catfish are still good for catfish farmers. A piece of catfish weighing 500 g retails for around
Kshs. 100-150 ($1.50-2.50).

Production, Economic and Socioeconomic Aspects

Clarias gariepinus is an important aquacultured fish species. According to FAO (2021), about 235,000 tonnes were produced in
2019; Nigeria accounted for more than half of this, with Uganda the second-largest producer at just over 30,000 tonnes, but smaller
quantities were produced in a number of other countries in Africa, Europe and Asia (plus Cuba). A further 100,000 tonnes of the
hybrid with C. macrocephalus are recorded from Thailand, and it is likely that C. gariepinus or its hybrids contributed to the over 1.2
million tonnes of production recorded worldwide (but mostly in Asia) for unspecified Clarias spp.
Traditional farming systems (extensive, semi-intensive and integrated) are often found in Asia and Africa, but modern intensive,
pellet-fed systems are also practised in these parts of the world and especially in Europe. In Africa, production levels range from
less than 1 ton to 40 tons per ha per year, depending on culture system (Hecht et al., 1996) and can exceed 800 kg per m3 per year
in very high-density commercial culture conditions. Production of clariid catfish in Africa in 1993 was only about 4500 tonnes and
even though this may be an under-reporting of production figures, the farming of catfish in Africa was considered a marginal activity
(Hecht et al., 1996). The lack of consumer purchasing power, inadequate infrastructure and high feed costs were among factors
hampering the expansion of catfish farming in Africa. Nevertheless, the potential for catfish farming in Africa was considered to be
great, and the economic performance of polyculture and monoculture operations with African catfish to be profitable (Graaf and
Janssen, 1996). It was in Asia, in countries like Thailand, that the production of C. gariepinus and its hybrids was at its highest and
rapidly expanding due to the favourable socioeconomic environment. Production did indeed expand rapidly in the early 21st century
(FAO, undated); however, much of the production recorded as C. gariepinus takes place in Africa. There is, though, a significant level
of production (over 100,000 tonnes per year) of the hybrid with C. macrocephalus in Thailand (FAO, 2021), and a very significant
level (over 1.2 million tonnes) of unspecified Clarias spp. production in Asia (mostly Indonesia), which probably includes a significant
proportion of C. gariepinus or its hybrids.
The introduction of C. gariepinus into Asia has resulted in the rapid expansion of hybrid catfish culture in which the exotic male C.
gariepinus is hybridized with local female clariid species. The resultant hybrid, with high growth rates and disease resistance (from
paternal genes), and high flesh quality and taste (from maternal genes), is very popular with fish farmers and has almost completely
replaced the native clariid catfish aquaculture in countries such as Thailand (Poompuang and Na-Nakorn, 2004). It has given a great
boost to the aquaculture of clariid catfishes in many Asian countries and positively impacted the livelihoods of many catfish farmers.
Dienye et al. (2021) analysed the cost-benefit of catfish marketing in Obio-Akpor Local Government Area of Rivers State, Nigeria. A
random sampling technique was adopted in sampling 60 catfish marketers in five catfish markets. All respondents were female and
aged 31-50 years. The results indicated a total mean total variable cost (TVC) of ₦68,119.17, a total mean total fixed cost (TFC) of
₦2131.75, a total mean total cost of production (TCP) of ₦70,250.92, mean total revenue (TR) of ₦181,000.00, mean net income (NI)
of ₦137,572.08, mean gross margin value (GM) of ₦139,635.83, and profitability index (PI) of 1.31. The variables which influenced
the profitability of catfish marketing were age, educational level, number of sales points and capital. The high cost of transportation,
unstable price and poor access roads were the major constraints to catfish marketing. The source of start-up capital was personal
savings. It is recommended that catfish marketers should form a cooperative society to enhance their access to finance and regulate
pricing with relevant variables that significantly influenced net income and should be considered in policy issues.
Charo-Karisa et al. (2008) describe the situation in Kenya. Because of the dwindling capture fisheries, demand for catfish products
exceeds supply, offering great market potential. Prices of table-size catfish are still good for catfish farmers. A piece of catfish weighing
500 g retails for around Kshs. 100-150 ($1.50-2.50). A survey in the Lake Victoria Basin indicated an overall demand of up to 50,000
catfish fingerlings per day as Nile perch bait, which equates to an annual demand exceeding 18 million fingerlings. At the prevailing
prices of Kshs 5-8 (or $0.07-0.10) per bait, this represents an industry worth Kshs. 97 million ($1.4 million). Over two million hooks are
used daily in the Kenyan portion of Lake Victoria, indicating a much higher shortfall in the supply of catfish fingerlings.
Studies in Bangladesh have shown good profitability for culture of this species (or polyculture in which it is an important component),
despite high feed costs (Hogendoorn and Koops, 1983; Machiels and Henken, 1987), but the species has been banned from
aquaculture since 2014 (DOF (Department of Fisheries), 2014) due to its invasive nature. Culture of the species is also prohibited in
India (Dhawan and Kaur, 2001; Chirwa et al., 2016). It is also reported that, although the culture of C. gariepinus has significantly raised
overall fish production, it has harmed food security as it is less nutritious than many of the threatened native fishes of Bangladesh
and often contains excessive heavy metal residues.

Pasch and Palm (2021) modelled a farmland based African Catfish recirculation aquaculture system in Germany with a production
volume (PV) of 300 m3 under realistic market conditions in order to analyse the impact of price fluctuations on profitability. It was
found that production was currently gainless, but was sufficient to cover all costs, and improvements such as reduced costs,
increased prices, better marketing, economies of scale and product diversification meant that there was potential for the business
to become sustainable and profitable.

Future prospects
The superior growth and feed utilization efficiency of C. gariepinus compared to other Clarias and catfish species have contributed
to its successful commercial production in many countries where it has been introduced. The ability of this fish to breathe air makes
it an ideal aquaculture candidate in countries where water resources are scarce. Its opportunistic feeding behaviour allows a large
variety of locally available feedstuffs to be used. It is also relatively easy to get it to reproduce in captivity, it can live at high population
densities, and it is hardy and tolerates adverse water quality conditions. As of 2004, it was predicted that the commercial large-scale
culture of C. gariepinus and its various hybrids would continue to expand in the foreseeable future. Production did indeed expand
rapidly for some years, although it now appears to have levelled off (FAO, undated).

Links to Websites
Website URL Comment
Data source for updated system
GISD/IASPMR: Invasive Alien Species Pathway Management Resource https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.
data added to species habitat
and DAISIE European Invasive Alien Species Gateway m93f6
list.
Data source for updated system
Global register of Introduced and Invasive species (GRIIS) http://griis.org/ data added to species habitat
list.
Planet Catfish http://www.planetcatfish.com

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Chakraborty Clarias Gariepinus

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Chakraborty Clarias Gariepinus

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PUBLISHED ONLINE 16 DECEMBER 2024

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Clarias gariepinus (African

Clarias gariepinus (African

Clarias gariepinus (African

KNOWLEDGE FOR LIFE

Picture Title Caption Copyright

Clarias gariepinus (African

African catfish are harvested and

Other Scientific Names

International Common Names

Local Common Names

Germany: aalbuschelwels; Afrikanischer raubwels; Afrikanischer Wels; kiemensackwels

Diseases, Disorders and Natural Enemies

Environmental Impact of Culture

Animal feed, fodder, forage

Prevention and Control

Growout Management Table

Seed Supply and Species Availability

Natural Food Sources

Artificial Food Sources

Nutrition and Feeding

Feed ingredient % inclusion

Type of feed High quality Low quality

Genetic Resources and Breeding

Production, Economic and Socioeconomic Aspects

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