By Ms Payal Gupta

Chapter 3 & 4- CS
Hardware
Computers and their components
 General-purpose computer system consists of a processor, memory, I/O functionality.

 Understanding the need for

o Input: take in data from the outside world

o Output: display data for humans’ understanding

o Primary storage: computer’s main memory which stores a set of critical program’s

instructions & data

o Secondary storage: non-volatile storage for noncritical data that will not be frequently

accessed

o Removable secondary storage:

 File backup and archive

 Portable transfer of files to second device

 Embedded systems

o Small computer systems such as microprocessors that are often a part of a larger system

o Each embedded system performs a few specific functions unlike general-purpose computers

benefits drawbacks

Reliable since there are no Difficult to program functions since there is either
moving parts no interface

Require less power Expensive expert help needed for repair

Cheap to mass-produce

 Principle Operations of Hardware Devices

o Laser printer

 A laser beam and rotating mirrors are used to draw image of the page on a photosensitive

drum
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 Image converted into electric charge which attracts charged toner such that it sticks to image

 Electrostatic charged paper rolled against drum

 Charge pulls toner away from drum and onto paper

 Heat applied in the fuser to fuse toner to the paper

 Electrical charge removed from drum and excess toner collected

o 3D printer

 Process starts from saved digital file that holds the blueprint of object to be printed

 Object is then built by sequentially adding layers of a material (e.g. polymer resin) until

object created

 Object is then cured (e.g. resin-made objects are hardened by UV light)

o Microphone

 Incoming sound waves enter wind screen and cause vibrations about a diaphragm

 Vibrations cause coil to move past a magnetic core

 Electrical current generated which is then digitized

o Speaker

 Takes electrical signals and translates into physical vibrations to create sound waves

 Electric current in voice coil generates an electromagnetic field

 Change in digital audio signal causes current direction to change which changes field

polarity

 Electromagnet is either attracted or repelled to a permanent magnet, causing a diaphragm

that is attached to the coil to vibrate

 Vibration transmitted to air in front of speaker

 Degree of vibration determines amplitude and frequency of sound wave produced

 Magnetic Hard Disk

o Hard disk has platters whose surfaces are covered with a magnetisable material.

o Platters are mounted on central spindle and rotated at high-speed

o Surface of platters divided into concentric tracks & sectors, where data is encoded as

magnetic patterns
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o Each surface is accessed by read/write heads

o When writing, current variation in head causes magnetic field variation on disk

o When reading, magnetic field variation from disk produces current variation in read head

 Solid State (Flash) Memory

o Most use NAND-based flash memory

o Consist of a grid of columns & rows that has 2 transistors at each intersection

o Two transistors:

o Floating Gate: stores electros and the presence or absence of charge (electrons) represents

either 1 or 0

o Control Gate: controls charge (electrons) flow for read/write

 Optical Disc Reader/Writer

o Disc surface has reflective metal layer and is spun

o Tracking mechanism moves laser assembly

o Lens focuses laser onto disc

o Laser beam shone onto disc to read/write

o Tracks have sequences of amorphous and crystalline states on the metallic layer

o When reading, the reflected light from the different states on the track are encoded as bit

patterns

o When writing, laser changes surface to crystalline and amorphous states along the track,

which correspond to 1s or 0s.

 Touchscreen

o Considered as both an input & output device

o 2 types:

Resistive capacitive

Made from materials that store

Consists of two charged plates
electric charge
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Resistive capacitive

Pressure causes plates to touch, completing When touched, charge transferred

circuit from finger

Point of contact registered with coordinates used

to calculate position

 Virtual (Reality) headset

o Virtual headsets consist of 2 lenses, (LCD) display, circuit board with sensors, cover and

foam padding

o The display provides a simulation of a 3D environment, generated by a 3D graphics package

o The user can ‘move’ in the virtual environment by moving their head or using controllers

 Buffers: short-term memory storage that stores data right before it’s used, typically in RAM.

 Random Access Memory vs. Read Only Memory

RAM rom

Volatile memory: loses content when Non-volatile memory: does not lose content
power turned off when power turned off

Can be read and altered Can only be read

Used to store currently executing Used for storing OS kernel and boot up
program instructions

 Types of RAM - Static RAM vs. Dynamic RAM

sram dram

Doesn’t need to refresh hence uses less Has to be refreshed, hence has slower
power and faster access time access times and needs higher power

More complex circuitry, hence more Only single transistor & capacitor, hence
expensive less expensive to purchase

Each bit stored in flip-flop Each bit stored as a charge

Has lower data density Has higher data density

Used in cache memory Used in main memory

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 Types of ROM – PROM vs. EPROM vs. EEPROM

pROM EPROM EEPROM

Erasable Programmable Electrically Erasable

Programmable ROM
ROM Programmable ROM

Can be programmed Can be erased by UV light Can be erased by an

only once after it is exposure and can then be electrical signal and can
created reprogrammed then be reprogrammed

Data cannot be erased Chip has to be removed for Can update data without
or deleted reprogramming removing chip.

 Monitoring and Control Systems

o Monitoring System

 Monitors some state external to computer system

 No changes made to environment by the system and hence no feedback

o Control System

 Regulates the behaviour of other devices or systems.

 Event-driven system: the controller alters the state of the system in response to some event.

 Time-driven system: the controller takes action at a specific point in time

o Hardware typically used in a system

 Sensor: measures an (analogue) property and transmits it to a processing unit, generally as

an electrical or optical signal.

 Actuators: switch on/off heavy appliances (e.g. heater to heat/fan to cool)

 ADC: converts analogue signals to digital signals

 Transmission cable: to transfer signals

o Feedback Systems

 Output from system affects the input of sensors.

 Ensures system operates within the given criteria

 By enabling the system output to affect subsequent system inputs, it may cause a change in

the actions taken by the system

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 Thus enables the system to automatically adjust conditions in a continuous process

Logic Gates and Logic Circuits

 Logic Gates: use one or more inputs and produce a single logical output

 AND gate: If both inputs are high, the output is high (A•B)

A B Output

0 0 0

0 1 0

1 0 0

1 1 1

\n

A B Output

0 0 0

0 1 1

1 0 1

1 1 1

 OR gate: If either input is high, the output is high (A+B)

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 NOT gate: an inverter (A)

A Output

1 0

0 1

A B Output

0 0 1

0 1 1

1 0 1

1 1 0
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 NAND gate: (A•B) \n

A B Output

0 0 1

0 1 0

1 0 0

1 1 0

 NOR gate: (A+B) \n

A B Output

0 0 0

0 1 1

1 0 1

1 1 0
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 XOR gate: (A⨁B) \n