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| Revised Laws of the Commonwealth of Mas- |
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OCT 28 |

‫ ההא‬5

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8.7.5. FORM .6‫א‬‎ 609; 1,23,29; 350M.

| HISTORICAL AND CRITICAL
COMMENTARY

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"LONGMAN, BROWN, GREEN AND LONGMANS.

1855.
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 PREFACE.

_ Atmost marvellous is the progress which the Biblical

sciences have made since the beginning of this century;
it amounts to a total regeneration, and comprises nearly
all branches of sacred literature. The knowledge of 126
holy tongue has been materially promoted by the pro-
= foundest grammatical and lexicographical researches; 6
vigorous study of 121011081 history has facilitated our
insight into the organic connection of the different books;
whilst the critical analysis of universal history has dis-
closed the natural relation of the people of Israel with the
other nations of antiquity; a host of eminent travellers
have explored the geography of the East; have made us
familiar with the customs of the Oriental nations; and
have described many usages and institutions, which enable
us correctly to understand numerous obscure Biblical pas-
sages and allusions.
However, all these efforts have hitherto remained
isolated; no attempt has been made to unite them in one
focus, and to bring them into immediate application on
the exposition of the sacred books; the existing English
Commentaries are mostly without’ the refreshing and
animating breath of modern science; they are essentially
composed of antiquated materials; they cannot entirely
satisfy the educated or the learned reader, for the spirit of
our time is that of progress and historical disquisition. It
is the aim of the present work to attempt that amalgamation
of modern enquiries; in the simplest possible form we have
endeavoured to illustrate the sacred text in its various
relations, and thus systematically to prepare the way for a
more comprehensive penetration into the spirit of the
Biblical records. ie
That such undertaking is really an urgent desideratum,
is confirmed by the following remarks of the Rev.S. David-
son (in A7tto’s Cyclopedia of Biblical Literature, 1. p. 455),

a
lv PREFACE.

who, speaking of ‘ those English Commentaries which are

most current among us,” observes: “By a series of
appended remarks, plain statements are expanded; but
wherever there is a real perplexity, it is glozed over with
marvellous superficiality. It may be that much 18 said -
about it, but yet there is no penetration beneath the
surface; and when the reader asks himself what is the
true import, he finds himself in the same state of ignorance
as when he first took up the Commentary in question.
Pious reflections, and multitudinous inferences enter largely
into our popular books of exposition. They spiritualize,
but they do not expound. They sermonize upon a book,
but they do not catch its spirit, or comprehend its meaning.
All this is out of place. <A preaching, spiritualizing Com-
mentary does not deserve the appellation of Commentary
at all. . . . Our popular commentators piously descant on
what is well known, leaving the reader in darkness, where
he most needs assistance.” The intelligent student may
decide, if we have succeeded in avoiding a similar
censure.
But modern criticism also has its defects; like every
new principle, it has been pursued with one-sided rigour;
the desire of consistency has led to extremes. The
treasures of the old, especially the Jewish commentators,
were neglected; the positive basis was deserted; every
traditional conception was rejected as a prejudice and an
illusion. The sacred records were dismembered, trans-
posed, falsified; the most aerial conjectures were framed;
and the palm was awarded to those, who excelled the rest in
boldness and fanciful theories. Instead of penetrating into
the notions of the Bible, these critics forced upon it ideas |
which were nothing but the emanations of their individual |
preconceptions; and instead of commenting with calm
examination, violence and destruction were their constant
weapons. Can it cause astonishment, that under such —
hands the spirit of the holy books vanished, and that the
most venerable documents were degraded to an aggregate
of contradictions, enigmas, and singularities? It has been
our careful endeavour to avoid these extremes; we have
disregarded none ofthe more important ancient commen-
tators; we have tried to produce an equilibrium between
the faith of former ages and the science of our century;
we have examined without prepossession; and have pre-
 PREFACE, V

| , served whatever seemed fit to contribute to the true

| elucidation of the sacred word.
Hence follows a third feature of our commentary. As
truth is its only aim, and impartiality its only guide; it is
perfectly unsectarian; it does not labour to defend the
doctrines of any particular creed; the holy text is its ex-
clusive basis, and the most probable meaning of its contents
its sole object. The author has striven, to the utmost of
his power, to keep himself above the parties, impressed,
with the conviction that this is the only safe method of
gradually reconciling the conflicting opinions, and of pro-
moting harmony and true brotherly love among the dif-
ferent sects of society. He trusts to have excluded no
class of readers; clergymen and laymen, students of history
and pious readers, he hopes, will consult the book not
without interest and advantage.
But in order to secure this end with greater certainty,
he has based his commentary, not upon an existing trans-
lation, but on the Hebrew text itself; he has gone back to
the source, and hopes thereby to have avoided numerous
current errors. Everybody willingly acknowledges the
excellencies of the authorised English version; but so vast
is the progress of Hebrew philology since the time of its
preparation, that a thorough revision has become almost
indispensable; and so deeply felt is this requirement, that
societies have been formed to meet it. We have, there-
fore, deemed it necessary to add to our commentary a new
translation, which embodies the results of our enquiries,
and upon which we have bestowed a due share of atten-
tion. Those renderings 01 the English Version, which we
consider as erroneous conceptions, have been noted at the
foot of our translation. But it is admitted, with equal
unanimity, that the language of the English Version is
frequently obsolete, and not seldom obscure and unin-
telligible; we have altered such passages, without, however,
destroying the old venerable hue; we have designedly pre-
served a colouring of antiquity.
Lastly, in order to facilitate the study of the holy lan-
guage, without which a deep understanding of the sacred
books is impossible, we have published a larger edition
of this work, which contains, besides the Hebrew text, a
grammatical analysis of all difficult passages, and other
philological remarks. For the man of science, even if he
vl PREFACE.

cultivates other branches than Oriental literature, we

should recommend the larger edition, in which he will
find the necessary references and a statement of the
sources. In this smaller edition everything is omitted
which might be deemed superfluous by the general reader.
We have commenced with the publication of the Second
Book of the Pentateuch, because it forms the centre of
Divine revelation, and because it is best calculated to con-
vey a correct idea of the spirit and tendency of our Com-
mentary; we have treated the explanation of the Mosaic
laws with more copiousness than is the case in the exist-
ing Commentaries; for it is by its laws that the people of
Israel was distinguished from all the other nations; by its
theology it became the holy, the chosen people; whilst by its
manners and customs it is only a member in the common
family of the Oriental nations (see pp. vii. viii). The
commentary on Genesis will follow next, and then the
other books in due order.
The author, by observing, in conclusion, that he has en-
deavoured to sum up, as it were, the previous researches, in
order to promote, however modestly, the Biblical exegesis,
by calm and impartial combinations, has, at the same
time established his claim to the indulgent examination of
the learned public; he has undertaken the arduous work,
strengthened by his love for the sacred and earliest sources
of human civilization; and he willingly confides it to the
benign protection of Divine grace.

M. Kauiscu.
London, June \st., 1855.
 INTRODUCTION.
§ 1—IMPORTANCE, NAME, CONTENTS, DIVISION, AND
UNITY OF EXODUS.

1. Tne history of Israel, and the progress of Divine

Revelation to Israel and to mankind, constitute the two
cardinal points of interest in the records of the Old
Testament. Prophecy itself is but a compound of those
two elements, for it is either prospective and anticipative
history, or an exhortative comment on the spirit of the
Divine Law. But in no part of the Sacred Volume are
those two ingredients so obviously and so completely com-
bined as in the Second Book of the Pentateuch. For
whilst Genesis treats of the lives of the Hebrew patriarchs,
Exodus narrates the fates of the Hebrew nation; the |
former contains chiefly biographies, the latter hzstory; the
one has more an archeological, the other a purely historical
interest; the one is the promise, the other the fulfilment.!
Genesis has in every respect the character of an 2ntroduc-
tion; it teaches the existence, the omnipotence of God,
but discloses not His essence, defines not His internal
nature in its abstraction; it proclaims, at least indirectly,
the unity of God, but only in so far as He is the Lord
and Ruler of Nature; it implies many principles of
morality and human and divine right, but it does not
comprize them in a system, or consider them from one
common and ideal point of view; it contains the conclu-
sion of a covenant, but its sign and symbol is mysterious
and external; it therefore prepares us for the sublime
notions of sanctity, and religious life, but it does not
develop them in their ennobling consequences, it does not
ensure their practical effect upon the conduct of man by
other and more efficacious institutions; it records revela-
tions, but they are restricted to individuals—they refer to
1 Comp. Gen. xv. 18---16, and Exod. xii. 40.
Vill INTRODUCTION.

the future rather than the present; they are more abrupt
and desultory manifestations than a permanent, ever ready,
perfect communion, they are more important for the
hopes and prospects which they open than for the imme-
diate bliss they confer; they are a veil through which the
first outlines of the world’s history are dimly discernible.
Genesis leads the thread of narration to that very point
where the family begins to assume the importance, not of
a tribe, but of a people; and Exodus carries on the account
through the infancy and youth of the new nation; through
the ignominy of Egyptian servitude, and the glory of
heaven-wrought redemption; through the darkness of
idolatrous aberration, and the light of revealed truth; the
Israelites, physically and mentally released, are trained
for the difficult warfare against opposing nations, and for
a happy political existence in their own conquered land.
But the political government of Israel is based on, or is
rather indentical with, its religious organization; it is a
theocracy,’ therefore our book contains also a full outline of
the moral laws which man owes to God and to his fellow-
creatures; and so admirable is their purport and so sys-
tematical their arrangement, that they form the eternal
and infallible standard of human conduct.? The Deca-
logue and the “Book of the Covenant,” embodied in
Exodus, render it with respect to Divine revelation, the
most important volume which the human race possesses.
2. It is known that the name Lxodus ("E£odos, departure,
viz., from Egypt) was given to our book by the Hellenists,
from the chief event therein narrated, whilst the Jews
designate it by the two Hebrew words with which it
commences, We-eleh Shemoth, or simply Shemoth.
3. The contents of the Second Book of Moses, which we
have constantly developed in the Summaries before each
chapter or section, inclose an extraordinary variety of
matter, and yield to the enquiring mind an unusual extent
of information. ‘The narration of the fates of Israel yields
ample and copious results for historical and chronological
researches; the ten plagues, for the natural phenomena of
the East; the Exode, and the journeys of the Hebrews,
for geographical enquiries; the Decalogue, and the laws
of the Book of the Covenant, for the most fertile philoso-
1 See note on xix. 6.
* See notes on .‫אא‬‎ 1—14, and frefatory remarks to xx. 19, 20.
 INTRODUCTION. 1X

phical and legislatorial investigations; and the construc-

tion of the holy Tabernacle, and the sacred utensils, not
only for the history of art and mechanical skill, but also
for the innermost character of the religious ideas of
Mosaism. This book is, therefore, as interesting for the
diversity, as it is important for the sublimity, of its
contents.
4. Exodus may conveniently be divided into two chief
portions :— | |
I. The Historical Part: i.—xi. (Israel in Egypt); xii.
21—42,51. (Exode); xii. 17—xix. 25. (Jour-
neysand Wanderings to Mount Sinai); xx. 15—18.
(Divine Revelation); xxiv. (Covenant concluded
between God and Israel) ; xxxii—xl. (Its violation
by the worship of the golden calf and its renewal;
the erection of the Tabernacle and the inauguration
of Aaron and his sons). |
I]. The Legislative Part: xu. 1—20, 43—50. (Abib
appointed as the first month; Passover); .‫א‬‎ 6.
(Sanctification of the Firstborn and Phylacteries);
xx.1—14. (Decalogue); xx.19.toxxiii.33. (The
Book of the Covenant); xxv.—xxxi. (Tabernacle
and Sacerdotal Robes).
It will be seen that the first part of Exodus is pre-
dominantly historical; the second essentially legislative or
dogmatical; but yet the former contains three important
laws ; and the latter, the history of a flagrant breach, on
the part of Israel, of the promises made concerning the
faithful observance of the Law, the erection of the holy
Tabernacle, and the consecration of Aaron and his de-
scendants.
5. The authenticity of Exodus has been less exposed to
the attacks of criticism than that of the other books of
the Pentateuch, especially Genesis. Even the most radical
sceptics have admitted that a historical kernel lies at the
bottom of the accounts concerning the Exode, and that
Moses is the author at least of the Decalogue. It is
generally admitted, that both the details of the Egyptian
plagues and the journeys of Israel manifest the most
accurate acquaintance with the phenomena and localities
described. And that rare unanimity makes again this
book one of the most interesting parts of the holy records.
But its unity has been questioned, not only by that school
x INTRODUCTION.

of Biblical critics which dismembers the sacred writings,

quite as arbitrarily and blindly as many hypercritical
philologists of the last century dissected Homer’s songs
into incoherent fragments; but even more moderate
interpreters believe that our book is disfigured by spurious
interpolations. We have in all such passages tried to
refute this very questionable opinion. We see the completest
harmony in all parts of Exodus ; we consider it as a perfect
whole, pervaded throughout by one spirit and the same leading
ideas. As itis one of the chief objects of this commentary
to prove that unity, we content ourselves here with re-
ferring, among other passages, to our notes on vi. 10, 26.;
Ras xi dose 35, 30:5 xxive lL
If really our book should, in some parts, have a
fragmentary character, this would be far from proving a
plurality of authors; it is, on the contrary, in perfect
harmony with the nature of a historical work, the single
events of which are recorded by a contemporary writer
immediately after their occurence. In such cases we
cannot expect a pragmatical digest of the historical facts;
and that peculiarity which has been described as a defect
in style and composition, constitutes certainly a strong
proof of the truth and authenticity of the events narrated.

§ 2. THE CHRONOLOGY OF EXODUS.

Tux chronology of the period comprised in Exodus, is, like
almost all other epochs of Biblical history, involved in in-
tricate and embarrassing difficulty; and it is by the most
persevering patience only that we might at last succeed
to bring the events related in our book in harmony both
with each other and with profane history..

I. SOJOURN OF THE ISRAELITES IN EGYPT.

1. The cardinal point of this important question is:
how long did the Israelites stay in Egypt? or, how many
years elapsed from the immigration of Jacob to the
Exodus under the leadership of Moses? If we follow the
clear Biblical representation, we find that the period is
prophetically fixed at 400 years (Gen. xv. 18), and histo-
rically stated, in more accurate figures, at 430 years
(Exod. xii. 40). Although this Biblical statement is sur-
rounded with perplexing difficulties, we are not justified
 INTRODUCTION. | Xl

in deviating from it, as has been done by the traditional

chronology, which assigns only 210 or 215 years to the
sojourn of Israel in Egypt. We have explained this
complicated subject fully in the larger edition of this
work, to which we refer the inquiring reader.

II. BIRTH OF MOSES.

The next chronological question of interest is, to ascer-

tain which interval lies between the death of Joseph and
the birth of Moses, or between Gen. 1. 26, and Exod. ii. 2.
Jacob was 130 years old when he came to Egypt (Gen.
xlvii. 9,28). He lived there 17 years, and died at the age
of 147 years. Joseph survived him by about 54 years.
Amram was, at the birth of Moses, married about 15 years
(see note to ii. 8); and Moses was 80 years old at the
time of the Exodus (vii. 7); we have, therefore, from the .
death of Joseph to the marriage of Amram 430- )17 +
54 + 15 + 80( =264 years; or to the birth of Moses 279
(264+ 15) vears. And these numbers harmonize per-
fectly with all the circumstances connected with the
Egyptian bondage and the Exodus of the Israelites.
That period was extended enough to allow the descend-
ants of Jacob to increase to a dangerously numerous
people, although it could not eradicate or even weaken
among them those independent and bold habits which
constitute the most prominent characteristics of nomadic
tribes, and which their new rulers, themselves children
of the desert, considered it the first dictate of policy to
check and to subdue, the more so, as a certain tradition
of the authority enjoyed by their ancestors in Canaan
lived clearly in their recollection, and stimulated them to
regain that ancient influence. During that period, it is
likewise probable, that the memory of the eminent
services of Joseph had faded away in Egypt, and that
the Israelites had begun to be regarded with an invidious
and suspicious eye. ‘That the holy writer hastens over that
protracted period of 264 years with a very few passing
words, will be found but natural, if the chief character
and end of the Pentateuch is considered, which is, to give
a historical account of the facts and circumstances ex-
plaining how Israel became a people, and how it became
the people of God, worthy of His revelation and special
 ‫גוא‬ INTRODUCTION.‫‏‬

providence. Everything, therefore, which has no refer-

ence to that end, is studiously omitted; the whole Penta-
teuch appears but a narration of the gradual fulfilment of
the promises which God gave to Abraham. This can be
substantiated by many instances, one of which will suffice,
namely, the life of Moses previous to his appearing before
Pharaoh, as the champion for Israel’s deliverance. His
education, and all his fates anterior to his first active
interest for his brethren, and his flight to Midian, a period
of at least 40 years (see note on ii.11), are scarcely
alluded to; the transition from his birth and childhood to
that event, is merely introduced with the words: “ And
Moses grew, and he went out to see his brethren.” And
so the interval between his flight to Midian and his return
to Egypt, an epoch of about the same duration, is passed
over with silence, because a detailed history of those times
would have thrown no light upon the progress of Israel as
the chosen people. Both the bondage of the Hebrews in
Egypt, the education and sojourn of Moses in Midian
were times of preparation, the one for forming a people
out of a family, the other for maturing the character and
intellect of the chosen instrument of their mental and
political elevation; but, as times of preparation, they
required no specified description ; and in this respect the
historiography of the Bible is truly pragmatical and teleo-
logical, composed throughout with strict regard to means
and ends, causes and effects. And from the same motive,
no doubt, many facts, even such as would have added to
the glory of Israel, have been omitted by the sacred writer,
because they would have distracted the attention from
the aim of the narrative. But other reasons co-operated
to cause that long period of 264 years to be but summa-
rily adverted to. It is an acknowledged truism, that
slaves have no history; for history consists in the develop-
ment of individual faculties or political institutions; but
without liberty there can be no progress. Thus the
bondage offered no subject or materials for the historian,
and although we have strong reasons to believe that the
Hebrews remained during a very considerable portion of
that period unmolested by the rulers and the people of
Egypt, and that they continued undisturbed their nomadic
and agricultural pursuits (see note to i.11), yet this
uniformity and even monotony of their occupations, re-
 INTRODUCTION. ‎‫ונוא‬

moved from the scenes of political warfare or social strife,

excluded them from the annals of history. We can, on the
whole, only describe the manners and customs, not write
the history, of the Arabian Bedouins, although they are
one of the most ancient tribes of the world. But, how-
ever briefly our text alludes to that long period, it does
not treat it defectively; we find no feature wanting to
represent to ourselves a complete picture of that interval;
a simple subject requires but a few bold lines, and the
division of the two Books (Genesis and Exodus), which is
markedly indicated by the repetition of Jacob’s genealogy,
carries the reader over the gap of centuries.

Ill. THE EXODUS FROM EGYPT FIXED AFTER YEARS OF THE

WORLD AND OF THE CHRISTIAN ERA.

We have hitherto only endeavoured to determine the

principal events of our Book according to the absolute
statements of the Bible, irrespective of the chronology of
universal history, which is, however, indispensable for a
clear understanding of that important period of Biblical
history; for we can only comprehend and appreciate the
significance of a historical fact by considering it in con-
nection and relation with the other important synchronical
events. Two points are chiefly to be examined:—1. In
what year of the world, and before the vulgar era, the
Exodus of the Israelites took place; and, 2. Under which
Egyptian king that event happened.
1. As to the first question, we do not hesitate to adopt
the usual Hebrew account, according to which the first
year of the Christian era is the 3760th year of the world
(repudiating that. of Josephus, who gives a much larger
number). Now we learn from 1 Kings vi. 1, that Solo-
mon began the building of the temple in the fourth year
of his reign, or 480 years after the Exodus; and. as, ac-
cording to modern chronological researches, Solomon
reigned from 1015 to 975 B.c., it follows:—(qa) that the
Exodus took place in 1491 B.c. (viz. 1011 + 480); or, (0)
in 2269 a.m. (viz. 3760—1491), i.e. about the time of
the immigration of Danaus and Cadmus into Greece, with
which, indeed, Diodorus of Sicily, brings the Exodus of the
Israelites into. connection.' Now we can easily, with the
1 See infra, § 3, vi.
 <‫צגא‬ INTRODUCTION.‫‏‬

aid of the results established in the preceding remarks, fix

the chronology of the chief events narrated in our book,
namely :--
1. Jacob and his family immigrated into Egypt 1839
A.M. (viz. 2269-430) or 1921 B.c. (viz. 1491 + 430).
2. Jacob died 1856 a.m. (viz. 1839+17) or 1904 6.
(viz. 1921 --17((.
3. Joseph died 1910 a.m. (viz. 1856+54) or 1850 B.c.
(viz. 1904 —54).
4. Moses was born 2189 a.m. (viz. 2269-80) or 1571
B.C. (viz. 1491480).
5. The Exodus took place 2269 a.m., or 1491 B.c.
6. The Book of Exodus contains the history of 360
years, viz. from 1910 to 2270 a.m. or from 1850 to
1490 B.c.—The number 145 usually stated for this period
is therefore erroneous.
We presume, that these computations will be found sufti-
cient for our purpose; and we shall not be expected to enter
here into the much vexed question concerning the shorter
(Hebrew), and longer (Greek) chronologies, or the relation
between the years of the world and those of the Christian
era. ‘he single fact, that the creation of the world is by
some fixed at 3760 years before Christ (vulgar Hebrew
account), whilst others put it down at 5508 1 (Dr.
Hales, after Josephus), thus fluctuating within an interval
of not less than 1748 years, this one fact will suffice to
show the extreme uncertainty respecting this subject. We
may, however, add, that the Hebrew computation, which
is based on the Biblical statements, deserves the prefer-
ence before the questionable alterations of the Septuagint
and Josephus, and those who follow them.
2. I'he second question, “ under which king the Israelites
left the Egyptian dominions,” is, if possible, enveloped
in still denser clouds; and it would be fruitless to fatigue
the reader by leading him through the labyrinth of con-
flicting traditions and statements, of contradictory names
and irreconcilable numbers; for there are scarcely two
coinciding reports on the same subject in the vast and dr
accounts of the Egyptian dynasties, and, after all the time
and exertion spent on the investigation of this subject, we
arrive, at the best, only at a sterile and unprofitable no-
menclature, which increases very little the extent of our
Biblical knowledge. We refrain, therefore, from repeat-
 INTRODUCTION. XV

ing here our examination of the various and very diverging

conjectures proposed with regard to that monarch; and
think it the most advisable course to follow that account,
which, by its antiquity and internal probability, has at
present the greatest relative claims to our consideration.
Josephus states, on the authority of Manetho, that the
Israelites left Egypt during the reign of the King
Ramses V., Amenophis, who was the last of the sixteen
monarchs of the eighteenth (Diospolitanic) dynasty, and
whose misfortune at the Red Sea might have caused the
fall of his house. This statement agrees with other chro-
nological dates connected therewith. Tor the three dynas-
ties succeeding that which ended with Amenophis, viz.
the nineteenth, twentieth and twenty-first, reigned, ac-
cording to Julius Africanus, together, during 474, or,
according to Eusebius, during 496 years. Further, Shishak
(1 Kings xiv. 25), 1.6. Sesonchis, the founder of the
twenty-second dynasty, or that of the Bubastides, who
reigned 21 years, ascended the Egyptian throne in the last
part of Solomon’s reign, who built the temple in the fourth
year after his accession, or 480 years after the Exodus.
Therefore, even according to the larger of the two num-
bers above cited (496), the Exodus may fall into the time
of Amenophis, who reigned 30 years, according to Jose-
phus (ch. 15), and 40 years, according to Eusebius.
Champollion also arrived, by the study and combination of
the ancient inscriptions, at the same result: ‘‘ La captivité
dura autant que la XVIII*® dynastie, et ce fut sous
Ramses V. ou Aménophis, au commencement du XV°
816010, que Moyse délivra les Hebreux.” Authentic and
valuable information on this and many other important
archeological points may reasonably be expected from
the study of the ancient sculptured monuments, which
have already yielded many useful and interesting results
pregnant of greater promise.
We conclude by summing up the results of our remarks :
1. The sojourn of the Israelites in Egypt lasted 0
years.
2. From the death of Joseph to the birth of Moses
elapsed a period of 279 years.
3. The Exodus took place 2269 a.m. or 1491 8.0. ; and
4. Under Ramses V., Amenophis, the last king of the
eighteenth dynasty.
 ‫נטא‬ INTRODUCTION.‫‏‬

§ 3. ACCOUNTS OF ANCIENT PROFANE WRITERS ON THE

EXODUS.
The fates of the Israelites, connected as they were with
the history of several important nations of antiquity, were
too remarkable from the commencement, not to attract
and arrest the attention of the ancient historians. It is
true, few, if any, of the old writers were able to perceive
in the internal life of the Israelites, and in the purity of
> their new doctrines, the incalculable influence which they
exercised upon the course and development of universal
history; but even the extraordinary external character. of
the destinies of the house of Jacob, which from a few
ancestors, branched out into a numerous nation, powerful
enough to extirpate or to subjugate the mighty tribes of
Canaan; even these events, considered as a mere episode
of history, were necessarily calculated to excite the interest
of reflecting minds, and to attract even the curlosity of
the more superficial observer. And thus we possess a
variety of accounts furnished by ancient historians con-
cerning the sojourn of the Israelites in, and their departure
from, Egypt. But these narratives are mostly of a very
singular nature. It is the privilege of individuals with
carefully cultivated and trained intellects, to penetrate
with an unbiassed and unprejudiced eye into the circum-
stances and habits of others, however differing from their
own, to estimate their importance and character, and to
form an accurate and calm judgment. This power of
abstraction, or objectivity, was withheld from most of the
ancient writers; they generally judge other polities after
the notions prevalent in their own respective countries,
condemning everything which is at variance with their
ideas or institutions; and whilst they thus, on the whole,
furnish authentic and accurate information concerning
their own lands, their reports about foreign nations are
generally disfigured by erroneous and one-sided concep-
tions, and too often distorted by prejudice, national anti-
pathy, and religious animosity. This is, in general, also
the character of the profane accounts of the Exodus of the
Israelites; but they are, nevertheless, both interesting
and important, for it is certain that none of them is in
any way derived from the Bible; they are original infor- .
mation, taken from different other sources, especially, no
doubt, from Egyptian records; and although they repre-
 INTRODUCTION. Xvi

sent the events ifi a fanciful and exaggerated manner, they

certainly corroborate the narrative of the Bible in every
essential particular, which agreement must give additional
authority to the sacred records, even in the eyes of those
who are accustomed to value their religious importance
higher than their historical accuracy.
We shall introduce those profane accounts, mostly in
literal translations, or, if they are too lengthened, in
abridements, and shall only, when necessary, add a few
remarks on their character and trustworthiness, as the
reader will himself easily observe the deviations from the
sacred narrative.
I.—Maneruxo (usually believed to have 11760 as the chief
of the priests of Heliopolis, about 280 B. c., in the reigns of
Ptolemy Lagi and Philadelphus) relates: “The Egyptian
king, Amenophis, wished, on the advice of an oracle, to
purify the country of 80,000 leprous Jews, and sent them
into the quarries on the east side of the Nile,’ but later,
he assigned to them, as their abodes, the town Avaris,?
which had been quitted by the Hyksos, and which was
consecrated to Typhon. ‘There they chose Osarsiph, 8
priest of Osiris, from Hieropolis, who was later called
Moses,® as their leader; he gave them new and strict laws,
commanded them to abandon idolatry, to kill and eat all
animals held sacred among the Egyptians, and to associate
with nobody except their own brethren, in order thus to
estrange them from Egyptian customs. Osarsiph then
fortified the town of Avaris, and made all military pre-
parations for an attack against the Egyptians; he further
sent ambassadors to the Hyksos, who had been expelled
by the preceding king, Thummoris, and were then living
in Jerusalem. ‘The Hyksos, tempted by the promise, that
Avaris, which had formerly been in their possession, should
be restored to them, caine to their aid with 200,000 men.
Amenophis, although he was at the head of 300,000 men,
did not dare to accept battle, but retreated to Memphis, and
went then, with many ships, and a great army, to Ethiopia,
where he found a hospitable reception from the king,
his friend. The Hyksos [whom Manetho calls Solymites[
made, in the mean time, great devastations in Egypt,
burnt towns and villages, destroyed the images of the
!‫ ו‬Compare Exod. i.11, 14; v. 6 et seq.‫‏‬
2 See note on i. 11, sub Raamses. 3 See note on i, 10.‫‏‬
b
 ‫ וא‬1 INTRODUCTION.‫‏‬

gods, and killed the holy animals of the Egyptians; but

when Amenophis returned, after thirteen years, he defeated
both the Hyksos and the Jews, and pursued them to the
boundaries of Syria.” We observe, on this account:
1. The fable about the leprosy of the Israelites, which, it
is asserted, made them especially hateful in the eyes of the
Egyptians, and which myth has been repeated even by
modern writers, may perhaps be reduced to the miracle of
the leprous hand of Moses, narrated in Exod. iv. 6, 7, and
the sixth plague, that of boils (Exod.ix. 8—12), with
which it was erroneously supposed the Israelites were
infested, who spread the disease, by contagion, among the
Egyptians. It is, on the contrary, evident, from Deut.
xxvill. 27, that the Egyptians are chiefly subject to that
epidemic, a fact which is confirmed by many other accounts.!
Moreover, the tenor of Manetho’s story itself shows, that
not the leprosy of the Israelites, but their dangerous
position, induced the Egyptians to hostile measures. But
this does not prevent us from admitting, that the Israelites
also were not quite free from that disorder so common in
Egypt, especially if we consider their oppressed social
condition; ‘which fact is besides corroborated by the
minute precepts of the Mosaic law respecting the treat-
ment of that disease. 2. The statement, that Moses
(Osarsiph) was a priest of Osiris, is a fiction, although it
has been repeatedly advanced? 3. That the Hyksos,
after having once been expelled from Egypt, had been
called back by the Israelites to assist them against the
Egyptians, is improbable in itself, and is at variance with
other historical facts.* 4. The Hyksos ) Solymites) cannot
be imagined to have dwelt in Jerusalem so early as the
time of the Exodus. 5. The Egyptian king may have
pursued the Israelites northwards; but it is incredible that
he should have followed them to the frontier of Syria ;
unless we understand thereby either the mere direction
thither, or take Syria in its later sense, as comprising
Palestine also. But, notwithstanding all this, the following
facts are evident from that account :—1. The Israelites were
compelled by the Egyptian king to hard Jabour, and were
treated and persecuted as enemies. 2. Moses led them
from Egypt. 8. Their Exodus was connected with a tem-

1 See note on ix. 8. £ See note ‫סת‬‎ 10 3 See note on i. 8.

 INTRODUCTION. X1X

porary ruin of the Egyptian power. 4. Moses gave to

the Israelites laws, enjoining monotheism as the funda-
mental principle, and severely interdicting idolatry, and
every connection with pagan nations. 5. The war
between Pharaoh and the Israelites was partly a religious
one, for, according to the Biblical narrative also, the
doctrine of monotheism unfolded itself in the Hebrew
nation, on the Egyptian soil, and in opposition to Egyptian
animal-worship (see viil. 22).
I].—CuarreEmon (in the first half of the first century
of the vulgar era; lived long in Alexandria, where he was
chief librarian, and occupied himself much with Egyptian
antiquities),narrates, in his History of Egypt: ‘“Amenophis,
exhorted by apparitions of the goddess of Isis, expelled
250,000 lepers, under their leaders Moses and Joseph,
whose original Egyptian names were Tisithen and Peteseph.
When they arrived at Pelusium they met a great number
of people (380,000 men), whom Amenophis had refused
to admit into Egypt. They joined them, marched back to
Egypt, and caused Amenophis to flee to Ethiopia. But
his wife, whom he had left in Egypt, bare, shortly after-
wards, a son, who, when arrived at maturity, drove the
Israelites to Syria, whereupon his father returned from
Ethiopia.” Without essentially deviating from the chief
facts narrated by Manetho, this account of Chaeremon
adds some new inaccuracies to those of his predecessor :—
1. Joseph and Moses are represented as contemporaries;
2. the number of the Hyksos rises from 280,000 to
380,000.
I{1.—Lysmacuus (of Alexandria, later than Chaeremon,
author of several historical works, relates: 7 A great
famine having befallen Egypt, king 206020918 was
commanded, by an oracle of Ammon, to drown the
leprous Israelites, and to send the rest into the desert.
The latter, after a night of fasting and consultation,
were advised by Moses to proceed, and to overthrow
all temples and altars on their way. They followed
his council, arrived after many tribulations in Judea,
built here a town, Hierosyla (so denominated from their
plundering the temples), but changed its name later into
Mierosolyma.” We observe:—1. The drowning of the
Israelites is probably nothing but the exposing of the
Hebrew children in the Nile. 2. The night of fasting and
 ‫אא‬ INTRODUCTION,‫‏‬

consultation refers most likely to the evening before

the Exodus (xii. 32), and the rites of the Paschal-lamb ;
and 3. The destroying of the altars to commands, as_
those in xxiii.24, ete. 4. The account about the name and
the foundation of Jerusalem is entirely fabulous. 5. The
Egyptian king, under whom the Israelites left the country,
is here called Bocchoris, who is also mentioned by several
other ancient historians. According to Diodorus, he lived
about 900 ₪. c.; according to Manetho he belonged +0 the
twenty-fourth dynasty; and Wilkinson dates the commence-
ment of his reign at ₪. 0. 812. This period 18 considerabl
too late for the Exodus, and was probably only adopted in
an age in which the tendency prevailed to question the
antiquity of the Hebrew nation.
TV.--Arraranus (author of-a history of the Jews,
writes on the transit over the Red Sea:—“ The Mem-
phites relate, that Moses, being well acquainted with the
country, watched the influx of the tide, and made
the
multitude pass through the dry bed of the sea. But the
Heliopolitans relate, that the king, at the head of a great
army, and accompanied by the sacred animals, pursu
ed
after the Jews, who had carried off with them the wealth
of the Egyptians; and Moses, having been directed by
a
Divine vision to strike the sea with his staff, touched
the
water with it, and so the fluid divided itself, and the
hosts
passed over the gulf as on a dry path. But when
the
Egyptians tried the same, and pursued them in the bed
of
the sea, it is said that fire flashed against them in front,
and the sea, returning to its old place, overwhelmed
them
in the passage. Thus the Egyptians perished both by
fire and by the reflux of the tide.”
V.—Srrazo (between about 66 B.c. and 25 A.C.) gives
the following account: —“ The most generally receiv
ed
opinion is, that the Israelites are descendants of the Egyp-
tians; a certain Moses, a priest, dissatisfied with the
state
of things in Egypt, emigrated, accompanied by many
who
worshipped the Deity.” That the Hebrews are represente
d
as descendants of the Egyptians, may’ originate in
the
circumstance, that the family of Joseph, who married
the
daughter of an Egyptian priest (Gen. xli. 45), could
some respects be considered as Egyptian. According
in
to
Strabo, the Hebrews left Egypt with their free will, whilst
the other profanc historians describe the Exodus gener
ally
as an expulsion. |
1
INTRODUCTION. 1

VI.—Droporus (of Sicily, in the time of Caesar and

Augustus) relates, that ‘ Antiochus Epiphanes, after
having taken Jerusalem, was most urgently entreated, by
many of his friends, to destroy that town, and to devas-
tate the whole country. For the Jews, they said, were
a people which alone of all other nations, repudiates every
alliance or friendship with others; their forefathers had
‘been expelled from Egypt as impious men, and as crea-
tures hateful to the gods, especially on account of their
leprosy, and had then settled in the vicinity of Jerusalem.”
But in another passage he writes, that “a pestilence
once broke out in Egypt, in consequence of the many
foreigners who refused to revere the native gods; these
strangers were therefore expelled; the more distinguished
=>
and vigorous of them emigrated, under the leadership of
Danaus and Cadmus, to Greece, whilst the rest marched,
under Moses, to Judea, which was at that time quite desolate,
but where Moses built Jerusalem and the temple, and or-
ganized the state by peculiar laws.” The chronology is
here stated with correctness, but, in all other respects,
these two accounts of Diodorus share the mistakes of both
Manetho and Chaeremon; and the invidiousness with
which the Israelites are mentioned must be attributed to
the spirit of intolerance peculiar to that time, and to the
hostile disposition of Antiochus Epiphanes, who vied with
Pharaoh in cruelty against the Jews and surpassed him.
VII.—Aprion (about 40 a.c., who follows Lysimachus)
says :---*That Moses, of Heliopolis, led leprous, lame and
blind Jews out of Egypt, in the first year of the seventh
Olympiad, in which he asserts, the Phoenicians built
Carthage, and arrived, after a journey of six days, safely
in Judea.” Josephus, who severely criticises and ridi-
cules this fabulous statement of Apion, remarks, concern-
ing the chronology, that Hiram, the contemporary of
Solomon, lived above 150 years earlier than the building
of Carthage.
VIII.—The most remarkable is the account given by
Tacitus, perhaps the most eminent historian of antiquity,
whose sagacity, impartiality, and calm estimation of the
circumstances and events, generally entitle him to be con-
sidered as a most competent authority, but who advances,
with regard to the Israelites, nearly the same confused
i‫‏‬ fables which Lysimachus offers, although it must have
 ‫אא‬ INTRODUCTION.‫‏‬

been very easy for him, considering the time in which he

lived )60---117 a.c.) to obtain the most authentic infor-
mation concerning that remarkable nation. He first enu-
merates (Hist. v. 2) the different ancient opinions con-
cerning the origin of the Jews, who are described either
as Cretans, (Ideans, from mount Ida), or as Egyptians,
(who had immigrated in the time of Isis, and escaped
under the leadership of Hierosolymus and Judea), or as
Ethiopians (who left their land in the reign of Cepheus),
or as Assyrians (a wandering tribe, which once took pos-
session of a part of Egypt, but soon found undisputed abodes
in Palestine), or as the Solymz, mentioned in Homer, who
called the city which they built Hierosolyma, from their
own name. ‘hen he continues, about the Exodus (vy. 3):
‘Very many historians agree, that a hideous pestilence
having broken out in Egypt, king Bocchoris, eager to ob-
tain a remedy, consulted the oracle of Hammon, which
commanded him to purify the land by expelling into other
countries that people (the Israelites) which was hateful to
the gods. They were, therefore, gathered from all parts,
and being driven into a dreary desert, and breaking out
into despair and lamentations, Moses alone, of all the
exiles, exhorted them not to expect any assistance, either
from the gods or from men, as they had been deserted by
both, but only to trust themselves to him as a celestial
leader by whose aid they had already conquered their
present miseries. They assented, and commenced, in per-
fect ignorance, their planless march.” The affinity of this
narration of Tacitus with the account of Lysimachus will
be easily perceived, and as to his conjecture concerning
the descent of the Israelites from Crete, Egypt, Ethiopia,
or Assyria, this contradictory uncertainty alone is suffi-
cient to make it highly questionable, although the fourth ac-
count representing the Hebrews successively as Assyrian
emigrants, sojourners in Egypt, and conquerors of Pales-
tine, agrees essentially with the Biblical narration. But
these notices are to us an interesting and warning instance
with what careful consideration the remarks of ancient
writers concerning the origin and history of foreign na-
tions are to be read and used.!
1 The origin and character of the Christians are not treated with greater
consideration by Tacitus, who narrates, that Nero charged with having
caused the conflagration of Rome “ those who are commonly called
 INTRODUCTION. | |‫אאו‬‎

IX. Justinus (in the beginning of the fifth century,

A.c., whose work is an abridgment of the Universal
History of Trogus Pompeius, who flourished in the time
of Augustus) relates: " The Jews are descended from
Damascus, king of Syria, among whose successors were
Abraham and Israhel [Israel]. The latter had ten sons,
among whom he distributed the empire, which he ordered
to be henceforth called Judea, from Juda, who had died
immediately after the division. His youngest son was
Joseph, whom the brothers, apprehending his superior
genius, sold into Egypt, where he soon by his wisdom, and
especially his skill in interpreting dreams, rose high in the
king’s favour, and by his agricultural arrangement saved
the land during a protracted period of sterility. His son was
Moses, who was, not only distinguished by erudition,
but also by striking beauty.’ But when the Egyptians
suffered from leprosy and tetters, they expelled him with
the infected persons from the territories of Egypt, lest the
disease should spread still further. He took furtively the
sacred implements of the Egyptians with him;? the latter, to
recover them, pursued the Jews with an army, but were
compelled by a tempest? to return. [Then follows the
strange explanation of the Sabbath as a fast-day, see notes
on xx. 8—11], p. 272, and of the laws interdicting com-
munication with heathens; and he concludes]: After
Moses, his son Aruas [Aaron], who had been priest in
Egyptian temples, succeeded as king; and since then it
became customary among the Jews, that their kings per-
formed at the same time sacerdotal functions.” We remark:
1. The origin of the Israelites from Syria coincides with
one account of Tacitus. 2. That Abraham and Israel were
reported as kings of Syria, may have been occasioned by
Christians, and who were hated for their disgraceful conduct. Christus, the
ety
ees
founder of that name, was put to| death as a criminal by Pontius Pilate,
procurator of Judea, in the reign of Tiberius: but the pernicious superstition,
‫ל‬.
‫ש‬ repressed for a time, broke out again, not only in Judea, where the mischief
originated, but through the city of Rome also, whither all things horrible
and disgraceful flow, as to a common receptacle.” We find here, in an
Rae
tsPe unusually repulsive form, the same inveterate animosity and blind hatred
which pervade the accounts of the heathen writers on the religion of the
Israelites. The Christians were, indeed, long held in the same abhorrence
as the Jews, from whom they had sprung; and the persecution which
Claudius ordered against the Jews included, as a matter of course, the
Christians also.
1 See ii. 2. 2 See note on 111. 21, 22. 3 xiv, 2s
 ‫טואא‬ INTRODUCTION.‫‏‬

the fame of their great wealth (Gen. xii. 5; xiii. 2,5; ‫אוב‬‎
etc.; compare xiv. 15, and xv.2). 3. The ten tribes and.
the name Judea are confused notions from the later times
of the divided empire. 4. Joseph and Moses are, as in
the account of Chaeremon (see ii.), brought into a close
chronological connection. 5. The statement, that the
kings of Israel performed at the same time pontifical
functions is not correct, and may be the result of a
misconception of the theocratical institutions of Israel.!
6. The author reports nothing about the fate of the other
nine sons of Israel and their descendants, and about their
connection with the returning progeny of Joseph.— The
other inaccuracies in Justinus’ account are too obvious to
require comment.
All these accounts combined, however scanty and con-
tradictory they are, have yet that incalculable importance,
that they confirm and raise beyond the shadow of a doubt,
the great and momentous events which form the chief
interest of our book, and that they, on the other hand, just
by their confusedness, show the lucidity and authenticity
of the Biblical relation in a clearer and more advantageous
light.
? See note on xix. 6; compare, however, also note on ii. 16.
 THE SECOND BOOK OF MOSES

~ GALLED

EXODUS.
CHAPTER I.
SummMary.—The seventy individuals, who had immigrated into Egypt in the time of
Jacob, increased, in the course of some centuries, to such a numerous people, that
a later Pharaoh from another dynasty, ignorant or unmindful of the important —
services Joseph had rendered to the Egyptian monarchy, and fearful iest the
Hebrews join his political-internal-enemies, and leave the land, to his great
disadvantage, devised various despotic plans for their diminution: first he tried to
exhaust their energies by severe and excessive labour; then he ordered the mid-
wives to kill all male children; and, lastly, he charged all his subjects to watch
that every new-born boy be thrown into the Nile.

OW these are the names of the children of Israel,

who came into Egypt with Jacob; ‘every man came
with his household. 2. Reuben, Simeon, Levi, and
Judah, 3. Issachar, Zebulun, and Benjamin, 4. Dan,
1 Engl. Vers——Every man and his household came with Jacob.

1. The events related in the first chapter, Pentateuch Translated and Explained”)
from the death of Joseph (Gen. 1. 26) with the promises contained in Gen. 1. 24,
to the marriage of Amram and Joche- 25. It indicates certainly the close con-
bed, comprise a period of 264 years (see nection between the two first books; as,
Introduction, § 2. 11), viz. from 1910 0 in fact, the whole Pentateuch is intended
2174 a.m. (or 1850 B.c, to 1586 .6(, as one continuous narrative. — Every
(see Introduction, § 2. 111). As the his- man came with his household. In the word
tory of the descendants of Jacob in Egypt house the wives of Jacob’s sons and grand-
is about to be related, the sons of that sons are not counted, for as Ebn Ezra
patriarch are again enumerated, 4 com- remarks: “an individual with his wife, that
plete list of all the members of his family at only is the man.” The English version,
the time of their immigration into Egypt scrupulously faithful to the tonic accents
having already been given in Genesis xlvi. of the masoretic text, takes the words with
8-27. That genealogy is further repeated Jacob to the second part of the sentence,
here, in order to indicate, in the most thereby impairing the simplicity of the
striking manner possible, the commence- sense. None of the ancient versions offers
ment of the new epoch in the history of a similar rendering.
the progeny of Abraham.— Now these 2—4. Rashbam, in order to justify the
are. Ebn Ezra connects the conjunction partial repetition from Gen, xlvi. 8—27,
now with Genesis 1. 23, where the progeny thus explains the connection of these ver-
of Joseph is alluded to; Salomon (“ The ses: ** The descendants of Israel multiplied
se
2 EXODUS I.

and Naphtali, Gad, and Asher. 5. And all the souls that
came out of the loins of Jacob were seventy souls: and
Joseph was in Egypt already. 6. And Joseph died, and
all his brethren, and all that generation. 7. And the
children of Israel were fruitful, and increased abundantly,
prodigiously, although they were originally there stated: “So then Joseph died,” ete.
but 70 in number.” Thus also Cahen. —And all that generation, comprising a
The order, in which the sons of Jacob rather protracted period of an indefinite
are enumerated, is: first the children of number of years; for Leyi survived Joseph
his wives Leah and Rachel, then those of by about twenty-five years, compare Gen.
their maid-servants Bilhah and Zilpah, 1. 26, and Exod. vi. 16.
and lastly Joseph, because he did not emi- ₪. The accumulation of the Synonyms
grate together with the other members of (were fruitful, increased abundantly, ete.),
his family, peculiar to oriental idioms, is simply in-
5. That came out of the loins of Jacob; a tended to express the utmost fruitfulness
frequent scriptural metaphor for begotten and increase ; and we need therefore, not
by Jacob, or, his children, see Gen. xlvi. to adopt the distinctions which ancient
26. About the seventy individuals who commentators find in them (see Rashi,
immigrated into Egypt, in Jacob’s time, Ramban, Ebn Ezra, Abarbanel), although
see Raphall’s elaborate note to Gen. xlvi. we easily concur in the opinion, that the
26, and note C. of the Appendix, where the verbs here used denote different modifica-
opinion of Ebn Ezra, that the seventieth tions of the same fundamental notion, and
person (for the text enumerates only sixty- that the Hebrew women gave birth to more
nine) is Jacob himself, although it might, than one child at one time (Ebn Ezra,
at the first glance, appear, that he cannot twins; Rashi, six children), That this was
appropriately be included among those that not unfrequent in Egypt we learn from
came out of the loins of Jacob, is convinc- Aristotle (Hist. Anim. vii. 4): “ Often the
ingly defended against the tradition, ac- women bring forth twins, as in Egypt.
cording to which the number of seventy They even give birth to three or four
souls is completed by Jochebed (the mo- children at a time, nor is this of rare oc-
ther of Moses), who is asserted to have currence; but five is the highest number,
been born precisely at the time of their and there have been instances of sach fruit-
entering Egypt, but who, if this opinion fulness.” Pliny (Hist. Nat. vii.3) observes:
were correct, would, even according to “That three are born at a birth is un-
traditionary chronology, have been 135 doubted ; to bear above that number is
years old when she gave birth to Moses considered as an extraordinary phenome-
(see note to ii. 1). The Septuagint has non, except in Egypt, where the waters of
seventy-five instead of seventy, as in Gen. the Nile are fructifying.” Maillet (De-
xlvi. 27, where it arbitrarily adds five of scription of Egypt, i. p. 18) ascribes this
the descendants of Ephraim and Manasseh fertility to the uncommon salubrity of the
enumerated in 1 Chron. vii. 14—19. Be- air in Egypt.—Our text says, that the land
sides this, the Septuagint exhibits in this was filled with the Israelites. It is impos-
verse another deviation from the usual sible to understand hereby the land of
text, viz., it begins the verse with the words: Goshen alone, which comprises only the
and Joseph was in Egypt. territory of the present province Esh
6. And Joseph died, 650. This verse Schurkiyeh, bordering, in the east, on
clearly resumes the thread of the narra- the Arabian desert, and in the west,
tion from the point to which it had been on the eastern branches of the Nile
carried on in the preceding book (1. 26), (see Robinson, Pal. 1, p. 84, et seg.).
and repeats, therefore, briefly, the event For as, according to xii, 37, there were
 EXODUS 1. 3

and multiplied, and 'grew exceedingly strong; and the

land was filled with them.
8. Now there arose a new king over Egypt, who knew
4 1 Engl. Vers.—Waxed exceeding mighty.

among the Hebrews 600,000 men capable conclude, that the new king was not
of bearing arms, their whole population, simply a successor of that Pharaoh
including their wives, children and ser- whom Joseph had served as grand vizier,
vants, must have amounted to between but that both were from different dynas-
2,000,000 and 3,000,000 souls; and these tres; which, in the earlier periods of ’
cannot possibly have found abodes in the Egyptian history, changed in rapid suc-
comparatively limited district of Goshen; cession. Till the times of Sesostris (about
the less so, if we consider that the He- 1450 B.c.) Egypt was not united under
brews did not exclusively inhabit it, but one mighty ruler, but it consisted of almost
that Egyptians lived among them, as ap- as many states as it comprised cities, or at
pears from the words: * And every woman least districts, without connection or unity.
shall ask of her neighbour,” etc. )1 22; Although Thebes maintained, during a
see our note to ii. 5); and, from the dis- long epoch, a predominant influence, it
tinct account in y. 12, where it is clearly had constantly to resist the dangerous and
related that the Hebrews were scattered powerful rivalry of Memphis, which be-
over all the Jand of Egypt in order to seek came, later, even the chief residence of the
straw for the manufacturing of bricks, we Egyptian kings, and to repel the hostilities
may safely infer that they were spread of many other colonies, which, mostly
over the whole country. founded and governed by priests, had suffi-
₪. Who knew not Joseph. Targum cient resources to maintain their autonomy.
Onkelos translates: who did not sanction These facts render the unravelling of the
the measures introduced by Joseph; simi- Egyptian history of this period, fabulous
larly Targum Jonathan and Jerusalem: in itself, a matter of paramount, if not in-
“who did not regard Joseph, nor observe superable, difficulty, as the lists of kings
his laws.” The Talmud (Sotah 11a., where which are preserved to us by Herodotus,
"‫ארי‬
the whole passage from verse 8, to the Diodorus, Manetho and Eratosthenes, do
beginning of the next chapter is explain- not exhibit the successive rulers of one
ed) mentions the different opinions of Rab monarchy, but to a great extent the con-
_ and Schemuel on the meaning of the “new temporary sovereigns of different smaller
> king,” the one understanding thereby lite- states, and we should almost consider an
rally another monarch, the latter only a authentic enlightenment on this point
crisis in the life and fates of the old sove- hopelessly lost, in our time, were it not
0 reign. Butalthough the Hebrewverb here improper ever to despair of the possible
used (Y7') has sometimes the significa- results of scientific researches. But it will
tion of “ to care, to be mindful,” it is here readily be perceived, from this dismember-
much more naturally to be understood in ment of the Egyptian territory, that foreign
its usual and literal sense, to know. Nor invaders could, without difficulty, attack
is it necessary to have recourse to the tal- and subdue the one or the other of those
mudical interpretation (quoted by Rashi), monarchies, and that their mutual jea-
“he feigned to know nothing of Joseph’s lousy encouraged such invasions, and fa-
merits,’ or to that of Clarke and others, cilitated the triumphs of the invaders. To
“he disapproved of his system.” From the a similar conquest by foreign enemies we
circumstance that our text has “a new are naturally led by the tenor of our text,
king,” and not “ another king,” and from for only such new king could be ignorant
the expression, “Now there arose” (see of the most eminent services Joseph had
Judgés ii. 10; Psalm lxxviii. 6), we may rendered to the commonwealth, a cir-
B 2
4 EXODUS I.

not Joseph. 9. And he said to his people, Behold, the

people of the children of Israel ave 'more numerous and
1 Engl. Vers.—More and mightier. 6
cumstance which would be absolutely un- due course and legitimate succession,
accountable in one of the immediate suc- should have forgotten the infinite obliga-
cessors of the same pharaonic house. And tions they owed to Joseph, or that they
none was more deeply indebted to the should have been ignorant of his merits ?
devotion and ability of Joseph than the This suggestion of a new king, from
crown of Egypt. For at the bottom of another dynasty, which offers itself spon-
the simple and unpretending narrative of taneously and a priori, is fully corrobo-
the last ten chapters of Genesis, the ex- rated by weighty testimonies of history.
perienced historian will easily discover a For Josephus (against Apion, i, 14) re-
fundamental change, if not an internal lates, on the authority of Manetho, that,
revolution, of the Egyptian constitution, at a time which would well agree with
far more in favour of the kings than of the event alluded to in our text, troops
the people. The authority ofthe former of common invaders coming from the
was, before this period, weakened, and east (é« ‫זשע‬‎ mpdc avarodny ,(‫ןואסשע‬‎ and
their energy shackled, by the increasing supposed by many to have been Arabians,
influence of the two first castes, that of the conquered Egypt, and subdued her rulers.
priests and the warriors, against whose That invading tribe was called by the
power and presumption they could only Egyptians, Hyksos (‘Yrowe, 1. 6. Baotrei¢
find a weapon, if the resources of the woimévec), shepherd-kings (an appellation
people, hitherto left to their own develop- indicative of the contempt in which they
ment, were secured for the aggrandize- were held by the Egyptians). After they
ment of the royal revenues, This great had cruelly raged in all Egypt, they elected
consummation was effected by the inge- a king of the name of Salatis. So far the
nious measures of Joseph, by which account of Josephus. If we merely sub-
almost the whole of the landed property stitute the conquest of a part of Egypt
of the people passed into the hands of the (viz. of Lower Egypt, of which the land
king, and even their persons came into his of Goshen formed a province) instead of
dependence ; a translocation of the in- the whole of Egypt, as we are, indeed, jus-
habitants alienated them from the soil of tified from Eusebius (Praep. Evang. ix. 27),
their ancestors, thus severing all their we have, in these facts, a plausible narra-
connection with the past; and the tax of tion of probable events; and if so, it is
the fifth part of their income filled the more than likely that Salatis was this new
exchequer of the king. Thus the Pha- king alluded to in our text; he was not
raohs gained an enormous amount of only another, but a new, a foreign king,
property ; their power was consolidated; unacquainted with, and naturally averse
and they could now easily defy the arro- to, the partisans of the old dynasty. In
gance of the privileged and prepollent such a new king alone the precautionary
classes. In a word, according to the measures against the increase and influ-
narration of Genesis, the financial revo- ence of another tribe in the midst of his
lution caused by Joseph, brought all own dominions, are explicable, and re-
territories, except the property of the ceive their proper light (ver.'10). ‘This
priests, into the possession of the crown, view is further strengthened by the ex-
and the inhabitants were, henceforth, but press remark of Josephus (Antiq. 11. ix. 1),
the lessees of this royal property. What- that the Israelites were oppressed by the
ever the condition of the people might Egyptians, after the death of Joseph,
have been under such a change, is it in because the royal power had passed into -
any way likely that the kings of the same another dynasty. Bohlen raises the ob-
dynasty, who followed that Pharaoh in jection, that the biblical records speak

> .% 1
 EXODUS I. 5

> stronger than we. 10. Come then, let us deal wiscly with
them; lest they multiply and it come to pass, that, when
positively against the rule of a foreign our exposition. Winer, Jost, and Len-
tribe during the sojourn of the Israelites gerke, likewise offer the supposition
in Egypt, ‘‘as they evidently describe that the Hebrews settled in Egypt
the native Egyptians, with their non- during the reign of the Hyksos, and that
semitic language, their aversion to shep- the new dynasty, alluded to in our text,
herds and animal sacrifices, and their seized the government, after having ex-
other well-known peculiarities.” Without pelled the Hyksos, But the former author
denying the truth and ingenuity of this himself hints at the chronological 0111-
remark, which would, however, much culty of this conjecture, as, according to
more apply to the time of Joseph and Eusebius, between the accession of Apho-
the patriarchs, than to the period of the phis (in Joseph’s time) and the death of
“new king” in our text; it does in no way Amenophis (at the exodus), only 392
affect our supposition, as policy and pru- years elapsed, which would differ from
dence must have prescribed to the foreign xii. 40, by about forty years, Cahen quotes
/usurpers the expediency of adopting the a chronological computation from a He-
customs, and, in public transactions, the brew work, from which it would appear
language of their new country, rather that between the death of Joseph, and
than of adhering to those of their native the reign of the new hing, a period of
abodes; a system of accommodation es- 59 years intervened. That calculation
pecially practised by nomadic conquerors; starts, however, from the erroneous sup-
as, for instance, the Mongols and Man- position, that the birth of Moses was con-
tschus in China, and almost invariably temporary with the accession of that new
traceable in all instances when the con- king, whereas the same monarch must
quered nation was superior to the con- already have spent considerable time with
querors in civilization. the two first designs for the weakening of
From this exposition, it is self-evident, the Israelites anterior to the birth of
that the opinion of those who (like Moses (see our notes to ver. 11 and 22).
Schloezer, Eichhorn, and others leaning We cannot enter here more fully into
on the erroneous conclusions of Josephus) the history of the Hyksos, and refer the
believe that the Hyksos were the Is- reader for a more detailed exposition to
raelites, is perfectly inadmissible and Heeren, Ideas, 11. p.577—586; Hengsten-
perverse, an opinion which, among other berg, the Books of Moses, and Egypt,
arguments, could easily be refuted by the p. 257—277, who 18 of opinion that the
fact that, from the text of the Bible, we whole report about the Hyksos is an
are in no respect justified to consider the Egyptian fabrication; Faber, “On the
descendants of Jacob as invaders, or Origin of Pagan Idolatry,” vol. iii. book vi.
conquerors of Egypt. That the Hyksos chap. 5, who adopts the doubtful state-
are not identical with the Hebrews, is ment of Manetho (Josephus, c. Ap. i. 28)
clearly obvious from Josephus against respecting a re-establishment of the Hyk-
Apion, i.26. It is the opinion of Cham- sos, 37 years after the death of Joseph,
pollion, that this “nation of shep- after they had once been expelled from
herds” inyaded, and took possession of Egypt, and settled in Philistia, 15 years
Egypt, or a part thereof, before the im- before Joseph was sold into Egypt. (See
migration of Joseph, and even that of our Introduction, § 3, i.).
Abraham, and that the first monarch of the 9. “It is worthy of consideration, that
diospolitan, or 18th dynasty, is meant by the Egyptian king planned the means for
our “new king.” But this conjecture crushing the power of the Israelites in
would also militate against all the his- common deliberation with his people,
torical and rational arguments urged in whilst the atrocious commands for check-
6 EXODUS I.

there happens any war, they join also with our enemies, —
and fight against us,’and go up out of the land. 11. There-
1 Engl. Vers.—And so get them up out of the land.
ing their miraculous increase, are ascribed to subdue. The king feared, therefore,
to his own tyrannical impatience” (Jost). that the indigenous Egyptians might en-
Josephus (Antiq. 11. ix. 1) mentions, as deavour to shake off the foreign yoke by
the motives of Pharach’s cruel devices violent resistance, and obtain a powerful
against the Hebrews, besides fear, also ally in the dissatisfied Israelites (see Ro-
jealousy and envy, for “he saw the senmiuller). Hengstenberg supposes the
Israelites thriving and even gaining an enemies whom Pharaoh feared to have
ascendency over the Egyptians by their been the invading tribes of the Arabians,
wealth, which they acquired by their with whom the Israelites, who lived in
temperance and activity.” Abarbanel the bordering district of Goshen, might
asks, “ Were, indeed, the Israelites more make common cause for the overthrow
numerous than the Egyptians? and, if of the Egyptian dynasty; see, however,
so, why did the king fear them only in our note to ver. 8. And fight against us.
case of war, (ver. 10), and not likewise According to Manetho, the pastors occu-
in peace, when they might have used pied the delta of the Nile, whilst the
their numerical superiority to attack him Egyptians had been repelled to Thebais;
unexpectedly, and to subdue his people ?” the conquerors must, therefore, neces-
He is, therefore, of opinion, that the sarily have feared that, at an attack of
meaning of the verse is, “behold, the the Egyptians, the Hebrews might join
people of Israel are numerous, and of them, and avail themselves of this confu-
more robust constitutions than we.” But sion to quit the land. The Syrian and
this interpretation, which is grammatically Coptic versions have “‘ and expel us from
forced, cannot be preferred to the usual the land.” Mendelssohn translates: “that
explanation, which implies an admirable they fight against us, or at least leave the
psychological feature—the natural exag- country.” But it is evident, that the fear of
geration of fear and precaution (see Ps. Pharaoh was directed only to the latter pos-
cv. 24), sibility. The desire of the Israelites to re-
10 Let us deal wisely with them; that turn to the land of their ancestors, must, it
is, let us act with stratagem or precaution, appears, have become so strong that even
for to massacre them -openly, Pharaoh the king of Egypt was informed thereof,
did not venture, on account of their mul- and thought it necessary to devise plans
titude; not, as Abarbanel opines, because to prevent the execution of their inten-
he shrunk from attacking a tribe which tion. “Every part of this declaration
had sought refuge in his dominions; forthe throws light upon the history, and serves
Egyptians were notorious for their inhos- to prove that the new king and his peo-
pitality and aversion to strangers. Even ple were foreigners.” Faber, iii. p. 553.
Homer describes the cruelty of the Egyp- We see in the words of our text no allu-
tians against strangers, whom they “either sion to “laden with booty,” as Maurer
killed, or preserved alive, in order to use finds; but the king, although he appre-
them for slavish works” (ogiowy tpyaZecOau hended the dangerous prolificacy and
avayky, see Od, xiv. 272, xvii. 441). increase of the Hebrews, was unwilling
That they join also with our enemies. The to lose their, very valuable gratuitous
enemies of the shepherd-kings of Ara- aid, which he greatly required for his
bian origin, were the old Egyptians, the gigantic architectural works (ver. 11).
secret adherents of the former dynasty, It was, besides, a point of national pride
with whom the Hebrews had long lived with the Egyptian despots, to execute
in friendly connection, and the Thebans, their huge monuments and edifices by
whom they were unable to annihilate or foreign workmen; and on one of the
 EXODUS I. 7
fore they appointed over them task-masters, to afflict them
with their burdens; and they built for Pharaoh ' store
1 Engl. Vers.—Treasure cities.
majestic temples which the great con- before the Exodus, see Introd. § 2, i. 1.
queror Sesostris erected, he ordered the Hales (II. i. 180) also believes that the
inscription to be conspicuously engraved: Bible-chronology, which dates the com-
“No native Egyptian has been employed mencement of the bondage of the Israelites
in constructing this building” (Diod. immediately from Joseph’s death, or 71
i. 56). This circumstance was, according years after their settlement in Egypt, is in
to Josephus (Antiq. 11. xii. 2), particu- this point questionable, and he thinks)
larly alluded to by Moses, when God that it ought to be dated at least 30 years,
commanded him to lead the Israelites out or one generation later, although one of
of Egypt; “ How shall I be able,” said his reasons, that the former period would
he, “to persuade Pharaoh to allow them to be too small to bring Joseph into oblivion, =
depart, who, by their labour, so mate- is of no weight considering that a new
rially contribute to the promotion of dynasty followed on the Egyptian throne.
==
national prosperity?” So much may be unhesitatingly asserted,
11. We deem it advisable to preface that the sufferings of the Hebrews were
the history of the Hebrew bondage in neither universal nor uninterrupted. “A
Egypt with the following preliminary re- general and perfect oppression of the
mark. We are not entitled to suppose 1578011608 in Goshen,” says Jost (Hist. i.
that the oppression of the Israelites in 76,77) “did not take place. It is of im-
Egypt commenced immediately after the portance to remark, that, except the few
death of Joseph. The historical accounts circumstances related in the Holy Books,
on this point fluctuate between 80 and no other fact is mentioned as an accom-
400 years. The latter period is evi- panying evil of that thraldom, so that the
dently too protracted, and “ perfectly Egyptians appear to have had nothing in
unhistorical,” as the sojourn of the view but their own safety. Even the
Hebrews in Egypt amounted only to command to kill the new-born male
430 years (xii. 40). According to children, seems not to have been ex-
our supposition (ver. 8), the new king ecuted (?) and was perhaps only intended
is a monarch of the foreign (Arabian) as athreat. The duration of the oppres-
tribe of the Hyksos, who, after their sion is unknown..... The Israelites
usurpation, thought it a matter of expe- continued, nevertheless, to be herdsmen
diency and policy to oppress the Hebrews, and engaged in all occupations con-
and paralyse their energies. Their ex- nected with such pursuits. In fact, there
traordinary increase, and their increase were always among them experienced
only, was, to him, an object of apprehen- workmen of every kind, as was manifest
sion, and he devised measures to stay it. soon after their departure from Egypt.
But can the Israelites, already one or two From all this we may conclude that the
generations after Jacob, be supposed to Egyptians neither robbed the property of
have increased to any formidable multi- the Israelites, nor intended their hostile
tude? The oppressive measures must, destruction.” In accordance with this
therefore, have begun considerably later, view we read in Num. xi. 18, “it was
although the Hyksos might have invaded well with us in Egypt,” (see 1 Chron. iv.
and conquered the country (or a portion 21, 23; vii.21—24).
thereof) at a much earlier date; so that The superintendents of works were
the period of the real and severe thraldom the superior officers, to whom the task-
of the Israelites in Egypt may be as- masters were subordinated (see note to
sumed as considerably shorter than is ch. v. 6). The tyrant of Egypt hoped
usually supposed, but at least 100 years to annihilate, by unremitting exertions
 8 EXODUSI.
cities, Pithom and Raamses. 12. But the more they
afflicted them, the more they multiplied and ' spread.
1 Engl. Vers.—Grew.
and breathless labour, the energies and This town is to be distinguished from the
self-respect of the Israelites, so com- land or province Rameses, mentioned in
pletely, that they would have neither the Genesis xlvii.11 and Exod. xii. 37, and
courage, nor the desire, nor the leisure, evidently identical with Goshen. It was
for planning schemes of deliverance. built by the Israelites (not fortified, or
And justly remarks Aristotle (Polit. v. re-built, as Gesenius and Rosenmiiller
11): “ And it is also a policy frequently are inclined to believe, for the Hebrew
resorted to by tyrants, to make their verb here used, does not admit of
subjects poor and 1118628216 , . . so that this interpretation), and received its
their whole attention is absorbed in gain- name from the frequent appellation
ing their daily bread, and no time is left of the Egyptian Pharaohs, Ramses or
them to think of stratagems for their re- Rameses, the Son of the Sun (a proud
demption.” From a similar principle, surname assumed by other oriental sove-
Tarquinius Superbus constantly occu- reigns also); and later, the whole pro-
pied the plebeians with the construction vince in which it was situated, was called
of trenches and sewers (Livy. i. 56). Rameses (and in Genesis it is mentioned
“Many of the Egyptian kings had, not a under this name by way of anticipation),
passion, but a fury, for building. To this Jablonsky, following the Arabic transla-
propensity, however, Egypt owes a great tion of Saadiah, believes Raamses to be
number of monuments both of utility identical with Heliopolis, which was
and embellishment.” See note to 11. 10.-- formerly called On. But it appears from
Pithom, a city in Lower Egypt, on the the Septuagint that Raamses and Helio-
east of the Nile, most probably the same polis are two different towns. According
town which Herodotus (ii. 158) calls to Niebuhr (Travels, i. p. 97), a village of
Patumos, the Arabian city near Bubastis, the name of Ramsis is still to be found
(now Tell Basta, in the vicinity of the vil- between Cairo and Alexandria; so also
lage Benalhassar), which phrase may imply Champollion. But the towns mentioned
a town of Egypt situated near the Arabic in our text cannot have been situated on
(Red) Sea; but we are certainly justified the west of the Nile, as no crossing over
to understand it of an Egyptian city built this river is related in the history of the
by, or under the direetion of Arabians, Exodus of the Israelites. Some writers be-
so that from this side also the supposi- lieve Raamses to be Heroopolis, but with-
tion of the reign of the Arabian Hyksos out any positive proof, merely leaning on
in Egypt would be unexpectedly cor- the Septuagint version of Gen. xlvi. 28, 29.
roborated. According to Champollion Lepsius (Letters from Egypt, etc. p. 438)
the original name of Pithom was Thoum remarks, “That we really have to seek for
(enclosed, surrounded by mountains), Rameses in the ruins of Abu-Keshed
the syllable Pi being the Egyptian ar- (north-east of Heliopolis) is most deci-
ticle. “It seems,” says he, “that it was dedly confirmed by a monument which
situated to the south of Bubastis, near was found among those very ruins as early
the spot where Bilbeis stands now. Sig- | as the time of the French expedition. It
nificant is the remark of Manetho, is a group of three figures cut out of a
that the king Salatis fortified the eastern granite block representing the gods Ra
cities, and that he established a strong and Tum, and between them the king
camp in Avaris or Abaris in which he Ramses 11. (Ramses-Miamus, who begun
placed 240,000 soldiers, and which Ewald the canal)” The Jerusalem Targum
sagaciously conjectures to be identical calls the two towns of our text Tanis
with the camp of the Hebrews, Raamses. and Pelusium, but both lie beyond
 EXODUS I. 9

*And they had a horror against the children of Israel.

138. And the Egyptians made the children of Israel serve
with rigour. 14. And they made their lives bitter with
' And they were grieved because of.

the district of Goshen, and as the Israel- not the desired effect, he called the mid-
ites assembled in Rameses before the Wives, and gave them his barbarous and
Exodus (xii. 37; Num. xxxiii. 3, 5), we nefarious instructions (ver. 15).
must most probably seek them in that pro- 14. In the latter part of this verse our
vince. However this may be, the situation translation varies from the English yer
of Pithom and Raamses cannot, in ge- sion, which renders “all their service,
neral, be doubtful; they must have formed wherein they made them serve, was with
a part of Lower Egypt, in the east of the rigour;” but this would be little more than
Nile, most apparently in the valley Vadi amere repetition of the preceding verse,
Tumilat, which is formed by the Nile and and would, besides, imply a grammatical
that chain of mountains which accom- difficulty in the original text.—Bricks, or
panies the Nile from the south to the burnt tiles, made of white and chalky
north, and near the place where the canal clay, when dried in the open air, assume
began which combined the Nile with the an extraordinary hardness, and, accord-
gulf of Suez (Herod. 11.158(. This part of ing to Herodotus (ii. 136), even a pyramid
the country, which probably formed the (which probably still exists near Faioum,
most southern region of Goshen, was, on in the erection of which most likely the
the eastern frontier, naturally exposed to Israelites were employed, and a drawing
the invasions from Arabia, and was, there- of which is given in the Déscription de
fore, the chief quarter of the warrior-caste. l’Egypte) was built of such bricks, “ There
Fortresses, used at the same time for is a hill near Cairo formed entirely of:
corn-magazines, were thus, in these parts, broken tiles and pottery. Popular tradi-
not only advisable but indispensable (see tion refers its origin to the Israelites, and
2 Chron. viii. 3—6, where the store cities names it Tel Youdeh, or ‘ Hill of the-
are called “fenced cities, with walls, gates, Jews,’” ( Wilson). See Rosellini, (I Monu-
and bars ;” Heeren, ii. page 609; Ritter, menti dell’ Egitto e della Nubia, I. ii.
Geogr. p. 829). p. 249, etc.), where is also given a highly
412. And spread. The increasing num- interesting drawing, copied from the walls
ber of Israelites were not confined to of a tomb near Thebes, and generally be-
the comparatively limited district of Go- lieved to represent the oppressed Israelites
shen, but they were used for the making bricks under the severe superin-
royal or public works almost throughout tendence of the Egyptian taskmasters.
the whole of Pharaoh’s dominions (see Modern travellers (see Wilkinson, ii
our note to ver. 7). 97) observe, that the bricks were, in
13. Ebn Ezra sees in this verse a Egypt, manufactured for the king or
certain progress in the relation of the certain privileged persons. A vast num-
miseries of the Hebrews; first they had ber of strangers was always occupied
to build vast edifices and fortified towns in the brick-fields of Thebes, and other
for Pharaoh (ver. 11); but when he saw parts of Egypt. Josephus (Antiq, I. ix. 1)
that even not this slavish and exhausting describes the labours of the Israelites as
occupation impeded their miraculous in- consisting in cutting canals, fortifying the
crease (ver. 12), he allowed all his sub- cities with walls, raising dykes, and erect-
jects to use them as slaves, and to ing pyramids, “Things are much the same
treat them with every possible cruelty now in the same country. Mehemet Ali,
(ver. 13); and when he perceived, to his the Pasha of Egypt, obliged 150,000 men,
amazement, that this measure also had chiefly Arabs from Upper Egypt, to work
 10 EXODUS I.
hard bondage, in mortar and in brick, and with all manner
of labour in the field, ' besides all their other Jabour, which
they made them work with rigour. 15. And the king of
Egypt spoke *to the women, who served as midwives to
the Hebrews; of whom the name of the one was Shiphrah,
' Engl. Vers.—All their service, wherein they made them serve, was with rigour.
2 Hebrew midwives.
on his canal connecting the Nile with the following briefremarks, Baehr (on Herod.
sea at Alexandria; 20,000 of the number li. 14) observes: “there is scarcely any
1
perished during the progress of the work” country on the earth which requires, for
(Pict. Bible). Carne, (Letters from the the purposes of agriculture, so much
East, p.71, 72), writes: “We cannot be human labour as Egypt.” Michaud (Cor-
insensible to the cries of suffering raised by respondence from the Orient, viii. p. 54)
the children, women, and old blind men, remarks: * The labour of ploughing is the
and cripples, who are condemned, under least exertion for the agriculturists of
the terrors of the club, to the severest la- Egypt. The greatest difficulty consists in
bours, Having ridden out, early one morn- draining the fields, and the strongest
ing, in the neighbourhood of Alexandria, among the fellahs are employed to carry
we suddenly heard the sounds of music the water, and to execute the irrigations.”
from without, and perceived it was the Such exertions were especially indispen-
Pasha himself, with his guard, who had just sable in the northern parts of Egypt,
arrived from Cairo, He was on foot, and which the Israelites chiefly inhabited, and
stood on the lofty bank of a new canal thus Egypt was, not without reason, called
he was making, earnestly observing the an won furnace (Deut. iv. 20. Jer. xi, 4);
innumerable workmen beneath. The bed a house of slaves (Exod. xx. 2; Micah
of the canal below presented a novel spec- vi. 3); or, the ignominy of Israel’s youth
tacle, being filled with vast numbers of (Isa. liv. 4).
Arabs of various colours, toiling in the 15. To the women who, etc. As Pharaoh
intense heat of the day, while their Egyp- could not possibly entrust to Hebrew wo-
tian taskmasters, with whips in their men the execution of his plan aiming at
hands, watched the progress of their la- the ultimate extirpation of their own race,
bour. The wages allowed these unfortu- we are compelled to suppose, with Jose-
nate people . .. . were only a penny a phus (Antiq. I. ix.9), the midwives, not
day, and a ration of bread.” Although
to have been of the Hebrew, but of the
Egypt is a highly fertile country, so much Egyptian nation; so that the first part
so that it is often called the universal
of our verse is to be translated: “ And
store-house, and although the inundations
the king of Egypt spoke to the women
of the Nile supersede the labours anterior
who served as midwives to the He-
to sowing, yet the soil requires a most
brews,” thus translate the Sept. (raie
careful and laborious cultivation by the
paiag ‫זשע‬‎ ‘EBpaiwy) and Vulgate (ob-
aid of canals and other great draining stetricibus Hebraeorum). The answer
preparations, and even now, very often, of the midwives in ver. 19, seems also to
great numbers of workmen are employed be favourable to our interpretation: “the
to remove the morasses formed by the Hebrew womeniare not like the Egyptian
swellings of the Nile. To such hard and women,” whom they, then, mostly de-
exhausting labours our text most probably livered. The dispute in the Talmud,
alludes. About the difficulties with which therefore, whether the two midwives
the irrigation of the soil in Egypt is at- mentioned were Jochebed and Miriam, or
tended, we have an abundance of testi- Jochebed and Elisheba, is superfluous.
monies, of which we select here but the True, the names of the two midwives
 EXODUS I. 11

and the name of the other Puah: 16. And he said, When
you do the office of a midwife to the Hebrew women,
‘you shall look upon the basin; if it be a son, you shall
kill him; but if it be a daughter, then she shall live.
1 Engl. Vers—And see them upon the stools.

appear to be of Semitic, not of Egyptian observes, “avnajim is a washing-vessel

origin ,‫)הרפש‬‎ splendour, beauty, from of stone, in which the Orientals used
,‫ רפש‬Arabic phos and‫‏‬ ‫פועה‬, Arabic‫‏‬ to wash new-born infants”; they appear
to have resembled hand-mills, in being
Dod) + but as, according to our sup-‫‏‬ made of stones, the lower of which was
position, the king was one of the Arabic hollowed, the upper serving as a lid.
Hyksos, this circumstance offers no diffi- But the whole question is, in our opinion,
culty. But there is another objection, completely set at rest by the remark of
which has been urged with more appa» Thevenot (Travels, 11. p. 98): “'The Per-
rent justice, and this concerns the number sian kings order the new-born male
of midwives, two of whom could not pos- infants of their relatives to be killed in
sibly have sufficed for such a numerous the stone basins, in which the children,
people, which, about eighty years later, immediately after their birth, used to be
counted 600,000 men fit to bear arms washed, lest these offsprings, if allowed
(Exod. xii, 37), and 22,000 Levites (Num. to live, become dangerous to their go-
iii. 39), and which, at the lowest estimate, vernment.” What is here limited to the
must have consisted of 2,500,000 souls relatives of the kings, Pharaoh naturally
(see note to ver.7). Ebn Ezra observes, extended to the whole Hebrew race. In
therefore, “ These two were the superin- the face of such evidence, we can attach
tendents of all midwives; for there is no but little importance to an observation in
doubt that there were more than 500, and a memoir of M. Larrey, quoted by
the former had to pay to the king a tax Cahen, who describes avnajim as a sort of
from their income.” Abarbanel questions stool (fauteuil), We add, merely for
this opinion, and offers the hypothesis, the sake of completeness, some other sup-
that Shiphrah and Puah are not proper, positions of modern critics, without being
but appellative nouns, denoting the two able to sympathise with them. Ewald
chief operations necessary or customary translates, on both wheels, i. e. speedily,
at every childbirth, so that, in each of whilst Lee, Benary and Lengerke render
such cases, two midwives were employed, “you shall be attentive to the two-fold
one of either of these two classes, and possibility, whether the new-born child
that an indefinite number of midwives be a boy or a girl.” Commentators
might, therefore, have been in activity. raise the objection, why the cruel com-
However, the opinion of Ebn Ezra seems mand of the king was not extended to
to be more conformable to our text, as the new-born girls also (and Abarbanel
there is no objection to suppose that the urges, that his plans required the extir-
king gave his orders personally to two pation of the latter still more impera-
chiefs, or overseers, of the midwives. tively), which objection they answer in
16. You shall look upon the basin. different ways. Rashi writes (adopting
The Hebrew word which we have’ trans- the words of Tanchuma): “he felt un-
lated with basin (avnajim) offers difficul- easiness at the boys only because his
ties, and has called forth many different astrologers had foretold him, that a boy
interpretations, which we have reviewed would be born fated to rescue the Israel-
in the larger edition of this work. ites.’ Abarbanel is of opinion that Pha-
But we believe, that the most prob- raoh spared the women, in order to
able opinion is that of Gesenius, who secure for himself, by their marriage with
 12 EXODUS I.
17. But the midwives feared God, and did not as the king
of Egypt commanded them, and saved the male children
alive. 18. And the king of Egypt called for the midwives,
and said unto them, Why have you done this thing, and
have saved the male children alive? 19. And the mid-
wives said unto Pharaoh, ' Indeed, the Hebrew women are
not as the Egyptian women; for they are * vigorous: be-
1 Engl. Vers.—Because. 2 Lively.
Egyptians, numerous soldiers and work- that the Jews are not unfrequently com-
men; and Rosenmiiller observes (on ver. pared with animals (as Judah is a lion’s
22) “the daughters could intermarry with whelp), ete. The most plausible explana-
other families.” (See our note to ver. 11). tion seems to be that of Ebn Ezra, “ they
1%. The midwives feared rather the have an extraordinary vitality, are ex-
punishment of God than the anger of ceedingly strong and vigorous.” This
Pharaoh. It proves the rule of a sacred explanation has been adopted by many
Providence, “ that tyrants are not always interpreters. The rendering of the English
served faithfully ” (Salom.). It will not version (for they are lively) does not meet
be surprising, that the midwives, who the sense. — Before the midwife comes
were Egyptians (see note to ver. 15), are unto them they are delivered; therefore,
described as fearing God; this expres- said the midwives, we cannot kill the
sion signifies merely piety and righteous- new-born children, as we were com-
ness, and is applied even with réference manded to do this secretly at their birth
to heathens (see Genes. xx. ii; Ps. ii. 2), (See Mendels.). About the facility with
Justly, therefore, remarks Hengstenberg, which the women are delivered in the
“Tt cannot be the intention of the East, we read in Chardin’s manuscript
author to express here the general notion notes: “There are, in Asia, large dis-
of fear of God; for this was not the tricts in which no midwives are to be
feeling, which guided the Egyptian mid- found, and even if some live there they
Wives.” , are little known, for mothers assist their
19. Indeed ('3) the Hebrew women are daughters, and often female relatives or
not as the Egyptian women. The par- neighbours fill the place of the former,
ticle ‫לכ‬‎ might introduce here, as in many In Karman, I saw a woman who was
passages (and frequently in Greek $71), delivered without any assistance in the
the direct speech, and would, there- open field, three hours from a village;
fore, require no translation in English. and, to my great surprise, she arrived not
But sometimes it stands elliptically much later in the town where I was. The
instead of “by my life,” or a similar people there smiled at my astonishment,
protestation, and is then to be trans- remarking that similar cases were very
lated by indeed, verily (for instance Isa. frequent in their country.” — “ Orien-
xy. 1). And such emphasis appears ap- tal women suffer little from parturition;
propriate in our passage, in which the for those of better condition are fre-
midwives have to refute the criminal quently on foot the day after delivery,
charge of disobedience to the royal and out of all confinement on the third
command.—For they are vigorous. Rashi day. They seldom call midwives, and
explains: “ experienced like midwives;” when they do, they are sometimes de-
similarly Targum Onkelos and others, livered before they come to their assist-
The Talmud (Sotah 12) explains, * they ance; the poorer sort, while they are
resemble the animals of the field, which labouring or planting, go aside, deliver
require no midwives,” and it is added, themselves, wash the child, lay it ina
 EXODUS I. | 13

fore the *midwife comes unto them, they are delivered.

20. Therefore God did well to the midwives; and the
people multiplied and grew very mighty. 21. And it
came to pass, because the midwives feared God, that He
made them houses. 22. And Pharaoh charged all his
1 Engl. Vers.—Midwives.
clout, and return to work again” (Dr. 22, Every son that is born. Targum
Paxton’s Illustrations of Scripture, i. Onkelos renders “Every son that will
p- 462). Clarke extends this facility of be born to the Hebrews;”’ and simi-
parturition to all parts of the globe, where larly Targum Jonathan; the Sept. adds
the women labour hard, and especially in also roic “EBpaiowg; but not so the
the open air. rabbinical tradition, according to which
20. “The first part of this verse is a all children, both of the Egyptians and
real summary, which finds its explanation Hebrews, were to be thrown into the
in the following verse ” (Glaire). Nile, as the astrologers of Pharaoh had
21. That He made them houses. The predicted that the deliverer of the Is-
pronoun them refers to the midwives, al- raelites was about to be born, without
though the Hebrew text has here a mas- being able to inform him whether he
culine form, according to an idiom ex- would be an Egyptian or a Hebrew.
plained in the larger work. Another The probability is, however, undoubtedly
uncertainty is the meaning of. houses. on the side of the Targumim; see our in-
The Talmud (and Rashi accordingly), troductory note to ver.11. It is remark-
which, as we have observed, on ver. 15, able, that Pharaoh ordered the Nile to be
believes Jochebed and Miriam to have infested with so many human corpses, as
been the midwives, explains: God de- that river was, on the one hand, devoutly
termined to make them the mothers of worshiped as a superior deity (see on
priests, Levites, and kings. But we vii. 15) and, on the other hand, its tasteful
have proved that we are, from inter- floods (the more acceptable as they were
nal reasons, compelled to consider the the only drinkable water in Egypt) were
midwives as Egyptians, and we are, the delight and the pride of the Egyp-
therefore, of opinion, with Rosenmiller, tians (see on vii. 18), Clarke and Osburn
Philippson and others, that house is used conjecture, but with little plausibility,
here, as frequently in other passages, in “that Pharaoh intended the young He-
the sense of family (for instance ii. 1), brews as an offering to his god, the Nile.”
and the meaning would be, God increased If we glance once more at the different
and strengthened the families of the mid- means which Pharaoh devised for the
wives as areward for their piety. The oppression and diminution of the He-
sense will, however, be still more dis- brews, we find that they imply the fol-
tinct and powerful, if we take house, as is lowing climax of severity and cruelty:
usual in oriental phraseology, as a sym- he first endeavoured to break their ener-
bol of well-established prosperity, firmly gy by labour and hardship (ver. 11—14),
rooted happiness; so that the words of then to effect their diminution by killing
our text would imply the meaning: God the new-born male children through the
blessed the midwives with every felicity. midwives (ver. 15, 16); and when neither
This explanation receives the fullest cor- of these plans had the desired result—the
roboration from 2 Sam. vii. 27, 29, where former in consequence of the unusual
the promise “I will build thee a house ” robustness of the Hebrew women, the
is explained and qualified by the words latter owing to the piety and compassion
“to bless the house of thy servant, that of the midwiyves—he tried to execute his
it may continue for ever before thee.” design by drowning the young children
--
14 EXODUS II.
<₪--9
>FR
=
people, saying, Every son that is born you shall cast into
the river (Nile), but every daughter you shall save alive.
A
~~

os=

(ver. 22); which last device was in two solemnly promised to them; and, se-
respects more audacious and impious condly, because now the whole people were
_-‫ד‬--2 than the second; first, because he now, let loose against the Hebrews; spying
ee‫‏‬2
laying aside all shame, showed publicly and informing was made an act of loy-
‫י‬ his despotism against a harmless foreign alty, and compassion stamped as high-
win
‫יו‬‎=
Bias
Te
at tribe, which relied on the hospitality treason.
es
0
3

CHAPTER II.
Summary.—Jochebed bore to Amram a son, who, after haying
been hidden by the
parents during three months, was exposed in the Nile.
He was seen and saved
by the daughter of Pharaoh, who called him Moses, and
adopted him as her
son, Grown older, he killed an Egyptian who had ill-treate
d a Hebrew; and
when the report of this deed reached Pharaoh, Moses was
obliged to flee; he
went to Midian, where he married Zipporah, the daughter
of Reuel; she bore
him two sons, Gershom and Eliezer. A new Pharaoh, who, during the pro-
tracted sojourn of Moses in Midian, had succeeded to the
throne, aggravated
still more the oppression of the Hebrews; their cries ascended
to God, who was
mindful of the Covenant made with their ancestors.

AD there went a man from the house of Levi, and

took to wife a daughter of Levi. 2. And the woman
1. A daughter of Levi; 1.0. one from the served to that passage in Leviticus:
tribe, or the descendants of Levi, as the “Those are uot correct, who remark,
Sept. correctly translates )16 ray Ovya- that the produce of a field, sown on an-
téipwy <Aevi) The names of Moses’ other field thrives, whilst if sown on the
parents, which are here omitted, are same field it does not thrive; for the
fully stated in vi. 20: “And Amram principal object of these prohibitions is
took Jochebed his father’s sister to chastity, by which the Israelites shall
wife; and she bare him Aaron and become a holy nation” (see however, on
Moses” (see Justin, xxxvi. 2). Ac this verse, Introduction, §2,i.). Accord-
cording to the literal tenor of the text ing to the opinion of several ancient
Amram, the son of Kohath, was the commentators, as Rashi, Jochebed was
grandson of Levi, and he married, there- 130 years old when she bare Moses; for
fore, his father’s sister, the daughter of they follow the tradition that she was
Levi, or his aunt. Although such alli- born exactly at the time of the immigra-
ance is forbidden by the Mosaic law tion of Levi into Egypt (see note to i, 5);
(Ley. xviii. 12), it was,—according to the whole duration of the sojourn of the
Abarbanel—predestined by the special Israelites there, they assert, was 210
providence of God; besides, before the years; Moses was 80 years of age at
legislation on Mount Sinai, such mar- the time of the Exodus (vii. 7); and
riages were not unlawful. The Sep- 210—80=130. But this would imply a
tuagint, however, thought it necessary to wonder by far more miraculous than that
translate there aunt with “his uncle's of Sarah, who laughed sceptically at the
daughter,”‫סע‬‎his cousin; an unjustifiable idea of being a mother at the age of 90;
deviation from the text, which, however, and no circumstance is mentioned in our
is approved by Ewald (Antiq. p. 175, text to indicate that such a miracle took
note 1). Ebn Ezra remarks, here, what place. More plausible is, therefore, the
he more appropriately would haye re- opinion of Abarbanel, who, rejecting that

,'
 EXODUS 1. 15

conceived, and bare a son: and she saw that he was a

goodly child ; and she hid him three months. 8. And when
1 Engl. Vers.—And when she saw... she hid.
tradition concerning the birth of Jochebed less strong. That interpretation would,
in the literal sense (and assigning to it a indeed, almost remind us of the bar-
symbolical meaning) asserts, that Levi barous custom of the Spartans, who
was, at the time of the immigration into killed their children if they did not
Egypt about 44 years old; that Jochebed appear to them sufficiently robust.
was born to him 26 or 36 years later, and Therefore, the two parts of this verse
as Moses was 80 years old at the depar- must not be brought into a causal con-
ture from Egypt, she bore him between nection, but are simply co-ordinate:
the age of 50 and 60, which would not be ‘‘and she regarded him, that he was a
extraordinary or astonishing. However, goodly child, and she hid him three
this calculation is erroneous, for he com- months.” We can, thus, not even ap- -
putes 210—(44+26+80)=60; but the prove of Rosenmiiller’s mitigated expres- =
|, 44 years, being the age of Levi at the sion: “ Misericordiam auxit, ut %
| period of immigration, cannot be taken infantis forma eximia.”
into account, as they have no reference to 3. The Egyptians used the marsh rush
the birth of Moses by Jochebed, who thus (papyrus nilotica) tomake garments, shoes,
would yet, after this calculation, become baskets, and utensils of various kinds,
mother at the unusual age of 100 or 110 especially boats. “It is distinguished
years. This difficulty might simply be by its cluster of elegant little spikes,
removed by the supposition that Jochehed which consist of a single row of scales,
was born 70 or 80 years after the immi- ranged in a straight line on each side.
gration (for Levi attained the age of These clusters are weak, or hang down
137 years, see vi. 16, thus living 93 years in a nodding position, and, unlike the
after that event): so that Jochebed rest of the plant, are inapplicable to
would have been between 50 and 60 any useful purpose. The root is about
years old at the time of the birth of the thickness of a full sized man’s
Moses; see, however, on this whole sub- wrist, and more than fifteen feet in
\
ject our above-quoted exposition, in the length, and so hard that all kinds of
i) utensils were made of it. The reed-like
Introduction. The edict of Pharaoh order-
ing the male children of the Israelites to triangular stem is about four cubits,
be cast into the Nile, must have been en- or six feet long, was eaten raw, roasted,
forced a considerable time after the or boiled, and served as material for
matriage of Amram and Jochebed, as boats, sails, mats, clothes, beds, and
their daughter Miriam was at the birth of books” (Pict. Bibl.). It is further known,
Moses already an adult virgin ,‫)המלע‬‎ that the inner rind was manufactured
ver. 8), and Aaron, who was three years into a writing material, called paper, from
older than Moses, does not appear to have this plant. One of the modes of pre-
been exposed to any danger at his birth, paring it, according to Pliny, was this:—
of which, therefore, no mention is made “'The fine pellicles, which divided natu-
in our text. According to a tradition rally, were slit into flakes, and being laid
that edict was in force during 3! years upon a table, were pressed together, the
(See Abarb. on chap. i. at the end), glutinous juice of the plant binding it, so
2. Rashbam justly refutes the usual that when it was dried, it became fit for
translation: “‘and when she saw him use.” —* The durable qualities of this ma-
that he was a goodly child” for Joche- terial have been tested by the discovery of
bed, the mother, would have been per- Egyptian and Greek manuscripts, written
fectly as anxious for the preservation on papyrus, which can be unrolled or
of her child, had it been less fine or handled without injury, after having been
 16 EXODUS II.

she could not longer hide him, she took for him an ark of
bulrushes, and daubed it with ' bitumen and with pitch,
and put the child therein; and she laid 0 in the flags by
1 Engl. Vers.—Slime.
deposited in the cases of mummies or in hiding her son longer she would have
earthen jars, in the tombs of Egypt, for brought upon herself and her whole family
many long centuries.”— Bitumen boils also a certain death, as having contra-
up from subterranean fountains like vened the royal decree, without, by all
‘
oil or hot pitch, in the vicinity of this, saving the child. Ebn Ezra, who,
‫ל‬
‫ו‬ Babylon, and also near the Red Sea; like all old interpreters, sees naturally the
ifs
it afterwards hardens through the heat special finger of God in the miraculous
|
of the sun; it is also collected on incidents of Moses’ childhood and youth,
4
Hf the surface of the Dead Sea, which gives, in his own lucid and philosophical =
/
hence receives the name of Lacus As- style, expression to this conviction in the
yp
phaltites. It receives its name either following manner: “Deep are the dis-
from its boiling up from the fountains (see pensations of God; and who can pene-
Gen. xix. 19), or from redness, the best trate into His mysteries! By Him all
kind being of that colour. From this de- actions are weighed and ordained in in-
scription it will be evident, why we have finite wisdom. It was perhaps His in-
‫מ‬0 substituted in our translation bitumen scrutable intention, that Moses should be
\ instead of slime, which the Engl. Version educated at the royal court, that his mind
Boe
offers. The ark was daubed with bitu- might receive the highest possible culture,
men from within, in order to protect and his spirit might remain uncurbed by
the child from the sharp bulrushes; and the oppressive and enervating influence
with pitch from without, in order to pre- of slavery. Thus we read, that he killed
vent the water from penetrating into the the Egyptian, because his noble heart
ark. The chest was placed in the flags could not see violence and injustice; and
(alga nilotica) called by the Egyptians, sar?. from the same generous motives, he as-
Pliny, H.N. xiii. 23, describes it thus:— sisted the daughters of Reuel against the
“The sari grows in the marshy parts of insolence of the shepherds. And further,
Egypt, or in the stagnant water that re- if he had always lived among his brethren,
mains behind after the inundation of and if they had known him from his
the Nile. From the root springs up an childhood, they would not have felt for
oblique stalk, as thick as an arm and tri- him that respect and reverence which
angular; it rises ten yards high, and ends was so essential for the accomplishment
at the top in a kind of tuft or bunch of of his great mission.” In a similar sense
flowers, which are only applied for writes Schiller (Die Sendung Moses, x.
wreaths in honour of the gods. The p. 414, 415): “An Egyptian by birth
Egyptians use the root as we do wood, would have lacked the requisite patriotic
not only as fuel but also as mate- impulse, the national interest for the He-
rial for vessels. From the rush itself brews, to attempt their deliverance. A
they make boats; and the bark is used mere Hebrew, on the other hand, would,
LSE
2
‎Ts
‫חש‬ for sails, tiles, clothes, and
ropes.” —Abar- under his oppression and thraldom, scarce-
el‫‏‬
banel raises the question, why Jochebed ly have had the energy and courage indis-
a
exposed her son in the river, thus de- pensable for such an arduous undertaking.
livering him up to death, which was the What device ‘did, therefore, Providence
only aim of the tyrant’s cruel edict; so choose? It selected an Israelite, but
that nothing worse could have happened withdrew him in his early infancy from
to the child than her own device. Of the the miseries of his people, and enabled
four reasons which he offers in reply, one him to store his mind with all the trea-
appears especially conclusive: that Ly sures of Egyptian wisdom; and thus the

‫=רש‬
‫לובהל‬
:
eee‫‏‬
ey
‫רי‬
--
\‫כת‬

/-
 EXODUS II. 17

the bank of the Nile. 4, And his sister stood afar off ' to
see what would be done to him.
5. And the daughter of Pharaoh went down ? to bathe
1 Engl. Vers.—To wit. 2 To wash herself.
Hebrew, brought up as an Egyptian, be- Bible in Homer, Plato, Virgil, Plutarch,
came the instrument by which that nation and almost all heathen writers, who hap-
was redeemed from its slavery.” (See, pen to utter any analogous idea, or to
however, our note to ver. 10.)—The his- relate any like occurrence, or to use any
tory of the birth, preservation, and edu- similar metaphor, is now fairly exploded,
cation of Moses has, on account of its and is, in fact, so thoroughly uncritical, ,
unusual character, been described as a that we should consider it a waste of
fable and the offspring of imagination. time to attempt any kind of refutation;
It is true, that similar accounts are given besides, to wash garments is never (‫ץ'חר‬‎
with regard to the infancy of other cele- but ‫שבכ‬‎ (see Ges. Thes. p. 1284).— »
brated individuals of antiquity, as of Josephus, who, like Philo, adorns the
Semiramis, Cyrus, Romulus, Augustus, circumstances connected with the birth
and others. But these accounts, evidently of the legislator with legendary and
replete with adventurous and incredible poetical embellishments, calls the name of
incidents, differ widely from the truthful Pharaoh’s daughter Thermuthis, which,
narration of our text, which, indeed, con- according to Cahen, might be identical
tains nothing that even the most sceptical with Tomrots, a name recently deciphered
7
mind can deem impossible, especially if on an Egyptian monument. Husebius
the customs of ancient Egypt, and the cir- calls her name Merrhis. The narration
cumstances of that particular epoch of her of the Koran about Moses (28th Sura), is
history, are taken into due consideration. a mixture of the statements of Josephus
&. And the daughter of Pharaoh went and the Midrash explanations, in the
down to bathe at the river. The Egyp- usual incoherent and unhistorical manner
tians, especially the women, show their of that volume. As a curiosity, we add,
veneration for the Nile, which is held that Artapanus represents Moses, as a
sacred on account of its incalculable im- pupil of Orpheus, and asserts, that the
portance for the prosperity of the country, priests gave him the surname Hermes, on
by immersing in it at the time when it account of his hermeneutical skill in the
begins to rise. Perhaps the daughter of interpretation of the holy books. So
Pharaoh went to the Nile in order to busy has the imagination been to shed a
perform this religious ceremony. The fabulous halo round the head of the law-
time would agree with this supposition, giver, who does not require fictitious
for the Nile begins to swell in Lower splendour, to be glorious and immortal.
Egypt about the middle of June, and as, From the circumstance that the daughter
according to tradition, Moses was born of Pharaoh came to bathe in that part of
on the seventh day of Adar, he was then the Nile where the child was exposed, it
about three months old. Now, in general, would appear that Amram lived near, or
the women were not so restricted in in the royal residence, or that the latter
Egypt as in other parts of the Orient. was, at least temporarily, in Goshen.
Clarke proposes to take YM here in the We have already observed (on i. 7), that,
signification of washing clothes or linen, on the one hand, the land of Goshen was
and quotes, as a parallel, the Homeric not exclusively inhabited by Israelites,
narrative about Nausicaa, daughter of and that, on the other hand, these might
king Alcinéus, hinting even at the pos- partly have been scattered over different
sibility, “that Homer made the Hebrew parts of Egypt, and that they assembled
story the basis of the 6th book of the in Goshen only at the time, and for the
Odyssey.” But the mania of seeking the purpose of the Exodus.
|
St
.
0
 EXODUS IL. "‫?ו‬
> «
'

Poot, ‫‏‬4

at the river, and her maidens walked by the river’saides |

and when she saw the ark among the flags, she sent her
maid servant ‘and she took it. 6. And when she opened |
it, she saw the child ; and, behold, ‫ל‬‎ it was a weeping boy. =
And she had compassion on him and said, This 2s one of =
the Hebrews’ children. 7. Then said his sisterto Pha- —
raoh’s daughter, Shall I go and call to thee a nurse of the =
1 Engl. Vers.—To fetch it. 2 The babe wept.

6. She saw the child. Rashbam ex- Israelites, as among the Egyptians and
plains these words thus: ‘‘and she other Eastern nations, when the child was
‘opened the ark, and examined the child, three years old, see 2 1180080. ii. 28.
and behold! it was a boy, a boy of the Compare 2 Chron, xxx. 16; Koran ii,
Hebrew race, which she inferred from 233, xxxi. 18. According to rabbinical
his being circumcised.” But it is well authorities, however, the child was
known, that, besides other nations, the weaned when it had completed its second
Egyptians also circumcised their chil- year (see Kimchi, ad Gen. xxi. 8); and =
dren (Jerem. ix. 25: Herod. ii. 36; ra Morier (“A second Journey through —
aidota @AXot piv 500% we syévovTo TARY Persia,” etc. p. 107) relates, that the
000% 670 TobTwy éwaboy, Aiybmruot 08 Persians suckle the boys two years and
wepirapvovra. See Bohlen, Genesis, p. two months, but the girls only two years.
190—196). Ramban observes, more plau- The day of weaning the child is usually
sibly, that the fact of seeing the child celebrated in the East with repasts and
exposed in the Nile naturally recalled convivial festivities (compare Gen. xxi, |
to her mind the royal edict against the 8), and was, in later periods of the Hebrew =
new-born Hebrews. history, attended with the offering of a 4
@. Shall I go and call to thee a nurse sacrifice on the part of the mother (see
of the Hebrew women? that is, a nurse 1 Sam, i. 24), and is still, in Persia, con- |
who neither feels antipathy against the nected with certain religious ceremonies,
Hebrew child, nor will treat it carelessly, See also Mungo Park, Travels, p.237.— | =
for both were to be apprehended from And he became her son, Targum Jona- |
an Egyptian nurse, see ver. 8. than renders “he was dear to her 1186 ‫א‬‎
s. It has often been alleged, not with- child.” But Ebn Ezra already observes,
out some specious probability, that the that he was called her son, because she =
holy mission for which Moses was des- brought him up; Compare 2 Sam. xxi.8,
tined, did not allow him to be nursed “Thermuthis, the king’s daughter, per-—
by an Egyptian woman; but from this ceiving him to be so remarkable a child, —
point of view his education at the idola- adopted him for her own, having no child [
trous court of the Egyptian king would of her own. And when, one time, she 186 =
be equally unaccountable. “The princess brought and presented Moses to her fa- , :
objected to an Egyptian nurse, from fear ther, she said that she intended +0 11486 =
that he might be neglected, or even de- him her father’s successor, if it should
livered up by ber to the officers of the please God she should have no legitimate =
king.” Perhaps an Egyptian nurse might child of her own” (Josephus, Antiq. I. =
even have refused to take care of a child ix. 7).—The incidental remarks of Jose- 4
of the persecuted and detested race of the phus (loc. 015, compare Philo, Vita Mos.‫ל‬‎
Hebrews. i. > 3), that “Moses was educated with
10. And the child grew, that is, was great care,” and of St. Stephen (Acts :
weaned, which was done among the vii, 22), * that he was educated in all the
 ‫יד‬ ‫המ‬ 5
Oh‫‏‬
/ ‫ב‬
‫ו‬
‫‏‬A / /
/
. | ‫בא‬

‫א‬ + * 0 ‫ש‬ ‫ןי‬ ‫וש‬

= an‫|‏‬
ae a"‫‏‬

000 EXODUS IL
7

19
‫ו‬
"

Hebrew women, that she may nurse the child for thee?
8. And Pharaoh’s daughter said to her, Go. And the
‘maid went and called the child’s mother. 9. And Pha-
raoh’s daughter said to her, Take this child away, and
nurse it for me, and I will give thee thy wages. And the
woman took the child and nursed. it. 10. And the child
grew, and she brought him to Pharaoh’s daughter, and
he became her son. And she called his name Moses, and |
‘wisdom of the Egyptians,” (adeb0n son a Hebrew name, whilst Joseph re-
macy 0006 Aiyurriwy), have continually ceived from Pharaoh the undoubtedly
led many critics to deduce almost the Egyptian appellation, Zophnath paneah
whole system of the Mosaic legislation (revealer of mysteries) Gen, xli.45, Anti-
from Egyptian sources, to consider it quarians and historians have, therefore,
= tuerely as a local adaptation of Egyptian justly endeavoured to trace the name of
‘statutes, in which Moses, by his admission Moses to an Egyptian origin; and Jose-
into the caste of priests, and his initiation phus already observes (Antiq. 11, ix. 6):
in their mysteries, was deeply versed, and > He received his name from the particu-
thus to deprive Mosaism of every origi- lar circumstances of his infancy, when he
nality in many of its most essential points had been exposed in the Nile; for the
(see even Heeren, Ideas, ii. p.647). It is Egyptians call the water mo, and one
obvious, that such insinuations, if true, who is rescued from the wayes, uses”
would strike a fatal blow against the (7rd yap 90060 pw ot 06‫ו‬0777‫ץ‬/4.‎ Kadovouy,
yalue and the origin of the whole reli- bone o& 7000 & 0007006 owlivrac). The
gious code of the Pentateuch. It is, Septuagint, which renders 10006, 8
therefore, of the highest importance to therefore, accurately preserved the ety-
examine whether, and how far, the legis- mology. Now this name, originally
4 lation of Moses is based on, or derived Egyptian, has, then, been adapted to the
from, Egyptian institutions aud notions. genius of the Hebrew idiom, and referred
) The reader will find our remarks on this to the Hebrew root mashah to draw (Rashi,
point in a supplementary note at the end Rashbam), with which it has the greatest
of this chapter. resemblance in sound, although it is of
_ And she called his name Moses (TWD), rare use (occurring only thrice in the
and she said, Because I drew him out Old Test.), although the form is gramma-
‎;‫ (משיתהו‬of the water. The etymology tically not correct, and the principal and
nd meaning of the name Moses (who is essential notion (water) is not expressed
called by the Septuagint and Josephus in the word. Although Gesenius ap-
Mwioijc, the Vulgate, Moyses, the Ara- proves of this explanation, he proposes
bians, Musa), is naturally much dis- (Thesaurus, p. 823) another conjecture,
puted; for the explanation given in the in our opinion of a much more artificial
ext “because I drew him out of the and complicated nature, namely, that
ater” would require, not the active form according to the analogy of most of the
he, but the passive participle Mashui. Egyptian proper nouns, which are com-
‘he former would rather imply the pounded with names of their deities,
otion of a general leading the people of Moses has a similar meaning as Amenmés,
sracl from Egypt, an archageta (see the son of Ammon; or Harmés, the son
Jad Joseph fol. 69, a; Hiillmann, p. 68; of Hor, or Rhamés, the son of the sun
Bohlen, Genes. Introd. p. Ixxxii). Be- (més signifying son), but that the first
0es, it is questionable that the Egyptian part of the name was omitted in the
incess should haye given to her adopted language of daily intercourse. Other
0 2
‫של‬

.
 20 EXODUS II.

she said, Because I drew him out of the water. 11. And
it came to pass in those days, when Moses was grown,
that he went out to his brethren, and looked on their
writers, also desirous to secure for the quential facts related in the following
lawgiver an original Egyptian name, verses happened, is left indefinite in the
assert, that he was called Mosheh (UID) context. A considerable number of years
by the Hebrews only, but that the Egyp- must have elapsed (wherefore the Septua-
tians knew him under the name of Osar- gint renders “It was after many days”;
siph (‘Ocapcig), the priest of Osiris; so also Clericus and Rosenmiiller); but
or Tisithen (Ti0i9év), or Hermes (‘Epyijc), to decide the precise period in the life of
or Menes (Ebn Ezra), against which opi- Moses must remain mere conjecture. An
nion Abarbanel strongly objects, ad- old tradition asserts that every forty
mitting, however, that Menes, or a similar years there was an important crisis in the
Egyptian epithet signifying the wise or fates of Moses; he led the Israelites from
great, might have been given to Moses Egypt in his 80th year; he died in his
as an appellative surname after the great 120th year; therefore, it is added, he was
miracles which he performed before probably forty years old when his flight
Pharaoh, and his wise measures had be- to Midian took place. The same number
come generally known in Egypt. Such of years is mentioned in Acts vii. 23 (see
a wide field of conjecture was opened Wettstein on our passage; and Hichhorn,
concerning the real Hebrew name of the Introduction-to the Old Testament, p. 186
lawgiver, that the Talmud (Sotah 12, note). Josephus, in accordance with the
Meg. 3) enumerates no less than nine uncritical taste of his time, fills up
different names (Heber, Jekuthiel, Jered, this long interval till the flight of Moses
Sanoah, Abigdor, Abisocho, Shemajah, with various events and deeds, to which
Tobiah, Nathaniel), believed to have been we find no allusion in our text, but which
given to him by the different members of are partly misrepresentations of Egyptian
his family, and the people of Israel. He or Greek sources, and partly inventions
received, no doubt, a Hebrew name at his of a fertile imagination. He relates, in
circumcision, or certainly during the his Antiquities (II. x), “The Ethiopians
three months of his concealment in the had invaded and devastated the territory
house of his parents (see Jad Joseph, 69; of the Egyptians. The latter marched
Paxton, 111080. i. p.470). Abarbanel with a numerous army against them, but
thus understands our words: “ the mother were completely defeated. They con-
Jochebed, when bringing her child to the sulted the oracle, which advised them to
daughter of Pharaoh, called his name confide the leadership of the war to
Moses, for, said she, you have drawn him Moses, the Hebrew. After deliberate
out of the water.” Although this in- and extensive preparations, he entered
terpretation is grammatically not inadmis- upon the expedition; his march led him ee
ee
,‫ו‬
Pee

sible, the change of the subject in the through the vast desert, which was in-
‫שה‬

same sentence, although not without fested with all kinds of serpents and yer-
parallels, would here 26 singularly min; he purified it by storks and ibises
forced; and it would, further, be surpris- which he had taken with him for that
ing, if Jochebed, who was not known to purpose. On his arrival in the hostile
the princess as the mother of the child, dominions, ‘he took, after a persevering
but only as his paid nurse, had given the and skilful siege, the town Saba, later
‎‫ו‬

a
en
6 name instead of the princess herself, to called Meroe; and the royal princess,
whom that privilege belonged according Tharbis, was so captivated by his talent
to the ancient customs of adoption. and manly energy, that she offered him
-
4
‫רו‬.

.‫ בר‬And it came to pass in those days.‫‏‬ spontaneously her hand; he accepted it,‫ייי ו‬%‫התיש‬0‫שי‬-2
In which year of Moses’ life the conse-‫‏‬ and led her in triumph back to Egypt as

36
05
 EXODUS IL ‫ה‬‎
burdens, and he ‘saw an Egyptian smiting a Hebrew,
one of his brethren. 12. And he *turned this way and
1 Engl. Vers.—Spied. 2 Looked.

his legitimate wife.” That this narrative submit to our readers the following un-
bears the character of legendary inven- equivocal and determined remark of Ebn
tion, and that it cannot claim historical Ezra (on ver, 22): * And 1 declare to you,
authenticity, needs scarcely to be re- as a rule, all books which are not written
marked. ‘The military skill which Moses by prophets, or according to authentic
had, at a later period, as the leader of the tradition, deserve no credit whatever, yea,
Hebrews, occasion to exhibit, seemed to they contain even sentiments militating/
presuppose some previous experience and against reason and common sense; and
practice in the operations of war, whereas such works are the Book of Zerubbabel,
the genius of Moses, inspired by the dic- and the Book of Eldad, the Danite, and
tates of his great mission, did not neces- the Book of Chronicles of Moses, and
sarily require such preparatory exercise; similar writings.”
and the statement that he married the When Moses was grown, that is, when
Ethiopian princess Tharbis, has, no doubt, he had become a man full of vigour
its source in the statement contained in and intelligence; the similar phrase,
Numbers xii.1. that Moses took an in the preceding verse, signifies only
Ethiopian wife; but he did this evi- his growing to the usual age of wean-
dently during the journeys through the ing the child. He went out to his
Arabian desert, and not before the brethren; for the mystery of his birth
Exodus from Egypt; for Cushites lived had, perhaps by his parents, been dis-
in Arabia also (see Forster, in Epist. ad closed to him, and, although educated in
J. D. Michaelis, pp. 5 and 19, et seq., all the luxuries of an Eastern court, he
who vainly endeavours to vindicate the had preserved a feeling heart for the
historical character of the Ethiopian ex- sufferings of his brethren; he went from
pedition of Moses, and offers the hazard- the palace to enquire into their condition,
ous supposition that the latter was a and he sympathised with their afflictions
contemporary of Sesostris, whom he ac- with all the ardour and energy of a noble
! companied on all his distant expeditions, and generous mind.—And looked on their
and that he became thus acquainted with burdens. He gave his attention, applied his
+ the locality of Paradise). The “Book mind to their oppressive labours, which
of the Chronicles of Moses” differs from grieved his heart (Rashi).—And he saw an
the relation of Josephus in some particu- Egyptian smiting a Hebrew, one of his
if lars, the most remarkable of which is, brethren. Royal taskmasters were ap-
%
3 that Moses was proclaimed king of the pointed to control and urge on the He-
0%
Ethiopians in his thirtieth year, which brew labourers, as the delegated officers
dignity he maintained during forty years; of a superior despotic power. They
and after this period he fled to Midian, appear to have often abused their autho-
where he was imprisoned seven years by rity, and treated the Hebrews with
Jethro, and then united in marriage with degrading and revolting cruelty (see our
his daughter Zipporah. Abarbanel ob- notes to v. 6, 10, 14,15). The Egyptian
serves, that all these allegations might be smote the Hebrew, but did not kill him,
facts. but that they have been omitted in as the surviving Israelite alone could have
the text, because they have no connection divulged the resolute action of Moses,
with the sacred mission of Moses, which related in the following verse.
forms the exclusive contents of the four 12. The impetuous anger, and the
latter books of the Pentateuch (see Jntro- summary revenge practised by Moses, in
duction, § 2. ii). However, for the esti- which some writers have seen the violent
mation of these and similar accounts, we action of a true descendant of his pas-
 99 . EXODUS II.
that way, and when he saw that there was no man, he
slew the Egyptian and hid him in the sand. 13. And
when he went out the second day, behold, two Hebrews
contended together, and he said to him that did wrong,
Wherefore 82115686 thou thy fellow-man? 14. And he
sionate ancestor Levi (Gen. xlix. 5—7), corpse of the Egyptian had been found in
will not surprise those who consider that the field, his avengers of blood, or rela-
the position of the Egyptians to the tions, would have searched after the
Hebrews, was that of violence, not of murderer, and delivered him up into the
right; justice was not to be expected hands of justice (Abarbanel), The Koran,
against the arbitrariness of the Egyptian which, in almost all particulars, follows
officers, whose rigour was countenanced Jewish traditions, although often freely
and even sanctioned and enjoined by and inaccurately, adds, after the relation of
é their superiors. In such a state of public this deed of Moses: “ But soon repenting of
affairs stratagem is to be met with strata- it, he exclaimed, ‘ This is a work of Satan,
/
0 gem, and force with force, according to who is an open seducer and fiend,’ and
7
the right of the stronger; and the deed he prayed, ‘O my Lord, I have sinned;
-

6 of Moses—who, in a generous impulse pardon me, I beseech Thee.’ And God

of the moment, risked his high station, forgave him, for he is compassionate and
=
ae
‫ש‬
and even his existence, for the cause all-merciful.” From all this we must
=
‫ר‬ of justice and innocence
— belongs to reject the remark of Cahen, “ This deed,
those which history records as noble and although dictated by a legitimate indig-
magnanimous, “Despair and vengeance nation, shows that Moses was still in the
ee‫‏‬
‫ש‬
are the dreadful resources of the op- effervescence of youth, and under the
‫אל‬4
pressed; and few men, suffering under a influence of an African climate;” we find,
common yoke of slavery, would hesitate in the conduct of Moses, rather a corro-
a‫‏‬ to punish on a tyrant a wrong done to boration of the opinion of Gothe, * a strong
their fellow, even as if it were done to sense of justice and injustice is the principal
themselyes” (Wilson). And although feature in the character of Moses.” And
nites
‎‫ו‬ there were certain kinds of Hebrew ma- should, further, the whole transaction not
gistrates in Egypt, as the elders (iii. 16, justify us in supposing that an unformed
-ae
and our note on the passage) and the idea of rescuing his brethren from the
ee
ae Shoterim, the general registrars (see our Egyptian yoke filled and occupied, even
———
note on v. 16), they had not sufficient au- then, the mind of Moses?
thority to enforce their decrees; the 13. The second, the following, day
weaker part had no hope to obtain justice (Acts vii.26, ry Te 17000010 Hpépg).— Two
by legal means; and all facts agree to men, according to a‘tradition, Dathan and
justify the opinion that the Israelites were Abiram; against which assumption, how-
in a lawless position. And according to ever, Abarbanel objects, that we find,
Diod. Sic. (i. § 17) there was an Egyp- later, God commanding Moses to return
tian law, enforcing that he who saw a from Midian to Egypt, “ because all, who
man killed, or violently assaulted on the sought his life, were dead” (iy. 19),
highway, and did not endeavour to rescue whereas Dathan and Abiram outlived
him if he could, was punished with death that period considerably. “The first ac-
(see a more figurative explanation of our tion of Moses was to punish the oppression
verse in Abarbanel’s note on this pas- of his brethren (ver. 12), the second is to
sage).—And hid him in the sand. In Egypt restore harmony among them (ver. 13)”
and Arabia, men not unfrequently find (Cahen). 4:

their death in the sand driven and accu- 15. Moses was compelled to flee; for
‫‏‬O‫)מכיויו‬
‫*ויבשר‬7.
mulated by the wind (Lengerke). If the manslaughter was, in Egypt, inexorably

"‫ב‬ 2
 EXODUS II. 28

said, Who made thee a superior and judge over us? Dost
thou intend to kill me as thou hast killed the Egyptian?
And Moses feared and said, Surely the thing is known.
15. Now when Pharaoh heard this thing, he sought to
kill Moses. But Moses fled from the face of Pharaoh, and
dwelt in the land of Midian: and he sat down by the well.
punished with death (Diod. Sic. i. 6). Midianites mentioned between Edom and
And although the avenging of bloodmight Paran (1 Kings xi. 18). It is, perhaps,
have been lawful in Egypt, Moses could more probable, to suppose with-Rosen-’
not class his action under that category; miller (Antiq. iii. 95), besides those Mi-
because the Egyptian had only beaten, dianites who formed the principal stock
not killed, the Israelite (see ver. 11); and of that tribe, and who were engaged in
if even the latter had been the case, commercial pursuits (see Gen. ‫אאאט‬‎ .
Moses would have been exposed to the 25—28), another more nomadic and pas-
same danger, because he had exercised toral ramification of the same people in
that right in favour of the detested the Arabic desert between mount Sinai,
Hebrew race, whose extermination was Edom and Canaan. For it is not unusual
the cherished aim of the Egyptian despot, with originally nomadic tribes, that some
in whatever way it might be attained.— portions separate themselves from the
And he dwelt in the land of Midian: and chief stock of the nation, and settle in
he sat down by a well. “ The text relates, different districts. This supposition is
first, the general event of his sojourning more in harmony with several passages of
in Midian, and proceeds then to describe the Pentateuch (as Exod. 11 1, iv. 27,
the details of that event” (Mendelssohn). xviii, 1, etc.).— Wells are of such vital
Abarbanel explains less appropriately: importance for the nomadic tribes of the
* And when he had dwelt in the land of East, in the arid tracts which they inhabit,
Midian many years, he happened once to that they are not seldom the cause of
sit by a well.” The land of Midian, so serious contention and even warfare
called from one of the sons of Abraham (Gen. xxvi. 15, 20; Paxton, Illustr. i.
and Keturah (Gen. xxv. 2, 4), extended pp. 41—50); and in the Bible they are
to the south and east of Canaan; from the frequently the scene of the narrative,
eastern coast of the Elanitic gulf of the The water was fetched at fixed times of
Red Sea to the territory of the Moabites the day (see Odyssey vii. 20; Rosenmiiller,
in the north, and the region of Mount Orient. i. p. 102), and Niebuhr found in
Sinai in the south. A town, Madianu, or those regions still the same obliging po-
Modiana, is mentioned on the coast of the liteness (Travels, ii. .‫כ‬‎ 410). Wells and
Elanitic gulf, which was already destroyed fountains were places of amusement and
in the time of Edrisi and Abulfeda, who, of social meetings, and frequently engage-
nevertheless, notice the very well where ments were here concluded; thus the
the daughter of Schoaib, as the Moslems matrimonial alliances of Isaac,Jacob and
call Jethro, went to water the flocks, and Moses, were formed at wells (Gen. xxiv.
saw, for the first time, her future husband. xxix).—And he sat down by the well.
Josephus, who continues systematically The definite article, which appears strange,
his fanciful narration, names a city, is accounted for by Ewald (Gram. § 496),
Madiene (Madijv7), on the Red Sea, as “because there is, in the neighbourhood
the locality of the following events. It is, of each town, one well only for water-
however, questionable, whether the Mi- ing the cattle.” ‘Perhaps that well
dianites of our text really lived in these bore the name of ‘the well of Midian’ ”
regions; the more so, as later we find (Glaire).

ie-
 24 EXODUS II.

16. Now the priest of Midian had seven daughters: and

they came and drew water, and filled the gutters to water
their father’s flock. 17. And the shepherds came and
drove them away: but Moses arose and helped them, and
watered their flock. 18. And when they came to Reuel,
their father, he said, How 7s it that you are come so soon

16. Now the priest (Cohen) of Midian. lies in the name Reuel, which is here
Onkelos: The chief of the Midianites, attributed to the father-in-law of Moses,
so Rashi; Jonathan: tyrant. But the whilst in iii. 1, iv. 18, he is called Jethro,
sons of David are also called Cohanim and in Numb, x. 29, Hobab the son of
(2 Sam. viii. 18), which, it is asserted, Reuel, which latter designation agrees
cannot mean priests, as these were only with Judges iy. 11, so that Reuel would
the descendants of Aaron (Numb. iii. be the grandfather and not the father
10), but civil officers; in which opinion of the seven daughters mentioned in our
they are the more strengthened by the text. Although father is sometimes used
parallel passage in 1 Chron. xviii. 17, in a general sense for ancestor, and son
where the sons of David are called “the and daughter in that of grandchild, yet
first about the person of the king.” But the distinct repetition of their father, his
as David himself certainly offered sacri- daughters, etc., excludes, in our passage,
fices, and blessed the people (2 Sam. vi. that conception, which is, however, adopted
17, 18; xxiv.25), which are, undoubtedly, by Targum Jonathan, Ebn Ezra, Rash-
sacerdotal functions, he could as well bam, Mendelssohn, and MRosenmiiller.
confer upon his sons some of these minis- Abarbanel leaves the question undecided.
trations. We, therefore, rather accede Nor is this view sufficiently corroborated
to Ebn Ezra’s opinion, that every minis- by the remark of Michaelis, that Reuel,
ter, even one of an idolatrous religion, is the grandfather, was still alive, and was,
called priest (Cohen). In Exod. xviii. 12, therefore, the head of the family, when
pontifical functions are ascribed 0 Moses first arrived in Midian, but that,
Jethro. Cohen means, in a more extended after his death, that dignity passed over
sense, public servant or officer, and might to Jethro, his son, who is, therefore, from
signify either a civil or clerical dignitary, the next chapter, exclusively mentioned
or both at the same time; for it is well (for between our verse, and the beginning
known that the functions of sovereign of the third chapter, lies a long interval
and priest were, in ancient polities, united of time, ver. 23), But Jethro would then,
in the same person. The Septuagint adds, according to the context (ver. 21), be the
after “seven daughters,” the words, “ feed- brother, and not the father of Zipporah.
ing the flock of his father Jethro” (see note To explain this difficulty, some critics have
to ver. 18). advanced, that Coten, which the Hebrew =
19. And drove them away. The reason text here uses, has a wider signification
of the strife is thus described by Josephus than father-in-law, including all the rela-
(Antiq. 11. xi. 2): “There being a scarcity tives on the side of the wife. But this
of water in those regions, the shepherds meaning of the word is, with certainty,
exerted themselves to be the first in occu- not found in any passage of the Bible,
pying the wells, lest others use up the Vater suggests, that Reuel is a mere ap-
water and their own cattle be unprovided pellation, “ friend of God,” or an official
for.”— And helped them. This is the title; and Clericus asserts the same of
second time that we see Moses assist the Jethro: but these are nothing more than
feeble and injured (Cahen), convenient suppositions, although those of
18. The chief difficulty of this verse Clericus and Vater are strengthened by
 ae Wr A ‫ו‬‎ ‫ו‬ / a + / . 0 7 uf + , ₪ . > :

EXODU
‎‫ו‬ - 9
“TT
1 . ‫ו‬‎ 4 a ‫לש‬‎ 4 0 aay .
‫זז‬‎
1 5> ¥ . ,

0% 19. And they said, An Egyptian delivered us

Bit of the hand of the shepherds and also drew water
«Stomach for us, and watered the flock. 20. And he said
unto his daughters, ‘Where then is he? why 8 it that you
have left the man? call him that he may eat bread.
1 2 1 Engl. Vers——And where.

Josephus (Antiq. I. xii. 1). Eichhorn re- called him Jedidiah. For the names were
~ moves the difficulty very unceremoniously, not unfrequently, at eventful circum-
by his dissecting and anatomising theory, stances in the lives of individuals, altered
asserting, that the first two chapters of in accordance with the character of those
> Exodus have a different author from the facts. So were the names of Abram
| following part of the book, and that the and Sarai changed into Abraham and
one calls Moses’ father-in-law Reuel, the Sarah when a new epoch in their exist-
|" Jethro; by which explanation, ence was announced to them by the deity;
‘however, hazarded in itself, the third Hoshea was called Jehoshua (Num. xiii.
~ name, Hobab, is not accounted for, unless, 16) when he was sent to explore the land
indeed, he suppose a third author, and a of Canaan; Gideon was called Jerubbaal
third fragment, which is actually done after he had, by the destruction of the
, n the English commentary of Wilson altar of Baal, declared open war to ido-
(1853), with the following words: “Three latry and idolators (Judges vi. 32, vii. 1).
different writers gave varying accounts, Sometimes the son received also the name
and the compiler of the Pentateuch [ac- of the father, as Tobiasi. 9.
cording to that author, Ezra, ₪. 0. 500] 19. An Egyptian. Moses was con-
‎‫ ליו‬followed his original docu- sidered as an Egyptian either on account
. > ments,” because “not any single writer of his language (Abarbanel), or his dress,
¥would throw such uncertainty about his or both; but certainly not on account of
| subject.” Nor would even the most heed- his physiognomy (as Cahen observes),
less compiler, much less the wise Ezra, which, being Asiatic, differed materially
/have given such confused statements; for from that of the native and original
is a compiler less bound to regard the Egyptian. (About the descent, the per-
re
uni
:
/ and harmony of his work than sonal character, and the race to which
the author of original documents? Such the Egyptians belonged, see Heeren,
‘theeories are convenient, but not scientific. Ideas, ii. p. 544—553).—And also drew
‘Cahen throws out the remark: “ Moses water for us. The daughters of Reuel
had, perhaps, several fathers-in-law,” had drawn water and filled the gutters
met in any way substantiating this in order to water their sheep (ver. 16).
opinion. But we need only recur to the The shepherds came and drove them
observation of the Talmud, that Moses’ away; but Moses filled the gutters
fatther-in-law had seven different names, anew, so as to be sufficient for the whole
among which are mentioned Reuel, flock (ver. 17, 19; Abarbanel, Mendels-
Hobab and Jethro. (These three words sohn). “Either they magnified the
have a similar signification,—the be- services of Moses, or the water which
loved of God.) Nor is it unusual in the they had drawn did not suffice” (Hdn
East for the same person to have more Ezra). !
t an one name; so, for instance, is Jacob 20. That he may eat bread, that is, re-
identical with Israel, and Israel with fresh himself. About the application of
shurun; Esau bore also the name of the word bread in the Hebrew for meals
dom ; David called the son of Bathsheba in general, see note on xvi. 3.
Solomor, whilst the prophet Nathan 1. And Moses consented. The Sep-
 2;
pat ‎‫וד‬ %©

“EXODUS TI
ict a

4 0

21. And Moses consented to dwell with thd mint Grd

he gave Moses Zipporah, his daughter. 99. And she
-
bare him a son, and he called his name Gershom: for he
said, 'I am a stranger in a strange land.
23. And it came to pass in that long time, that the % a
king of Egypt died: and the children of Israel signee
+ Engl. Vers. —I have been.

tuagint doesnot express the verb consented. (see ver. 16).—It appears that the ma-
Vulg.; ‘Moses swore that he would ' trimonial alliance between Moses and —
dwell with him;” according to a rabbini- Zipporah was concluded only a very —
cal tradition, that Moses promised with considerable time after the arrival of the
an oath, that he would not leave Midian former in Midian, as, at his return to 34‫י‬‎
without the consent of Jethro. Abar- Egypt (about forty years later), his
banel infers from this verb, that Moses children were still of a very tender age. =
was, only after repeated and pressing soli- 22. Gershom. The etymology of
citations of Reuel, and after having con- this name is here stated, as if it were
6%
vinced himself of his superior wisdom, compounded of ger (a stranger), and
induced to stay in the house of an ido- sham (there), wherefore the Septuagint | ;‫א‬
latrous priest, and to enter with him into writes T'epodu, whilst others believe it to
bonds of relationship. Glaire takes be identical with Gershon, and derive it
it here in the signification of hazard- from Garash, to expel. The derivation
ing, venturing, and explains, that Moses, given in the text shows, unmistakably,
by marrying the daughter of Reuel, ex- that although Moses was, in Midian, safe
posed himself to the vengeance of the against the vindictiveness and _perse-
shepherds, and risked, for ever to be cution of Pharaoh, and his other -adver-
retained among a foreign people, and saries, and although he lived among a .
never to see again his dearly-beloved kindred nation, descended from Abra-
family. But, under the circumstances, ham, he entertained still a longing desire
no alternative was left to him, nor did for that country where his brethren |
his marriage in any way check his reso- suffered, and that he felt deeply all the
lute plans for his returning to Egypt, bitter pangs of an exile, although Egypt
and the deliverance of his nation.— With was not the land of promise, and the 0%
>

the man, is evidently Reuel, for nobody Israelites were then no free nation. The 0
‫"וו‬

else has been mentioned in the preceding second son of Moses, Eliezer, was also =
verse; and this is a further corroboration born to him during his sojourn in Midian, ₪
of the opinion, that Jethro and Reuel which he left accompanied by his wife — %

are identical; for Jethro is incontestably and children (iv. 20). In xviii. 3, 4, /
the father of Zipporah, who alone could both are mentioned, and some manu- —
give his daughter to Moses (see on scripts of the Septuagint, the Vulgate,
ver. 18). We need not, therefore, at- the Arabic, Syriac and Coptic versions, —
tend to the very forced supposition of introduce here also that younger son. 1

Ebn Ezra, that Jethro, the father, is here 23. And it came to pass in that long. .
not mentioned, because he happened to time, namely, in that extended period
be absent, engaged with the performance between the flight of Moses, and his
of his clerical functions; nor can we see return to Egypt, which embraces a space =
anything of the difficulty which Rosen- of time of about forty years (see on vers 1
miller finds in this passage. Zipporah. 11, according to Ramban and ‫היכר‬‎
a Semitic word, signifying bird; and so ‎‫ה‬ sixty years).— The hing of Eg
in Arabic, which was spoken in Midian. died, and the children of Israel sighe d

are
" ‫ויוה‬‎ 7 ‫וו‬ ee
 ‫יו‬ - EXODUS‫זז‏‬
because of the bondage, and they cried, and their sup-‫‏‬
plications came up to God because of the bondage.‫‏‬
.94 And God heard their groaning, and God remembered‫‏‬
> His covenant with Abraham, with Isaac, and with Jacob.‫‏‬
55| And God looked upon the children af Israel, and God‫‏‬
| regarded them.‫‏‬
2 Engl. Vers.— Had respect unto.

because of the bondage. The Hebrews “new king” against the Israelites is
, had, with anxious expectation, hoped for both cruel and unwise in the extreme;
the death of the tyrant as the event the sanguinary edict to kill all male
which would relax their fetters, and children, must necessarily produce a
alleviate their miseries; but his successor result perfectly the reverse of that which
}enacted new and still more rigorous he desired, and which his interests 06-
measures of cruelty, for the deliverance manded: it was not calculated to effect
1 /
| from which they implored the inter- an amalgamation of the Israelites with
_yention
f of the God of their ancestors, the Egyptians, but their extirpation.
to whom “they now at last returned after 24. Compare Gen. xii. 7; xiii. 15;
many years of idolatrous aberration” xv. 18s xvii Sssxxiv: 7; ‫כ‬‎
_ (Ebn Ezra), and their prayers were 25. And God regarded them. These
= favourably accepted by the merciful Ruler words, which the English Version ren-
of mankind, Osburn is of opinion, that ders: “and God had respect unto them,”
the king who died, was Siphtha, the hus- and which are emphatically brief, have
band of Thouoris, (whom he believes to called forth very different explana-
haye 88766 and adopted Moses), and tions. However, Rashi already has given
therefore, son-in-law of Sesostris the the most acceptable interpretation: “ he
i 1 Great, who was the “new king” men- directed his mind upon them, and did
tioned in i. 8, the originator of the cruel not avert his eyes.” — The expressions
Measures against the Hebrews (Mon. and God heard, remembered, looked, re-
| ‫ו‬‎ ii. p. 572; compare pp. 429—549). garded, are not anthropomorphistic, but
>But the historical character of Sesostris the only possible phraseology which the
entirely
be disagrees with the picture which human language can use with reference
> the first chapter of our book draws of to the Eternal Being. (Compare the
hisconduct. Osburn himself says: “he excellent remarks in Cusari ii. 4, and our
was the greatest, the wisest, and the best note to xix. 20,21). The Rabbinical
king that ever sat upon the throne of dictum is: “ The law employs the ordi-
= Egypt” (p. 545). But the policy of the nary human language.”

SUPPLEMENTARY NOTE.
CHAP. II. VER. 10.
EGYPTIAN CIVILISATION AND THE LAWS OF MOSES.
- We shall, in this place, only attempt the negative proof, that “Egyptian wisdom ”
[ ld not possibly have furnished the materials for the Mosaic laws; the positive proof,
that Mosaism is, in its sublimest and world-regenerating principles, a perfectly
iginal system, will be established in our discussion on the individual laws.
₪ is true, that the Pentateuch is accurately informed on the customs and the
organisation of Egypt. A careful comparison with the classical writers, and,
‫ש‬
\ interne‫‏‬

/ il more, the examination of the monumental records of Egypt, recently pursued

 98 SUPPLEMENTARY NOTE. .‫כי‬‎
with such energy and promising success, proves the perfect correctness of the biblical
statements concerning Egypt and her institutions. The people (except the priests),
were, during a long period of Egyptian history, dependent on the king with regard
to landed property (Gen. xlvii. 21—24; see our note to i. 8; compare Herod. ii. 168);
the king is surrounded by a completely organised court (Gen. xii. 15), a grand vizier,
who holds his seal (Gen, xli. 42), eunuchs and guards, by numerous priests, sooth-
sayers, and interpreters of dreams (Gen. xli. 8; Exod. vii. 11); the Egyptians are
correctly represented as divided into castes, who do not share their meals at the same
table (Gen. xlili, 32); shepherds are an abomination to them (Gen. xlvi. 43; Exod.
Vili. 23); they bear burdens on their heads (Gen. xl. 16); embalm their dead (Gen.
1. 2); the physical sciences were in the exclusive possession of one class (“the
Chartumim ” DYSON, isooypaupareic, Exod. vii. 8, 14); Egypt had an army always
prepared for military operations (Exod. xiv. 6); Egyptian priests had to eat the
animal on which the sins of the people were symbolically laden, and thus to take their
transgressions upon themselves (Levit. x. 17, etc.) But do these coincidences compel
us to suppose that the author of the Pentateuch was an Egyptian priest? or are they
unaccountable except by the conjecture that Moses drew his information from the
secret societies of learning? Are not all these facts such as must have spontaneously
enforced themselves on every inhabitant or visitor of Egypt?
It is further to be allowed, that the Pentateuch exhibits a certain degree of civilisa-
tion in Egypt, as is partly manifest from some of the circumstances just referred to;
but we must calmly estimate the extent of this culture:—
Ist. The political organisation of the country; the system of hereditary castes, which
impeded the free individual development, and brought stagnation into the national life;
the preponderance of the priests, and the impotence of the people; the tyrannical posi-
tion of the king, and the yoke and contempt of the inferior most useful classes; the
dependence of the government on clerical arbitrariness; this whole organization has
found but few eulogists; and it is, in almost all points, the direct antagonism of the
Mosaic law, which recognises political equality of all citizens as the supreme leading
principle (see note on xix, 22).
2nd. Egyptian Art, or, rather, Architecture (the only art in which they excelled), has
called forth the loud admiration of many students and travellers; and a modern author |
goes even so far as to assert that “for sublime grandeur of design, and symmetrical :
beauty of arrangement, none of the works of Rome, of Greece, and Mesopotamia, will
bear comparison with the ruins of Thebes” (Osburn, Monumental History of
we
ie
Laat
Egypt, ii. p.176; see also Denon, Voyage, ii. p.16). But it is superfluous to point
-
‫ש‬
5
out the exaggeration of such propositions; it is almost the unanimous opinion of all
authorities of art, that the character of the great architectural monuments of Egypt is
‫לל‬
‫כ‬ not beauty, but colossal and gigantic grandeur; that they were majestic piles of matter,
little spiritualised by the charms of gracefulness, only calculated to inspire the mind
with awe and horror, and to defy the destructive influence of time ; they were
seldom erected for private purposes; but they were dwellings for the gods or abodes
for the dead. Heeren (Ideas, ii. pp. 650—660) has proved, from the internal character
of Egyptian art, “that the representation of the beautiful was not, and could not
F‫ל‬
‫‏‬P‫‏‬
ew be
<=
.-
its end;” it did not exist for its own sake; it stood in the service of religion and
politics; and Osburn himself confesses, in a later part of his volume (p. 480), * Art in
Egypt was altogether impatient of the trammels, not of truth merely, but of
tes
an) proba-
bility . . . . and this it is which goes far to deprive art in Egypt of all that can create
‫‏‬ee ‫ב‬
‫ישר‏ש‬e‫לב‬
‫ב‬
‫ק‬
e
‫ה‬9
either pleasure or interest.” And thus we have the severest criticism against
+
Egyptian art from the mouth of one of its most enthusiastic admirers, The temple of ‎‫ד‬pa?
‫ר‬

Isis, in Tentyris, (Denderah); the huge temple of J upiter in Thebes; the palace and
‫או‬
Py
‫ה‬
colossus of Memnon; the mausoleum of Osimandias, and all the old temples, palaces,
 CHAP. II. VER. 10. 29

colossi, obelisks, tombs and pyramids, which cover Egypt from Tentyris down to the
islands of Elephantine and Philae; and further, the stupendous labyrinth, with its 1500
apartments beneath the earth, and as many above it, and the astounding water-works,
channels, flood-gates and mounds: all this does not prove so much a remarkable
advancement of the Egyptians in the laws and conditions of art, but only an extraor-
dinary knowledge and skill in the mechanical handicrafts necessary for the erection
of great edifices.
3rd, The “ Chartumim” (ODN), no doubt the priests, were the representatives
of the learning of the Egyptians, They are described as interpreters of dreams
(Gen. xli. 8, 24), and performers of miracles by magical artifices (Exod. vii. 11, 22;
Vili. 3, 14, 15). But it is impossible to designate such knowledge with the august
name of wisdom. We need only compare the different ancient translations of that
word. The Septuagint renders quacks, the Vulgate, soothsayers or evil-doers, Kimchi
and Vers. Venet., experienced in nativities. And if, therefore, Moses, in consequence
of his adoption by the king’s daughter, was even admitted into the caste of the priests
(of which the king himself was a member), and if he was even educated in all the know-
| ledge which that caste could impart, he could not derive therefrom those elevated
! and sublime truths which constitute the character of Mosaism. The astronomical hnow-
ledge of the Egyptians, indispensable for the regulation of their agricultural labours,
and the phenomena of the Nile, degenerated into astrology; and the science was thus
converted into a superstition. But all these are mere external or secular accomplish-
ments; we approach now the religious ideas of the Egyptians.
4th. Of the notion of monotheism, we find, in Egypt, no trace whatever. The ‫ו‬‎
assumption of numerous writers, therefore, that Moses learned, besides other im- ‘
portant truths, the doctrine of Monotheism in the Egyptian mysteries, is utterly ludi-
crous. In general, the value of the information derived from the ancient, even Greek,
mysteries, has been greatly overrated. Cicero (de Finibus, lib. i; de Legibus, lib. ii),
remarks merely, that the initiated were convinced, that many deities worshipped by
the nation, had originally been mortals, deified after their death; and that a future
life was reserved to man. ₪. D. Luzzato observes: “ We are justified in supposing, that
the ancient mysteries, far from rejecting the pagan superstitions, were nothing but
idolatrous ceremonies, which excited the contempt of such men as Alcibiades, and
not a feeling of veneration, which the pure doctrine of monotheism, with its sublime
truths, would have necessarily inspired.” This was also the opinion of Hegel
(Philosophie der Geschichte, p. 163): “In these secret assemblies (the mysteries) no
pure philosophical truths were discussed, nor was, as many believe, the unity of God
taught there in opposition to pagan polytheism. ‘The mysteries were, on the contrary,
ancient religious ceremonies; and it is an unhistorical and absurd conceit to seek in
them profound philosophical truths.”—“ To trace the quadriliteral name of the God
of Israel to a foreign origin, is a vain and frivolous task, a resultless toil” (Gesen.
Thes. pp. 577, 578); that it is impossible to derive it from an Egyptian etymology
has already long since been effectually proved); the name Jao, which is undoubtedly
identical with the tetragrammaton, was only introduced by the Gnostics about the
beginning of the Christian era, but is not found on any Egyptian monument (compare
notes on iii, 14).
5th. The Egyptians certainly believed ina kind of after-life, and even in reward
and punishment in the Hades (Amenthes), in which Osiris (here called Serapis), and
Isis (or Dionysius and Ceres), reigned and judged. But all these notions were
conceived in a spirit of gross materialism. Herodotus (ii. 123) observes: “ The
Egyptians were the first who ventured to assert that the soul of man is immortal; but,
if the body decays, it enters into a new-born animal; but if it had migrated through
all land- and sea-animals and fowls, it passes again into a human body; and this

i -
 / ¥ res ee ey >. Wt, :‫ד‬‎ .
. ,
‎‫ו‬ 2a
‫ו‬‎ ‫ו‬‎ i "
i0 ‫ר‬.
Ae12 4
4 . ."* ‫ו‬‎
.+ .

2 7
ce ia, 0 , es

0 = My
‘ <*

30 SUPPLEMENTARY NOTE. eee

ted
migration is accomplished in three thousand years.” And Diodorus (i. 60, 61) writes: |
“The Egyptians consider the period of life on earth very insignificant; but attach
the highest value to a quiet life after death. ‘They call, therefore, the dwellings of | 0%
%1

the living only temporary habitations, but the tombs of the dead are regarded as the
eternal abodes... . . Therefore they bestow little care on the erection of their
houses, whilst they lavish incredible attention and expence on the construction of
their tombs.” If we combine these two passages of Herodotus and Diodorus, we can
understand: a. Why the Egyptians took such infinite pains to preserve the dead
bodies by mummification, since the existence of the soul was believed to depend on
that of the body; and, 2. Why they strove to secure an undisturbed resting-place for
the bodies in those huge tombs, carved, with astounding exertion and perseverance,
often occupying the greatest part of their lives, out of rocks and mountains, covered
with numberless paintings and inscriptions, and, most probably, often marked by
colossal pyramids; since these tombs were regarded as the eternal habitations of man,
From these points of view, the paramount importance ascribed by the Egyptians to
an honourable burial is explicable; and the public judgments held over the corpses,
had, as their only end, to decide whether the conduct of the deceased was such as to
entitle him to this privilege.—Although these notions may form the first steps towards
a refined belief in immortality, it is obvious that they are, in themselves, far from
revealing the internal affinity between the human soul and that eternal spirit which \

pervades the universe. But the doctrine of the transmigration of the soul (metem-
psychosis), especially in the form conceived by the Egyptians, is incompatible with
ְ
9
.
ִּ‫י‬
every true notion of the dignity of man; it amounts, in fact, merely to the opinion ,
[
i

held by Pythagoras, also, of the indestructibility of matter, which changes its forms, ‫ו‬

but is never entirely annihilated. Thus the Egyptians could not impart to Moses the
= doctrine of immortality, which he preached from the beginning, in the history of man,
who 18 created “in the image of God.” We need, therefore, only mention, without
refuting the perverse statement of Tacitus, Hist. v. 5, that the Israelites shared the
Egyptian notions concerning interment, and the infernal regions, “ Corpora condere
quam cremare, 6 more Aegyptio; eademque cura et de infernis persuasio, ”

6th. Perhaps no people on earth has carried the abomination of animal-worship to

such an incredible excess as the Egyptians. From the majestic denizens of the desert,
and the waves, down to the harmless domestic animals, and the most diminutive insects,
there was scarcely any which was not, in some district of Egypt, adored with all the
pomp of heathen worship, with magnificent temples, hosts of priests and endless sacri-
fices; and many were even, after their death, embalmed and entombed in holy
sepulchres. Even Greek travellers were struck by this extraordinary species of
idolatry; but Clemens Alexandrinus (Predag. lib. .‫גג‬‎ 8 3) gives us, as an eye-witness,
the following graphic description: “Among the Egyptians, the temples are sur-
rounded with groves and consecrated pastures; they are furnished with propylaea,
and their courts are encircled with an infinite number of columns; their walls glitter
with foreign marbles, and paintings of the highest art; the nave is resplendent with
gold, and silver, and electrum, and: variegated stones from India and Ethiopia; the
adytum is veiled by a curtain wrought with gold. But if you pass beyond into the
©
remotest part of the enclosure, hastening to behold something yet more excellent,
and
seek for the image which dwells in the temple, a pastophorus (shrine-bearer), or
some
one else of those who minister in sacred things, with a pompous air, singing
a Pan
in the Egyptian tongue, draws aside a small portion of the curtain, as if about to show
us the god, and makes us burst into a loud laugh; for no god is found within,
but a
cat, or a crocodile, or a serpent sprung from the soil, or some such brute animal,
The
Egyptian deity appears—a beast rolling itself upon a purple coverlet.”
(Compare
notes on xx.4—6). We shall, in our remarks on the ten plagues, have occasion
to
 CHAP. II. VER. 10, 24

dilate upon the vast and almost inconceivable extent of this superstition, and leave
the reader to decide if the sublimely pure Mosaic notions of the deity can in any
degree be traced to the grossest of all idolatries. We therefore omit here all reference
to the human sacrifices not uncommon in Egypt, and to the other rude and abject
forms of divine worship, to the veneration paid to the celestial bodies, and other
objects of nature, and even to the vegetable creation, and add merely, for our own
immediate purpose, the express remarks of Manetho (Josephus 0. Apion, i. 26): “Thus
he (Moses) gave the Israelites laws altogether opposed to the institutions and customs
of Egypt,” and of Tacitus (Hist. v. 5): “The Egyptians worship most of the animals
and compound images; the Jews conceive God, with the spirit alone, as one deity”
(Aegyptii pleraque animalia effigiesyue compositas venerantur; Judaei mente sola
unumgue numen intelligunt).
In this whole exposition, we have not alluded to the time when the Egyptians
attained to that degree of civilisation which they might have enjoyed; and an unbiassed
enquiry leads us to doubt as much of the antiquity as of the extent of the learning of
the Egyptians. Except the architectural monuments, many of which no doubt belong
to a very remote antiquity, we have no earlier documents concerning their culture
|than the descriptions of Herodotus (about 440 B.c.), Manetho (270?), Eratosthenes |
(240), and Diodorus Siculus (about the beginning of the vulgar era), and even these ‫ו‬‎
authorities contain mostly but “a mixture of dry, contradictory numbers and lists of |
names, of miraculous stories, myths, astronomical propositions, and enigmatical
allegories” (Rotteck, 1. p.132). There is, therefore, nothing that compels us 0
suppose that limited culture which the ancient Egyptians possessed, to have
existed already at so early a period as that of Moses, who was, consequently,
neither educated in the “wisdom of Egypt,” nor, if this had been the case, would
he have derived great and sublime truths from those sources (compare Gdthe,
Westostlicher Divan, p. 162: “Whether Moses was protected by a princess, ‫סע‬‎
educated at the court — all this had no influence upon his character and opi-
nions.”) From 1 Kings vy. 10, where Solomon 18 said to have surpassed “all the
wisdom of Egypt,” or from Isaiah xix. 11, where the “wise councillors of Pharaoh”
are mentioned, we can deduce no distinct conclusions concerning the degree or
_ character of Egyptian culture; the remark of Homer (Odyssey, iv. 231), “that every
| Egyptian is an able physician, excelling all other men,” refers only to an empirical
practice of healing by means of herbs or vegetable drugs; and the observation of
Josephus (contra Apion. ii. 14), that “the study of wisdom was, in Egypt, from the
beginning, committed to the priests,” leaves us equally doubtful as regards the nature
of that philosophy, which we might, however, with some probability imagine, from its
being coupled with “the worship of the gods.” It is certainly not wisdom, in the
sense of philosophy, which was only considerably more than a millennium after Moses,
from Greece, transplanted to Egypt. ‘True, Herodotus calls the Egyptians prudent
and practical people (Aoy.raro1), on account of their commerce and industry; but
this signifies merely their worldly shrewdness, to which they attached a high import-
ance, so that they were almost proverbial for their cunningness and stratagems (see
Bohlen, Ancient India, ii. 121). Even Juvenal (Satires, xv.), in so late a period as the
first century after Christ, does not sketch a flattering picture of the religious enlight-
enment of the Egyptians, when he says:—
“ How Egypt, mad with superstition grown,
Makes gods of monsters, but too well is known.
*Tis mortal sin an onion to devour,
Each clove of garlic is a sacred pow’r.
Religious nation sure, and blest abodes,
Where ev'ry garden is o’er-run with gods.” (Dryden’s Translation.)
 32 EXODUS 1.
(Compare Ovid, Metam. v. 826 ,64 seq.) Many ancient writers thought, indeed, Egyp-
tian learning insufficient for the education of Moses, and they call in the aid of Greek,
Assyrian and Chaldean preceptors—an idea as arbitrary as it is unfounded (see
Philo, opp. ii. 84. Compare Clem. Alex. Strom. i. 148). Moses has, it is true, not
unfrequently based his laws on institutions of the Egyptians, or other nations, whose
ideas the Israelites had, by long associations, imbibed; but, whenever he does this, he
infuses into the old forms a spirit of purity which changes entirely their original per-
verse tendency, and which converts them into most beneficial and sublime doctrines
(see note on xii, 1, towards the end),

CHAPTER III.
SumMARy.—Moses, as shepherd of his father-in-law, leads his flock to Mount Horeb;
> God appears to him in a burning bush; He promises to rescue the Israelites
through him from the oppression of the Egyptians; and to lead them into, and to
make them inherit, the land of Canaan. For this purpose God commands Moses
to return to Egypt; but he hesitates. To inspire him with hope and confidence,
God reveals to him His holy name, which was not yet known to his ancestors;
and orders him to ask of Pharaoh only a leave of three days to worship in the
desert. God in His prescience knows that Pharaoh will not consent; He is there-
fore determined to inflict upon Egypt fearful plagues; then only would the king
allow their departure, which they would effect after having received from the
Egyptians very considerable gifts in gold, silver, and raiment.

ND Moses kept the flock of Jethro his father-in-law,

the Midianite priest, and he led the flock ‘behind
the desert, and came to the mountain of God, to Horeb.
! Engl. Vers.—To the backside of.

1. That Moses pastured the flock of he led his flock behind the desert. Moses
Jethro his father-in-law is so natural naturally led his flock from the sterile
among a nomadic tribe, whose chief desert which the Midianites inhabited (see
wealth consists in cattle, that the opinion on 11. 15), south-wards behind the desert,
of Philo and many Rabbinical expounders to the fertile and fruitful regions of Mount
of the sacred volume, according to whom Sinai, whither the nomadic shepherds
Moses—as later David—was ordained to generally drive their flocks when all the
feed the flock as a preparation for his other parts of the peninsula are destitute
great mission as pastor of the people of of water and of pasture. — The moun-
Israel, appears as an unnecessary, though tain of God, so called by way of anti-
ingenious, allegorical interpretation. It cipation (prolepsis), because the glory of
0 must, however, be admitted, that the God appeared here at a later time to
solemn solitude of the dreary desert mate- the lawgiver. Targum Onkelos: “And
4
y

rially contributed to prepare the mind of he came to the mountain where the
Moses for the sublime commission for majesty of the Lord revealed itself.”
which Providence had selected him, to Josephus, blending truth and fiction, ob-
dispose his thoughts to sacred reflection, serves (Antiq. 11. xii.1): “ Afterwards
and to mature his plans for the deliverance he drove his flocks to Mount Sinai to
of his people from that thraldom which feed them. This is the highest moun-
gnawed at his sympathetic heart with un- tain in these regions [which is not accu-
diminished grief, even after a separation rate], and the best for pasturage; for its
of nearly half a century. — About the herbage was excellent, and it had not
name “ Jethro,” see note to 11.18 ; and been before fed upon; for as the native
about “ priest of Midian,” to ii, 16.—And tribes believed that God dwelt there, the
 EXODUS III. 33 '
.
2. And an angel of the Lord appeared to him in a
flame of fire out of the midst 01 *the thornbush: and he
looked, and, behold, the bush burned with fire; but the
_ bush was not consumed. 3. And Moses said, °I will just
_ go thither and see this great sight, why the bush is not
burnt. 4. And when the Lord saw that he went thither
to see, God called to him out of the midst of the bush,
? Engl. Vers.—A bush. 3 [ will now go aside.

shepherds dared not to approach it.”—As that the bush appeared to be in flames; .
the Mount Horeb, by the promulgation of others imagine an issue of phosphoretted
the law which there took place, has be- hydrogen from a volcanic fissure!—The
come of paramount importance for the burning bush which is not consumed has
history of mankind, and as the Sinaitic frequently been used as a suitable allegory
peninsula in which that mountain is si- of the fate of Israel, which, although de-
tuated forms the principal scene of the spised among the nations as the thornbush
wanderings of Israel after their Exodus among the trees—oppressed, degraded,
from Egypt, it will not be inappropriate and afflicted—could never be destroyed.
mg to introduce a geographical sketch of this Abarbanel and others apply it more espe-
peninsula, with especial regard to “ the cially to the sufferings of Israel in Egypt,
mountain of God.” See the supplemen- from which they came forth with enhanced
tary note at the end of the chapter. vigour. The symbol of the Scotch church
2. Thornbush; rubus vulgaris, or rubus is likewise a burning bush, with the words
sanctus, or Oxycantha arabica (haw- beneath it: “Nec tamen consumebatur.”
thorn bush), which grows abundantly in 4. God called unto him. The angel
the vicinity of Sinai. The Septuagint of God, who appeared to Moses
renders Garoc, bramble—which is, how- (ver. 2) is, according to our verse and
ever, according to Pococke, nowhere found the whole following relation, God him-
in those parts. The idea that the presence self, with a change very usual in the
‘
of God manifests itself in the splendour Holy Scriptures: the angel calls Abra-
of light or fire, was prevalent throughout ham (Gen. xxii. 11), and it is, in fact,
¢
‫חמשי‬ all nations of antiquity. In Homer God himself (ver. 16); the angel of God
2 (Odyss. xix. 36—40), Minerva appears in appeared to Gideon (Judg. vi. 11), whilst
a radiance of fire. The Persians adored he is in reality God (ver. 14). Similarly
(4 the fire, from the belief that it enshrouds Gen. xxi. 17 and 19; xxxi. 11, 13, 16.
the gods. Similar notions were enter- Judg. xiii. 3, 22. Ebn Ezra accounts
\ | tained by the Chaldeans. God revealed for this change in a twofold manner:
himself in fire not only to Moses (in 1. The angel is called God, because he
our text, and xix. 18; xxiv. 17), but is His delegated messenger; or, 2. God
also to Elijah (1 Kings xix. 12), Ezekiel (Jehovah) seeing that Moses was going to
(i. 4,13), and Daniel (vii. 9).—Josephus the bush, commanded His angel (Elohim)
thus explains our text: “ The fire which to call him; “for Elohim is no proper
surrounded the thornbush did not injure noun, but a noun appellative, implying
the blossoms of the tree, nor did it destroy everything divine and incorporeal.” The
any of the fructiferous branches.”—Some first explanation is more acceptable; the
represent the whole vision related in this latter, forced in itself, would not even
chapter asa dream of Moses, a conjecture apply to the other analogous passages.
destitute of every foundation; others sug- “A similar identification of the Deity
gest, with as little propriety, that Moses with its messengers is observable in
saw the setting sun behind the thicket, so almost every apparition of angels. Ori-
D
 34 EXODUS III.
‎‫‘ י‬

+)
and said, Moses, Moses. And he said, HereamI. 5. And
v4
0
i
He said, Approach not hither: put off thy shoes from thy
‘'
feet, for the place whereon thou standest 78 holy ground.
6. And He said, I am the God of thy ‘fathers, the God of
~~?
‫]ו‬
>
as
1 Abraham, the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob. And
i
feo

.
k: Moses hid his face; for he was afraid to look upon God.
‫" ח"ר‬

‫=ב‬
7. And the Lord said, I have surely seen the affliction of
my people who are in Egypt, and have heard their cry
1 Engl. Vers.—Father.

ginally, and especially where the primi- (comp. Plato, Sympos. p. 213). To enter
tive notions are faithfully preserved, the a place of worship with covered feet is
Deity itself descends to its favourites considered as an act of the greatest
in a mortal shape; but gradually the irreverence. Jamieson, (in Paxton’s 11-
emanations of its power in nature are lustrations, i. p. 298, note), observes:
regarded as the heralds and instruments “The lobby of their mosques is filled
of its decrees (Ps. civ. 4; 2 Sam. xxiv. 16), with shoes, just as the lobby of a house,
and are personified according to the or recess in a church, is filled with hats
manner of the Orient, as is even the amongst us.” Pythagoras also, most
case with the spirit.” ‘“ Wherever God probably following an Egyptian custom,
appears in the symbol of any natural enjoins on his disciples to sacrifice and to
phenomenon, this is His angel, or His enter the temple unshod. Even in the
visible agent, or, in the beautiful lan- remotest antiquity it was a general cus-
guage of Moses: ‘The name of God is tom to approach barefoot those sacred
in him’” (Herder, Geist der Hebr. Poes. ii. spots, where the Deity was believed to
p. 48).—Moses, Moses. The repetition be present; thus, in our passage, and
of the name is intended to rouse the perfectly so in Josh. y, 15, where, on a
attention of Moses with greater force, similar occasion, the same command is,
1
Comp. Genes, xxii.11. Here ‫שת‬‎ 1; an almost in the identical words of our
expression of willingness and ready obe- verse, addressed to Joshua; and the
dience, as Gen. xxii. 11; xxxi.11; Isa. Hebrew priests probably performed their
vi. 8. Comp. Emunah Ramah, ii. 6. sacred duties in the temple unshod (as -
5. The shoes of the Orientals (as is even now done by the whole people
those of the Greeks and Romans) were, on the holiest day in the year, the day
and are still, mere soles of leather or of atonement; ‘see also 2 Sam. xy. 30, =
wood, which were fastened under the and Berach. Ixii. 2), -Many find in this -
feet, and tied above them with a thong practice a similar mark of respect and —
or latchet (Gen. xix. 23). Jonathan reverence as in our custom of uncovering ~
translates therefore here, thy sandals. the head; others see therein an act of
The Egyptians were, however, famous cleanliness which, as the ritual emblem —
| for the sumptuousness of their sandals, of internal purity, is one of the greatest
which form still one of the greatest virtues among the Orientals; still, others
ornaments of their attire, being elabo- consider it as a kind of pious self-casti-
rately embroidered with flowers and gation, just as the Roman matrons went
other figures wrought in silk, silver and once in procession unshod to the temple
gold (Wilkinson, Anc. Egypt. iii, 364). of .Vesta (Ovid, Fast. vi. 397). The
Shoes are, in the East, seldom worn in first reason is the most plaugible: —
the apartments in paying visits; they are Holy ground. The grandeur of the
usually put off in the ante-chambers scenery around the three majestic peaks

‫לכוי‬
‫כ‬
 EXODUS III. 35

about their taskmasters; “indeed, I know their sorrows.

8. And 1 am come down to deliver them out of the hand
of the Egyptians, and to bring them out of that land into
a good and large land, into a land flowing with milk and
> honey; into the place of the Canaanites, and the Hittites,
and the Amorites, and the Perizzites, and the Hivites, and
the Jebusites. 9. Now, therefore, behold, the cry of the
children of Israel is come to me, and I have also seen
? Engl. Vers.—For.

of Horeb impressed from the earliest preferred to take ‫לכ‬‎ here as a particle ot
times the wandering tribes of the Arabs protestation: indeed (like ver. 12),
with awe and veneration; and the region unison with the emphatical and forcible
as commonly considered as a sacred character of the whole verse (see note to
‎‫( ו‬see ver. 1). i. 19).
6. I am the God of thy fathers. The He- ₪. And I came down to deliver them.
brew word father is here used collectively, Targum Onkelos renders: “ And I re-
like xv. 2, “the God of my fathers.” vealed myself.” — A brief description
To understand it of Abraham only, be- of the climate, extent, and fertility of
> 0886 he was the first worshipper of God Palestine will be given on Gen. xii. 7.
among the ancestors of Moscs, would be Into the place of the Canaanites and
inappropriate, on account of the follow- the Hittites, etc. Although ** Canaanites”
| ing words: the God of Abraham, Isaac, is the general name for all the nations
and Jacob, which are an explanatory which inhabited the land of Canaan,
apposition to “God of thy fathers.” they are not seldom enumerated as one
Ebn Ezra remarks, that the Lord re- particular tribe, or rather as a certain
> yealed Himself to Moses as the God of kind of tribes, namely probably — ac-
> Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, and not as cording to the original signification of
> the God of Levi, Kohath, and Amram, the word Canaan—the inhabitants of the
who were his nearest relatives, because the lower regions, i.e., those tribes which
former were prophets, and the ancestors lived near the coast of the Mediterra-
of all Israel.—And Moses hid his face. nean and in the plains of the Jordan
Sept. 07407 05/5 averted his face. For (see Gen. xiii. 7; Num. xiii.29). Of the
he was afraid to look upon God. Moses ten nations, the subjugation of which
_ feared to look upon the divine apparition, God promised to Abraham (Gen. ‫אמ‬‎
_ which according to a very general notion 19--21(, six only are mentioned here,
5 nobody can behold without either losing as these constituted the more important
] his sight or his life (see Gen. xvi. 13; part of the population of Canaan.
|_ Deut. xviii. 16. Comp. Homer, Odys. xvi. 9. Now, therefore, behold, etc. These
161). Aldo, (Ikkarim ii. 29), assigns the’ words refer, on the one hand, back to
reason that Moses covered his eyes, in ver. 7, which contains a similar sentence;
order not to be dazzled by the splendour and point, on the other hand, forward
of the fire, and not to be diverted from to the following verse, with which it
the divine ideas communicated to him; stands in a causal connection: “ Because,
for if the external senses are occupied, then, I have heard the cry of the chil-
the reflective powers lose their energy. dren of Israel, go to Pharaoh and lead
.‫ ל‬Indeed, I know their sorrows.‫‏‬ them out of Egypt”
The usual rendering: “for I know their‫‏‬ 20. And bring thou forth my people
| sorrows,” is illogical; we have therefore‫‏‬ the children of Israel out of Egypt. It
D 2
 36 EXODUS III.

the oppression wherewith the Egyptians oppress them.

10. Come now, therefore, and I will send thee to Pharaoh,
that thou mayest bring forth my people, the children of
Israel, out of Egypt. 11. And Moses said to God,
Who am 1 that I should go to Pharaoh, and that I should
bring forth the children of Israel out of Egypt? 12. And
has often been asked by Biblical stu- materially enhanced.” The diffidence of
dents, why it was necessary to lead the Moses, which was the result of modesty
Israelites from Egypt, where they all (Num. xii. 3), not of disobedience, con-
had been born and brought up, and trasted his humble pastoral condition
which, by their long sojourn through so with the exalted position of the mighty
many generations, they must have begun king of Egypt and his proud courtiers,
toconsider as their own country ; especially to whom, he thought, it would be im-
as their exit from Egypt exposed them possible even to obtain access; he doubted
to so many dangers and difficulties ne- further his capabilities, which he believed
cessarily attendant on the march through were insufficient for the difficult task, to
the desert, and the military operations lead a great nation through a trackless
against warlike tribes; whilst God, if desert into a distant country. The
he wished to relieve them, might have answer of Moses accurately corresponds
inclined the heart of Pharaoh in their with the exhortation of God in the
favour, instead of hardening it against preceding verse; and the following
%
at them, and might thus have converted verse removes in the same order the
‎‫עשי‬ their abodes in Egypt into homes of objections of Moses. ‘The hesitation
happiness and comfort. The obvious of the lawgiver, in accepting a great
answer to this question is, that the and dangerous mission [88 several
Israelites would not have been able to analogies in the most pious servants
worship the God of their fathers, and of God: Samuel fears the revenge of
1. to receive the Law, in Egypt, a country Saul, when God commands him to go
»
bale,
aL replete with idolatrous abominations; into the house of Jesse to anoint David
5% and in ver. 12 the whole aim and end (1 Sam. xvi. 2). Jonah attempts to
4 of the Exodus appear to be hinted at evade his charge to the Ninevites; and
a:
in the words: “And this shall be a sign Jeremiah, when chosen by God as pro-
10
4
0 unto thee, that I have sent thee: when phet, exclaims in an objection similar to
thou hast brought forth the people out that of Moses: “O Lord God, behold,
of Egypt, you shall serve God upon this I cannot speak, for I am but a youth” —
mountain.” (Jerem. i. 6). However, it deserves to
11. The best commentary on this be remarked, that among the many
verse is given by Josephus (Antiq. II. doubts and objections, which Moses raised
xii. 2), who introduces Moses uttering against his mission, fear for his life—the
the following words: “I am at a loss most obvious of all—is not mentioned, a ‫ו‬

to comprehend, how I, a man of no sufficient proof, that not timidity to un-

rank or influence, should be able to per- dergo danger, but want of confidence
suade my countrymen to leave a land in himself, made the modest messenger
already so long inhabited by them, and doubt so despondingly and hesitatingly, =
to follow me into the country to which And Calvin already observes, that Moses,
I might lead them; or, if I even succeed after having slain the Egyptian, pre-
to induce the Israelites to listen to my ferred a voluntary exile to a reconci-
words, how can I force Pharaoh to allow liation with the tyrannical king. 116
them to depart, by whose services and left Egypt in faith (Hebr. xi.27). The |
industry his national prosperity is so diffidence of Moses to appear before

a
1
 EXODUS III. 37

He said, Certainly, 1 will be with thee; and this shall be a

sign to thee, that I have sent thee: when thou hast
brought forth the people out of Egypt, you shall serve
0: God upon this mountain. 13. And Moses said to God,
Behold, when I come to the children of Israel, and 1
say to them, The God of your fathers hath sent me to
Pharaoh, not because he was banished therefore, with the authorised version,
as a murderer, but because he was but a translated so, that the sign, or rather
mean shepherd, would be strange indeed, proof, is, that the Israelites will sacrifice
considering that he was educated at the before the Mount Sinai. Even Rashi
royal court, were it not sufficiently ac- adduces this interpretation as admissible.
counted for by the circumstances, that The phrase you shall serve God is here
the king, whose daughter had adopted also the symbolical, but hidden expression
him, lived no more (iii. 23), and that in for the intended revelation.—It might
he period of about forty years, which appear surprising, that God gave Moses,
13 elapsed since his flight, he must in this case, a sign, which was fulfilled
have become a perfect stranger to the only several months after the Exodus,
whole royal household; so that Winer’s and which could not encourage and
remark with reference to our verse (Bibl. strengthen him for the great difficulties
Dict. ii. p. 110): “Well might fable he had to encounter before its realization.
have been busy in adorning the history But similar signs to be verified by future
of the infancy and youth of the great events were not unusual (see Isa, xxxvii.
legislator,” is devoid of every solid basis. 30; 1 Sam. ii. 34); and one promise was
12. And this shall be a sign to thee, corroborated by another assurance. Be-
that I have sent thee: when thou hast sides, by far the greatest hardships and
brought forth, ete.—Ebn Ezra, Rashi, and tribulations, the severest trials and dan-
Mendelssohn, suppose the sign to be the gers, awaited Moses and the Israelites
burning bush, which was miraculous- only after the legislation on Mount Sinai,
ly preserved; just so would Moses be during their forty years’ wanderings in
rescued from all the snares and persecu-
- the solitary and dreary wilderness, in
| tions of Pharaoh; so that the words: their warfare against inimical tribes, and
“when thou hast brought forth the in their multifarious troubles and _pri-
people out of Egypt” begin a new sen- vations.
tence; for the whole end of the deliver- 13. Beho’d when I come, etc. Moses
ance of the Israelites was the law to be asked God, under what name he was to an-
promulgated on Mount Horeb, and the nounce Him to the Israelites, or, accord-
covenant to be concluded between God ing to Maimonides (More Nebuch. i. 63),
and His people.—But this interpretation, under which attribute he should say, He
forced in itself, would at least require had appeared to him. The name of the
the conjunction and before when thou hast Deity is no matter of indifference, as it
brought forth; without it the sentence conveys in the precisest possible form
is extremely abrupt. Abarbanel explains: His power, His nature, and His relation
“T will be with thee; and the wonders to His worshippers. But the Egyptians,
which thou, a weak octogenarian, wilt who, according to Herodotus (ii. 4, 50),
perform, strengthened by my assistance, were the most ancient nation which in-
will be the sign that I have sent thee.” troduced names for their deities, advanced
But the ellipsis is too bold; besides, in this respect soon to an extreme, be-
the following part of the verse would be stowing upon the same god a multiplicity
liable to the same objection as the in- of names, as if incapable of adequately
terpretation of Mendelssohn.—We have, expressing his holiness, his grandeur, and
COE, LP See
a
One eee 04 ‫ב‬‎4 ee
| ‫דיי‬‎
eee
eS

38 EXODUS IIL.
you; and if they say to me, What is His name? what
shall I say to them? 14. And God said to Moses,
his remaining attributes, by one or a few Micah y.3. Ps, vii. 18; xx. 2; xci. 15, etc.);
appellations: and thus Isis was “ called and impressed with this great importance |
by an infinite number of names,” where- of the divine appellation, the author 01116 =
as the prophet Zachariah (xiv. 10), de- book Cusari, devotes an elaborate trea-
scribes it as a symptom of the full tise (iv.1.et seg.) to this subject.
and universal knowledge and the pure 14. I am he who is..“I am” has
adoration of God: “that He will be sent me to you. This is the name with
one and His name one.” If, therefore, which God orders Moses to announce
the Israelites were to listen to the ex- Him to the Israelites, and with which
hortation of Moses, he must necessarily the tetragrammaton (Jehovah) in the fol-
address them in the service of a God, lowing verse is identical. If we compare
whose very name inspired confidence and herewith the third verse of the sixth —
awe. He must bear a name which un- chapter: “And I appeared to Abraham,
mistakably describes His existence and to Isaac, and to Jacob, by the name of God
ruling Providence; for in the protracted Almighty, but under my name Jehovah I
period of their servitude and oppression, was not known to them,” we have a safe
they had almost forgotten the holy name of guide for the historical and etymological ‫וו‬
‫י‏‬s‫וב‬E‫ו‬

God, under which He was known to their origin of the holy divine name. We shall
ancestors, and they had relapsed into the first review the results of the modern
idolatries of the heathens, into Sabeanism researches on this important point, and
and other superstitions; except perhaps then proceed to introduce the different
the tribe of Levi, which is said to have in- interpretations, to which the obscure
a

variably and faithfully preserved the true phrase of our text has given rise:
knowledge of God, which was hence de- I. The name Jehovah is of genuine He-
signed to receive the crown of priesthood. brew derivation. :
Moses therefore asked God, which name, 1. It is not of Egyptian origin, as has
implying eternity and omnipotence, would so often, even in our time, been advanced.
be most calculated to arouse the Israelites This supposition, based on a wrong con-
at once from their lethargic indifference, ception of Eusebius, has been successfully
and to fill the degraded people with cou- and ably refuted by Didymus Taurinen-
rage and confidence, Maimonides in sis. — The inscription, which Plutarch
the preface to his Commentary on the (on Isis, § 9) mentions to have existed
Mishna, observes: ‘“ Whenever a man in the temple of Isis in Sais: “I am all
came forth in Israel professing to be that has been, that is, and that will be,
gifted with prophecy, the people asked and my veil has by no mortal yet been
first, who it was that had inspired and lifted,” hasnointernalresemblance withthe =
sent him; and if he answered, that he expression of our text: “I am he who is,”
had his prophecy as an emanation from Isis is only the personification of nature,
a star or any deity except God, they whose secret workings no mortal can
stoned him without further investigation. explore; she is the parent of all exist-
Therefore Moses was quite justified in ence, and to her everything that is must
asking who that Being was, who spoke return — a conception common to all
to him, and in whose name he was to nations of antiquity, and not implying
console, exhort, and deliver the Israel- any pure monotheistic idea. Besides, the
ites.” In the Bible, indeed, the “name authenticity of that inscription has justly
of God” appears in many passages to be been questioned. On the other hand, such —
used synonymously with God himself, passages as Exod. v. 2, where Pharaoh ex-
and His internal essence (Deut. xxviii. 58, claims, “ whois Jehovah, that I should listen
Ley, xix. 12; xxiv. 11. Isa. xxx. 27 to his voice, to let the children of Israel
 EXODUS III. 39

I am THAT I am; and He said, Thus shalt thou say to

the children of Israel, I am hath sent me to you.
.
go? I do not know Jehovah,” and such lation consisting of twelve letters, was,
expressions as “the God of the Hebrews,” even in the temple, substituted for the
show clearly, that even in the time of Tetragrammaton; and so the true pro-
Moses, the holy name of God was either nunciation of that name was ultimately
entirely or essentially unknown to the forgotten. Jerome, Origen, Eusebius, and
Egyptians, which fact Tacitus (Hist. v. 5) others mention, that in their time “ the
expressly testifies; see supplementary Jews wrote the name in their copies of
note to ii. 10. _ the Bible in Samaritan characters, instead |
2. It is not of Phoenician origin, as of the common Hebrew or Chaldee, in
Hartmann (p. 156) and many others, order to veil it from the profane inspec- --
leaning on certain fragments of the tion of strangers” (Pict. Bibl.); and Jose-
Phoenician author, Sanchuniathon, assert. phus (Antiq. 111. v. 4) did not even dare to
It is now generally acknowledged, that write down the Ten Commandments in
those fragments are spurious compilations the words proclaimed on Mount Sinai,
of the literary adventurer Philo Byblius, but only their sense and import. The
who lived between the reigns of Nero author of the speculative work Emunah
and Hadrian; and who can therefore Ramah (Abraham Ben David Halevi),
prove nothing for so remote a time as in discussing the various names of God,
the ante-Mosaic period. writes (iii. 6): “ But the name Jehovah we
3. It is only necessary to mention the are not allowed to pronounce. In its ori-
absurd suppositions, that Jehovah is to ginal meaning, it is conferred upon no
be traced to a Chinese origin, or that other being, and therefore we abstain
(according to a certain oracle of Apollo from giving any explanation of it.”
Clarius), Dionysus and the sun bore the III. ‘The correct pronunciation of the
name of Jao, or that the resemblanee of Tetragrammaton, which was by tradi-
sound proves the original identity of tion confided only to the most pious men
Jehovah and Jovis. of their respective ages, is Jahaveh or
We are, therefore, fully justified in sub- Jahveh, in accordance with Theodoret
scribing the opinion of Gesenius (Thes. (Quaest. xv. in Exodumi. p.133). The
\ ii. p.577): “that those labour in vain who Samaritans pronounce it, IABE, in perfect
strive to find a foreign origin to the name harmony with the explanation given in our
of Jehovah ;" and in asserting that the text.
Tetragrammaton is the peculiar and ex- IV. Thus the holy name of God denotes
clusive designation of the God of Israel. the Eternal Being; He who is immuta-
Il. The vowels which are at present ble, subject to no change through all
given to the name Jehovah, do not origi- generations. This explanation is corro-
nally belong to it, but are borrowed from rated by a variety of passages of the Old
Adonai; for already before the time of the Testament. Compare Malach. iii. 6:
Septuagint the holy name of God was, ac- “ Tam the Lord—I am immutable” (see
cording to a tradition based on Levit. Philo, De Incorrupt. Mundi, p. 950: * God
‎‫ טואא‬16, considered too majestic to be is always equal and identical with himself,
_ pronounced, and was, therefore, called the admitting neither of a change to a higher,
name par excellence. The Talmud (San- nor to a lower degree”). We may also
hedr. 90, a) enjoins: * Eyen he who thinks adduce the excellent comment of Plutarch
the name of God with its true letters, on the word EI, Thou art, inscribed above
forfeits his future [1)6;7 and according the door of the temple of Apollo at
to Maimonides (Jad Chasak., cap. 14, Delphi: “ This title is not only proper,
§ 10), after the death of Simon the but peculiar to God; because He alone is
Just, the name Adonai, or another appel- being, for mortals have no participation of
40 | EXODUS III.

15. And God said moreover to Moses, Thus shalt thou

say to the children of Israel, The Lord God of your
fathers, the God of Abraham, the God of Isaac, and the
God of Jacob, hath sent me to you: this 7s my name
true being, because that which begins and thus after my name, seeing it is secret or
ends, and is continually changing, is ‘wondrous?’ Judg. xiii. 18). Tellthemonly,
never one, nor the same, nor in the same ‘Tam,’ that is, * 116 who is,’ or the eternal
state. The deity on whose temple this God, always manifest to those who seek
word was written was called Apollo— me.” We must repeat, that however sublime
Amé\\wv—from a negative, and ‫חס‬‎‫שש‬ this interpretation of the divine name is
many, because he is one, his name simple, in itself, its metaphysical ideality would
his essence uncompounded.” Gesenius have little contributed to secure for Moses
(Thes. ii. 577, note) proposes totake Jahveh any degree of enthusiasm among the
as the future Hiphil, signifying: “ He who Israelites, who, sunk in materialism, ex-
made exist, called into existence,” the ~ pected to see the power and competency of
Creator; but this is no mew attribute of the Lord expressed in His very name.
the Deity (vi.3), unknown tothe patriarchs, V. After having thus developed the
who revered him already as the Lord, that most probable—we may almost say authen-
is, the Creator of heaven and earth (Gen. tic—meaning of the words, 7 am that I
xiv. 19,22). Wecannot see that this idea, am, and of the name Jehovah, we proceed
which we have proved to be the funda- to enumerate the opinions of the more im-
mental notion of the holy name of God, is portant interpreters, as nearly as possible
too profound or metaphysical for the sim- in a chronological order. 1. Sept., éyw
ple age in which Moses lived; and the eit 0 wy, “Tam that 1 am;” and just so
hypothesis of Koppe and others, that I 2. Vulgate, “ Ego sum qui sum;” 3.
am that I am means: “I am he whose Aquila and Theodot., 20006 d¢- Eoopat,
essence is not to be described or expressed > ] shall be that I shall be,’ quite lite-
by any name;” or, “ I am he who has no rally, but without distinct meaning; +.
name,” is well refuted by Hengstenberg, Onkel, and the Syrian and Persian trans-
who remarks, that such a deity was cer- lators have retained the Hebrew words;
tainly not calculated to afford much com- 5. Saadiah, “I am the Eternal one,
fort and consolation to the Israelites in who never ceases;” 6. Targ. Jonath.,
the severe oppression under which they “He who spoke and the world was;
then sighed. Yet Rabbi Jehudah Ha- He who spoke and the universe was.”
levi, in his celebrated work, Cusari (iv.3), 7. Similarly Targum Jerusalem, “He
offers a similar, as it were negative, ex- who said to the world, Exist! and it was;
planation, which, however, being one of and who will say to it, Exist! and it will
the earliest philosophical illustrations of be.” 8. Rashi, “I shall be with them in
our subject, is too interesting to be omitted their present Egyptian slavery, as I
here: * By appearing to Moses under shall be with them in their future mise-
the name Jehovah, God wished to preclude ries (see Talm. Berach. 9). 9. Maimonides
all subtle speculations on the true nature (Moreh. Nebuch. i. 63), *116 who exists
of His essence; the knowledge of which is by internal necessity.” .10. Rashbam,
unattainable; and when Moses asked: *T am for ever, and therefore am able
‘If the children of Israel should inquire to realise my promises.” 11. Abarbanel,
after Thy name, what shall 1 say ?* God “Tam the prime cause of existence, not
answered him: * Why should they search created like all the other objects of the
after something which they will eternally universe, therefore not depending on any
be unable to comprehend ? (just as the body or any thing for my existence.”
angel said to Manoah: ‘ Why askest thou And similarly Albo (Ikkarim ii. 27), “ My.
 EXODUS III. 4]

for ever, and this 7s my memorial for all generations.

16. Go, and assemble the elders of Israel, and say to
them, The Lord God of your fathers appeared to me,
the God of Abraham, of Isaac, and of Jacob, saying, I
existence depends only on myself; my 16. Go and assemble the elders of
will and intention are therefore certain Israel. It is not impossible from these
to be executed;....no other being can say words, that the Israelites had in Egypt,
*[ am because J am’; but ‘I am because on the whole, a patriarchical organization
something else is,’ viz., the prime cause, in tribes, each of which stood under its
on which the existence of all other beings chief; the tribes were again divided into’
depends.” And so Boothroyd, “I am families, each of which was presided over
because I am, that is, self-sufficient.” by a Sheikh, or Saken, who was its repre-
Vater also finds in these words, “an sentative in all public matters (See Exod.
obscure allusion to the independence of vi. 14, 25; xii.21). The families stood
God.” This explanation, although ac- under the authority of the heads of their
ceptable in itself, has no necessary connec- respective tribes, The Saken, originally
tion with the etymology given in our texts. the oldest member of the family, is
12. Mendelssohn, ‘‘I am, was, and shall generally more an honorary designation
be the king and ruler of the universe.”— (not “nomen aetatis,” but ‘“ nomen
Rosenmiiller, Gesenius, Ewald and Heng- muneris”’), like wzpeoBurepoc in Greek,
stenberg, adopt the translation: “I am and senator or patres in Latin, and like
that I am,” implying the eternity and these probably elective, not hereditary
immutability of God.—God can only be dignities (see note ony.6). These elders
named and described through himself, might frequently, in cases of dispute,
however laboriously human language have performed the functions of judges,
might strive to find an appropriate name although they had no material power to
for the Deity. The reader will find give force to their decisions (see note
highly interesting illustrations of our on 11.13); moreover, these judicial func-
verse in Maimonides Moreh Nebuch. i. tions were not their ordinary vocation,
62, 63, which deserve attentive study. but were only exercised besides their
15. The abstract designation of God usual occupations and pursuits. How-
is here more practically and intell'gibly ever, that organization on the one hand,
described by the historical addition, “God and the difference of religion and
of their ancestors,” who existed already language, on the other hand, produced
in the remote ages before Abraham, and an insurmountable barrier between the
who will unchangeably exist till the last Egyptians and the Hebrews; and the
generations. Mendelssohn observes, that latter formed, in the heart of Egypt, a
although there is essentially no difference separate state, the more ominous for the
between J am in the preceding verse, and former, as the lapse of time seemed only
Jehovah: the one is pronounced as it is to increase the inward antipathies, and to
written; but the other is not to be spoken revive in the latter, with greater force,
with its own vowels; because J am is the the old reminiscences and traditions
name by which God calls Himself, and handed down from their ancestors, and
He knows His own nature and attributes; the hopes of a miraculous realization of
but Jehovah is the name by which men the promises vouchsafed to them.—About
call God, and they cannot comprehend the Shoterim, see note on vy. 6.—Rashi
His essence and nature. — This is my explains the elders of Israel by “ chosen
name, ete. The knowledge of God will and appointed as a council, for how was it
never cease or disappear from the genera- possible to assemble the elders of 600,000
tions of man. men?” and similarly Ebn Ezra, coun-

- = 00
| 00 ‫ו‬ \
 ‫שג‬ ‫לוו ו‬ ‫שוג‬ he 7 8 ‫‏‬J

a EXODUS III.
have surely 'looked upon you and upon that which is
done to you in Egypt. 17. And I have said, I will bring
* you up out of the affliction of Egypt into the land of the
ae‫‏‬
‫ל‬
Canaanites, and the Hittites, and the Amorites, and the
Perizzites, and the Hivites, and the Jebusites, into a
land flowing with milk and honey. 18. And they shall
hearken to thy voice: and thou shalt come, thou and the
elders of Israel, to the king of Egypt, and you shall say to
him, The Lord God of the Hebrews hath met us, and now
4
7
‫ע‬
2‫ל‬6-‫כ‬4

1 Engl. Vers.— Visited you and seen.

-ee
cillors, and Septuag., “the senate of the
cal
₪
and offer sacrifices in the descrt; further,
children of Israel.” But we have no this explanation offers grammatical dif-
account of any such council representing ficulties; and in the mouth of the He-
the whole people having existed in Egypt; brews, the phrase, * The Lord God of the
and we must, therefore, assume that the Hebrews is called upon us,” would be a
=
ee
chiefs of the principal families were superfluous tautology, whereas according
assembled. The appearance of so many to our acceptation, the request of the
venerable men together with Moses was Israelites, to worship God at that parti-
Seas
ee
1a‎r‫י‬a‫בב‬P calculated to enhance, in the eyes of the cular period is perfectly accounted for;
‫קרי‬
=
o‫ל‬o king, the authority of the messenger, who for they fear His chastisement and His
thus certainly appeared as a represent- wrath, if they do not execute that com-
ative of the people, although Pharaoh mand (yv.3). The objection of Rosen-
might deny him to be the delegate of miller, that the elders could not say,
the God, of Israel. However, we do not “The Lord appeared to us,” is of little
read in the course of the narrative, that weight; for God appeared to the whole
the elders really accompanied Moses to people through Moses and Aaron.— It
the king (see .‫ד‬‎ 1., et seg.); “ perhaps fear might be urged with surprise, that God
deterred them to appear before Pharaoh sent Moses to Pharaoh under the pre-
with such a bold request” (Abarbanel).— tence, that the children of Israel wished
L have surely looked upon you. The He- to sacrifice in the desert, whereas the
brew word here applied signifies “ remem- real object of the journey was to leave eT
—

bering with compassion or favour” (as Egypt for ever. Jewish commentators
in Gen, xxi. 1; 1, 24. Exod. iy. 31. Job reply: God knew that Pharaoh would
vii. 18), wherefore Onkelos translates: not grant to the Israelites even that just
“T have certainly remembered you.” It and moderate request (ver. 19); and that
expresses frequently the Providence of by refusing this, his obstinacy and pride
God, and His interposition in the works would become so manifest to all, that every
and destinies of man, body must acknowledge the judgments
19. See ver. 8. and punishments inflicted upon Pharaoh
.8‫ ב‬The Lord God of the Hebrews hath‫‏‬ as just and fully merited. The king
met us. Some commentators, as Rosen-‫‏‬ himself lost thus every justification and
miller and others, interpret these words:‫‏‬ pretext for his refusal, as the Hebre
“The Lord God of the Hebrews is called‫‏‬ ws
were not legally his slaves, and as
upon us, i.e., we bear His name ; we are‫‏‬ he
knew that they could, according to
1118 people.” But this fact, which was‫‏‬ their
religious convictions, not sacrifice to their
long known to the Egyptians, could not‫‏‬ God in Egypt (see 40670. on Exod.
be alleged by Moses and the elders as a‫‏‬ p. 115.,124.). Similarly observes Pate |
reason why they wished just now to go‫‏‬ terson in Brown’s Bible on y.3: Moses
 EXODUS II. | 43
let us go, we pray thee, a three days’ journey into the
wilderness, that we may sacrifice to the Lord’our God.
19. And I know that the king of Egypt will not let you
go, ‘even not by a mighty hand. 20. Therefore I will
stretch out my hand and smite Egypt with all my wonders,
which 1 will do in the midst thereof; and after that he will
let you go. 21. And I shall give this people favour in
the eyes of the Egyptians; and it will come to pass, 1186
when you go, you will not go empty: 22. But every
1 Engl. Vers.—“ Even” omitted.

makes an experiment on the feelings of who suffered so many plagues through

the Egyptian monarch, not explaining in Moses, might not have been very amicably |
the first instance, the full amount of his disposed towards the Israelites [see, how-
demand, that from the mode of its recep- ever, On i. 11]; but so great was their
tion, in its most mitigated form, he might fear of a universal destruction, that they
judge of what he was to expect when he granted them whatever they wished, lest
should state it in its full extent.” And their departure be retarded and new mi-
Ebn Ezra observes deferentially with series ensue” (Clericus). Compare with
regard to this subject (on x.10): “We the promise contained in our verse, Gen.
must not sceptically enquire into the xv. 14.
works of God; for He has ordained all 22. But every woman shall ask of her
things with wisdom, although it is often neighbour, etc. Very frequently this
concealed even before the eye of the conduct on the part of the Israelites has
wise.” been severely castigated, and was used
19. Even not by a mighty hand. Targ. for the most vehement attacks against the
Onkelos renders either, “ he will not allow Israelites as committing, and their God,
you to go, because his might is great,” as sanctioning, theft, falsehood, and every
or more probably, “even not on account abject crime (see Jrenaeus, b. iv. c. 49;
of Him whose might is great.” But August. contra Faustum, b. ii. 6. 71, etc.).
more appropriate than either interpreta- As a specimen of the virulence with
tion is that of Abarbanel, who explains: which these hostilities have been directed
“God said, Pharaoh will not let you go, against the Sacred Volume, we quote the
even not if you encounter and oppose following passage from the Wolfenbiittel
him with all your power. ‘Therefore, Fragmentist (Berlin, 1786, p. 53, edited
will I stretch out my hand and force him by Lessing): “If we consider the action
to obedience by my wonders,” which in- in itself, we cannot but admit, that the
terpretation is perfectly adapted to our whole is falsehood, deception and theft.
context; for although Pharaoh, in a mo- But how, if hereunto simply the words are
ment of terror, after the tenth and most added: ‘the Lord hath said, or com-
fearful plague, permitted the Israelites to manded;’ will thereby base deceit and
leave Egypt, he soon repented and re- nefarious fraud assume the character of
tracted his consent. Others translate: he sacred revelation? will, thereby, the most
will not let you go, unless with a mighty impious wickedness be converted into a
hand; but the Hebrew text does not pious action? ‘Thus, it would be easy
admit of this interpretation. indeed to stamp falsehood as inspiration,
21. AndI will give this people favour in and rancour as virtue and piety; thus we
the eyes of the Egyptians (see Gen. xxxix. loose every test and standard of laudable
21). “For in general, the Egyptians, and criminal deeds; thus religion and
 At EXODUS III.
woman shall ‘ask of her neighbour, and of her that
sojourneth in her house, articles of silver, and articles of
‫‏‬t‫ו‬t
‫ו‬
‫הו‬4

> Engl. Vers.—Borrow.

piety differ from the most glaring villany See, however, against this explana-
but by a few empty words: ‘God hath tion, the arguments of Hengstenberg,
said it.’” However, a moderate degree (Authenticity of the Pentateuch, ii.
of calm impartiality, and of Hebrew p. 512). The manner in which I. D.
learning, would have prevented the out- Michaelis defends the command of God
burst of this and similar effusions; and (that the Israelites borrowed originally
the vehemence of the accusation turns goods from the Egyptians, and that
itself against the accusers themselves. they kept them as their property only
at
0
The Hebrew verb shaal does not mean to when the Egyptians persecuted them,
a
0 borrow (as the Anglican Version also and thus broke their faith) is more spe-
-= renders), but to ask or demand as a pre- cious than real, and has been ably com-
sent. (So, among others, the Septuagint, mented upon by Hengstenberg (loc. cit.
eat
ae
ie
tage
ie
6
Vulgate, Luther, Mendelssohn, Rosen- pp- 517, 518). Similar is the opinion of
miller, Arnheim, Hengstenberg, Lilien- Lengerke, who, moreover, strangely
=
‘
4
thal, Harenberg, Winer, Tholuck, etc.). brings the circumstances of our 6
=
|47‫כ‬‎
AE
ES The same verb is more than once used into connection with a certain pagan
in this sense; for instance, in Psalm ii. 8: custom of the Syrians, practised on their
“ Ask of me, and I will give nations as thy “ torch-festival,” when golden and silver
inheritance”, Compare 1 Sam. viii. 10, ete. vessels were fixed on trees and burnt
Thus, no fraud was practised against the together with them. Still less to be ap-
Egyptians, who knew that they would not proved of is the argument of Cahen, who
receive back the vessels which they gave observes: “It is easily explicable, that
to the departing Israelites, and who gave slaves, about to break their chains, did
them willingly, because God inclined their not scruple to deceive their old op-
hearts to the Israelites (ver. 21). Com- pressors; such an action is excusable; it
pare xi. 3, xii. 36. In this sense writes is even, as far as our knowledge of the
Josephus (Antiq. 11. xiv, 6): * The Egyp- manners of the ancient Asiatic nations
tians honoured the Hebrews with pre- goes, in perfect accordance with their
sents; some, in order to make them depart notions. In order to judge with impar-
quickly, and others from affection and tiality of the morals of a people, we must
friendship which they felt for them as be acquainted with its own notions on
their neighbours” (Compare Psalm what is just or unjust, but not criticise
CXXXV. 37: “Egypt rejoiced at their antiquity after the conceptions of our time.”
departure, for their fear had fallen upon This argument might be tolerable, if the
them.”) Ebn Ezra endeavours to remove * 66015 " did not originate in a command
the reproach by the following remark: of God, who is the source of justice and
“Some inveigh against us, and say our righteousness, and the unchangeable |
ancestors were thieves; but these do not standard of right in all times and all
see that it was commanded them by God, e
‫ו‬
4
a
‫ו‬‎

and we have, therefore, no right to en-

zones; if not in Him, who has commanded |
quire into the reason, or to question the
“Thou shalt not steal,” and who cannot i
infringe His own laws, which are the
justice of that command; for God has necessary emanation of His divine attri-
created everything, gives wealth to whom butes. ZL, J. C. Justi, in a treatise
He pleases, and takes it again from him de-
voted to this subject, proves that
and gives it to his neighbour, for the the
Israelites had a right to a considerable
whole universe belongs to Him.” Simi- compensation for the houses, fields, and
larly Augustin, Calvin, and others. other property which they were obliged
 EXODUS III. / 45

gold, and raiment: and you shall put them upon your
sons, and upon your daughters; and you shall plunder
the Egyptians.

to leave behind in quitting Egypt. A relations cannot be divested of their sub-

similar opinion was already advanced by jective points of view without being
Abarbanel (fol. 11, 5). ‘That the Is- dissolved into nothing.” The Hebrews
raelites possessed much landed property in asked silver and gold vessels from the
Egypt is more than probable,” see Len- Egyptians, before their departure, of
gerke, Kenaan, p. 371. It has further which the latter were aware, and which
been urged, that the Israelites had served Pharaoh had permitted. God turned the
the Egyptians most assiduously during hearts of the Egyptians in their favour;
several hundred years without receiving they received the presents which they
the least remuneration; for these services wished, and emigrated with their lawful
they could justly claim a compensation; property. And of her that sojourneth in
and as they could not hope to obtain it her house. ‘‘ The Egyptians might have
from their oppressors with their goodwill, rented the houses which belonged to the
they had a right to secure it by stra- Israelites, and the former were thus the
tagem. However, not the people, but the inhabitants of the houses of the latter”
kings of Egypt had oppressed the Israel- (Rosenmiiller).— Articles of gold and ar-
ites; the former seem even to have ticles of silver. About the very extensive
sympathized with their miseries; they use made by the Egyptians of vessels and
could, therefore, justly demand indemni- ornaments of precious metals; see Rossel-
fication only from the royal exchequer, lint, Monum, 11. il. p.345; Wilkinson,
not from the Egyptian subjects. The Manners, 111. 223 (comp. Gen. xxiv. 53).
Talmud actually relates a law-suit of Ebn Ezra finds it remarkable, that, ac-
the Egyptians and the Israelites, before cording to our verse, the women only are
Alexander the Great, who, after having to ask for those presents, whilst, in xi, 2,
heard the accusation of the former, and men as well as women are mentioned;
the defence of the latter, decided in and he answers, that the hearts of the
favour of the Hebrews, and even believed women are more fondly attached to
that the “ golden vessels” were not a suffi- ornaments, as chains ‫את‬‎
cient remuneration for the great works Abarbanel remarks, women, if residing
executed by them during the protracted in the same or a neighbouring house,
period of their servitude. But we have generally a more intimate inter-
repeat, that all these devices are unne- course with each other than men, and
cessary if we interpret the verb shaal as they asked, therefore, more universally
asking or demanding. Winer (ii. p. 113) for presents than the men.—And you shall
observes: “The Hebrew text (iii. 21) plunder the Egyptians. The translation of
shows, clearly enough, that this com- Frisch and others, “ And you will deliver
mand is an act of divine retaliation, a just the Egyptians, viz., from further plagues
spoliation of the oppressors. With this which would befall them by your longer
view we must rest satisfied, as the Biblical sojourn in the land” is improbable.

SUPPLEMENTARY NOTE.
CHAP. III. VER. 1.
THE PENINSULA OF MOUNT SINAL
Tue southern part of Arabia Petrea, which is bordered on the east by the AZlanites
Sinus, or the Bay of Akabah, and on the west by the Heroopolites Sinus, or Bay of
Suez (Red Sea, ‫ףוס‬‎ 0°), forms an almost acutely-pointed peninsula, which, if a
 46 SUPPLEMENTARY NOTE.

straight line be drawn from the northernmost point of the one bay to that of the other
(from Akabah to Suez), is about 70 geographical miles long, and 30 broad,
and is now inhabited by not more than 4,000 souls, who support themselves
but scantily and with difficulty in that generally sterile and deserted region, and who
in years of dearth do not even find sufficient pasture for their flocks. ‘The northern
boundary is a long chain of mountains extending almost uninterruptedly from west
to east, called El-Tyh (Arab. wandering); at the northern declivity of which, towards
Palestine, begins the desert of the same name, the complete name of which is, desert
of the “ wanderings of the children of Israel.” These mountains, the northernmost of
which has the distinct but synonymous name El-Dhelel (Arab. straying), are almost
of equal height, and extend regularly eastward. The valleys of these mountains
abound with excellent pastures, and have fine, though not numerous, fountains, They
are at present inhabited by the tribes Terabeyn and Tyaha, the latter of which espe-
cially is comparatively rich in camels, flocks, and other property. At the eastern
side of the peninsula, along the coast of the Bay of Akabah, numerous irregular
chains of mountains, of inconsiderable height, cross each other in such confusion,
that this whole tract offers the appearance of a continuous wilderness of barren rocks,
The western part of the peninsula is stamped with a similar character, except that it
includes several larger valleys, But in the south-west there is the mount Om Schomer,
the sides of which are intersected in all directions by a variety of mountain torrents;
the surface of the bare and pointed rocks is parched by the sun; all vegetation is
withered, and presents everywhere the most awful desolation and the most dreary
sterility. This is “the land in which nothing is sown, the land of deserts and of pits,
the land of drought, and of the shadow of death; the land that no man passed through,
‫ה‬-‫א‬
A~~=>
and where no man dwelt,” to which the prophet Jeremiah alludes Gi. 2,6. Compare
Deut. i. 19, viii. 15; Num. xx. 5). “If 1 had to represent the end of the world,” says
Sir F. Henniker, “I would model it from Mount Sinai. It would seem as if Arabia
Petrea had been an ocean of lava, and that, while its waves were running literally
mountains high, it was commanded suddenly to stand still.” And similarly writes
Pringle: “ The peculiar style of sublime and Savage grandeur in this region, is cer-
tainly unequalled by anything I ever saw, and must, I imagine, be quite unique. It is
like a sea of boiling lava, suddenly congealed, and rising in a confused chaos of
abrupt and lofty pinnacles.” About Mount Serbal, which lies north-west of Om
Schomer, more on the northern part of the eastern coast of the Gulf of Suez, and which
was once regarded by the pilgrims as the Sinai or Horeb of Scripture, see our note on
xix. 1, 2.—The soil of this peninsula consists mostly of arid gravel (silicious earth),
and produces nothing but acacias, tamarisks, and some few dwarfish shrubs. The
tamarisk, one of the most common trees of that desert, yields the Manna, which in the
month of June distils from the pores of the tree on the branches, leaves, and thorns
which constantly cover the ground beneath the tree. (See note to xvi.4). But in
such parts of the peninsula as do not suffer from want of water, the soil is capable
of cultivation, and can be made productive of various kinds of plants and vegetables;
thus the plantations of Wadi Feiran, in the west, form an uninterrupted series of
gardens and 0866 groves, to an extent of four English miles. But the peninsula 4.4‫‏‬4
‫י‬
S
‫ר‬
‫ש‬%O
‫ו‬
"
4‫ש‬
‫)‏‬S
y‫ל‬
‫י‬
-
t
is
not exempted from the ravages of the Samum, or glowing wind, which
not seldom
causes the most fearful devastations. The chief game there is the wild goat, called
Beden, and the gazelle. On the eastern side there are serpents, with which the
western regions also are partially infested. (See Num. xxi. 4,6; Deut. viii, 15.)
.
The chain of mountains which runs southwards from the El-Tyh, reaches its greatest
elevation almost in the middle of the peninsula (28° 50’ N. lat.), in a mountain, which
is generally (in Exodus, Leviticus and Numbers) called Sinai, and sometimes (in
Deuteronomy and Malachi) Hored, but which is unconnected with the El-Tyh, and
separated from it by white, sandy plains, and various hills called Zebeir. That double
 CHAP, ‎‫זז‬. VER. 1. , 47

name is obviously manifest from the nature of the mountain. For, rising from a
common base, the rocky mass separates, at a considerable height, into two unequal
peaks, the lower one, towards the north, is called Horeb, the higher one, towards the
south, Sinai, which is designated by the Arabian tribes, Dshebel Musa, that is,
Mount of Moses. It is, besides, probable, that Horeb was the name for that whole
mountainous region generally, whilst the highest peak in that group was called
Sinai. There, where both summits part, is a plain, on which stands the convent of
Elijah, who, as Scripture tells us (1 Kings xix. 8), fled to Horeb from the wrath of
Jezebel. According to a tradition of the Mohammedans, God revealed himself to
Moses in this part of the mountain, which they call Horeb (see, however, note to
xxiv. 1). In the west of either mount, and at almost equal distance from either, is
the highest point of the chain, which is at present called Mount St. Catherine, from
‘some legend about the body of St. Catherine being transported by angels to its
summit. This whole tract, which consists of enormous granitic rocks, and is inter-
sected and surrounded by steep valleys, is situated on the south-eastern side of the
plain 7277007. The mount Horeb is bordered by two parallel narrow valleys,
namely: 1. Shuad, in the east (in which stands “the convent of Mount Sinai,” founded
by the emperor Justinian, 527 a.c., dedicated to the transfiguration of Christ,
28% German miles south-east of Suez); and, 2. E/-Ledsha in the west (in which is
the convent El-Erbain, 7. e. of the forty martyrs). The Horeb rises to a height of
1200 to 1500 feet above the plain of Errahah, whilst the elevation of Mount Sinai
above the sea amounts, according to Rueppell, to 7,035 Parisian feet. ‘The Catherine-
mountain, which lies beyond the valley El-Ledsha, and is, according to the last-
mentioned authority, 8,063 feet high, allows alone a free and extensive view over
almost all parts of the peninsula, whilst, from the Dshebel Musa, the prospect is, in all
directions, limited and obstructed. The top of the latter is a little plain of about
80 feet in diameter, on which, now, a small church stands, the chief attraction of the
pious pilgrims. Although built of solid granite, it is now almost entirely dilapidated,
owing to the incessant attempts of the Arabians to destroy it. About 30 feet from
this chapel, on a somewhat lower plain, stands a poor little mosque, which is also held
in high honour by the Moslems. It is much frequented by the Bedouins, who sacrifice
here sheep in honour of Moses, offering vows to him, and imploring him to intercede
--with God in their favour, They celebrate a regular festival every year, for which
they assemble in large numbers, and offer abundant sacrifices. ‘The Arabians believe
that the tablets of the Law are hidden under the floor of this church, and have, there-
fore, in the hope of finding them, instituted excavations in every direction, Burck-
hardt, one of the most accurate and conscientious of modern travellers, thus de-
scribes this region (ii. 971): “The upper nucleus of Sinai, composed almost entirely
of granite, forms a rocky wilderness of an irregular circular shape, intersected by
many narrow valleys, and from thirty to forty miles in diameter. It contains the
highest mountains of the peninsula, whose shaggy and pointed peaks, and steep and
shattered sides, render it clearly distinguishable from all the rest of the country in
view. It is upon this highest region of the peninsula that the fertile valleys are
found which produce fruit-trees; they are principally to the west and south-west of
the conyent, at three or four hours’ distance, Water, too, is always found in plenty
in this district, on which account it is the place of refuge of all the Bedouins when the
low country is parched up;” but the mountain itself is usually dry, “ because no rain
falls upon it, and it is, therefore, called the mountain of dryness” ‫)ברה‬‎ ‫ רה‬Ebn Ezra),
The whole group of mountains, except the highest points of Mount Catherine, is dis-
tinguished by a luxurious fertility: at the sides of the mountains are the most superior
pasture-grounds, and in the valleys grow olive—and other fruit-trees—reason enough,
why Moses, in our text, led his flock just to this region so far southwards.—These
remarkable and deeply-interesting localities, connected as they are with the most
48 EXODUS IV.
sacred associations, have but recently been more carefully investigated by modern
travellers and geographers, of whom the more important authors are: Bisching
(Geography of Asia, p. 600, et seg.); Niebuhr (Travels, i. p. 247, et seg.); Volney
(Travels, ii. p.250); Burckhardt (Travels, ii. p. 872, et seq.); Riippell (Abyssinia,
‎‫ג‬. p.117, et seg.); Robinson (Travels, 1. p. 144, et seg.); Wellsted (Travels, ii. p. 69,
et sey.); St. Olin (Journal of the German Oriental Society, ii. p. 315, et seqg.);
Russegger (‘Travels, 111. p. 200, who has especially directed his attention to the geolo-
gical character of these regions).

CHAPTER IV.
Summary.—Moses, who fears the disbelief of the Israelites, receives from God, as a
verification of his mission, three signs, which he should perform before them, and
after which they would confide in him: 1. the transmutation of his staff into a
serpent, and of the serpent again into the staff; 2. the leprosy and cure of his
hand; and, 3. the change of water from the Nile into blood. But Moses, after
having, from modesty and diffidence, to the divine dissatisfaction, repeatedly
declined the high and honourable charge, is promised the assistance of his brother
Aaron as his interpreter, whilst he himself, inspired by God, would dictate to him
the thoughts to be impressed upon Pharaoh and the Israelites. He then asks and
obtains from his father-in-law, Jethro, leave to return to Egypt with his wife Zip-
porah and his two children, one of whom, Eliezer, had been recently born; and
after having received renewed assurances of the success of his mission, he under-
takes the journey, in the course of which he is threatened with imminent danger
of death, which is, however, averted by Eliezer’s immediate circumcision, hitherto
blameably neglected. After this accident, Zipporah, as well as her two children,
returned probably to Jethro. Aaron proceeds, on the command of God, from
Egypt to meet his brother, and he joined him at the Mount Horeb; both return
to Egypt; they summon the elders and the people of Israel, perform the three
wonders before them, and find perfect belief. The people adore and thank God
for the mercy now bestowed on them, and for the redemption so reliably guaranteed
to them.

ND Moses answered and said, But, behold, they

will not believe me, nor hearken to my voice:
for they will say, The Lord hath not appeared to thee.
.‫ ב‬But, behold, they will not believe‫‏‬ Moses was not an alleviation, but an
me. Saadiah renders freely, “ perhaps‫‏‬ aggravation of their labours. — Moses
they will not believe me”; all the others‫‏‬ received for himself but one sign, to be
translate, behold.— This objection of Moses, realised in a future time (iii. 12); the
which he pronounces with such peremp- people, more obdurate and disbelieving
toriness, has its source not only in his than Moses, requires two or three obvious
modesty and want of self-assurance signs for its encouragement and interest. ‎+
‫ר‬eE
‫ב‬
3
s
₪‫ל‬
+>

(iii. 11), but in his thorough knowledge Numerous were the idolatrous customs into
of the character and condition of his which the Israelites had fallen in Egypt, =

Hebrew brethren, who, degraded and and so deep root had these abominations
hardened by oppressive labours, and taken in the mass of the people, that ..ogy
>

mostly alienated from the belief of their even so late a prophet as Ezekiel felt the
ancestors, were not likely to listen to his necessity of adverting to them with indig-
promises, and the cheerful hopes pro- nation. See Ezek. xx.7,8; xxiii.3. Comp.
claimed to them; the less so, as the Josh. xxiv. 14, Vor hearken
to my voice. In
immediate effect of the measures of iii, 18, God assures Moses that the
 EXODUS IV. 49

_ 2. And-the Lord said to him, What zs that in thy

| hand?
7 And he said, A 'staff. 3. And He said, Cast it
- ‫סמ‬‎ the ground. And he cast it on the ground, and it
became a serpent, and Moses fled from before it. 4. And
the Lord said to Moses, Put forth thy hand, and seize
it by its tail. And he put forth his hand, and caught it,
and it became a staff in his hand. 5. That they may
believe that the Lord God of their fathers, the God of
Abraham, the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob, hath
1 Engl. Vers.—Rod.

Israelites will listen to his voice, and cherry wood; but they were usually of
that the elders will accompany him to acacia. Hard wood was preferred, as
haraoh, to ask his permission for their frequently the name of the owner was
eparture. But as God added, that written on them (comp. Num. xvii. 2).
Pharaoh would not grant their request, Moreover, every Egyptian sage carried
Moses apprehended that the Israelites his staff (see vii. 12. Comp. Wilkinson,
might doubt his mission and reproach Manners 111. p. 386, 387). In the convent
him: “The Lord God of our ancestors of Mount Sinai (see supra p. 47), even
has not appeared to thee,” and therefore now the monks sell wood of a shrub
he justly desired to be furnished with (Coluthea Haleppica), which is suitable
some convincing proofs of his divine for such sticks, and is, not improbably,
charge which God readily granted believed to be the wood of which the
him. Abarbanel reconciles our 5 miraculous staff of Moses was made. We
with iii. 18, by the supposition, that the may add, that according to Jewish tradi-
Israelites perhaps believed in the ex- tion, the staff of Moses was, together
istence of an eternal and immutable with nine other objects, made by God
being, whilst they might question the towards the close of the sixth day of the
mission of Moses. creation (see Ethics of the Fathers, v. 9).
2. A staff (not rod, as the Engl. version “From the story of Moses’ rod, the
has; similarly Sept. 06/3006, Vulg. Virga), heathens 1876 invented the fables of the
> upon which Moses as a man of advanced thyrsus of Bacchus, and the caduceus of
age leaned, and which he therefore con- Mercury” (!) observes Clarke. Here
stantly carried with him. It was not a again is the Hebrew word alone sufficient
shepherd’s staff, because it is improbable to overthrow the artificial Mosaic-pagan
that Moses appeared before Pharaoh as a conjecture, for neither the thyrsus nor
herdsman, a class so detested in Egypt. the caduceus were used to lean upon.
> The question of God: “what is that in thy See note on ii. 5. There are still too
hand?” is merely an introduction to the many authors and critics who consider
description of the miracle, which the paganism as nothing but a degenerated
following verse contains, as Rashi justly Mosaism.
observes. According to the existing 4. The ancient Egyptians were familiar
monuments, Egyptian gentlemen used with an art of taming serpents, which
generally, when walking from home, has been preserved to our time. Those
sticks from three to six feet long, either who are practised in it keep off every
surmounted with a knob, imitating a attack of the serpents, which, on their
flower, or with the more usual peg pro- command, even stretch themselves out
jecting from one side. One of those, stiff and hard like a stick, In granting
which haye been found at Thebes, is of this extraordinary gift to Moses, God
E
 50 EXODUS IV.
+;
\ appeared to thee. 6. And the Lord said furthermore to
9
/ him, Put now thy hand into thy bosom. And he put his
i
,
4
hand into his bosom: and when he took it out, behold, his
hand was leprous as snow. 7. And He said, Put thy
i
hand into thy bosom again. And he put. his hand into
-
i
-2

his bosom again; and 'took it out from his bosom; and
behold, it was turned again as his other flesh. 8. And it
will come to pass, if they will not believe thee, nor
‎‫ ו‬Engl. Vers.—Plucked.

intended to manifest, that he was there- forehead, nose, etc., tuberated, thickened,
by, by divine assistance, raised above dry like leather, but smooth; sometimes
ee‫‏‬
‫א‬ all common magic feats. See note to it bursts, and ulcers become visible. The
vii. 12. nails of the hands and feet fall off, the
6. Behold, his hand was leprous as eyelids bend backwards, the hair covers
snow, elliptically instead of, “ his hand itself with a fetid rind, or goes off
became white with leprosy, like the white- entirely (Lev. xiii. 42). All external
ness of snow.” Leprosy, that fearful senses are weakened; the eyes lose their
‫הפי‬
epidemic, which rages with uncommon brightness, become very sensitive, and
violence in Egypt (Déscr. de l’ Egypte, are constantly blearing; from the nostrils
xiii. 159, et seg.), and in the south of runs a fluid phlegm, In some cases the
Asia, manifests itself in four differ- disease heals from itself, the leprous
ent species, (Celsus, de Re Medic. v. 28). matter breaking forth suddenly and
Our text alludes to the white leprosy, violently, and covering the patient from
(Barras, \ebK«n), which having once been top to toe with white ulcerations (Lev.
most prevalent among the Hebrews, is xiii, 12, et seq.).
called in medical phraseology lepra Mo- a. And, behold, it was turned again as
saica; and in this circumstance origi- his other flesh. This miracle was the
nated the fable of several ancient and more surprising as the white leprosy, when
even modern historians, that the Israelites fully developed, is scarcely in any case
were expelled from Egypt on account of perfectly curable. (“Leuce—Aedxy—quem
their being infested with that disease (see occupavit non facile dimittit; vix un-
Introduction, § 3). We subjoin a brief quam. sanescit ac si quid ei vitio demp-
description of this foul disorder, to which tum est, tamen non ex toto sanus color
we shall have more than once occasion to redditur.” Celsus, loc. cit.).
refer in the course of our work. It ₪. If they will not believe thee. Al-
begins with mealy crusts and scurfy though God knows before, whether they
scabs, originally not larger than a pin’s will believe or not, the text intimates,
point, a little depressed in the skin that if ₪ part of the Israelites should not
(Ley. xiii. 3, 30), and covered with white be convinced by the first miracle, the
a
e
‫ל‬2Ye
hairs (Ley. xiii. 3,20). Those spots rapid- whole people would believe in Moses after
ly spread (Lev. xiii. 8), and produce wild the second sign. And similarly explains —
%
flesh (xiii. 10,14). The leprous symp- Ebn Ezra, the first words of the fol- oe
a

toms appear most frequently on the hairy lowing verse.—Veither hearken to the
|
parts of the body (xiii. 29, 64 seg.); and voice of the first sign, i.e., to the voice
also on members which have once been or speech confirmed by the first sign
3 ulcerously affected (xiii. 18, et .(.‫אָס‬‎ or miracle (see Proverbs xviii. 21: “life
When the leprosy has gained ground, the and death are in the hand—power—of
whole skin appears glossy white at the the tongue).” Compare Psalm cy. 27,

_s
e
-a+‫א‬
-‫ו‬ 4
 “EXODUS IV.
‫ו‬ 0 Li

n to the voice of the first sign, that they will

ye
evs the voice of the latter sign. 9. And it will come |
- if they will also not believe these two signs, nor
:arken to thy voice, that thou shalt take of the water
the river [Nile], ond pour zt upon the dry land, and the
water which thou takest out of the river ‫ו‬‎ become
blood upon the dry land. 10. And Moses said to the
Lord, *I beseech Thee, my Lord, I am not a man of
| 2 Engl. Vers.—O my Lord.

“where Moses and Aaron are said to torments.” The admirers of ingenious:
hlave performed before the Egyptians allegorical interpretation will find in
“the words of God’s signs.” Salomon Abarbanel different and very interesting
pnd Arnheim undeystand erroneously: symbolical expositions of the three signs,
heto the fame or report of the first which he applies to Pharaoh (serpent),
sign.” The latter * sign has here not super- the children of Israel (who contaminate
ve meaning, but is more like the themselves as soon as they leave their
second part of an antithesis, “the other own country), and the Egyptians (wor-
or the latter,” as in Gen. xxxiii. 2; Deut. shippers of the Nile); and happily he
xxiv.3. adapts them to the words of the text (iv.
9. Thou shalt take of the water of the 11, 16).
river, etc. Ebn Ezra observes: “ This 160. I am not a man of words, which
isa part of the first of the ten plagues does not only signify “I am not an
which were to be inflicted upon the eloquent man” (as Mendelssohn and the
Egy ptians.” However, it was merely a English Version translate), but, also,
sign to convince them of the omnipotence “one to whom the enunciation of the
offtheGod of Israel, and of his superiority words is difficult, owing to defects in the
0 yer their deities; and Rashi remarks — organs of speech,” synonymous with the
yperly: “ This sign was a hint, that the phrase: “of uncircumcised lips,” compare
Eg ptians would, by the first plague, be vi. 12; however, the former expla-
chastised for their idolatrous veneration nation is more rational, and seems to be —
the fertilizing Nile, which would confirmed by ver. 12. The Septuagint
‫"א‬.₪
‫ב‬ converted into blood.”‫‏‬ translates, indistinctly: “Iam not capable
Jos ephus (Antiq. 1. xii. 3) materially or fit.’ Clarke, contrary to the Hebrew
modifies this sign by an apparently slight text: “not intimately acquainted with the
iteration, for he relates: Moses saw the Hebrew tongue.” According to tradition,
surface of the water assume. the appear- Moses was unable to pronounce with
nee of blood )600 rijy xpday aiprarwdn facility the labials.—It cannot be denied,
vevonévyny), whilst our text asserts that that the words of our text: “Iam not a
the water was converted into blood. The man of words, neither since yesterday, nor
same author, however, follows the sacred the day before yesterday, nor since Thou
xt more faithfully in the delineation of hast spoken to Thy servant,” produce
plague, describing it thus: “ The a strange impression, since they appear
file flowed, at the command of God, in to imply a climax, the last degree of
s of blood, so that the Egyptians which is not without difficulties, for it
| no water to drink, possessing no seems to indicate that God spoke to
er Springs. Nor was the water only Moses longer than two or three days,
of the colour of blood, but those who whilst our context affords us no ground
8 it felt great pains and bitter for such supposition, although rabbinical
E 2
 EXODUS IV.
words, neither heretofore, nor since Thou hast spoken 0
Thy servant; ‘for I am slow of speech, and of a slow
tongue. 11. And the Lord said to him, Who hath made
man’s mouth? or who maketh *dumb, or deaf, or seeing,
1 Engl. Vers.—But. 2 The dumb, etc.

writers believe that God conversed with as a young man I fled from Egypt, and
Moses during seven successive days, to am now an octogenarian.” The passage
persuade him to accept the mission. Evi- in Ezekiel (iii. 5), which Rashbam quotes,
dently in order to remove this difficulty, has no resemblance to our text, and the
Abarbanel thus explains our verse: “I words, “slow of speech, and of a slow
pray Thee, Iam no man of words—and tongue,” cannot possibly be understood
therefore I implored Thee to heal my of an individual language, but refer, in
defect ;—but I am not only slow of speech general, to the power of expression in which
since yesterday, or the day before yester- Moses was deficient.— It might, certainly,
day, but even this very day, on which be asked, with propriety, why Moses, who Fe
0%
‫ו‬‎><
4

Thou hast spoken to me, and displayed was singled out by Providence as the great
before me Thy miracles; and whilst Thou medium for bringing the wisdom of heaven
hast convinced me that Thou art power- down to the earth, for ever substituting di-
ful to heal leprosy, Thou hast manifestly vine truth instead of human error, and who
shown to me that Thou dost not intend was gifted with such uncommon perfec-
to free me from the deficiency of my tion of the mind and intellect, was denied
language, I am still ‘ slow of speech, and the power of eloquence, apparently so
of a slow tongue,’ and, therefore, send indispensable for his extraordinary voca-
another messenger, gifted with eloquence, tion. But it was an act of the sublime
a quality so necessary to persuade a stub- wisdom of the Almighty to withhold from
born king, and to encourage a despond- Moses just the gift of persuasion, lest it
ing nation.” Although we admit, that should appear that he owed the triumph over
this interpretation is, in some degree, the obstinacy of Pharaoh and the disbelief
artificial and complicated, it is not exactly of the Israelites, not to the miracles of
in contradiction to the text, and is God and the intrinsic worth of the Law,
certainly the most plausible explanation but to the artifices and subtleties of ora-
of our verse hitherto proposed.— For I am tory, which too often procure, even to
slow of speech, and of a slow tongue; fallacies and sophisms, an ephemeral
literally, heavy of mouth and heavy of victory. It was wisely designed that the
2%
aaa
tongue, or, as the ancient commentators power of God should the more gloriously
explain: “he had too much flesh on 8 shine through a humble and imperfect
lips and his tongue, which made the instrument. This is a remarkable and
organs of speech heavy; he is, therefore, deeply interesting difference between the
frequently called a man of uncircumcised legislator of Israel and the founders of
lips” (vi. 12). The Septuagint and Vul- almost all other religions, to whom, uni-
gate translate: “I am of a stammering formly, no quality is ascribed in a higher
language and a heavy tongue.” Targum degree than the gift of eloquence.
Onkelos “ I am of heavy speech, and stam- .‫ בד‬Who hath made man’s mouth?‫‏‬
mering tongue.” All these translations which Targum Jonathan renders freely:‫‏‬
have a certain similarity, and are, in fact, “who hath given speech in the mouth of‫‏‬
almost identical; but we cannot find any the first man?” The antithesis to this‫‏‬
foundation for the interpretation of is: or who maketh dumb? A similar con-‫‏‬
others, who (like Rashbam) explain: “I trast has been found in the adjectives‫‏‬
am not well versed in the language of seeing and blind, so that deaf alone‫‏‬
the Egyptians; I have forgotten it, for seems to be without a corresponding ad- =
 EXODUS IV. 53

or blind? 526 not 1, the Lord ? 12. Now therefore go,

and I shall be with thy mouth, and teach thee what thou
shalt say. 13. And he said, I beseech Thee, my Lord,
send, I pray Thee, by the hand of him whom Thou wilt
3 Engl. Vers.—Have.

jective. But our verse has a general unable to pronounce the 1801815. “And
emphatical or poetical character, describ- because this defect of Moses,” says Nach-
ing God as the Creator of man, and the manides, “was the consequence of a
omnipotent Author of all his gifts and miracle, God did not wish to remove /
defects, which latter He is able to cure, it.”
if He thinks it expedient, and mentioning a2. I shall be with thy mouth; which
the three principal and most tender phrase, rather obscure in itself, is, accord-
senses, that of speech, hearing and sight, ing to a frequent Hebrew idiom, more
by which man resembles God most, or distinctly explained by a succeeding
approaches to His perfection. From the phrase connected with the former by the
same point of view the attempt of apply- conjunction and, which has, in such cases,
ing the qualities here enumerated to almost the meaning of namely: “I shall
individual cases or persons, appears to teach thee what thou shalt say.” The
us inadmissible, however interesting such explanation, therefore, of Rambam, Abar-
lusus ingenit might in themselves be. banel, and Mendelssohn, that God pro-
Thus refers Abarbanel the gift of mised to Moses, that he would give into
speech to Aaron, who was the mouth of his mouth such words only, as would
his brother; the dumbness to Moses; the be easy for him to pronounce, is both
deafness to Pharaoh, who did not listen unnecessary and trifling. The Septua-
to the requests of God’s messenger; and gint renders: “I shall open thy mouth,”
the blindness to the Chartumim of Egypt, which is too free and indistinct; the
who did not see the light of truth. An- Vulgate has: * 1 shall be in thy mouth,”
other less happy symbolisation of our (ego ero in ore tuo), which is still more
verse is given by Rashi in a quotation unintelligible.
—< from the Rabbins.—'The Midrash, and 13. Send, I pray Thee, by the hand
“The Chronicles of Moses,” relate a story of him whom Thou wilt send. Simple as
of a miraculous deliverance of Moses these words are, and clear as their meaning
from imminent danger of death in his is: “Send another messenger to Pharaoh
infancy, when he had, by chance, in his and the Israelites, better qualified than
childish play, grasped at the crown on myself,” they have much engaged the
Pharaoh’s head, so that it fell down and ingenuity of interpreters. The nearest to
broke into fragments. The king, con- the words and sense of the text is Targum
sidering this circumstance a fatal omen, Onkelos: “Send by the hand of a man,
ordered the boy to be instantly killed, who is fit or worthy to be sent.” More
when, on the advice of Jethro, in order paraphrastical, and connecting a later
to prove that the child was still without idea with our plain words, is the alle-
discernment, two basins, one filled with gorical rendering of Targum Jonathan:
gold, the other with burning coals, were “Send this message through Phinehas
placed before Moses, who, by the invi- [who is identical with Elijah the prophet|
sible interference of an angel, did not whom Thou wilt send at the end of all
choose the dazzling gold, for which he days.” Less founded still in the words
had already stretched out his hand, but a of our text is the explanation of Rashi:
burning coal, with which he touched his “By the hand of him, whom Thou usest
lips; and thus he became “slow of speech, to send, and this is Aaron,” which inter-
and of a slow tongue,” and especially pretation leans, no doubt, besides a
54 EXODUS IY.

send. 14. And the anger of the Lord glowed against

Moses, and He said, 'Do I not know Aaron the Levite thy
brother, that he can speak well? And also, behold, he
cometh forth to meet thee: and when he seeth thee, he
will be glad in his heart. 15. And thou shalt speak to
1 Engl. Vers.—Is not Aaron the Levite thy brother? I know that he, etc.

certain tradition, on the circumstance, the descendants of Aaron, nor is it used

that God spoke to Aaron already in to distinguish the brother of Moses from
Egypt before the return of Moses (ver. others also bearing the name Aaron; nor
27). And equally in the sphere of a free does it show, that it was originally in-
application lies the other supposition of tended by God to endow Aaron only with | -

Rashi and Ebn Ezra (which is adopted the functions of a Levite, and Moses with ee
ae
₪
and more copiously developed by Abar- those of the High Priest, but that the
banel): “Send to Pharaoh him whom latter forfeited this distinction by his
Thou wilt ultimately send to conquer and blamable reluctance in executing the
possess the land of promise”; for Moses command of God; nor does it intimate
inferred from the words of God (iii, 10), that Aaron had gained great reputation
which do not include any promise to in Egypt under the name of the Levite;
enter Canaan, that he was only destined all which opinions have been advanced
to break the contumacy of Pharaoh, and by different ancient and modern com-
to lead the Israelites from Egypt. ‘“ Be- mentators; but it indicates merely the 30
3
T+
6
3
+Ea

sides, Moses felt that Aaron, who was tribe, to which Aaron belonged in com- ‫מ‬

superior to himself in age and eloquence, mon with Moses, and is simply descrip-
had a higher claim to the honour of this tive, like the preceding word, thy brother.
divine charge, and that the heart of his A similar minute accuracy in designating
brother would be estranged from him a well-known individual is, for instance,
if he accepted the commission” (Edn found in Gen. xxii.1: “Take thy son,
Ezra). Not less objectionable are the thy only one, whom thou lovest, Isaac.”—
two other explanations offered by Abar- And he will be glad in his heart, that is,
banel, which distort still more our simple he will be heartily glad; he will rejoice
and clear text. The modern translations with all his heart. The Septuag. takes
express the sense correctly, although some heart here as a mere pronoun, and
of them are not free from inaccuracy in renders éy éavrw.— The fear, which
the rendering of the words. might have arisen in the mind of Moses
.3‫ ב‬And the anger of the Lord glowed‫‏‬ that Aaron, more fit for the honorable
against Moses, in consequence of his‫‏‬ commission, both by his age and his
obstinate hesitation in accepting the‫‏‬ distinguished fecundity, would look with
glorious charge, which God intended‫‏‬ envy and jealousy at the partiality 018-
to entrust to him. Maimonides (Moreh‫‏‬ played towards himself, this apprehen-
+
0
‫על‬
the
‫ג‬
hel
‫כ‬‎
-
0
Neb. i386) observes, that the terms of‫‏‬ sion was at once dissipated by the 88-
wrath or anger in connection with God,‫‏‬ surance of God, which shows the modesty
are in the Scriptures exclusively used‫‏‬ and moral rectitude of Aaron; “and, as a ©
with reference to idolatry, and Moses, by‫‏‬ reward for these rare virtues of the heart,
evading the command of God, abetted the‫‏‬ Aaron obtained the dignity of High
idolatry of the Israelites in Egypt, from‫‏‬ Priest, and the ornament of the breast-
which his mission was intended to free‫‏‬ plate, which is borne on the heart”
them (see our notes on xx. 4—6).— The‫‏‬ (Rashi, Abarbanel).
Levite. This word is neither used here‫‏‬ 15. The sense of the words, and put
in anticipation of the future offices of‫‏‬ the words into his mouth, are more dis-

a
 EXODUS IV. 55

him, and put *the words into his mouth: and 1 shall be
with thy mouth, and with his mouth, and shall teach you
what you shall do. 16. And he shall speak for thee to
the people, and he shall indeed be to thee instead of a
mouth, and thou shalt be to him instead of God. 17. And
thou shalt take this staff into thy hand, wherewith thou
2 Engl. Vers.—W ords.
tinctly explained in the next verse.—And a distinction; for Aaron resembled only
I shall be with thy mouth. Nachmanides the mouth, which expresses the reflections ©
makes the following sagacious, but arti- of the soul, which is invisible, like the
ficial combination: “ God promised Moses incorporeal angels; thus Moses stood
to direct his words before Pharaoh, as to Aaron in the category of an angel;
He undertook to assist Aaron in his ad- and this is the meaning of the words:
dresses to the people (see ver.16); but “thou shalt be to him as a God.”
‘when Moses, at the close of his inter- Abarbanel is on this point also the most
locution with God, still exclaimed: ‘ Be- explicit and clear: “God said to Moses:
hold, I am of uncircumcised lips, and how * The divine inspiration will descend upon
shall Pharaoh hearken to my words’? thee without any medium or mediator, and
God confided the harangues before Pha- thou shalt transfer it upon Aaron; the
-raoh also to Aaron” (vii. 1). But in fact, whole honour of the mission will therefore
no distinction is made in the sacred text be thy own; and Aaron will only be like
between the appearance of Moses before thy interpreter; compared with him, thou
Pharaoh and before the people (see iii. wilt be like a God; and he will be at thy
10, 11).—And I shall be with his mouth, side like a prophet, who pronounces that
that the words which he—inspired by which God commands him,’”
thee—will pronounce, may win the ears uz. And this staff, to which the Sept.
of his hearers, enter into their hearts, and freely adds: “which had been converted
carry conviction to their minds. into a serpent,” wherewith thou shalt do the
16. He shall indeed be to thee instead of a signs, viz., which 1 shall command thee
—* mouth, and thou shalt be to him instead of God. to do. As Moses had hitherto per-
Onkelos already, whom Rashi and Rash- formed but one miracle with the staff,
bam follow, expresses the sense of these Nachmanides observes: “ That when God
words almost correctly: * 116 shall be to spoke to Moses (ili. 20) of all the wonders
thee as an interpreter or agent, and which He would do in Egypt, He com-
thon shalt be to him as a teacher or municated them to him individually, and
master.” Targum Jonathan offers the that He thus could here allude to the
same version, but with the addition: signs which Moses would do with the
“seeking information from the Lord.” staff. They were—to convert it into a
The translations of the Septuagint and of the serpent before the Israelites and 6
Vulgate are indistinct, concealing rather Pharaoh, to smite with it the Nile, to
than disclosing the sense. However, the eall forth the frogs, to bring over the
general meaning is unmistakeable: Aaron land the gnats, to make the hail descend,
shall adorn with elegance and eloquence to cover the country with the locusts, and
of expression the ideas which Moses, to produce darkness.” From a similar
inspired by God, will request him to reason, no doubt, the English Version
represent to the people and to Pharaoh. does not translate the definite article in the
See especially vii. 1, et seg. And in this Hebrew words“ wherewith thou shalt do
sense says Ebn Ezra: It was no deroga- signs.” But the ellipsis above stated, is
tion for Moses to be sent to Pharaoh simple and natural; and the text stands
accompanied by Aaron; on the contrary, neither in need of an alteration, nor of
 ‫לוכי‬ "‫י ב ל‬ ‫שי‬ ‫ו‬
% ‫ל‬ , ‫בילו‬
f ‫וב‬ 5 ps‫דו ‏‬
Pete Ee ‫צג‬
4‫=‏‬ a ee‫‏‬
. .

A 56 EXODUS IV.

shalt do 'the signs. 18. And Moses went and returned ,

to Jethro his father-in-law, and said, Let me go, I pray
thee, and return to my brethren, who are in Egypt, and
see whether they are yet alive. And Jethro said to
Moses, Go in peace. 19. And the Lord said to Moses
1 Engl. Vers.—Signs.

artificial explanations, Abarbanel finds in to Moses is so important for his return to

the staff of Moses, which God here ex- Egypt, that it might be considered as the
pressly and distinctly commands him first condition, ancient commentators be-
always to bear in his hand, six ditferent lieve that God must have made it to him
symbols, very happily substantiating them already long since, recurring here to thé
with Scriptural sentences. It represents: often applied principle: “the chrono-
1. The support of, and confidence in logical order of events is not strictly
God; 2. The rule and sovereignty of adhered to in the holy writ,” and trans-
Moses; 3. The humiliation and thraldom lating: ‘‘ God had already said to Moses.”
of the Israelites; 4. The gathering of the But we have nowhere seen that the con-
scattered members of the nation like a sideration of personal danger had any
shepherd gathers his flock; 5. The chas- influence upon the resolutions of Moses,
tisement to be inflicted upon the re- either in his past or future conduct,
fractory and disobedient king; and or in the present communion with God
6. Justice and equity in all judicial (see our note on 111. 11). From the same
decisions. reason the opinion of others must be
18. And said, Let me return tomy brethren, rejected, who believe that Moses, even
that is, my family; as he could not sup- after having taken leave from bis father- =4
pose, that all the Israelites had died out in-law, hesitated anew, pretending that
during his sojourn in Midian. Moses he was afraid of the persecutions of his
did not communicate to Jethro the real enemies in Egypt: on which point, there-
purport and aim of his departure; for if fore, God found it necessary to calm and
he was afraid that even his own co- to satisfy him. Such idea is not in the
religionists would not easily believe him remotest sense hinted at in our text.—
and trust in his mission, how much less For all the men are dead who sought thy
could he expect to escape the reproach of a life, namely, the relatives of the Egyptian |
deceived enthusiast, from one who was no whom he killed, who had persecuted him
direct descendant of their patriarchs, and for this deed. According to the Egyptian
had no knowledge of the revelations which law, exiles were allowed to return to
they had received, and of the promises their homes at the death of the Pharaoh
which they cherished as a dear and sacred under whom they had been expelled. —
pledge. Abarbanel sees in the concluding It has been observed above (on ii. 13),
words, go in peace, more than a simple that tradition names Dathan and Abiram |
expression of farewell wishes; namely, a as “the two Hebrews contending to-
warning to take care, lest similar acci- gether,” and that these were naturally
dents befall him now in Egypt, as those also inimical to Moses, whom they re-
with which he usually met when he went proached with an arrogant assumption of
out to see his brethren (see ii.11); and authority; the same tradition must, there-
therefore God assured him, as the follow- fore, include them here also among the
ing verse relates, that all his enemies were deceased enemies of Moses; but as we
dead. find them living long after this period,
19. And the Lord said to Moses in Mi- recourse has been taken to the very
dian, etc, As the communication here made questionable device, that they were im-
 EXODUS IV. 57

in Midian, Go, return to Egypt, for all the men are dead
who sought thy life. 20. And Moses took his wife and
his sons, and *made them ride upon an ass, and he returned
to the land of Egypt: and Moses took the staff of God
into his hand. 21. And the Lord said to Moses, When
2 Engl. Vers.—Set.

poverished, “and that a poor man is like less spirited and quick-footed; and to
to a dead one.” It is sufficient to have this circumstance the fact is, perhaps, to
mentioned this opinion. be traced, that the Oriental asses are so
20. And Moses took his wife and his remarkably superior to those in our
sons. In ii, 22, we read only of the countries; and asin Egypt rain belongs
birth of one son of Moses and Zipporah, to the rare phenomena, the asses there
namely Gershom; and several inter- have a peculiar excellence. The ass was,
preters haye, therefore, considered the and is still, much valued in the East;
plural, his sons, as an inaccuracy of ex-
.=---7 and whilst it is in the modern languages
pression asit sometimes occurs, for instance, used as an insult and a by-word, it
Num. xxvi. 8: And the sons of Pallu, Eliab is perfectly the contrary in Oriental
(Gen. xxxvii.35; xlvi. 7, 23). There is, phraseology (see Gen. xlix. 14; Iliad. xi.
however, no occasion for such conjecture, 588, et seq.). On account of its safe step, |
and nothing prevents us from supposing it was, in mountainous regions, the only
that the second son of Moses, Eliezer, riding animal in the times before Solomon,
was born immediately before his departure even for females and wealthy individuals
from Midian, so that he was not yet (1 Kings ii.40).—And he returned to the
circumcised (ver. 25).— And he made land of Egypt, with his wife and children,
them ride upon the ass. It is not im- whom he, however, most probably sent
possible that Zipporah, with her new back to Midian after the event related in
born child in her arms, rode together ver. 24—26, as appears from xviii. 2—6;
with her son Gershom on the same for, as Ebn Ezra remarks, it would not
animal; it is, therefore, unnecessary to have been wise for Moses to take his
take here ass as the name of the family to Egypt, from whence he intended
species, signifying several asses (as Gen. to lead forth all the Israelites. Abarbanel,
Xxxil. 6, Sept. éwi ra broliyta). It is, however, observes that Moses took his
however, not inadmissible to translate: wife and children with him to Egypt, in
“he made them ride each upon his ass.” order to convince the Israelites of his
Some ancient commentators found it unlimited confidence in the promise and
derogatory to the dignity of the Law- assistance of God; for if he had feared
giver, that his wife and children rode on the least danger, he would not have
an ass. This animal, however, is of a exposed his family to it by bringing
far superior quality in Arabia and Egypt them to Egypt. But with this opinion
than in the northern countries. It is it would be difficult to understand the
livelier, quicker, more stately, courageous beginning of the 18th chapter, where the
and robust. In Persia a good ass is often wife and children of Moses are said to
valued at a hundred pounds sterling. The have been with Jethro, “ after Moses had
Arabian ass goes considerably quicker sent them back.”—The staff of God is
than a camel; for whilst the former the staff with which Moses performed
makes, in an hour, 34 English miles, the miracles before the Lord (see ver. 17).
the latter goes only 2% miles. It is very The Sept. translates inaccurately, “the staff
susceptible to dampness of the atmos- which he had receivd from God” rv 06300
phere; and isin the rainy seasons much Tiv Tapa Tov 0600 (see ver. 2). Our verse
 58 EXODUS IV. _ | i
thou goest to return to Egypt, 'consider well all the won-
ders, which I shall have put into thy hand; and thou
1 Engl. Vers.—See, that thou do all these wonders before Pharaoh, which I have
put
in thy hand,

is closely connected with ver, 24, et seq. is implied in Whiston’s remark (on Jose-
With great propriety the inspired author phus, Antiq. VII. ix.6): “ This reflection
introduces, on the momentous point of of Josephus, that God brought to nought
the departure from Midian, once more a the dangerous counsel of Ahithophel, and
concise summary of the whole end and directly infatuated wicked Absalom to
course of the great mission; and this reject it (which infatuation is what the
insertion is therefore so far from interrupt- Scripture styles the judicial hardening
ing thecontext that it is a peculiar beauty the hearts, and blinding the eyes of men,
of composition. who by their former voluntary wickedness
₪1. We have transiated literally with have justly deserved to be destroyed, and
the Septuagint, “see or consider well all are thereby brought to destruction), is a
the wonders,” etc. The English Version very just one, and in him not unfrequent.
(as also the Vulgate, Luther, and De Nor does Josephus ever puzzle himself,
Wette) render more the sense than the or perplex his readers, with subtile hy-
words: “see that thou do all those potheses as to the manner of such judicial
wonders.”— Which I shall have put into infatuations by God, while the justice of
thy hand. As Moses was not only to them is generally so obvious.” But with
perform the three signs above mentioned such apodictic sentences we gain nothing,
(ver. 2—9), but also all the wonders not yet and the solution of that highly important
communicated to him, it would be im- and interesting problem, which inyolves
proper to translate, as the English Version the momentous question about predesti-
does: Do before Pharaoh the wonders nation and free will, is thereby in no
which I have put into thy hand. We manner promoted. We pass by such
are therefore compelled to take the verb opinions as that of Hales (Chron, II.i.
here as a futurum exactum, “ at the time 194), who infers from Matthew xii. 43,
when it will be necessary to perform the that “when God is said to harden
wonders before Pharaoh, I shall have put Pharaoh’s heart, it was in reality har-
them into thy hand”; or as a simple dened by diabolical influence or demoniacal
future: “I shall put them,” ete.— But possession”; for such views, far from re-
I shall harden his heart and: he will not moving the difficulty, render it still more
let the people go. It is well known, that obscure and intricate, by introducing no-
this and the similar passages, which ap- tions absolutely foreign to the Pentateuch.
pear to make God the author and origi- It is a remarkable circumstance, that the
nator of sin and refractoriness, have, from expression, “God hardened Pharaoh’s
the earliest times, caused violent attacks, heart” recurs seven times (Exodus iy. 21;
which theologians and philosophers have ‎‫ד‬8;
. ix. 19 = 1, 20/70 10), and
always found necessary to refute anew. that the phrase, “ Pharaoh himself har-
We can hardly agree with those who dened his heart,” is as often repeated
assert, that Pharaoh forfeited, by the (Exod. vii. 13, 22; viii. 11, 15, 28; ix.
cruelty which he perpetrated against the 7, 34); further, that the first and last time,
Hebrews, every claim or right to forgive- when similar expressions are used, God is
ness, and that he therefore fell a prey to represented as the source of the obstinacy
divine revenge: which opinion certainly of Pharaoh, so that the contumacy of the
disregards the all-merciful Father of king scems to be only the effeet of the
mankind, who is “good and just, and intention of God to obdurate his mind.
shows the right way to the sinner” For the explanation of these momentous
(Ps. xxy. 9). However, the same idea questions, which belong more to the phi-
 EXODUS IV. 59

shalt do them before Pharaoh: but I shall harden his

heart, and he will not let the people go. 22. And thou
shalt say to Pharaoh, Thus saith the Lord, Israel 7s my

losophy of religion than to a Biblical tate pernicious scnemes, which He might

commentary, we refer to our “ Lecture on by His mere will destroy, and yet permits
Predestination and Free Will,” in which the nefarious deeds to be executed, even
we have endeavoured to elucidate this the pious heart might doubt of the divine
difficult subject. In general, we observe: interference in the affairs of man, and
1. The difference between the om- lose the firm belief in the strict justice of
niscience of God and His predestination God. Thus the world would in reality
if always properly regarded, will remove, become a prey to chance, or to the arbi-
in a great measure, the obscurity of such trariness of the impious, who are allowed
passages, so that they amount to the to carry out without check or control |
sense of the words (iii. 19): “And I their mischievous plan. But nothing ex-
know that the king of Egypt will not let cept the unshaken confidence in the
you go, even not by a mighty hand”— direction and sole government of God,
in which words no critic will find any who reigns supreme over mankind and
objectionable idea. their fates, can satisfy the religious mind
2. As the external, often accidental, oc- in its reflections on the destinies of indivi-
casion of an event is mostly more obvious, duals and of nations. Every deed,
even to the reflecting mind, than its pri- whether good or evil, is a means in the
mary cause or its true (often hidden) hand of God; however, the evil deed is
originator, it has become 8 linguistic not converted into a blessing because it
peculiarity in most ancient, especially the happens to have been performed, but be-
Semitic, languages, to use indiscriminately cause God designed it from the beginning
the former instead of the latter, so that as an instrument of His will and His
the phrase, * 1 shall harden the heart of higher decrees; just as Joseph replied to
Pharaoh” means: I know that I shall be his brothers: “ You intended it as an evil
the cause of Pharaoh’s obstinacy; my against me, but Gop intended it as a
commandments and wonders will be an blessing.” The deed of man, and the will
occasion, an inducement to an increasing of God, go hand in hand; they are con-
obduration of his heart. And the com- temporary, they are, in fact, identical.
passionate leniency of God, who, instead 4, The whole spirit of the Pentateuch ut-
of crushing the haughtiness of the re- terly excludes the idea, that God infatuated
fractory king with one powerful blow, Pharaoh, merely in order to punish him;
first tried to reform him by various less that He first compels man to wickedness,
awful punishments, and who generally and then calls him to account for it. The
announced the time of the occurrence of origin of sin, as related inthe third chapter
the plagues by the words, “ Behold I of Genesis, is alone sufficient to impress
shall afflict to-morrow,” in order to grant upon us the conviction, that free choice
him time for reflection and repentance; and unfettered will are granted to man, to
this clemency on the part of God in- pursue virtue and to shun crime (see
creased Pharaoh’s refractoriness; it was Deut. ii. 26). The Mosaic legislation is
to him a cause of prolonged and renewed entirely and exclusively based on the
resistance. doctrine of retaliation; and the exclama-
3. The opinion of Luther and his follow- tion of Isaiah (iii. 10,11): * Say ye to the
ers, that God allows the sin of man, without righteous that they shall be blessed, for
causing it, not only not removes the diffi- they shall enjoy the fruits of their actions.
culty, but adds new objections to our pro- Woe to the wicked; for the reward of
blem, If God sees the wicked man medi- their hands they shall reap;” this idea
 .

60 EXODUS IV.
son, even my firstborn : 23. And I say to thee, Let my
son go, that he may serve me: and if thou refusest to let
him go, behold, I shall slay thy son, even thy firstborn.

forms the leading principle of the whole loving-kindness of God warns man, in
Old ‘Testament. Misfortune is the con- due season, to return from his wicked-
sequence of sin, as virtue is the necessary ness.”
cause of happiness; and both bliss and 24. And it came to pass by the way, in
misery stand again under the higher the resting-place for the night. At present
supervision of Providence. Therefore, ad- there are, in the East, instead of our inns
mitting even that phrases like that of our or hotels, in suitable intervals, in towns,
text are obscure, they cannot possibly be villages, and on the open road, houses
used to overthrow aclear fundamental doc- which offer shelter during the night, for
trine of the Holy Scriptures, which would, travellers and their animals, mostly gra-
without it, be deprived of their most divine tuitously; sometimes, also, provisions are
principle. sold there for moderate prices (such
22. Israel is my son, even my /first- buildings are called in Arabic, Mansils,
born, that is, Israel is that nation Chans, or Caravansaries. But such
which knew and adored me the first houses were unknown to the Israelites in
among all generations of men, and which the earlier periods; they had a malon,
I have, therefore, more especially taken which is either a moveable tent tempo-
under the wings of my protection, loving rarily pitched up for the night, or a
them as a father loves his first-born son, cavern adapted for the purpose of per-
on whom he places his entire hope and noctation; and it is known that, even at
pride. It is less appropriate to take, with present, travellers use such tents for
Rashi, the word first-born here in the signifi- resting-places during the night in the
cation of greatness, as in Ps. lxxxix. 28, very vicinity of towns. We have, there-
where Dayid is called so, and where it is fore, rejected the rendering of malon by
explained in the second part of the verse inn, as it is given by the English Version;
by: “the highest among the kings of the besides, inns were, in the East where the
earth.” — It may be mentioned, that virtue of hospitality is practised with the
Moses never, in addressing Pharaoh, conscientiousness and cheerfulness of a
either before or after a plague, uses the religious duty, almost superfluous, al-
words here commanded to him, Jsrael is though there were a few in less populous
my first-born son, but only, send my people regions (see Niebuhr, Travels, 46; Ro-
(v. 1; vi. 16; vii. 26, etc). binson, iii. 480,575; Wellsted, 11, 218).—-
23. I shall slay thy son, even thy first-born. The Lord met him, and sought to hill him.
Although this menace was pronounced Instead of God, Onkelos, the Septuagint,
to Pharaoh only before the last plague, and the Arabic Version, have here the
God mentions it already here, because it angel of God.— Although this, and the
contained the severest and most fearful two following verses (which belong to-
punishment, and stood in exact cor- gether) are obscure, and not without
respondence with the obduracy of Pha- difficulties, they are not nearly so unin-
raoh, who should lose his first-born son telligible as the critical zeal of many
because he oppressed the first-born son interpreters has represented them.—Ist.
of God. But Rashi believes that Moses The context shows clearly, that the pro-
addressed these words to Pharaoh al- nouns belonging to the two verbs, the
ready at his first appearance before him, Lord met him, and sought to kill him,
in order to show, from the beginning, the refer, necessarily, to Moses, and not to
dreadful judgment of the Almighty the child, which has never been mentioned —
which awaited his obstinacy; for “the before (the poetical diction in passages
 ‫ד‬

EXODUS IV. 61

24. And it came to pass by the way, ‘in the resting-place

over night, that the Lord met him, and sought to kill
him. 25. Then Zipporah took a sharp stone, and cut off
1 Engl. Vers.—In the inn.
like Psalm Ixxxvii. 1, can decide nothing struments of all kinds was long known
for the prosaical connections), and which and universally adopted. According to
was too innocent to have deserved death- Ludolf (Descript. of Ethiopia, iii. 1. § 21),
2nd. It is further clear (from ver. 26), the Alnaji, an Ethiopian tribe, used sharp-
that the reason why the Lord sought to ened flints for the circumcision of their
kill Moses, was, his neglect in circum: children; and they continue this practice
cising his (no doubt new-born) second most probably to this day. According
son, Eliezer (see on ver. 20), a neglect to Herodotus (Gi. 86), the Egyptians
the more culpable in Moses, as circum- opened the bodies, which were to be em-
cision was, hitherto, the only sign of the balmed, with flint-knives. Pliny (Hist.
coyenant between God and Israel; and - Nat. xxxv. 12) informs us, that the priests
as he, who had been sent to renew that of Cybele used similar instruments for
| alliance, was, above all others, bound to their castration. According to Josephus
perform and respect that symbol. There- (Antiq. XIV. iv. 1), the rind of trees which
ie fore are the opinions of those who find contained balm, was opened with stone
the guilt of Moses in his having taken his knives. Diodorus Siculus (iii. 15) men-
family with him into the land of idolatry, tions that the Ichthyophagi, on the Ara-
or in haying occupied himself too much bian Sea, open their fish with sharp flints,
with the worldly comforts for the night, The American tribes made battle-axes,
gratuitous conjectures rather than genu- knives and daggers, of stone before they
ine explanations of our text. Even the knew the application of the metals, And
interpretation of 408708201, who ob- even now those Jewish male children
serves, that the spirit of prophecy de- who die before the eighth day from their
scended upon Moses at the resting-place, birth, are circumcised with stone knives.
but, absorbed as he was, by temporal —And she cut off the foreskin of her son,
anxieties, he was unable to receive and and put it at his feet, and said, Thou art in-
apply it, is more specious than real; for deed a bridegroom of blood to me. We ex-
it would be difficult to comprehend plain these obscure words in the simplest
how the spirit of prophecy “sought to manner, thus: Zipporah circumcised (cut
kill Moses.” More plausible is the sup- off the foreskin of ) her son—for Moses was
position of Ebn Ezra, that: Moses 1 unable to perform the ceremony on account
suddenly into a serious illness, which of his illness, and laid it before the feet of
reminded him of his transgression, and this son, exclaiming, with a mixed feeling
convinced him that he was in danger of of indignation and tenderness, * Although
death, unless he corrected it without all Hebrew children, from the blood of
delay. It is unnecessary to mention the circumcision, (by which alone they are
various artificial conjectures which this received into the covenant of the Lord),
verse has been doomed to call forth, might justly be called bridegrooms, or
25. Then Zipporah took a sharp stone, sons of blood, thou, Eliezer, deservest
or stone knife. In Joshua v. 2, 3, we indeed (in reality) this name much more,
read that the circumcision of the people because the neglect of that circumcision
was, in the land of Canaan, performed with had almost caused the death of my hus-
knives of sharp stones, evidently coincid- band.” It appears to us impossible to
ing with the instrument: named ‘in’ our refer the pronouns “at his feet,” and
text. ‘The use of stones for similar pur- “thou art indeed,” to any other substan-
poses, was prevalent in the East, even in tive but the son, the only masculine noun
times when the application of metal in- in the whole’ sentence; they cannot apply
 62 EXODUS IV.
the foreskin of her son, and 'put 0 at his feet, and said,
*Thou art indeed a bridegroom of blood to me. 26. So
He *desisted from him: then she said, A ‘bridegroom of
blood thou art, because of the circumcision. 27. And the
Lord said to Aaron, Go into the wilderness to meet Moses.
And he went, and met him in the mountain of God, and
1 Engl. Vers. — Cast. ? Surely a bloody husband art thou to me.
3 Let him go. + A bloody husband.
to Moses (as many suppose), nor, much the child, we should have a very singular
less, to the destroying angel, as the change in the application of the pronouns
Targumim render. The Hebrew word, (similar are the interpretations of Abul-
which appears here to be used designedly, walid, Kimchi, Spencer, Pococke, Men-
includes, most happily, the two signifi- delssohn, and others). Of the numberless

|
cations of relative or bridegroom, and other explanations, we give only that of
Rosenmiller, which is not without some
circumcision (compare, in Arabic, ₪
appearance of probability: ‘“ Zipporah
any relative on the part of the wife, and threw, with a certain indignation, the
foreskin before the feet of Moses, and
= circumcision); and, since the cir-
said to him: ‘I am compelled to redeem
cumcision was considered as a symbol of and preserve you by blood, namely, that
the covenant between God and the child, of my son; for unless I had circumcised .
|
it might, poetically, be compared with a him, and thus shed his blood, thy life
‘
x]
‎‫צ‬
matrimonial alliance. Ebn Ezra observes, would have been forfeited?” (Simi- ‫בי‬
a
that “women call their circumcised larly Glaire). But to this interpretation 4
4

children bridegrooms,” and the child is, also applies the objection, that the pro- |

even at present, on the day of his circum- noun in “his feet” cannot refer to Moses, 1
cision, named among the Israelites * bride- who is mentioned neither in this nor in 1
groom ofthe covenant.” We have, therefore, the preceding verse-The reason why
translated, “ bridegroom of blood,” instead Moses neglected such an important duty
of “ bloody husband,” which the English as that of the circumcision of his son,
Version offers. Targ. Onkelosand Targ. has been sought in the supposition that 2
4-0
Jonathan express the sense almost cor- Eliezer was, perhaps, born only a few
rectly; the former renders, * by the blood days before the departure of Moses from
of circumcision of this one, my husband Midian; and, not wishing to delay the
has been restored to me;” the latter, mission which God had entrusted to him,
“and Zipporah said: ‘My husband he took the child with him, intending to
wished to circumcise the child, but his perform in Egypt the circumcision, which
father-in-law prevented him; but now the he feared might be dangerous during the
blood of circumcision will expiate the journey. But it is more probable, that
guilt of my husband.’” The Septuagint Zipporah, adhering to the custom of the
offers aremarkable deviation from our text: Arabians, who, considering the operation
“the blood of circumcision of my son perilous and improper in such young in-
has ceased,” which seems to be based on a fants,circumcise theirchildren only at their
quite different reading of the Hebrew thirteenth year, had persuaded Moses to
text. Gesenius explains the words put it at postpone that sacred ceremony,
his feet thus: “and she touched the feet of 26. And He desisted from him, namely,
Moses with the blood of the child, which God desisted from Moses, or, in other
is the rite of expiation.” But, Ist. the words, the illness of the latter ceased;
word blood is not before mentioned; and thus Zipporah became perfectly convinced
2nd. as bridegroom of blood is referred to that the danger into which her husband

‫"יש‬
ma:
yee
‫ויק‬‎
+

1
 EXODUS IV. 63

kissed him. 28. And Moses told Aaron all the words of
the Lord ’which He had charged him, and all the signs
which He had commanded him. 29. And Moses and
Aaron went and assembled all the elders of the children
of Israel : 30. And Aaron spoke all the words which the
Lord had spoken to Moses, and did all the signs before the
5 Engl. Vers.— Who had sent him.

had fallen was occasioned by the ne- part of Midian (see our note on ii. 15),
glected circumcision of their child, and and of Lower Egypt, of which Goshen
she, therefore, exclaimed again in the was a province, we cannot but see that
words: a bridegroom of blood thou art, Moses must, for some purpose not related
because of the circumcision; which words in our text, have gone again so much
can grammatically only signify, “thou art southwards as Mount Horeb, perhaps
a bridegroom of blood, but not so far as to because this was the most appropri-
|
cause the death of my husband, but only ate place to meet Aaron, whom he
as regards the blood of circumcision.” would have missed in the extended path-
Targum Onkelos renders incorrectly: less desert.—And he (Aaron) kissed him
“but for the blood of circumcision of this (Moses). Ebn Ezra observes on this verse:
child, my husband would have incurred * Aaron was not gifted with prophecy,
a crime of death.’ Targum Jonathan nor was there any occasion for it; for
and Jerusalem paraphrase freely: “Then Moses was the messenger despatched
began Zipporah hymns of praise, saying: to Pharaoh, and he sent Aaron to the
‘How dear 18 this blood of circumcision, Israelites, and Miriam to their wives.”
which has rescued my husband from the Abarbanel, however, finds in the expres-
hand of the destroying angel!’”— We sion, that Moses and Aaron “ met at the
believe that, after the explanation given on mountain of God,” an allegorical allusion,
this passage (ver. 24—26), its meaning that the spirit of prophecy had descended
and connection will be intelligible; how- on both brothers.
eyer, if it should be asked why this event 2s. And Moses told Aaron all the
is related in such obscure phraseology, words of the Lord which He had charged
Wwe may advert to the great art of compo- him. The usual translation, who had sent
sition, displayed in this point also. ‘The him, is languid in the extreme; and
whole occurrence is a mysterious act of makes these words a superfluous addition,
divine warning and retribution; Moses’ But the Hebrew word here applied signi-~
illness was a “rod of correction” in the fies often: 70; and is sometimes con-
hand of God; he felt and understood the strued with a double accusative in the
divine chastisement, and was delivered signification of charge somebody with
from his imminent danger. Over this some commission, for instance, quite si-
event a transparent veil is spread, not to milar to our passage in 2 Sam, xi. 22;
conceal the guilt of Moses, but to allow “and he told David all things which Joab
a larger scope to imagination to represent had charged him;” see also Isaiah ly.11.
it to itself in its whole extent. Similarly already the Septuagint and
27. And he went, and met him in the Vulgate.
mountain of God, that is, Mount Horeb 29. About the elders of the children of
(see our note on iii. 1). Targum Onkelos Israel, see note on iii. 16.
and Jonathan render here also: “the 30. And Aaron spoke all the words
mountain on which the Lord was re- which the Lord had spoken to Moses;
vealed.” If we compare the relative in harmony with the command of God,
geographical position of the nomadic who appointed Aaron as the interpreter
 EXODUS 7
+?

NPS et eo yee ‘ iv

64 ‫יא‬‎ |
eyes of the people. 81. And the people believed: and
when they heard that the Lord had 'taken regard of the
children of Israel, and that He had looked upon their afilic-
tion, then they bowed down and prostrated themselves.
1 Engl. Vers. — Visited.

between Moses and the people (see tinction, rendered to all representatives of
ver. 16); to which tradition adds, that God, as kings and prophets; it appears
after the death of the latter, Eliezer, here more in harmony with the context
the son of Moses, performed the same to explain that the Israelites prostrated
function.—And he did the signs before the themselves before God, rather than before
eyes of the people, namely the three signs Moses and Aaron. For Moses was so
described in verses 2--9. Although the obviously the direct and immediate mes-
readiness of Aaron to co-operate with senger of God, that it would have been
Moses, and the sympathy which the ex- preposterous to worship the servant, and
hortations and promises of both excited not the Lord; and so deeply did the
among the Israelites, strongly prove that people feel the presence of God, that they
the hope of returning to the land of their were, at this moment, full of firm and
ancestors, was a lively and dearly- genuine belief, whilst later, when the
cherished feeling among them, yet the manifest instrumentality of Moses was,
peculiar, enthusiastic character common in some degree, obliterated from their
to all eastern nations, imposed upon minds, their sceptical disposition dis-
Moses the necessity of proving by played itself in all its invidiousness. It
miracles, that he was indeed the divine is worthy of remark, that “a mere passive
delegate; and even more than two thou- consent of the Israelites is all that Moses —
sand years later, Mohammed was com- requires, for which he promises deliver-
pelled to display certain miracles in order ance; he does not insist on any active
to gain the confidence of his superstitious co-operation on their part; he enjoins —
countrymen. neither courage, discipline, enterprise,
31. Then they bowed down and prostrated nor mutual confidence; nothing which
themselves. Although these verbs are like- might render insurrection formidable, or
wise used with reference to man (Gen. xxiii. indicate an organised plan of resistance.”
7), and this kind of homage is, without dis-

CHAPTER VY.
Summary.—Moses and Aaron proceed to the court of Pharaoh, and request him, in —
the name of the God of Israel, to allow the Hebrews to celebrate, after a three
days’ journey into the wilderness, a festival to their God. Pharaoh answers with
scorn, that he does not know that God, nor was he willing to obey His command- —
ments. When Moses and Aaron repeated the same demand, the king, in an —
ebullition of passion, pronounces the edict, that henceforth no straw should be
given to the Israelites for the bricks, which they had to make, but that they
should seek it themselves, and yet furnish the same amount of bricks as before;
for he supposed that the request of Moses and Aaron was only a pretext for gra-
tifying the idleness and rebellious disposition of the Hebrews. As the Israelitish
labourers were not able to satisfy the increased demands of the king, the overseers, 4
who were responsible for every deficiency in their work, were severely treated by ©
the Egyptian task-masters; they complained before Pharaoh, who, however,
only repeated his former tyrannical edict. In this distressed position they re-
proached Moses and Aaron with their thoughtless schemes, which had only
 EXODUS ‎‫וצ‬ 65
tended to bring down new misery upon them. Moses, in grief and despondency,
‫ו‬
addressed his prayers to the Lord, asking wherefore it was necessary to send him
to Pharaoh, if his mission was destined to increase, instead of diminishing, the
calamity of His people.

ND afterwards Moses and Aaron ‘came and said

to Pharaoh, Thus *hath the Lord God of Israel
said, Let my people go, that they may hold a feast to
! Engl. Vers.
— Went in. 2?

1. And afterwards Moses, etc. Only ing the Hebrews killing the animals
after having succeeded in securing the which were to themselves objects of wor-_
firm confidence of the people, Moses could ship and adoration (see viii. 22). Besides,
represent to Pharaoh the request of God, this request must have appeared the less
and accompanied by Aaron—but pro- surprising to the Egyptians, as they also
bably not the elders of Israel (see on seem to have celebrated religious festivals
iii. 18)—he proceeds to the court, where in the desert. Near Sarabit-el-Khadim,
he is not only unknown to the king—who in the wilderness, a locality has been
is the successor of him whose daughter found covered with old Egyptian edifices
had adopted and educated him (see ii. 23) and monuments, on which the names of
—hbut also to the whole royal household, Egyptian kings are engraved. It is
which during the forty years of his ab- probable that the Egyptians frequently
sence from Egypt must have considerably, resorted to this and similar other places,
if not entirely, been changed or re- for the celebration of religious festivals.—
modelled. No doubt Aaron alone ad- Which was the residence of Pharaoh is
dressed Pharaoh (iv. 15, 16), and the a disputed question, to be decided either
plural, they spoke, is used because he did in favour of Memphis (in the neighbour-
so in the name of Moses also; and the hood of Cairo); or—which is far more
assertion that they spoke both together, probable—for Zoan or Tanis, near the
because God had promised Moses: “I mouth of one of the eastern arms of the
shall be with thy mouth and with his Nile, in the Delta. If there were no other
]Aaron’s] mouth,” is the more surprising, proof for the latter supposition but the
proceeding as it does from such a rational repeated statement, that Moses performed
commentator as Ebn Ezra.—Thus hath his wonders “in the field of Zoan”
the Lord God of Israel said. Jehovah is (Psalms lxxviii. 12, 43); it would be
here (as in ver. 3) described as the sufficient to remove every uncertainty,
national or peculiar God of Israel or But further, in the passage (Num. xiii. 23);
the Hebrews, of whom Pharaoh himself “and Hebron was built seven years before
confesses (ver.2) to be ignorant—a 81111- Zoan of Egypt,” the capital is evidently
cient proof for unbiassed critics, that the alluded to. Other passages (as Gen ]‫א‬‎
Tetragrammaton is neither derived from 10; xlvi. 28, 29; Exod. ii. 3, 5), show, that
an Egyptian source, nor, much less, im- the residence of Pharaoh must have been
parted to Moses by Egyptian priests (see in the immediate vicinity of the abode of
note on iii. 14).— My nation, i.e., that the Israelites of Goshen, which would
nation, which knows and worships me, agree well with Zoan. Osburn (Mon.
and which I have therefore taken under Hist. ii.575) believes that the interviews
my special protection and providence (see of Moses with Pharaoh took place in
on iy, 22).—Jn the desert. The Israelites * Raamses or Rameses, which was situated
wished to sacrifice to God in the de- on the western border of the Delta, about
sert, not in Egypt before the eyes of midway between the Canopic branch of
the Egyptians, who would have been the Nile and the canal of Alexandria.”
stimulated to fanatic fury by witness- These words contain two mistakes: 1
F
eS EXODUS VE ‫לי‬‎
at rae 1 /

nis:

2. And Pharaoh said, Who is the|

2 a i

me in the desert:
Lord, whose voice 1 shall obey to let Israel go? I know ©
not the Lord, neither will I let Israel go. 3. And
they said, The God of the Hebrews hath met us: let us |
go, we pray thee, a three days’ journey into the desert, and =
sacrifice to the Lord our God; lest He fall upon us with
Raamses is not identical with Rameses, answers the spiteful question of Pharaoh:
the former is the town, the latter is the “Who is the Lord”? with the words:
province, synonymous with Goshen; and ‘He is the God of the Hebrews, whom
2. Raamses does not lie on the western, you should know, who has shown Himself
but the eastern border of the Delta; it so mighty and zealous for the protection
was not built for a royal residence, but of His worshippers Abraham, Isaac, and
for a fortified store city (see note on Jacob, the very ancestors of those whom |
i. 11).—The Pharaoh whom Moses ad- you now treat with such unparalleled
dressed, was Amenophis, the sixteenth, rigour.”— Lest He fall upon us with pesti-
or last king of the eighteenth Diospoli- lence or the sword. ‘The suffix (lest he
tanic dynasty (see Introduction § 2, iii. 2.) fall upon us) refers simply to the Israel- gp
E
WI
>--

2. Who is the Lord, etc. These words ites, who, according to the common
of Pharaoh, who, relying upon the power notions of antiquity, fear the anger of
of his own gods, openly defies the chastise- the deity, if they neglect to offer him
ment of all other deities, are the intense sacrifices in due time. But we are yet
and revolting expression of the impotent by no means prepared to subscribe Wil-
wantonness of an arbitrary tyrant against son’s immoderate remark: “The Elohim |
an unhappy and oppressed nation, and of the early Jews (?) appears to have —
the sum of his overweening obstinacy, been originally conceived in the spirit of =
which unavoidably called down upon him Milton’s Moloch(!) The idea seems to
and his country the punishment of 8 have been that the withholding of the
justly recompensing Providence. Onkelos bloody sacrifice would goad him into a — e
a
a
N

renders: “the name of Jehovah has not fit of destructive fury.” It is needless
been revealed to me”; and Jonathan, to animadvert upon the impropriety of
still more significantly corroborating our an observation which, heedless in itself, a

remarks in the preceding verse, para- is in perfect antagonism not only with
phrases thus: “The name of Jehovah the whole spirit of the Old Test. but with =
has not been revealed to me....I do not distinct passages like the following: —
find in the book of the angels (deities) “Hath the Lord a delight in burnt — S
a

the name of Jehovah mentioned, and offerings and sacrifices, as in obeying

therefore I do not fear him” (see note the voice of the Lord? Behold, to obey%
to ili. 18(.--JZ know not the Lord. is better than sacrifice, and to hearken
‘**Although the Pharaohs of Egypt know than the fat of rams” (1 Sam. xy. 22.
God by the name of Elohim (Gen. xli. Compare Hos. vi. 6. Isaiah i, 11, 12.— a
=

88, 39), they were ignorant of the holy Psalms xl. 7; 1. 18,19). Ebn Ezra and
designation of the Almighty; they re- Abarbanel are of opinion, that the suffix
fused therefore to allow the departure of includes Pharaoh and his people in the ,|
the Israelites, whom they wished to serve general calamity, the former being the
them alone as their supreme sovereigns, chief impediment to the proper veneration —
and not their God” (Edn Ezra). Com- of God; and Rashi, by way of euphemism, —
pare about this verse also Cusari iv. 15. understands the king alone, whom Mosedl
3. And they said, the God of the from motives of fear or respect, hesitated |
Hebrews hath met us. Moses obviously to mention, although he knew perfectly a
 ,
.
ei

1 = ‫ו‬

,
EXODUS V. 67
.a stilence, or with the sword. 4. And the king of Egypt
:3 to Moses, Wherefore do you, Moses and Aaron, ‘disturb
‫ ו‬people from their works?‫ ‏‬Go you to your burdens.
5. And Pharaoh said further, Behold, the people of the
land *are already many; *and you will make them rest
1 Engl. Vers,— Let. 2 Now are many. 3 And ye make them, etc.

well from the predictions of God Civ. 22, nical control, which the Egyptians exer-
23), that fearful misery would be the cised over the Hebrews, was not so
inevitable consequence of his disobedience. unremitting and relentless as is usually
But it is unnecessary to go beyond the represented (see note to i. 11).
clear and obvious interpretation. 5. The people of the land are already
_ 4. Go you to your burdens. As many; that is, the Israelites who are
gMoses and Aaron alone are here repre- a part of the natives of the land
sented as speaking to Pharaoh (see ver. 1), and who, by their sojourn of four
q
| these words of the king can possibly only hundred years, could be considered as
be addressed to them, implying, however, indigenous Egyptians, increase in a
indirectly the whole people, as the repre- menacing degree. It cannot be denied,
sentatives and champions of which Moses that the expression, “ the people of the
and Aaron are justly considered. We land,” implies a certain contempt, so
need, therefore, not to suppose with that Mendelssohn renders well: the low
| Rosenmiiller and others, that this com- people. The Samaritan version reads:
‫ן‬ mand is addressed to the elders who * Behold they (the Israelites) are already
|
+ accompanied Moses and Aaron, nor much more numerous than the people of the
> -[688 with Mendelssohn, that they were
.
1
country (the Egyptians),” which 8
4 spoken to the whole people, which had against the Hebrew text.—And you will
also appeared before Pharaoh. Further, make them rest from their burdens?
_ Moses and Aaron, as members of the Pharaoh, to whom the Israelites are, by
oppressed Hebrew nation, had to share their extraordinary increase, an object
‎‫ ו‬hard labours of their brethren, to of apprehension, believes them to be the
which Pharaoh here commands them to more dangerous, if relieved from their
“return. It is impossible to understand breathless labours, and thus permitted to
with Rashi the words, go you to your enjoy leisure, in which they might be
1burdens, of the private or domestic 06- tempted to scheme rebellious plans for
cupations of Moses and Aaron; the their deliverance (see ver.9). The Sept.
‘expression your burdens does not admit of translates: “The people is numerous,
this lenient signification (see i.11). It is let us therefore not allow them to
still more hazardous to suppose with rest from their labours,” as if Pharaoh
Nachmanides, Rashi, and Abarbanel, that addressed these words to his council
not only Moses and Aaron, but the whole (see i. 10), contrary to our text. Still
tribe of Leyi, was exempted from the more free is the translation of the
manual work of their brethren; and Vulgate, from which we should be led
that this tribe, which was considered by to infer, that the cause of Pharaoh’s fear
Pharaoh to consist of the teachers and was the still greater increase, and not rather
men of the Israelites, enjoyed, the dangerous leisure of the people. As
5

esides, other privileges similar to those questionable is the opinion of those, who
of the caste of the Egyptian priests. believe that Pharaoh alludes to the great
However, the tenour of these verses, and loss which would be caused to him if so
of the concluding part of the preceding vast a multitude of labourers discontinue
chapter
—_ (ver. 30) proves, that the tyran- their works; but this does not appear
EZ

/ . ,
‫בו‬ + ‫‏‬kta |: ‫ו‬ ‫הנהו‬
 ₪1 SPF 5 / i
.‫קח‬‎ 1 i ‫ו‬ e

68 EXODUS ‎‫בצ‬

from their burdens? 6. And Pharaoh commanded the

same day the taskmasters of the people and their ‘over-
seers, saying: 7. You shall not continue to give the
people straw to make bricks, as heretofore: let them go
1 Engl. Vers.—Officers.

adapted to our context. And as if tive prefectus, overseer, officer. But as

desirous to show what arts might be dis- every overseer, or officer, has to furnish
played in the interpretation of an easy reports or accounts, both significations are
and simple verse, Rosenmiiller believes, naturally kindred, and, in reality, but
“Pharaoh addressed the words con- one. Hence it will not appear surprising
tained in this versé to the task-masters, that the Shoterim filled the following
who are mentioned in the next verse, but various offices: Ist. According to our
never before in this chapter.—The last passage they were the medium between
resource to which Pharaoh took refuge their own brethren and the Egyptian
for the checking of the increase and task-masters. 2nd. They were the coad-
energy of the Israelites, after all other jutors of the elders (in Num. xi. 16, the
devices had failed, was incessant work, elders themselves; see Deut. xix. 9);
under which the tyrant hoped they would 8rd. the assistants of the military com-
lose all self-respect, and forget all aspi- manders (Deut. 1. 15; 2 Chron. xxvi. 11),
rations for a more honourable condition and, 4th. in some respects, the colleagues
and treatment. The greater was neces- of the judges (Deut. xvi. 18; Josh. viii. 33;
sarily his indignation against Moses and xxiv. 1, 4); and, therefore, elective like
Aaron, who revived in the Hebrews the them. 5th. They performed the func-
old feelings of independence and liberty, tions of censors, or comptrollers, of the
and made them conscious of the degrada- army (1 Chron. xxvii. 1); and, 6th. They
tion to which they were reduced by the had, probably, to keep the statistical and
despotism of the king. genealogical lists of the people, although
6. And Pharaoh commanded the task- this might not have been their principal -
masters of the people and their overseers. duty. All these offices make the know-
The former were, most. probably, Egyp- ledge of writing a fundamental condition,
tians, who superintended the public and show that the Shoterim were not
works, and prescribed the tasks to be subordinate functionaries, but officers of a
executed; the latter were Israelites (see much superior rank, frequently taken from
ver. 14, 15), who controlled the workmen, among the Levites, the most instructed
watched that those tasks were duly per- part of the people (2 Chron. xix. 11).
formed, and who were responsible to the It is well known, that the Egyptians had
former, Thus one taskmaster had the su- also scribes with functions similar to those
perintendance over many overseers (Sho- of the corresponding Hebrew magistrates;
term). The real meaning and the exact and that even now the Arabic fellahs,
functions of the Shoterim, is a matter of whose position is very analogous to that
much dispute; it appears, however, that of the Israelites described in our text, are
the question might, in the following man- treated by the Turks in the same man-
ner, be brought to a certain conclusion. ner. Arabic ‘overseers have to give an
There are, especially, two different account of the labours of their country-
opinions on the subject, which deserve men to the Turkish taskmasters, who
our notice; the one deriving the word from often chastise them mercilessly for the
the Arabic verb to write; so that it would real or imputed offences of the Arabic
be writer, public registrar (French greffier) ; workmen (see Rosellini, ii, 2. p. 257.
the other connecting it with the substan- 11.3.218 ; Wilkinson, Eg. and Theb.i. p.393).
 nett
‎‫ו‬

and gather straw for themselves. 8. And the tale of the

> bricks, which they did make heretofore, you shall lay upon
- them; you shall diminish nothing ‫ה‬‎ for they are
"idle: a they cry, Let us go and sacrifice to our
— God. 9. *Let the work be hard upon the men, so that
? Engl. Vers.—Let there more work be laid upon.
= ‎‫של‬. You shall not continue to give, translating: “to burn bricks” (see Char-
> 6/0. This verse describes accurately din, Travels, iv. p. 112; Shaw, Travels,
and faithfully the custom prevailing in ‎‫כ‬. 136; Baumgarten, Travels, Ch. 18;
_ Egypt with regard to the preparation Hasselquist, Travels, p. 100; Pococke, Ob-
of bricks. We have an abundance of servations on Egypt, p. 538; Rosenmiiller,
testimonials proving the fact, that the Orient, i. 271--974(.
_ Egyptians manufactured their bricks from ₪. And the tale of the bricks, ete.
clay taken from the Nile, with which they The same amount of bricks which were
| mixed straw cut into small pieces, in imposed upon the Israelites when they
order to give them firmness and compact- were provided with straw by the royal
ness; and after the bricks thus prepared officers was to be exacted from them
have been dried in the sun, they are of now also, when they had first to seek
such hardness and durability that they this material themselves.—
For they are
_ defy the destructive influence of millen- idle; therefore, 1st. they can do more
- niums, especially in dry climates like work than hitherto, and 2nd. this is the
Egypt, where rain is rare; and Rosellini reason why they wish to celebrate festivals.
has recently brought some of them 9. Let the work be hard, ete. Pharaoh
> from Egypt, which bear the name of pronounces in this verse openly and un-
Thotmes IV., the fifth king of the blushingly the leading principle of his
eighteenth dynasty. On being analysed tyrannical policy, which had urged him
_ they were found to contain an admixture to oppress the Israelites with rigorous
/ of straw, which is, however, the less in and unremitting labours, and which he
quantity the more carefully they are had already hinted at in a former remark
prepared, and the better the clay is of addressed to Moses and Aaron (ver. 5);
which they are made (see Rosellini, ii. 2. namely, that the oppressive works were
+ 252). The bricks of the first pyramid intended to prevent the minds of the
Pyin Dashur are made of slime of the Nile, enslaved Hebrews from indulging in plans
- mixed with chopped straw. Philo al- of deliverance, and ever remembering the
ready says, “straw is the tie of bricks.” favourable circumstances under which
And Michaelis observes on our pas- their ancestors had immigrated into
sage: “Tt must not be imagined that the Egypt, and the encouraging promises
‘straw was used for burning the bricks, they had received from the monarch who
for which perhaps all the straw of Egypt then ruled in Egypt. This general sense
would not have sufficed; but the clay of the verse being incontrovertibly clear,
employed for the manufacture of the the signification of the only doubtful
bricks was mixed with straw in order to word which it contains in the Hebrew
enhance its consistency.” This is still the _ text (YY), cannot be difficult. It means
"pre ailing usage in many districts of in our passage (and Psalm .‫סאוא‬‎ 16), 0
Africa and Southern Asia. Moses no- look to any one for aid; so that the pur-
where speaks of burning bricks; and port of the words of the king is: oppress
_ Egypt would have been unable to furnish the people with toilsome and breathless
_ the necessary firing materials, as that labours, entirely absorbing all their ener-
country is notorious for its scarcity of gies and their whole attention, so that
wood. Luther is therefore mistaken in they have neither the desire nor the lei-
 70 EXODUS V.:

they may ‘have fully to do with it, and not *listen to vain
words. 10. And the taskmasters of the people and their
overseers went out, and they spoke to the people, saying,
Thus *hath Pharaoh said: I shall not give you straw.
11. Go you, take for yourselves straw from any place
where you can find it: yet nothing shall be diminished of
your work. 12. So the people were scattered abroad
throughout the land of Egypt to gather stubble instead of
straw. 18. And the taskmasters urged them, saying,
1 Engl. Vers.—Labour therein. 2 Regard, 3 Saith.

sure to listen to the idle words of Moses with Ebn Ezra: “ And Pharaoh scattered
and Aaron, who flatter them with vain the people.”
hopes of deliverance. We have, in the 13. And the (Egyptian) taskmasters
larger edition of this work, reviewed the urged them, namely, the Hebrew work-
various interpretations of that verb offered men or overseers (see ver. 14). — As
by the different translators and com- when there was straw. Onkelos, Jonathan,
mentators; and remark here but briefly, the Septuagint, and Vulgate, render ac-
that the Septuagint renders: “they shall cording to the sense: * As you were used
not meditate about, or think of idle to do when straw was given to you.”
words;” Rashi: “they shall not reflect .4‫ ב‬And the overseers of the children‫‏‬
on, and speak of, vain plans;” Targum of Israel were beaten. See to ver. 6. The‫‏‬
Onkelos: “and let them not occupy them- overseers (Shoterim) being Israelites,‫‏‬
selves with vain words;” Saadiah: “and they treated their co-religionists with‫‏‬
they shall not lean upon idle words;” consideration, not demanding of them‫‏‬
Ebn Ezra: “and let them not be idle in tasks which they were physically unable‫‏‬
their works on account of the vain illu- to accomplish. But when the task-‫‏‬
sions by which Moses and Aaron deceive masters, who were Egyptians, found that‫‏‬
them;” and Kimchi: to look with conjfi- the number of bricks finished by the‫‏‬
dence, to hope; and thus renders Jonathan, Hebrew workmen did not reach the _‫‏‬
which interpretation approaches nearest exorbitant amount which they had im-‫‏‬
to that given above. posed upon them, the overseers were‫‏‬
10. And the taskmasters...... went out, ill-treated and beaten for the indulgence‫‏‬
namely, from the palace of the king to evinced for their brethren. It will be‫‏‬
the places where the people worked. known to our readers, that even at‫‏‬
.‫ רב‬Yet nothing shall be diminished of‫‏‬ present the rule of the stick is generally‫‏‬
your work, Rashi, following the version of‫‏‬ prevalent in many parts of the East,‫‏‬
the Targumim, interprets: “You must‫‏‬ Blows are the ordinary means of punish-‫‏‬
gather straw with eagerness and perse-‫‏‬ ment; they are scarcely considered a‫‏‬
verance, for nothing will be remitted to‫‏‬ degradation; they belong to the natural‫‏‬
you from your usual work”; and this‫‏‬ prerogatives of the superior; and are‫‏‬
view, which is also expressed by the‫‏‬ the most obvious emblem of his master-‫‏‬
Septuagint, has been adopted by Men-‫‏‬ ship. Neither rank, nor learning, nor‫‏‬
delssohn, Rosenmiiller, Cahen, and others.‫‏‬ old age can protect against the ruthless‫‏‬
But it is unusual, that the very words on‫‏‬ tyranny of the stick; and not unfre-‫‏‬
which the greatest stress lies, should be el-‫‏‬ quently are European travellers shocked‫‏‬
liptically omitted.‫‏‬ by scenes of revolting barbarism com-‫‏‬
42. And the people were scattered mitted publicly against venerable indi-‫‏‬
abroad, It is unnecessary to translate viduals for the slightest offences, after‫‏‬
 EXODUS V. 71
Finish your work, your daily tasks, as when there was
straw. 14. And the overseers of the children of Israel
whom Pharaoh’s taskmasters had set over them, were
beaten ‘with the words, Wherefore have you not finished
your task in making bricks as heretofore, both yesterday
and to-day? 15. Then the overseers of the children of
Israel came and cried to Pharaoh, saying, Wherefore
dealest thou thus with thy servants? 16. There is no
straw given to thy servants; and they say to us, Make
1 Engl. Vers.—And demanded.

the despotic humour of Oriental masters. and modest hint on the part of the
—Wherefore have you not finished your Hebrew overseers, that the arbitrary
task? i.e., Why did not you take care and tyrannical conduct of the Egyptian
that the workmen under your control task-masters — who are here identified
finished the quantity of bricks ordered to with the whole Egyptian nation, and who
them? Compare the drawing of Rosel- are, in fact, but the instruments of the
lini alluded to in our note toi.14. The despotic commands of the king — will
sense of the whole phrase amounts to ultimately call down upon them the
this: Wherefore have you not finished just chastisement of the deity, under
your usual task, neither yesterday nor whose immediate protection the op-
to-day? To which Ebn Ezra observes, pressed people stands. Targum Jona-
that the people neglected their work than nearly expresses the sense as
on the day when Moses performed the here explained: “ And the sin of thy
three signs before them (iv. 30), nor people is great and heavy”; and, with
could they finish their task on the fol- unimportant modifications, Ebn Ezra,
lowing day, when after the interview of Rosenmiiller, and De Wette; and Pater-
Moses and Aaron with Pharaoh (ver. 6), son paraphrases: “but the guilt of this
_ they were ordered to furnish the same oppression and tyranny will be charged
amount of bricks, without straw being on thy own people.” The Septuagint,
given to them. however, translates: “thou wrongest thy
25. The kings of Egypt probably held people;” so that “thy people” would refer
on certain days a sort of open court or to the Israelites, not the Egyptians. And
divan, as usual in Oriental monarchies, so also the Syrian version. But against
when every subject was allowed to appear such interpretation militates: 1. the adopted
to seek justice or to claim redress; and Hebrew text; 2. the disrespect and impro-
thus the Hebrew overseers had free priety which would be implied in such
access to the royal ear, and opportunities almost impertinent language used in the
were afforded to them to represent to face of the king; and 3. the apparent an-
Pharaoh their grievances and oppressions, tithesis of thy servants, and thy people,
the responsibilities for which, therefore, which would be destroyed by referring
if left without alteration or remedy, fell the latter to the Israelites. Some have
with still greater weight on the conscience very improperly thus explained that
of the tyrannical king. antithesis: ‘we (the overseers) are
.6‫ ב‬And behold, thy servants are‫‏‬ punished, whilst the people are the
beaten; but thy people sins. The last‫‏‬ offenders”; for it was certainly not the
words, which have given rise to a mul-‫‏‬ intention of the Hebrew overseers to
tiplicity of conflicting versions and in-‫‏‬ throw the fault upon their unfortunate
terpretations, appear to imply a hidden‫‏‬ brethren, with whose misery they so
 72 EXODUS V.
bricks: and, behold, thy servants are beaten; 'but thy
people sins. 17. But he said, You are idle, you are idle:
therefore you say, Let us go and sacrifice to the Lord.
18. Go therefore now, and work; for there shall no straw
be given to you, yet shall you deliver the tale of bricks.
19. And the overseers of the children of Israel saw that
they were in an evil position, since it was said, You shall
' Engl. Vers.—But the fault is in thine own people.

deeply sympathised. The Vulgate in had only to furnish the same quantity of
rendering: “et injuste agitur contra bricks as heretofore, although they had
populum tuum,” mitigates the second, lately so considerably increased; so that
without obviating the other two objec- if straw were provided to them as before,
tions. Rashi explains: “ And this con- they would have too much leisure to
duct brings sin over thy people”; which think of idle hopes and dangerous
sense it would be difficult grammatically schemes. However, this argument is
to deduce from the Hebrew text. Men- fallacious, as, no doubt, the same amount
delssohn translates: “ And thy people is of bricks was not imposed upon the
treated like offenders,” which explanation Israelites collectively but individually: and
is also given by Clericus and Glaire (et thus the new measure affected them most
que ton peuple est traité en coupable); grievously.
but these versions and explanations .‫ ב‬Go therefore now, and work. This‫‏‬
seem to be also framed with disregard command is obviously addressed to the‫‏‬
of the original phrase; to sin and to be overseers, who probably not only exer-‫‏‬
treated as a sinner, are two very different cised the supervision over the Hebrew‫‏‬
notions, which it is impossible to ascribe labourers, but were also obliged to employ‫‏‬
to the same word without conclusive the time which was unoccupied by that‫‏‬
proofs. The rendering in Zunz’s Bible ungrateful office, with the same degrad-‫‏‬
is unintelligible (“und es fehlt deinem ing works under which their brethren‫‏‬
Volke”). The exposition of Abarbanel, sighed.‫‏‬
that the Hebrew overseers went to 19. And the overseers of the children
Pharaoh, believing that the task-masters of Israel saw that they were in an evil
acted so rigourously from their own position. As the overseers were directly
arbitrariness and against the will and responsible to the task-masters for the
knowledge of the king, so that they said execution of the tasks imposed upon the
to him: “thy people—that is, thy task- Hebrew workmen (see ver. 14), every
masters—sin, not thyself”; this exposi- new severity of the king affected them
tion, sagacious as it is, militates against even more immediately than the Israel-
ver. 6, according to which the new edict itish people; and nothing was left them
was pronounced by the king to the task- but the melancholy privilege of retaliating
masters in the presence of the overseers; against their own co-religionists the
although, as we have observed above, it is abuses they had endured themselves,
not improper to designate the taskmasters a privilege, from the exercise of which
as the people of Egypt. they had the more reason to abstain, as
uz. The same commentator finds in they were themselves perfectly convinced
the emphatical repetition of the word of the utter incapability of the workmen
idle (see to ver. 8) an allusion to the to satisfy the heartless command of the
fact, that in the opinion of Pharaoh the king. And this implies an affecting
Hebrews had no right to complain of feature in the conduct of the overseers,
this aggravation of their labours, as they who in their embarrassing dilemma, pre-
 EXODUS ‎‫ץצ‬ | %8
diminish nothing from your bricks of your daily task.
20. And they met Moses and Aaron, who stood in their
way, when they came from Pharaoh. 21. And they said
to them, The Lord may look upon you, and judge; because
you have made our odour to be abhorred in the eyes of
Pharaoh, and in the eyes of his servants, to put a sword
4
r
>
into their hand to slay us. 22. And Moses returned to
the Lord, and said, Lord, wherefore hast thou done so
ferred leniency towards their brethren of diction is, therefore, not unfrequent in
to the selfish attempt of avoiding the original minds, and Shakespeare’s works
royal wrath. Less acceptable, is, there- abound in it; for instance, Hamlet speaks
fore, the opinion of those who explain, of * taking arms against a sea of troubles”
that the overseers “saw the condition of (iii. 1). Besides, our phrase belongs to
the workmen,” and were grieved at their those, in which the original figurative
₪a
=
deplorable fate. Abarbanel carrying out sense of the verb has, by frequent use,
his doubtful conception of this whole become obliterated, so that, in the course
passage (see ver. 16), explains: “ Now of time, it was reduced to the general
were the overseers convinced that they, meaning of: to make odious, without
1. 6., the task-masters and the king, were simultaneously calling forth the notion
in unison in these tyrannical measures.” of bad odour (compare the German verb
20. And they (namely, the overseers, anruchig werden).— To put a sword into
and not, as Rashi supplies, some Israel- their hand to slay us, that is, to make
ites) met Moses and Aaron. us suspected in their eyes; to furnish
2u. The Lord may look upon you and them with a pretext for increased rigour
judge; that is, the Lord may search your against us, whom they believe to have
imprudent conduct, and examine your conspired against their legitimate sove-
cause. The rendering of Onkelos, there- reign for our violent deliverance.
fore, who translates, from a misconception 22. How could Moses be surprised at
of the Hebrew verb, the Lord may appear to the obstinacy of Pharaoh, and complain
‘you,isto be rejected as obscure and inappro- so despondingly, as God had distinctly
priate.— Because you have made our odour to predicted to him that the Egyptian
be abhorred in the eyes of Pharaoh, i.e., you despot would not allow the Israelites
have made us hateful, odious in the eyes to leave the land before He had dis-
of Pharaoh. The notion of a bad, played His might and His wonders
fetid smell, seems not quite adapted in against him )11.19(? But Moses re-
connection with the eyes; however, in called to his mind with greater force
Hebrew, the five senses are sometimes such promises of God as: “I have seen
promiscuously used without that nice the affliction of my people in Egypt, and
distinction which modern languages ob- have heard their cry about their task-
serve in this respect; for instance, ‘Truly masters” (iii. 7), or, “the cry of the
thelightis sweet” (Eccles. xii.7), or, “all the children of Israel is come to me, and I
people saw the thunderings” (Exod.xx. 15). have also seen the oppression wherewith
In primitive languages, in which imagi- the Egyptians oppress them” (ver. 9),
nation prevails over reflection, the meta- plainly expressive of an alleviation of
-i
40*-
‫ל‬‎
- phors are not unfrequently accumulated their burthens. And, therefore, he was
to such a degree that they sometimes not prepared to offer a satisfactory reply
destroy each other; but what the expres- to the Hebrew overseers, Nachmanides,
sions thus lose in logic, they usually gain who raises the same question, answers it
in force and richness, Such irregularity by the supposition, that Moses had ex-
 74 EXODUS VI.

evil to this people? wherefore zs it that thou hast sent me?

23. For since I came to Pharaoh to speak in Thy name,
he hath done evil to this people; nor hast Thou in any
way delivered Thy people.
pected, God would, immediately after the struggling after a deeper penetration into
first insolent expressions of Pharaoh, the mysteries of the Almighty—who far
strike him with all His plagues and from condemning such fluctuations of the
punishments; and that the impatient * deceitful heart”’—looks with indulgence
messenger could not understand or ap- on human weakness and short-sighted-
preciate this long-suffering delay of the ness (see vi. 1).
eternal judge, who evidently wished to 23. For since I came. Only when
afford abundant time for the hardened the obstinacy of Pharaoh, and the misery
tyrant to repent, and to listen to the of the people of Israel had reached the
better dictates of his conscience. We highest gradation, God proceeded to
repeat, that the desponding complaint of chastise the one, and to alleviate the
Moses was not the result of disbelief or other.
doubt, but the effort of a pious soul

CHAPTERS* Viet ro Vii

Summary. — Before inflicting upon Pharaoh the chastisements provoked by his
despotic and impious refractoriness, God reveals Himself to Moses in new and
solemn communications, under the holy attributes of the Eternal and Immutable
Being, and promises the redemption of Israel from Egypt, and their conquest of
Palestine: 1, by virtue of those attributes (see ver. 1); 2, on account of the cove-
nant concluded with the patriarchs; and, 3, in consequence of Pharaoh’s tyranny,
now carried to a revolting degree (ver.2—8).—Moses reports these repeated
divine assurances to the people, who, however, by the excess of their oppression,
had despairingly resigned every hope, and now scarcely listened to the consoling
words of Moses (ver. 9). But God re-iterates His commands to Moses, although
the latter raises again the objection concerning his deficiency of speech (ver. 10—13;
28—30; vii. 1—7).—Before, however, Moses and Aaron enter upon their im-
portant mission, it was thought expedient to exhibit their descent from, and con-
nection with, the family of Jacob; and therefore the genealogy of the three tribes
of Reuben, Simeon, and Levi is here inserted (ver. 14—27), with a more detailed
description of the family of Levi, among the members of which, again, Moses and
Aaron are singled out with particular stress (ver. 26, 27).

HEN the Lord said to Moses, Now shalt thou see

what [ shall do to Pharaoh; for 'by a strong hand
will he send them away, and 'by a strong hand will he
drive them out of his land. |
1 Engl. Vers.
— With.
1. For by a strong hand will he send by Rashbam, Rosenmiiller, De Wette,
them away, that is, compelled by the Zunz, Arnheim and Gerlach, and ex-
judgments and visitations of God will pressed also by the Vulgate, Luther and
Pharaoh not only allow but precipitate Patterson, “constrained by an overmas-
the departure of the Israelites. This tering force,” is by far preferable to the
explanation, offered by Rashi, and adopted indistinct rendering of the Septuagint,
 EXODUS VI. 75 ‫בר‬

2. And God spoke to Moses, and said to him, I am the

Lord. 38. And I appeared to Abraham, to Isaac, and to
Jacob, by the name of God Almighty, but by my name
Arabic, Mendelssohn, and the English God appeared to him for the first
Version: “with a strong hand he will time (iii. 14, 15, see our notes), namely,
send them away,” which would convey that God is eternal and immutable, that
a perfectly incorrect notion. therefore all His promises, if they even
2,3. The demands which Moses embrace centuries and millenniums, are
had addressed to Pharaoh, had produced unfailingly realised in due season; and
the alarming result of a still more rigo- that the assurances given to Abraham
rous and cruel treatment of the Israelites. concerning the ultimate glorious redemp-
Moses, naturally desponding and without tion of the oppressed Israelites from
boldness or self-assurance, was still more Egypt (Gen. xv. 14) are likewise on the
intimidated by the reproaches with point of being fulfilled: this revelation is
which he was assailed both by the king now, for the first time, to be communi-
(ver. 4) and the people (ver. 21), and in cated to, and spread among, the Is-
this oppressed and isolated position,
ee raelites; it is to strengthen their hopes,
in which national and personal grief to erect them in their dejection, and,
mingled in his patriotic and sensitive finally to contribute to the perpetual
heart, he asked God, in humility, why glorification of God, who, by the deliver-
He had ordered him to appear before ance of Israel (ver. 6), and their conquest
4
‘ Pharaoh, if it was not His intention to of Canaan (ver. 8), will be recognised
bless his mission with success. Now, not only as all-powerful, but also immut-
therefore, when the tyrannical obstinacy able in His designs and promises, The
of the king made the long threatened knowledge of the name Jehovah was,
punishments and plagues unavoidable, henceforth, not the exclusive privilege of
even for the long-suffering of God, the a few favoured individuals, but it became
appropriate moment had come to fill the designation of the national God of
Moses anew with confidence and firm- Israel, the appellation of the God of the
ness of resolution, which were henceforth eternal covenant. What had been a dim
but rarely to forsake him in extraor- craving to the patriarchs, was now raised
dinary trials; and to reveal to him the to a clear conviction in the mind of even
hitherto misunderstood and unappreci- the lowest of the people; time had
ated awful divine attributes, which worked its enlightening influence, and
described Him as both willing and com- in the school of misery, the religious
petent to rescue the Israelites. Whilst feeling had been matured into an intel-
the patriarchs had known God only lectual knowledge. Thus had Israel
under the name of the Omnipotent, acquired the first and primary condition
the all-powerful Being (Gen. xvii. 1; of its august mission as instructor of the
xxviii. 3, etc.); the Creator of heaven world; and from the conscious know-
and earth (Gen. xiv. 19); and the Ruler ledge of the Eternal and Immutable, to
of nature and the natural destinies of the proclamation of the Decalogue was
man, which, however, does not exclude but one step.—Saadiah supplies the word
many miraculous events; and although alone after, “but under my name, the
the sacred name of God (Jehovah) was Eternal alone (exclusively) I have not
already mentioned to them (Gen. xv. ;‫ל‬‎ been known to them, but promiscuously,
xxii. 14; xxviii. 13, etc.); yet the true by Jehovah, and God Almighty,” which
and deep purport of this designation opinion has already been refuted by Ebn
was not understood and comprehended Ezra, who justly rejects the opinion of
by them. This important revelation, those also, who assert, that the name
which Moses received already when Jehovah was, in fact, never used in the time
 76 EXODUS VI.

lthe Eternal was 1 not known to them. 4, And I have

also established my covenant with them, to give them the
land of Canaan, the land of their *sojourns wherein they
sojourned. 5. And I have also heard the groaning of the
children of Israel, whom the Egyptians keep in bondage,
1 Engl. Vers.—The Lord. 2 Pilgrimage wherein they were strangers.

of the patriarchs, but that Moses intro- to them under that appellation; because
duced it in some passages of Genesis as a they received their revelations not face
name most familiar to himself; but this to face, but through other thediums.” |
is impossible, in Gen. xv. 7; xxii. 16, And certainly a name of God, already,
and xxviii. 13, where God Himself speaks in some respects, though indistinctly,
under that holy name; and in Gen. familiar to the Israelites, must have in-
xxii. 14, where Abraham uses it. And spired them with far more confidence in
yet is this opinion repeated by Philippson: His identity than a designation totally
“The use of the holy name of God, in strange to them.
Genesis, is to be ascribed to the author.” 4. To give them the land of Canaan.
The only possible explanation is that These promises were made to each
already alluded to: “ My name Jehovah patriarch separately, to Abraham in
has not been understood and comprehended Gen. xvii. 7, 8; to Isaac, in xxyi. 3, and
by the patriarchs in its essence and to Jacob, in .‫אאאט‬‎ 12.— The land of their
depth, although it was, even in their sojourns, wherein they sojourned. Canaan
time, already occasionally mentioned.” was, to the fathers, only the land of their
Ebn Ezra, coinciding almost literally temporary abode, in which they resided
with the author of Cusari (ii. 2.), says, as strangers, but which was promised to
that certainly the name Jehovah was their descendants as a hereditary and
already known to the patriarchs, but permanent possession. Abarbanel urges
only as an uncomprehended and un- this addition, explaining: “they were
meaning proper noun, but not as a but strangers in Canaan, and thus the’
descriptive appellative noun, indicative promise of God was not yet fulfilled,
of the attributes and qualities of God. although they found there, for a time,
—It is manifest that Moses, in being a hospitable reception.”
initiated in the holy and comprehensive 5. I am unchangeable and my plans
name of the Deity, obtains a superiority are unalterable (ver. 3); I haye promised
over the patriarchs, who, although per- to your ancestors the possession of
haps from the beginning more believing Canaan after a certain time of trial and
than the long-wavering > Moses, lived misery (ver. 4, and Gen. xv. 16); this
= more in the sphere of innocent childlike period of oppression is now drawing near
obedience than of manly spiritual enlight- its close (ver.5); and I shall, therefore,
enment. The lawgiver was considered as fulfil my promise by rescuing’ you, with
the greatest prophet before and after him great judgments, from your oppressors
(Deut. xxiv. 10). Mendelssohn translates, (ver. 6, et seg.). This is the context of
or rather paraphrases, aptly: “ but with our passage.—And I have remembered my
my nature, which is infinite and all- covenant, namely, made with Abraham,
powerful, I have not been understood concerning the slavery and ultimate de-
(erkannt) by them ;" Rashi: * 1 have not liverance of his progeny (Gen, xy, 13—16).
been known with my true attributes;” and Ebn Ezra finds in the words: And I have
still more explicitly, Abarbanel: * 1 was heard the groaning of the children of Israel,
not known and understood by them with an allusion to the fact, that the Israelites
the name Jehovah, although I appeared now repented, abandoned their idolatrous
 EXODUS VI.. | 77
and I have remembered my covenant. 6. Wherefore say
to the children of Israel, I am 'the Eternal, and I shall
bring you out from under the burdens of the Egyptians,
and I shall rescue you out of their bondage, and I shall
redeem you with a stretched-out arm, and with great
judgments: 7. And I shall take you to me for a people,
worship, and addressed their pious prayers most enthusiastic hopes and the most
> to the God of their fathers. This inter- fondly cherished wishes of the Hebrew
pretation is as little justified by the con- prophets (see Isaiah xix. 24, 25; Zechar.
text as that of Abarbanel, who believes xiv. 10). We declare here once for all
that the phrase: I have remembered my positively, that expressions like God of:
covenant, does not apply to the promise the Hebrews, do in no way justify us to
| made to their ancestors, but describes Goa suppose, that according to Biblical no-
as the judge of mankind, who is resolved tions, the dominion of God was limited
to persecute the despotic king with just to that people, whilst the other countries
afflictions. had their own, although less powerful
G. Wherefore, say to the children of deities. This opinion, which would
Israel, I am the Eternal, that is, I am “convert the monotheism into mono-
unshaken in my designs; I promise and latry,” has even been repeated by Bohlen,
fulfil (ver. 3), and I shall redeem you who asserts, that Jehovah looked upon the
from your bondage with a stretched out other gods as his equals in essence,
arm, and with great judgments. The three although he combated them as his an-
parts of our verse, beginning with * 1 tagonists, and considered them less
shall bring you out;” “TI shall rescue you;” powerful than himself, as indeed every
and * 1 shall redeem you,” convey nearly nation believes its own deity to be the
equivalent ideas; we reject therefore the mightiest. To refute this opinion, it is
artificial distinctions introduced by some sufficient to point to the designations with
interpreters. which the other gods are mentioned in
@. And I will take you to me for a the Bible; they are called nothings, non-
people, namely, by the legislation of entities (Lev. xix. 4); idle productions of
Mount Sinai, by which Israel became the imagination (Deut. xxxii. 21); even
the chosen people (xix. 5), or the /first- with so 867696 a name as abominations
born son of God (iv.22); and this was (Ley. xxvi. 30; Deut. xxix.16); often cou-
the higher spiritual end of Israel’s de- pled with synonymous terms equally
liverance from their physical bondage ; descriptive of the utter contempt with
and therefore the redemption from Egypt which they were regarded (Deut. xxix,
is almost constantly brought into con- 16, and Ezekiel xvi. 36). Are such
nection with the most important laws of nonentities “equals in essence” to the
the Pentateuch, even in the Decalogue. “God of Israel,” the Creator of heaven
Those words will by no unbiassed critic and earth (Gen. i.), the Judge of the whole
be considered as expressing haughtiness, earth (Gen. xviii. 25), the God of the
assumption, or exclusive spirit on the part spirits of all flesh (Num. xvi. 22), to whom
of the Israelites, but merely containing the belong the heavens and the heavens of
undeniable historical fact, that they were heavens, the earth and all that is upon it
the first and earliest worshippers of the (Deut. x. 14)? He fills the uni-
true God, whose adoration they were so verse; and His spirit pervades so en-
far from guarding with jealous particu- tirely all space and time, that scarcely
larism, that its propagation among all a sphere of existence, much less a
the nations of the earth belonged to the sphere of action, is left to the pagan
 78 | EXODUS VI.
|
and I shall be to you a God: and you shall know that I 8
|
am 'the Eternal your God, who bringeth you out from
under the burdens of the Egyptians. 8. And I shall
bring you into the land, concerning which I swore to give
it to Abraham, to Isaac, and to Jacob; and I shall give it
you for an heritage: 1 am ‘the Eternal. 9. And Moses
spoke so to the children of Israel: but they hearkened not
to Moses, ’through shortness of breath and through hard
bondage.—10. And the Lord spoke to Moses, saying,
Engl. Vers.—The Lord. 2 For anguish of spirit, and for eruel bondage.

gods. Compare also our notes on xix, of breath. This literal translation appears
3—6. to be better adapted here than the more
₪. Concerning whichI swore, literally: I figurative rendering of the Septuagint by
have lifted up my hand to give it (the land), pusillanimity, or De Wette and others by
1.6 I have sworn; for it is an ancient impatience; compare Num. xxi.4; Judg,
and far spread custom—here also anthro- x. 16; Job xxi. 4; or of the English Ver-
pomorphistically attributed to God—to sion by “ Anguish of spirit.” Abarbanel
swear by raising the hand, as if to invoke also finds in these words the sufferings
heaven as a witness of the truth of the and grief of the soul, as in the follow-
assertions (Compare Num. xiv. 30; Deut. ing phrase: “through hard bondage” the
xXxxii.40). This oath of God securing torments of the body. (The same com-
the land of Canaan to the descendants of mentator ingeniously observes, that the
Abraham is related in Gen. xxii. 16—18, holy text does not say, “they did not
beginning with: Z swear by myself, saith believe” (see iv. 31), but only, they did
the Lord.—And I shall give it you for an not listen; so also in ver.12). The
heritage, not merely as a land of sojourn- words, and through hard bondage are
ing, as it was to your ancestors, who added to shortness of breath as an ex-
were strangers therein (see ver. 4), or planation, according to the Hebraism
like your abodes in Egypt, the sove- already noticed on iy. 12, to illustrate
reignty of which belongs to a prince of difficult or ambiguous words by easier
another nation. The whole solemn ad- and more unmistakeable expressions
dress of God, in which the past promises connected with the preceding phrase by
are most lucidly combined with the the conjunction and. Arnheim takes both
present misery and the future glory, and phrases as a MHendiadys instead of
which forms, therefore, the transition to “through impatience at the hard bon-
a new epoch in the history of Israel, dage.’— The minds of the Israelites
concludes emphatically with the repeated were in such a state of sad despondency,
exclamation: “J am the Eternal” so exhausted and worn out, that they
(Jehovah), which includes these three had yielded to a torpid resignation, and
epochs in its deep and significant import. an obtuse indifference to their fate,
%. But they hearkened not to Moses. so that even tidings of hope had not the
At his first message (iv. 31), they received power to stir and animate their apa-
Moses joyfully and showed confidence in thetic indolence. So perfectly had the
his promises; but now, when they suf- Egyptian despot gained his end! (vy. 4,
fered still severer hardships than before, 5, 8).
they turned away from him; they neither 10. It cannot be denied that the fol-
listened to him, nor accepted the consola- lowing part of this chapter, and the
tion offered to them.— Through shortness beginning of the following to ver. 7, is so
 EXODUS VI. 79
11. Go, speak to Pharaoh, king of Egypt, that he let
the children of Israel go out of his land. 12. And Moses
spoke before the Lord, saying, Behold, the children of
Israel have not hearkened to me; how then shall Pharaoh
hear me, who am of uncircumcised lips? 18. Thus the
Lord spoke to Moses and to Aaron, and gave them a
charge to the children of Israel, and to Pharaoh king of
Egypt, to bring the children of Israel out of the land of
Egypt.—14. These are the heads of their fathers’ houses:
The sons of Reuben the firstborn of Israel: Hanoch, and
obscure in its internal connection and narrative, which had been interrupted by
structure, that the often repeated asser- the insertion of the genealogy. Compare
tion, that we have here incoherent frag- Gen. xxxvii. 36, and .1.‫אאאוא‬‎ If, more-
ments unskilfully inserted in the context, over, the reiteration of the same ideas is
appears, at the first glance, not without urged, due regard ought to be paid’ to
foundation. For neither contain ver. the genius of the ancient, especially the
11—13, and ver. 26 to vii. 7, any new in- Oriental languages, in which the princi-
formation, nor does the genealogy (ver. pal and leading ideas are repeatedly in-
14—25) seem in its proper place here; troduced, and often with nearly the same
this whole long passage appears, on the words. See note on ver. 12.
contrary, only to interrupt the tenor of 11. Go, namely, into the palace of the
the narrative, which would, most appro- king.
priately, from the emphatical declaration 12. Moses had reported to the Israel-
of God (ver.2—8) have passed over to ites the commands of God; but they did
the miracles and punishments leading to not listen to him (ver. 9); therefore God
the Exodus of the Israelites. — However, ordered Moses to address his request now
as to the genealogy, it is obvious that as directly to Pharaoh, as the Israelites
—— Moses and Aaron were now on the point would certainly seize the opportunity to
of executing their important mission to leave Egypt if the king permitted it
Pharach, and as here the more memorable (ver. 11), But Moses objected — 1st.
= era in their lives begins, it was expedient that the Israelites did not hearken to his
to delineate their descent, and to show representation; how much less would
in what way and degree they are con- Pharaoh consent, who would suffer great
nected with the family of Jacob. More- disadvantages by his compliance: and
over, genealogical accounts are the easiest 2nd. that he was not gifted with the ne-
and most natural thread for the con- cessary power and grace of speech
nection of historical events separated by (ver. 12). Nevertheless God charged
centuries, and are, especially in Oriental him anew to appeal again, accompanied
historiography, considered as an essential by Aaron, both to the Israelites and to
part (see note on ver.16). Nor can it, Pharaoh, and to repeat his commission,
from this point of view, surprise that the firmly promising that he would, at last,
genealogy includes only the three tribes prevail (ver. 18(. This is the natural
of Reuben, Simeon, and Levi, and that and unforced connection of these verses.
the former two are but briefly treated; —Of uncircumcised lips is synonymous
since it was only necessary to show, with the term: “not a man of words,” in
that Levi was the third son of Jacob.— iv. 10, on which see our remarks. Targum
The contents of ver. 11—13 are repeated Onkelos and Jonathan explain, cor-
in yer. 28—30, in order to resume the rectly, heavy of speech, ‘The exact
 , .
=
- 2

02 - ‫א‬ ‫יש‬

Pallu, Hezron, and Carmi. These are the families of

Reuben. 15. And the sons of Simeon: Jemuel, and
Jamin, and Ohad, and Jachin, and Zohar, and Shaul the
son of a Canaanitish woman. These are the families of
Simeon. 16. And these are the names of the sons of Levi
according to their generations: Gershon, and Kohath, and
Merari; and the years of the life of Levi were one hundred
and thirty-seven years. 17. The sons of Gershon: Libni,
and Shimi, according to their families. 18. And the sons
of Kohath: Amram, and Izhar, and Hebron, and Uzziel;
and the years of the life of Kohath were one hundred and
thirty-three years. 19. And the sons of Merari: Mahali
and Mushi. These are the families of Levi according to

meaning of this phrase denotes a man fathers’ houses stood: under the authority
> whose lips are closed, as it were, with the of chiefs, or heads of fathers’ houses, who
foreskin, and are, therefore, too long and were, probably, like the chiefs of the
thick to utter speech with facility”’ (Gesen.) tribes, elective, not hereditary dignities
The same metaphor is used of the heart (rarpidpxyat, patriarchs, as the Septua-
(Lev. ,‫אא‬‎ 41; Ez. xliv. 9), and of the gint sometimes appropriately translates).
ear (Jer. vi. 10). It is, therefore, unne- However, not unfrequently father’s house
cessary, if not absurd, to suppose, with is used instead of family; for instance,
Clericus and others, that the skin by in Num. iii. 24, 30,35; and this is the
which the tongue of the new-born children case in our passage also (see the first and
is connected with the inner part of the last words of ver. 14); sometimes even
mouth, had not been properly cut off, both expressions are pleonastically com-
and that thus Moses was “ uncircumcised bined, as Num. i. 2, 18, etc; ii, 34:
of lips.” “to their families, to their fathers’ houses.”
13. Rashi observes, that as Moses Now of Reuben and Simeon, the families
had objected that he was no man of (cvyyéverae or warptai) are but briefly
eloquence, God addressed now Moses mentioned, whilst the tribe of Levi is
and Aaron, associating to him the latter more completely specified, with its fami-
as a spokesman. Our verse seems rather lies and members, from the reason al-
to contain a concise summary of the his- ready stated on ver.10. Compare Genesis
tory of Israel’s redemption, as far as it is xlvi. 8—11.
hitherto related in the text.—And He gave 15. The family of Ohad must have
them a charge to the children of Israel. died out already in Egypt, or in the
How these words ** 18186 the position of desert, because it is not mentioned in the
Moses into a significant sublimity, and genealogy contained in Numb. xxvi. 12
bear the character of pompous boasting ” (Ebn Ezra). Instead of Zohar we find
as Philippson asserts, it is difficult to there (ver. 13) Zerah; both words, how-
comprehend. ever, have the same meaning, splendour.
44. The heads of their fathers’ houses. 16. According to their generations; that
The Hebrew tribes were divided into is, with their families, or descendants
families (gentes, djpor); and the families (see ver. 17, 19). De Sacy, correctly:
again into fathers’ houses (olko: warp; “et la suite de leur familles.” As the
compare Joshua yii. 14--18 These origin and descent of Moses and Aaron
 SC EXODUSVI.
==

if : /

heir generations. 20. And Amram took to himself

“Tochebed his aunt to wife, and she bare him Aaron and
Moses; and the years of the life of Amram were one
hundred and thirty-seven years. 21. And the sons of
Izhar: Korah, and Nepheg, and Zichri. 29.. ‫מושווה‬‎
‘sons of Mishael, and Elzaphan, and Sithri.
Uzziel:
23. And Aaron took to Essel Elisheba, daughter of
-Amminadab, sister of Nahshon, to wife; and she bare him,
Nadab, and Abihu, Elazar, and Ithamar. : And the
sons of Korah: Assir, and Elkanah, and Abiasaph. These
are the families of the Korhite. 25. And Elazar Aaron’s
son took to himself one of the daughters of Putiel to wife;
1 and she bare him Pinehas. These are the heads of the
ay
= is the chief and almost exclusive purpose addition is also expressed by the Sama-
of the genealogy here inserted, the ages ritan, the Septuagint, and the Syrian
_ of his direct ancestors are likewise men- versions. Although Miriam takes not an
tioned, namely, that of Levi (137 years), unimportant part in the following history,
> Kohath (133 years), and Amram (137 we are not justified in inserting here
years). Biblical chronology, a science these words, as the female progeny is
as important as it is difficult, has a safe generally not enumerated in genea-
and welcome basis in the almost regular, logies.
and generally exact, statements of the 21, 22. The sons of Kohath are: Ist.
ages of the representatives of the re- Amram, 2nd. Izhar, 3rd. Hebron, 4th.
- Spective generations; and these continu- Uzziel. Now, the children of Amram
_ ous, almost uninterrupted statements, are are mentioned on account of Moses and
another weighty proof of the unity of the Aaron; the progeny of Izhar on account
0 ld Testament as a whole. Thus we find of Korah, who rebelled against Moses
‘mentioned the years of the generations (Num. xvi, xvii.), and that of Uzziel, on
from Adam to Noah; from Noah to account of his sons Mishael and Elza-
Abraham; then successively the lives of phan, mentioned in Levit. x. 4,5. But
][sae , vacob, Levi, Kohath, Amram, the children of Hebron, although he had
1Moses, Joshua, the Judges, and the sons (Num. iii. 27), are not introduced
Kings; then the exile of seventy years, because they act no conspicuous parts in
and, lastly, the further generations during the Pentateuch; for this appears to have
the second temple, in the book of been the guiding principle in the compi-
Daniel. lation of the Biblical genealogies.
20. And Amram took to himself 23. The wife of Aaron, Elisheba
Jochebed his aunt to wife. Targum (Septuagint, "EAXvsaPér), is, according to
Onkelos translates correctly: “his fa- Ebn Ezra, mentioned as the mother of
ther’s sister;” for Jochebed was the daugh- priesthood (see Numb. xx. 25; xxy. 13),
ter of Levi, born to him in Egypt (Num. whilst Jochebed is the mother of pro-
xxvi. 59), and, therefore, the sister of Ko- phecy.
hath, the father of Amram; sce, however, 25. About Pinehas see Numb. xxv.
our note on ii. 1, and Introduction, § 2.— 11—138.
Some manuscripts have, “and Miriam 26. These are that Aaron and Moses,
heir sister,” after “Aaron,” which to whom God, etc. With these words
G

> ‎‫ה‬ a ae
82 EXODUS VI.

fathers of the Levites according to their families. 26. These

are that Aaron and Moses, to whom the Lord said, Bring
out the children of Israel from the land of Egypt accord-
ing to their 'hosts. 27. These are they who spoke to
Pharaoh king of Egypt, to bring out the children of Israel
from Egypt: these are that Moses and Aaron.—28. And it
came to pass on the day when the Lord spoke to Moses in
the land of Egypt, 29. That the Lord spoke to Moses,
saying, I am the Eternal: speak thou to Pharaoh king of
Egypt all that I say to thee. 30. And Moses said before
the Lord, Behold, I am of uncircumcised lips, and how
shall Pharaoh hearken to me?
1 Engl. Vers.— Armies.
the narration returns easily to verse 13, portance; and thus the former order is
where it was interrupted for the insertion, observed in all genealogical accounts
of the genealogy of the legislator, and (Num. iii. 1; xxvi. 59); the latter, every-
his brother, the first pontifical dignitary. where else, where they are henceforth
This is naturally done with a certain mentioned together. Ebn Ezra’s remark,
emphasis— (these are that Aaron and > Aaron 18 here mentioned first, because
Moses; these are they that spoke to he prophesied to the Israelites before
Pharaoh; these are that Moses and Moses,” is, therefore, unfounded.—Ae-
Aaron, ver. 26, 27), but without “ gran- cording to their hosts, that is, obviously,
diloquy,” or pride. It is strange to ob- the tribes and their families, which, on
serve that this passage, and especially the the journeys, marched in separate bodies,
simple personal pronouns “he” and “they” 28—30. The 28th verse is to be con-
have been made ‘to serve as proofs nected with the following; and Rashi
against the authenticity of the Penta- already objects to the masoretical sepa-
teuch; for, says Clericus, “they could ration of both verses. Ebn Ezra finds
not have been used by Moses, if he had it likewise surprising, without, however,
spoken of himself,” and Vater remarks: venturing a decisive opinion on the
“Thus an author writes only of men who subject. The explanation of Rosen-
lived long before his time.” But we need miiller, who is desirous to accommodate
scarcely remind our readers that our himself to the traditional division: “ And
text naturally points with some stress to this event—namely, that Moses and Aaron
Moses and Aaron, on whose account spoke to Pharaoh (ver. 27)—took place
alone the genealogy had been inserted; on the day when God exhorted Moses to
and those words mean simply: this is his mission (ver. 28); for the Lord spoke
the descent of Moses and Aaron, who (ver. 29)”; this explanation is ungram-
were now sent to Pharaoh; and they matical and 111081081,
-- 1116 following
correspond precisely with verses 13, 14, address of God is the same as that
thus returning to the commencement of contained in ver. 11, as the objections
the parenthetical list, and indicating its of Moses in ver. 30 are, with slight al-
conclusion.—In our verse, which finishes terations, identical with those of ver. 123
the genealogy, Aaron is named before and this repetition serves merely to the
Moses, being the elder brother; but in harmony of the style.-—J am the Eternal
verse 27, which forms the transition to stands here with the same emphasis: “Iam
the history, Moses has precedence before the eternal and immutable accomplisher
Aaron, being superior in dignity and im- of my promises,” as in vers. 2 and 8.
 EXODUS VII. 83
CHAPTER VII.
ND the Lord said to Moses, See, I have made thee
a god to Pharaoh; and Aaron thy brother shall
be thy prophet. 2. Thou shalt speak all that I com-
mand thee; and Aaron thy brother shall speak to Pharaoh,
that he send the children of Israel out of his land.
3. And I shall harden Pharaoh’s heart, and multiply my
signs and my wonders in the land of Egypt. 4. But
Pharaoh ‘will not hearken to you, ’and I shall lay my
hand upon Egypt, and bring forth my *hosts, ‘my people
the children of Israel, out of the land of Egypt, by great
iP | Judgments. 5. And the Egyptians shall know that I am
|
|
‫או‬
*the Eternal, when I shall stretch forth my hand upon
1 Engl. Vers.—Shall. ? That I may lay. 3 Armies.
4 And my people. 5 The Lord.

| 1, 2. These verses contain the direct be doubtful: Moses shall act with regard
answer to the objection raised by Moses to Pharaoh, and dictate with regard to
in the last verse of the preceding chapter: Aaron, as the direct representative and
that he shall not himself speak before messenger of God, and in His name and
Pharaoh, but his eloquent brother Aaron, authority.— Many interpreters believing
to whom he shall suggest the ideas im- the designation “as a god” too sublime
parted to him by God Himself, and who for a human being of even the exalted
will thus be his spokesman, whilst he will morality of Moses, have vaguely para-
stand to Aaron as well as to Pharaoh in phrased that word; so Targum On-
the relation of a God—exactly as it was kelos and Saadiah render ‘“ master”;
‎‫ זי‬expressed in 16.16: “and he shall in- Jonathan, ‘Formidable to Pharaoh as
deed be to thee instead of a mouth, and if thou wert his God”; Rashi, “ His
> thou shalt be to him instead of God” superior and master, authorised to punish
(see our note there); but the power and him with plagues and afflictions”; Ebn
influence of Moses were not limited to Ezra, “ Angel.”
Aaron alone, but extended over Pharaoh 2. Thou shalt speak, namely, to Aaron.
also. It is, therefore, evident that pro- —And Aaron, thy brother, shall speak to
phet in our verse is identical in meaning Pharaoh; “ And thy brother Aaron shall
‫ו‬ with mouth in the passage just quoted, convey to Pharaoh thy ideas in adorned
and that it is to be taken in its original and captivating speech” (Rashi).—“ Al-
4 etymological meaning of spokesman. though Aaron is not always mentioned
God reveals His will to mankind through when Moses went to Pharaoh, it is under-
_ the mouth of a prophet who speaks out stood, that both repaired to him always
_ the thoughts disclosed to him; just so together” (Ebn Ezra),
should Moses use Aaron as the expounder 3. And I shall harden Pharaoh’s heart.
of his ideas. Compare Jeremiah xv, 19; See our note on iv, 21.
Virgil, Ain. iv. 378; Philo iv. p. 116: 4, And I shall lay my hand, i.e., as
“For a prophet speaks no thoughts of Targum Onkelos renders: “ The plague
his own, but those of another, who sug- of my power,” or my severe plagues.
gests them to him.” Nor can, from this 5. From the nature of the plagues
point of view, the signification of “asagod” which I shall bring over Egypt, they
G2
84 EXODUS VIL
Egypt, and bring out the children of Israel from among
them.—6. And Moses and Aaron did as the Lord com-
manded them; so they did. 7. And Moses was eighty
years old, and Aaron eighty-three years old, when they
spoke to Pharaoh.
8, And the Lord spoke to Moses and to Aaron, saying, el
4

9. When Pharaoh will speak to you, saying, Show a

miracle for you: then thou shalt say to Aaron, Take thy

will know that only a being of such three years old, when they appeared
attributes as are implied in my holy before Pharaoh. These are valuable
name, i. e., that only the God of the dates of the highest importance for the
Israelites, has inflicted them upon their chronological arrangement of this whole
period of the Hebrew history. An c0
heli
ilia
land. ‘Thus the Egyptians will perceive
and acknowledge their infatuation, with octogenarian might appear too far ad- ete
=

vanced in years to possess sufficient

—

which they had formerly denied the God

=

physical strength or mental energy for

Lae

of Israel, the Lord of the universe, how-

7
7

ever different such knowledge of God, the arduous duties he was to perform,
forced upon them by fear and punish- and the unusual privations he was to
ment, might be from the ready belief of endure. But Moses was in every respect
pious minds. We have therefore trans- of such an extraordinary and almost ex-
lated Jehovah here also the Eternal, not the ceptional organization, he was of a nature
Lord; besides the section from vi. 2 to
so infinitely superior to the common mass,
vii. 7, belongs together (see on vi. 10). that he cannot be measured after the
6. And Moses and Aaron did as the usual standard. A man who framed, in
Lord commanded them. Henceforth all a dark age, laws destined to guide man-
hesitation and diffidence on the part of kind to the remotest generations, must
Moses and Aaron ceased, and they now even constitutionally have possessed a
applied themselves confidently to the greater vigourousness than is ordinarily
execution of their great charge-—Ebn allotted to man. From this point of
Ezra connects these words with the fol- view, it is even scarcely necessary to Say
de
cy
aon
.
1S
>

lowing wonders performed by Moses and urge, that God miraculously strengthened
Aaron on the behest of God. See, how- him as His chosen instrument and His
ever, on vi. 10.—So they did, an empha- greatest prophet, or that he had led a life
tical repetition, expressing their zeal and calculated to preserve the inborn strength, ae
IMs
apa

readiness in fulfilling the divine com- first in the splendour of an Egyptian court,
mands. and afterwards in the simplicity of pas-
'z. Moses was eighty, and Aaron eighty- toral pursuits 2=.

CHAPTER VII. 8 tro VIII. 11.

Summary.—The ten plagues are preceded by the sign, that the staff of Aaron was
magicians, [|
converted into a serpent, devouring the serpents of the Egyptian
(vii. 8—12),
which they produced with their staffs by help of their secret arts
upon Egypt
But Pharaoh persisted in his obstinacy; and God inflicted therefore
all the water of the country, even that preserved in vessels,
the first plague:
of the river itself
was turned into 21000, the fish in the Nile died, the water
dig for wells, yielding,
became undrinkable, and the inhabitants were compelled to
in Egypt, generally very distasteful and unwholesome water. But when the
 EXODUS VII. 85

"staff, and cast i¢ before Pharaoh, and it shall become a

serpent. 10. And Moses and Aaron went to Pharaoh,
and they did so as the Lord had commanded: and Aaron
cast down his staff before Pharaoh, and before his servants,
and it became a serpent. 11. Then Pharaoh also called
the wise men and the sorcerers: now the Egyptian *inter-
preters of secret signs, they also did in the lke manner
with their *hidden arts. 12. For they cast down every
1 Engl. Vers.—Rod. ? Magicians. 3 Enchantments.

magicians likewise converted, by their arts, some water into blood, Pharaoh
despised the request of Moses (ver. 13—25). Seven days after the first plague,
therefore, God covered the whole land of Egypt with frogs, which, forsaking their
natural element, the water, penetrated into “the houses, the bed-chambers, ovens,
and kneading troughs,” tormenting the Egyptians with their noise and their
fetid smell.And as the magicians, although they contrived to produce frogs,
were unable to remove them, Pharaoh, with mortified pride, requested Moses to
pray to the Lord for deliverance from the plague, promising to permit the
departure of the Israelites. On the fervent prayer of Moses the plague
ceased on the following day (vii. 26 to viii. 11).
8. From this verse the narrative, which with reference to the Chartumim, are
had been at a standstill from vi. 10, steadily evidently intended to characterise the
and interestingly proceeds with facts and arts of the latter as contemptible acts of
events, directly leading to the aim of clerical imposition, whilst the epithet
Moses’ mission, the redemption of the wise men, does not enhance their dignity,
:
Israelites from Egypt. as the words signifying knowledge, or
1 9. Even if Pharaoh should be more wisdom, are, in the Semitic languages,
|
inclined to listen to your request, not used in connection even with poisoners,
saying, “ Who is the Lord, that I should jugglers, and all individuals who
hearken to his voice” (v.2), or “Go to were considered to possess more know-
your burdens” (v.4), he will naturally ledge than the common mass of the
demand signs for yourselves, to accredit people, whatever the nature of that know-
_ yourselves as God’s messengers, as a ledge might be. The sense is, there-
proof that you are really deputed by fore: although the Egyptian magicians
a powerful and eternal being; the more had, likewise, the power of convert-
so, as even the Israelites required such ing staffs into serpents, they owed it
evidence of their being the true delegates +0 demoniac and pernicious arts, whilst
of God.—The staff, which Aaron is Moses and Aaron possessed it as a gift
ordered to take, is certainly the staff of of the Most High, and, therefore, easily
Moses, which he possessed already in the conquered their idolatrous and supersti-
desert of Sinai (iv. 2), and which he took tious rivals. See ver. 12, and Josephus,
with him when he returned to Egypt (iv.20). Antiq. 11. xiii. 4.
un. Already Targum Jonathan men- 1%. The magicians threw down their
tions the names of the two chief Char- staffs (which they carried always as a
- tumim, namely, Jannes (‘Iayvijc), and sign of their clerical dignity, as the
Jamberos (Mamre, "1002076, 2 Tim. iii. Roman augurs bore the lituus, a crooked
8). Jannes and Jambres were called staff without knots: Liv. i. 18; compare
by the Mohammedans Sadur and Gadur Cicero De Divin.i. 17); they were also
(Koran, vii.116). The words “enchanters,” converted into serpents—but these were
and “ with their incantations,” here used swallowed by the serpents of Aaron (not
86 EXODUS VII.

man his 'staff, and they became serpents: but Aaron’s

staff swallowed up their staffs. 13. And 66 heart of
1 Engl. Vers.—Rod. 2 He hardened Pharaoh’s heart.

“their staffs were devoured by the staff heathen nations, in the service of their
of Aaron,” as Rashi and others believe). false religions, a certain art of conju-
Thus a certain degree of power and skill ration, in which, certainly, the application
is here attributed to the Egyptian priests, of secret powers of nature, and cunning,
although decidedly inferior to that be- haye a large share, but which, no doubt,
stowed by God on Moses and Aaron. It stand under the influence of evil
cannot be denied that the Pentateuch con- spirits.” )1( And Scott writes: “They,
siders miracles performed, apparently not who reverence the Scriptures, will hardly
in the name of the God of Israel, but under deny, that many of the magicians had ₪
the fancied influence of other deities, as not real intercourse with evil spirits (sic!),
impossible, and that it admits even pre- and, by their help, actually made dis-
dictions, which might be realised, and coveries, and produced effects beyond the
which are called “ false signs,” only be- reach or power of human sagacity ....
cause they are given in a bad cause, and We cannot, indeed, in general assign exact
for an objectionable purpose; see especi- bounds to the power of evil spirits, who,
ally, Deut. xiii. 2—6; compare Matt. when permitted, seem capable of any-
ix. 34; xii, 24; xxiv. 24. In a similar thing which created beings can do.”
light the performances of the Egyptian Similarly, even Clarke.—On the other
magicians, in our passage, and on suc- hand, we have already observed on iv, 4,
ceeding occasions, are undoubtedly to be that the art of taming serpents to such a
viewed; they are, in a certain manner, point, that they, at the command of their
likewise to be considered as miracles; the masters, alternately become stiff like
magicians are not bare impostors, nor sticks, and resume their natural forms,
are their performances mere deceitful was much practised in Egypt and the
tricks, but these miracles were of a lower whole Orient; and is still carried on in
order; for how could Moses hope to our time. We read in the “ Déscription
make an impression upon the king by the de Egypte” (i. p. 159): “ The serpent
same signs? However, if we admit a Haje, is that sort of reptile which the
certain power of the magicians, we reject, jugglers of Cairo know best how to turn
most unconditionally, from the notions to account; they tame it, and teach it a
of the Pentateuch, all interference of great number of tricks more or less ex-
“evil spirits,’ which would thus be en- traordinary; they can, as they say,
dowed with a power independent of that change the Haje into a stick, and make it
of God. All wisdom and might ema- appear like dead. After some prepara-
nates from Him; nothing is more pre- tions it seems, indeed, to assume these
posterous, and more at variance with the forms.” The mystery which hangs round
nature of the One God who fills the this subject, has not yet been quite dis-
universe, than the idea of a sharing of pelled. The art of conjuring serpents is
His power with other, however subordi- hereditary in certain families. The
nate, spirits; and if, therefore, idolators charmers travel, in great numbers,
or false prophets are sometimes endowed through towns and villages, allure, by
with supernatural gifts, it is the God of different contrivances, the serpents which
Israel alone who bestows them from in- are hidden in the secret recesses of the
scrutable reasons, and no other superior houses, and seize them by various arti-
being; for there exists none besides Him. fices. They are safe against their bite,
And yet, even recent commentators have to such a degree that they not only
repeated such monstrous opinions, Ger- allow them to creep around their bodies,
lach remarks: “ We find among many but provoke them even to anger. Without
 EXODUS VII. 87
Pharaoh remained hardened, and he hearkened not to
them, as the Lord had said.

ocular perception they smell the presence one or more serpents; but I have known
of serpents by their strong exhalation, instances in which this could not be the
and the latter follow the artificial sounds case; and am inclined to believe that the
which the conjurors apply to attract them. darweeshes above-mentioned are gene-
We further insert the following account raliy acquainted with some real physical
of Lane (Modern Egypt, 11. .‫כ‬‎ 230), as means of discovering the presence of ser-
that of an accurate and calm recent ob- pents, without seeing them, and of
server: “As the serpent seeks the dark- attracting them from their lurking-
est place in which to hide himself, the places.”—J. D. Michaelis observes, that
charmer has, in most cases, to exercise the magicians probably applied a certain
his skill in an obscure chamber, where he kind of serpents, which have the appear-
might easily take a serpent from his ance of a stick as long as they do not
bosom, bring it to the people without the move, but which naturally become mani-
door, and affirm that he had found it in fest as serpents, if thrown to the ground.
the apartment, for no one would venture Modern travellers have considerably in-
to enter with him after having been as- creased our knowledge concerning these
sured of the presence of one of these extraordinary feats; and if we compare
reptiles within: but he is often required their almost unanimous accounts, we
to perform in the full light of day, sur- must come to the conclusion that the
rounded by spectators, and incredulous minds of the conjurors were, during their
persons have searched him beforehand, operations, in the highest possible state of
and even stripped him naked, yet his excitement and enthusiasm, and that a
success has been complete. He assumes cool and deliberate imposition is out of the
an air of mystery, strikes the walls with question. Detailed and interesting descrip-
a short palm-stick, whistles, makes a tions will be found in Shaw, Travels,
chuckling noise with his tongue, and p. 854; Niebuhr, Travels, 1. 189; Dé-
spits upon the ground, and generally scription de 11327766, viii. 108, xviii.
says: ‘I adjure you by God, if ye be 1, 333; Quatermére, Mém. sur l|’Egypte,
above, or if yebe below, that ye come i, 202; Minutoli, Travels, p. 226; Heng-
forth: I adjure you by the most great stenberg, Mos. and Eg. p.97—103.
name, if ye be obedient, come forth; and 13. The tyrant’s wounded pride dark-
if ye be disobedient, die! die! die!’ The ened still more the blindness of his intel-
serpent is generally dislodged by his lect; carried away by his fatal infatuation
stick, from a fissure in the wall, or drops he ruined himself and his country by the
from the ceiling of the room. I have plagues, which the hand of the Almighty
often heard it asserted that the serpent- now inflicts upon him. However, before
charmer, before he enters a house in entering upon the explanation of those
which he is to try his skill, always em- punishments individually, we deem it
ploys a servant of that house to introduce advisable to premise

A GENERAL SURVEY OF THE TEN PLAGUES.

Tue picture which the inspired writer draws of the plagues of Egypt, and which he
executes with uncommon care and exactness, is deeply interesting in more than one
point of view. It represents the grand and imposing struggle between the boundless
power of the Omnipotent, and the refractory pride of a demented prince; between the
wisdom of the fountain of knowledge, and the boasting vanity of the frail human
intellect; between the Lord of the universe and the idols of a heathen country; in a
word, it depicts the eternal struggle of Truth against Error, of Monotheism against
 88 A GENERAL SURVEY OF THE TEN PLAGUES.

Paganism. That in this unequal combat divine omnipotence gained an easy victory
over mortal impotence, and that Truth triumphed over Fallacy, is as natural and
obvious as the fact, that Moses, the humble agent and instrament of the Lord,
although, as a mere medium, he disappears almost in the narrative, obtains in the
reader’s mind the superiority over the haughty magicians and their presumptuous
conceit. But that God inflicted ten successive plagues to break the king’s contumacy,
whilst he might have annihilated him with one mighty stroke, shows that God merci-
fully tried to convince and move the tyrant by less dangerous visitations, calculated
merely to impress him with some idea of the unlimited means at His command; and
only when Pharaoh’s obstinacy grew more and more inveterate, the number and
formidable character of the plagues were increased. And as in the hand of Providence
every event becomes a means to a higher aim, the miseries which befell Pharaoh in
consequence of his own obduracy, were at the same time intended by God to manifest
to all the nations of the earth His supreme power, and to induce them to abandon
their idolatrous worship, and to acknowledge His exclusive sovereignty. “But only
for this cause have I let thee exist, in order to show thee my power, and that my name
be acknowledged throughout all the earth” (ix.16; x,1,2,etc.). We cannot therefore
see, as Wilson does, in such passages any “proof, that the ancient Jews had no
scruples ac to the question of fair-dealing with Pharaoh; that the latter can only be
viewed as an anvil for the strokes of the divine hammer, and that we are not to look /
for a high order of ethics in the Biblical times.” Such deductions are the unavoid-
able result of a system of interpretation, in which superficial declamation and 4
inveterate prejudice take the place of patient research and unbiassed examination.
§
Now, if we analyze the nature of the plagues as narrated in our text, we cannot 1
but acknowledge the miraculous character with which all, without exception, are
i
90

stamped; and the efforts of many scholars (as especially of Eichhorn in his treatise:
“de anno mirabili Aigypti”), who took pains to explain those visitations as natural 1
phenomena, have proved signally unsuccessful, futile, and often Iudicrous. Con- ‘
scientious and unprejudiced commentators will deferentially abstain from forcing their
own preconceived notions into the simplicity of the sacred text, which alone can form
a safe basis for an authentic interpretation; they will modestly declare themselves to
be the mere echo of tradition. It is sufficient in the exposition of ancient works, to 1
trace and develop the probable meaning which the author intended to convey.
not always feasible to form an exact judgment on the nature and value of the facts
It is
1
and ideas communicated: a task, which the commentator may with propriety leave to
every reader individually after having put him in possession of all materials
necessary to arrive at a well-established opinion. However, it is, on the other hand,
easily discernible that all these plagues are based upon natural circumstances or 4

phenomena of Egypt; we know that the Nile indeed assumes annually a red colour at a
certain season; that generally immediately after this time, the slime of the river breeds
a vast number of frogs; that the air is filled with swarms of tormenting insects; and
after the same analogy in all other plagues; and the reader will find in the following
remarks on these inflictions the necessary natural-historic accounts bearing on the 204
MS
Oa
sto,
2-
- —
-

subject, and affording many points of comparison between the narrative of the holy
text and the observations of geographers and travellers. In fact, the whole force of
the following narrative will be lost. to those, who read it! without reference to the —
eee
Sas
natural condition of Egypt; whereas a careful regard to this point will interestingly
illustrate both the admirable climax of the punishments of Pharaoh and the truthfal-
ness and authenticity of the descriptions. But the miraculous character of those
Be
bine
phenomena is unmistakeably observable in the following points: 1. They take place 4

at a time contrary to their usual occurrence; 2. They happen within a space of a few
months in rapid succession, whilst at least some of them are of very rare occurrence
 A GENERAL SURVEY OF THE TEN PLAGUES. 89

(see notes to the 8th and 9th plagues); 3. Their injurious character is infinitely
aggravated; as, for instance, by the first plague not only the water of the Nile is
converted into blood, but also all its numerous fishes die; 4. They occur at the time
predicted by Moses and at his command; 5. They generally cease at his prayer; and
6. The Egyptians only are afflicted by them, whilst the Israelites are exempted from
their calamitous effects (see vill. 18; ix. 4, 6,26; x.23; xii, 12, et caet.). Perhaps the
a
number even of the plagues is not insignificant, as ten is in the Old Testament the
‫ר=ל‬
number of perfection (see note on xx. 1--14( ; and the ten plagues which freed Israel
from the yoke of Egypt’s king, may be contrasted with the ten commandments, by
which Israel accepted the sovereignty of God.
The order, arrangement and successive gradation of the ten dispensations have
been made the subject of minute examination on the part of Jewish commentators.
So observes Rashbam (on vii. 26), that always two plagues are preceded by their
announcement, whilst the third takes place without previous warning. Thus Moses
announces the blood and the frogs, the gnats he does not threaten ; beetles and
pestilence are introduced with a caution to Pharaoh, and boils not; the same is the
‫א‬
case with the hail and the locusts on the one hand, and with darkness on the other.
Abarbanel finds a still more artificial harmony in the external execution of the nine
first plagues: a) The first, fourth, and seventh are prefaced by the words: “ Go before
Pharaoh early in the morning’—and are announced to Pharaoh and his court;
6) The second, fifth, and eighth are only preceded by the words: “Go to Pharaoh’”—
and are predicted to Pharaoh alone and secretly; and c) The third, sixth and ninth
are not announced at all—and were at once executed before the Egyptian people.—
The same commentator observes (on viii. 16), that according to the Biblical relation
three wonders—blood, frogs and gnats—were performed by Aaron; three others—hail,
locusts and darkness—by Moses; and three—beetles, pestilence and death of the first-
born—by God himself, without the medium of Moses and Aaron; and one—boils—
by Moses and Aaron together(compare Ebn Ezra on viii. 12, and Cusari 1.88(. 6
further maintains, that the five first plagues were produced by the two grosser
elements, water and earth; the five latter by the two light elements, fire and air;
namely, blood and frogs by the water; the next three, gnats, beetles and pestilence
by the earth; the following two, boils and hail, by fire (ix. 10—23); and locusts,
darkness and death of the first-born by the air—Rabbi Jehudah Halevi (quoted by
Ebn Ezra on ix. 1) considers more rationally the six last plagues from pestilence, as
the effects of an infected air, only admitting the co-operation of fire in the seventh
plague (that of hail).—The uninterrupted climax in the terrific nature of the plagues
has always been pointed out and explained in the following commentary. We will
here but briefly consider the successive effects, which these miracles produced on the
hard-heartedness of Pharaoh.— When Moses first requested the king, to grant to the
oppressed people of Israel but afew days’ leave for the celebration of a religious
festival, he was met with the insulting reply: “ Who is God, that I should listen to
his voice, and let Israel go? I know not the Lord, neither will I let Israel go,” and
the burdens of Israel were enhanced instead of being alleviated. Nor had the wonder
of the staff transformed into a serpent any effect on the obstinacy of the king, as his
wise men exhibited a similar performance, and the circumstance, that the serpent of
Moses devoured the serpents of his councillors, was to him but a proof that the art of
Moses was, in some degree, more developed, but not of a different or higher order.
As little influence had the first plague, the transmutation of the water of the Nile into
blood; for this also was imitated by the Chartumim, although they were, on the other
hand, unable to restore the sound water of the Nile. After seven days follows the
second plague; frogs fill, with their loathsome presence, all houses and apartments;
the learned of Egypt also certainly produce these animals, but they cannot remove them,
90 A GENERAL SURVEY OF THE TEN PLAGUES.

and Pharaoh is now forced, for the first time, to humiliate himself so far as to implore,
through Moses, the assistance of the God of Israel, whom he had shortly before
derided as an illusion and a nonentity (viii. 4), and to promise the departure of the
Israelites for the purpose represented by Moses. But he scarcely saw himself delivered
from the mischief of the frogs, when he unscrupulously retracted his solemn permission.
The next plague, that of the gnats, reduced the antagonists of Moses to a more diffi-
cult position. Even the sorcerers confessed: “this is the finger of God;” for they
were even not able to produce these insects, much less to remove them (viii. 15); yet
Pharaoh persevered in his contumacy. The fourth plague—the beetles—forced from
Pharaoh the permission that Israel might sacrifice to their God in Egypt. But when
Moses represented to him that they would not be safe from the religious fanaticism of
the Egyptian people, if they killed animals held in sacred veneration by the latter,
Pharaoh gave the hypocritical promise, to allow their departure into the desert, with
the restriction, however, not to proceed too far from the Egyptian frontier (verse 24);
and although Moses was fully convinced of Pharaoh’s insincerity (verse 25), he prayed
to God to let the plague cease, which, in fact, disappeared immediately. More de-
structive and more fatal chastisements, were now accumulated against Pharaoh; a pesti-
lence annihilated the greatest part of the Egyptian cattle, whilst that of the Israelites
remained uninjured—but Pharaoh persisted in his obstinacy. More dreadful than all
preceding calamities was the sixth plague, that of boils; it was no longer directed
against the property, but the persons of the Egyptians; and what caused still greater
horror was the circumstance that the ulcerating boils covered even the pure bodies of
the scrupulously cleanly priests, a fact which the text expressly mentions (ix. 11).
But even this punishment exercised no effect upon Pharaoh’s conduct. A terrible
hail-storm followed, accompanied with torrents of rain, and crashing thunder, and
fearful lightnings; the unbridled fury of the elements, before unheard of in Egypt,
killed men and beasts in the fields, and destroyed every herb and every tree, and anni-
hilated the earlier crops, as flax and barley—Goshen alone, the abode of the Israelites,
remained exempt from all these inflictions. They were, certainly, so overpowering,
that Pharaoh summoned Moses and Aaron before him, and confessed: “I have sinned
this time; God is just, but 1 and my people are wicked ” (ix. 27); he requested them
to pray for him, and promised again to allow the departure of the Israelites. How-
ever, when he was released from this plague also, he hardened his heart as before.
But although all these chastisements had apparently remained fruitless to reform
Pharaoh’s mind, they exercised a powerful influence upon the feelings of the Egyptian
people, who began to see the power of the Lord, and to acknowledge it; for already
at the seventh plague, a great part had followed the warning, to drive the cattle from
the ficlds into the houses, before the commencement of the hail-storm; and when
Moses now announced, as a new plague, the infliction of formidable, unparalleled
swarms of devastating locusts, the people urged the king to submissiveness, reproach-
fully warning him: “ Dost thou not yet know that Egypt is ruined?” (x. 7), But when
Moses insisted upon the departure of the whole people, with their wives and children,
and all their cattle, Pharaoh felt, as an undoubted fact, what he had hitherto but vaguely
guessed, namely, that the sacrifices in the desert were only used as a pretext to conceal the
plan of a total emigration from Egypt; and shunning the idea of voluntarily depriving
himself of the services of so many vigorous and active labourers, he expelled Moses
and Aaron from his presence (verse 11). The east-wind brought the threatened
numberless locust swarms; in a short time they converted the flourishing fields of
Egypt into deserted tracts; the horrors of a famine glared in the face of the unhappy
country; then Pharaoh called once more Moses and Aaron, and confessed: * 1 have
sinned against the Lord your God, and against you” (x. 16). Moses prayed to God;
a west-wind rose, and buried the hosts of the locusts in the Red Sea—but Pharaoh
hardened his heart anew. ‘The ninth plague ensued, more calculated to fill the minds
 EXODUS VIL. of
of the Egyptians with awe and terror, than to cause actual destruction; but it was a
worthy preparation for the terrible visitation which still awaited the unfortunate
people, and which should, at last, break the king’s contumacy. After Pharaoh
had permitted the people to depart, with their wives and children, only wish-
ing to keep back their cattle as a pledge of their return, and after Moses had
determinedly rejected this proposal, the king took the firm and unshaken resolution
rather to suffer extreme ruin than to lose a nation of useful slaves; he forbade
Moses, on punishment of death, ever again to appear before him, and, after the latter
had predicted to him the last calamity, the death of all first-born of man and cattle,
he left the king, in high excitement at his refractoriness. In the night of the 14th
of the month of Nisan, pestilence raged with awful havoc in Egypt; Pharaoh, shaken
and terrified by the death of so many, and of the most respected of his people, and of
so numerous sacred animals, again called Moses and Aaron; he pressed the people to
depart without delay—and the Israelites went laden with rich treasures, from a country
which had been to them, for centuries, “an iron furnace of misery.” But scarcely had
the proud heart of Pharaoh recovered from the first terror, when he publicly repented
his untimely compliance; he condemned it as abject weakness; and, at the head of his
formidable and well-practised army, he pursued the Israelites to the Red Sea; and the
king and his hosts were devoured by the roaring depths.—This is a brief outline of
the grand struggle between a proud king and the Lord of Heaven and Earth; between
the fear and obduracy of a heart in which the germ of sin had taken too deep roots to
be eradicated without the most unusual moral energy, and it was this moral energy
which the haughty monarch could not command. But Moses appears already, in that
skilfully delineated picture, as a devoted servant of God, full of humility and modesty,
but also distinguished by skill and intrepidity.

14. And the Lord said to Moses, Pharaoh’s heart is

hardened; he refuseth to let the people go. 15. Go to
Pharaoh in the morning—behold, he goeth out to the
First Puacue. 22002. Ver. 14— 25.
14. God gives Moses the command the same phrase is used in the announce-
for the first plague (ver. 14---1 8(,distinctly ment of the fourth plague a considerable
stating the reason, because ‘ Pharaoh’s time later (viii. 16), where the same com-
heart is hardened.” mentator explains: ‘It 18 the custom of
.5‫ ב‬Lo, he goeth out to the water,‫‏‬ the kings to walk in the morning at the
namely, the Nile. It is known, that it‫‏‬ river’s side, for the sight of the water is
was customary with the kings of Egypt‫‏‬ wholesome to the eyes”: similar to the
in June and July, when the Nile rises,‫‏‬ remark of Rashbam on our passage: “ he
to repair, in pompous procession, to the‫‏‬ went out, as distinguished personages use
river, to convince themselves how many‫‏‬ to do, to take a walk ora ride.” Either
degrees 16 hadrisen; for the due increase‫‏‬ this was the reason of Pharaoh’s visit to
of the Nile in that season is the only‫‏‬ the Nile, or the intention to bathe (ii. 5),
guarantee for a fruitful year and an‫‏‬ or, which is as probable, to offer to the
abundant harvest. Ebn Ezra and others‫‏‬ Nile, which was worshipped with divine
believe, therefore, that it was for this‫‏‬ honours, the ordinary morning-sacrifice;
occasion that Pharaoh went to the Nile.‫‏‬ and it would imply a peculiar point and
But the first wonder took place in the‫‏‬ force to suppose, that the true God mani-
beginning of the year (see on ver. 20),‫‏‬ fested His power on the Nile, just when
when the rising of the Nile could not,‫‏‬ Pharaoh intended to do homage to the
in natural course, be expected. Besides,‫‏‬ false deity. The Nile was in many parts
 92 EXODUS VIL.

water—and thou shalt stand by the river’s brink 'before

him; and the *staff which was turned into a serpent shalt
thou take into thy hand. 16. And thou shalt say to
him, The Lord God of the Hebrews hath sent me to
thee, saying, Let my people go, that they may serve me in
the desert: and behold, hitherto thou wouldst not hear.
1 Engl. Vers.—Against he come. 2 Rod.

of Egypt worshipped as a God from the nothing for the plain historical style of
remotest times; he had a magnificent our narrative. From the same reason
temple in Nilopolis; Herodotus (ii. 90) the analogy of 2 Kings iii, 22, is equally
speaks of the priests of the Nile; it inappropriate: and Josephus (Antiq. IL.,
was a very ancient opinion, that the Nile xiv. 2) remarks expressly: “ The Egyptian
is identical with Osiris, that it is the river ran with bloody water at the com-
supreme deity of the land, and that it is mand of God, insomuch that it could
the rival of heaven, since it watered the not be drunk;....for the water was not
country without the aid of clouds or rain only of the colour of blood, but it brought
(compare Herod. ii. 111). Ancient wri- upon those who ventured to drink it great
ters, as well as the monuments, testify to pains and bitter torment” (compare note
these facts. Even now the Nile is called oniv.9).—The very first plague manifestly
by the Moslems “the most holy river,” symbolizes the reckless bloodshed of Pha-
in acknowledgment of the paramount raoh and his ultimate sanguinary punish-
benefits it bestows by fertilizing the ment, and was thus a most powerful
country.—Moses was to stand before Pha- admonition for the king to discontinue
raoh, so that he could not but meet him, his cruelties, and to obey the voice of
i. e., to await there his arrival. ‘ Moses is God’s messengers (see Book of Wisdom,
ordered to take this opportunity to speak xi. 6,7: “At the sight of the 010007
to the king, because he had not free Nile the Egyptians were with horror
access to the palace,” observes Rosen- reminded of Pharaoh’s murderous com-
miller; however, we have proofs of the mand against the Hebrew children”).
contrary (sce on v.15), and Moses was .‫ בפ‬And the fish that is in the river shall‫‏‬
to meet Pharaoh at the Nile, in order to die. About the abundance of fish in the‫‏‬
perform there the miracles at once before Nile we possess the unanimous and most‫‏‬
his eyes. decided testimonials both of ancient and‫‏‬
uz. In this thou shalt know that I am modern geographers and travellers, Dio-‫‏‬
the Lord, evidently with reference to the dorus Siculus (i. 36) says: “ The Nile‫‏‬
bold and wanton exclamation of Pharach abounds in very various kinds of fish‫‏‬
(v. 2): “I know not the Lord.”— Behold, in incredible numbers; for it supplies the‫‏‬
1 will smite, said Moses, the subject being Egyptians not only with copious food of‫‏‬
changed.—And they (the waters) shall be fresh fish, but enables them to salt quan-‫‏‬
turned into blood. Rosenmiiller remarks: tities for exportation; for which purpose‫‏‬
> They shall assume a red colour, so that they used fossil salt from the African‫‏‬
they have the appearance of blood,” as deserts, not sea salt, which like every-‫‏‬
in Joel iii. 4: “And the moon shall thing belonging to the sea was abhorred‫‏‬
be converted into blood” (so also by them.” (Compare Num. xi. 5; Isaiah‫‏‬
Gerlach, Hengstenb., and others). But xix. 8; Herod. ii. 98; Strabo xvii. 823).‫‏‬
this opinion is utterly inadmissible on By the dying of the fish, therefore, the‫‏‬
account of the effects of that transmu- Egyptians, who live on them in a great‫‏‬
tation stated in ver.18. Besides 6 measure, and some classes, and some dis-‫‏‬
poetical diction of a prophet can prove tricts almost exclusively, were deprived‫‏‬
 EXODUS VIL. 93

17. Thus saith the Lord, In this thou shalt know that I
am the Lord. Behold, I will smite with the staff that zs in
my hand upon the waters which are in the river, and they
shall be turned into blood. 18. And the fish that zs in
the river shall die, and the river shall be offensive in
smell; and the Egyptians shall loathe to drink of the
water of the river. 19. And the Lord spoke to Moses,
of a very important portion of their sub- be met with in any other part of the
sistence. This physical infliction was globe. Rashi explains less appro-
greatly enhanced by a more spiritual, priately here in the meaning of: “they
religious mortification; for “the river was will exert themselves in vain to find a
offensive in smell’; the Nile, which was remedy for the water of the Nile to
to them an object of profound worship, make it palatable.” Similarly Glaire:
(see on ver. 15), was now to be for them an “et se fatigueront en vain pour boire.”
object of abomination: they will fly its —The Samaritan codex of the Pentateuch
vicinity. Even the fish of the Nile were has after this verse the words: “ And
in some degree esteemed sacred. They Moses and Aaron went to Pharaoh, and
were in some parts worshipped as deities, said to him,” and repeats then ver, 16, 17,
and hence the priests scrupulously ab- 18, an explicitness, which, although not
stained from eating fish, A third ca- against the style of the Pentateuch (see ver.
lamity accompanying this plague is the 9—12), is not necessarily demanded by it
impossibility of drinking the water of the (see iv. 12,20—30; vi. 9; vil. 26—29; and
Nile, a vexation the keener felt by them, viii. 1, 16—19, 20).
because the water of the Nile, after 1%. All the waters of Egypt which
having been purified from the slime by a were to be turned into blood, are dis-
kind of almond-dough is, on the one tinctly specified in the following ex-
hand, most agreeable, tasteful and healthy, pressions. The Nile divides itself near
so that it appears to strangers almost as Kairo into different arms and mouths,
an artificially prepared’ drink — whence separately flowing into the Mediter-
the Egyptian proverb originated: “ the ranean; and these are 116
water of the Nile is as sweet as honey The ancients knew seven mouths (viz,
and sugar,” and the adage, “that if the Heracleotic, Balbitic, Sebennitic,
Mohammed had drunk of it, he would Phatnitic or Bucolic, Mendesian, Tanitic,
have besought God to be immortal, that and Pelusian); whence the Nile was
he might always enjoy it”; and it is, on called septemfluus or septemgeminus
the other hand, the only drinkable water (Ovid, Metamorphoses xv. 753; Virgil,
which the inhabitants can possibly use; 0010, vi. 800). At present they are
for, says Maillet (i. p. 20): “The well partly buried in the sand, and partly they
and cistern-water in Egypt is detestable do not contain water throughout the
and unwholesome; fountains are so rare, whole year. But tributary rivers the
that they are a kind of prodigy in that Nile has none, in its whole extent of 1,350
country; and as to rain-water, that is out nautical miles; a solitary instance in the
of the question, as scarcely any rain falls in hydographic history of the globe.—From
Egypt” (compare Josephus Antiq.ILxiv.1). the Nile and its arms the water was, for
— The Egyptians shall loathe, etc., that is, the purpose of artificial irrigation of the
they will have an aversion to that water, fields, from the earliest times, conducted
which had always been their delight, and through the different parts of the country
which they were accustomed to consider by means of canals and _ trenches
as a peculiar blessing to the country, not to (Rashi correctly: “canals dug by human
 , on oe

94 EXODUS VII.

Say to Aaron, Take thy ‘staff, and stretch out thy hand
upon the waters of Egypt, upon their streams, upon their
“canals, and upon their ponds, and upon all the *gatherings
of water, that they may become blood; and that there may
be blood throughout all the land of Egypt, both in vessels
of wood and in vessels of stone. 20. And Moses and
1 Engl. Vers.—Rod. ? Rivers, 3 Pools,

hands from the Nile to fertilize the almost be unintelligible, if we did not
fields”), After the inundation of the consider, that this whole account is
Nile there remain near its shores nume- written by a native Egyptian, and for a
rous ponds, marshes, and pools. This people, every member of which was per-
term may also include the lakes of Egypt, fectly familiar with all the customs and
partly the work of nature, partly arti- usages of that country.
ficially formed, serving as great recepta- 20, 51. In the 20th verse the infliction
cles of water, in which at the rising of of the first plague is plainly expressed:
the Nile the superfluous water was col- And all the waters in the river were turned
Jected and preserved for future use. into blood; and in the subsequent verse
Rashi explains justly stagnant waters, its effects are as clearly described, per-
and adds as a translation: étangs, lakes. fectly in harmony with ver. 18.— He
Such lakes, as those famous under the lifted up, namely, Aaron, which the Sept.
name of Moeris and Mareotis, are mostly adds (see ver.19). Proceeding from the
overgrown with reeds, and full of fowl principle laid down as the general character
and fish. The gatherings of water, lastly, of the Egyptian wonders, that they have a
are all wells, and especially water-reser- certain obvious connection with apparent
voirs or cisterns, such as are found natural phenomena, aggrandized to a
near houses or mosques. Such a large prodigious extent (see p. 88), we ob-
cistern was formerly in Alexandria, serve, that according to the unanimous
into which the water was led through descriptions of geographers, the water of
a canal constructed for the purpose, the Nile, annually towards the end of
and which supplied the town with drink- the month of June, when the river rises,
able water throughout the year (see changes for about twenty days its colour,
Thevenot 1. p. 173).—Both in vessels of which is usually dark and almost black
wood and in vessels of stone; and quite (wherefore the Nile is poetically called
so translates Onkelos. The Egyptians “the black river,” Isaiah xxiii. 33)
keep the water of the Nile in vessels of and assumes a red appearance, which
wood,or more frequently of clay and stone, gradually passes into a greenish colour;
especially for the purpose of filtration, and thus during this time the water of
so necessary in consequence of the many the Nile has a disagreeable smell, and an
heterogeneous and impure parts it origin- unwholesome taste, although it is not
ally contains (Jerom. on Isaiah xxiii. 3; always absolutely undrinkable; whilst
Pococke, Orient i.312; Burckhardt, Travels in some years it is exceedingly loathsome
ii. 778). Thus it is emphatically an- and unhealthy. Similar phenomena are
nounced, that the water would be con- reported of other rivers also; for instance,
verted into blood throughout all the land the Tigris which is said to have streamed
of Egypt, even that which was already with blood; further of the river Adonis
in the houses of the Egyptians. The (now called Nahar Ibrahim), coming
literal translation of the Hebrew words from the Lebanon, which imparts for
here used is: “in woods and in stones,” a considerable distance a red colour
which is certainly obscure, and would even to the sea into which it flows
 EXODUS VII. 95

Aaron did so, as the Lord had commanded; and _ he lifted

up the ‘staff, and smote the waters that were in the river,
before the eyes of Pharaoh, and before the eyes of his
servants; and all the waters that were in the river were
turned into blood. 21. And the fish that was in the
‘river died, and the river was offensive in smell, and the
+ Engl, Vers.-—Water.

(Maundrell, Trav. p. 35; see also Vogel’s 5. That even the water which was in the’
Annals of Leipsic, p. 460, where it is vessels was affected by the plague (ver. 19);
narrated that the water of the Elster 6. ‘The Israelites enjoyed pure water
appeared during four days, from the during the calamity; for, according to
15th to the 19th of October, 1631, red ver. 24, the Egyptians only dug after
like blood). Ehrenberg found the whole wells; and Josephus remarks distinctly:
bay of the Red
7
Sea in the vicinity “The water of the Nile was disagreeable
of Mount Sinai appearing like blood, and unwholesome to the Egyptians, whilst
in consequence of cryptogamic plants it was sweet and palatable to the He-
abounding in that part of the sea. By brews, nor in any way different from its
others the redness is ascribed to the natural quality”; and Targum Jonathan
particles of red clay, which the Nile, adds, on ver, 22, that the Egyptian magi-
at its rising, carries with it from cians took water from Goshen for their
Ethiopia (so 17000006, Maillet, Maun- experiment; and 7. That the change
drell, Le Pére atné), or to the innumerable lasted only seven days, whilst travellers
little red insects which fill the Nile about maintain, that it usually extends during
that season.—Now, the wonder recorded twenty days and more. In 1678 it re-
in our text consists in the following cir- tained the red colour from the beginning
cumstances: 1. That this event did not of July to the end of December. But
take place in June, in natural course, Abarbanel, and Hengstenberg connect, less
but in the beginning of the year. For probably, ver. 25 closely with ver. 26,
the hail mentioned in ix. 31, destroyed and assert that the text simply intimates,
the flax and barley. These crops are in that seven days after the beginning of
Egypt generally ripe for harvest in April; the first plague, concerning the conclusion
but the rise of the Nile does not begin in of which nothing is stated in the text,
so early a part of the year; and certainly the second was announced.— Perfectly
the rapid sketch of the plagues delineated inadmissible is, therefore, the opinion of
in the holy text, obliges us to suppose Eichhorn, that this, like all other signs of
that all ten inflictions took place in the Moses, is literally nothing more than the
same year; for they must have followed natural annual occurrence; and_ that
in quick succession if they were to arouse Moses, in order to impress Pharaoh with
the undivided attention of the king, and the extraordinary power bestowed upon
to strike terror into his heart. 2. That him by the Almighty God of the He-
the plague took place on the command brews, took some water from the Nile,
of God through Moses; 3. That the Nile changed it by some chemical contrivance
did not merely assume a red or bloody into a red colour, and exhorted Pharaoh,
colour, but was totally converted into that the same God, by whose aid he had
blood (see on ver.17); 4. That all fish now converted the water before him into
‫ו‬ died; whilst ordinarily this does not take
place at the change of the colour of the
a bloody fluid, produced every year the
similar effect upon all the water of the

i‫‏‬ Nile (the opinion of Eichhorn to the con-

trary is a perfectly unfounded assertion);
Nile. But 1. the dying of the fish in the
Nile would be inexplicable; 2. this would
4
 96 EXODUS VII.
Egyptians could not drink of the water of the river, and
there was blood throughout all the land of Egypt. 22. And
the Egyptian ‘interpreters of secret signs did so with their
“hidden arts: and Pharaoh’s heart was hardened, and he did
not hearken to them, as the Lord had said. 23. And
Pharaoh turned and went into his house, neither did he
direct his heart to this also. 24. And all the Egyptians
digged round about the river for water to drink; for they
could not drink of the water of the river. 25. And seven
1 Engl. Vers.—Magicians. * Enchantments.
merely have been a harmless and in- upon their adversaries, have suffered the
nocuous sign (like that related in iv. 9. same calamities as the latter? Still less
for the justification of Moses), whilst it acceptable is the opinion of Clericus,
is intended as a plague (ver. 4); and Philippson, and others, that Moses and
3. according to the sacred text not a Aaron, after having converted the water
vessel filled with water, but the whole into blood, changed it again into its
Nile underwent the fatal change. original condition and colour, in order
22. And the Egyptian interpreters of to afford to the magicians an opportunity
secret signs did so, etc. Ebn Ezra al- for displaying their arts. There is, fur-
ready asks: “From where did the magi- ther, that important and essential differ-
cians take water for the performance of ence between the miracles of Moses, and
their experiment, as all the water had the feats of the magicians, that, whilst the
been converted into blood ?” (ver. 20), former converted the water of the whole
and he answers, that Aaron changed only Nile, with all its arms and canals, and
the water above the earth, not that be- permanently changing floods, even where
neath it; and so they might dig for water he could not see it, and made it remain
in the earth, as the Egyptians did for the in this state for at least seven days
purpose of finding drinkable water (ver. 25); the latter were only able to
(ver. 24). Besides, there was, in Goshen, produce a similar effect upon a very
the district of the Hebrews, water which small quantity of stagnant water, which
was not affected by the plague, and they had before their eyes in a vessel, and
Targum Jonathan says here, distinctly, which remained so only during the few
that the magicians took the water from moments of the experiment, until the
Goshen; see on ver. 20, No. 6. Others king returned home (ver, 23). It is
(as Hengstenberg and Gerlach) assert, further to be remarked, that although the
with less plausibility, that the word all magicians changed the water into blood,
(in ver. 20) is not to be taken quite they could not convert the blood again
literally. Nor can we accede to the into water.
opinion of many interpreters, among 23. Neither did he direct his heart
whom is Ebn Ezra, that the Hebrews to this also, referring to the first sign of
were likewise smitten with the plagues of Aaron’s serpent devouring the serpents
blood, the frogs, gnats, boils and locusts, of the magicians,
“because they were not so dangerous and 24, And the Egyptians digged for
fatal as the rest.” But still they were water, not the Hebrews; see on verses
plagues, intended and calculated to terrify 20 .‫)אס‬‎ 6( and 29. The water, which the
and annoy Pharaoh and the Egyptians, Hebrews kept in their own vessels of wood
and how should the Israelites, in whose and vessels of stone (see on ver, 19), might
favour these punishments were inflicted have remained untouched by the plague,
 0 0 El 4a a Ti

00000 EXODUS VII.

days were fulfilled after the Lord had smitten the
river.
26. And the Lord spoke to Moses: Go to Pharaoh, and
say to him, Thus saith the Lord, Let my people go, that
they may serve me. 27. And if thou refuse to let them
go, behold, I shall smite all thy boundaries with frogs.
> 28. And the river shall teem with frogs, and they shall
come up and enter into thy house, and into thy bed-
chamber, and upon thy bed, and into the house of thy
and this supply probably sufficed for Tage lang dass der Herr den Strom
seven days (ver. 25). Thus is easily schlug;”) and Targum Onkelos adds:
removed the objection of Drusius (ac- “and afterwards the word of the Lord
‘ | eee by Rosenmiiller), why it remedied the river.’ Abarbanel gives,
was necessary to dig after water, if that besides, three other explanations: Ist.
of the Hebrews was not vitiated, as the These words are added to show the re-
latter lived together with the Egyptians fractoriness of Pharaoh, who was not,
in the same districts and towns, in which, even by the continuance of the plague
therefore, the plague did not prevail, during so protracted a time, forced to
whence it follows, that not the whole obedience and humility;—2nd. They in-
- country was affected by the calamity, dicate the long-suffering of God, who
against the express words of Moses.— allowed Pharaoh rest during seven days
Jonathan, in order to enhance 6 after the first plague, in order to grant
miracle. adds: “but they did not find him time for reflection and repentance ;—
‫ו‬
clear water.” However it was a sufficient 3rd. They are to be connected with the
punishment for them to be deprived, following verse: Seven days after the
- during seven days, of the delightful change of the Nile God announced to
waters of the Nile, and to content them- Pharaoh the second plague: so that the
selves with the very disagreeable and first calamity might have lasted even
5 > thick waters of the Egyptian wells (see longer than seven days (compare Vi.
| ver. 18). 28, 29): which interpretation is also
| 2%. And seven days were fulfilled after adopted by Eichhorn, Hengstenberg,
the Lord had smitten the river. These Gerlach, and others, desirous to bring
_ words evidently describe the duration of into agreement the natural and usual
the first plague, a statement not made change of the Nile, generally extending
with reference to any of the subsequent during at least twenty days, with the facts
inflictions. Luther translates here, the here related ; see however,
on ver. 20, No.7.
most distinctly, (“‘ Und das wahrte ‘sieben

f SECOND PLAGUE. Froas. VIL 26.—VIII. 11.

26. Go to Pharaoh, namely, with thy described in our text; it would perfectly
brother Aaron. destroy the gradual climax of the won-
27. With frogs. That the animal con- ders, and would be appropriate rather as
| stituting the second plague cannot be the the ninth than as the second plague.
- 620000116, as some Hebrew commentators 28, 29%. And they shall come up,
have maintained is sufficiently explained namely, from the Nile, which was con-
by Bochart, Hieroz. ii, Book v.2; and, sidered lying lower than the town.
in fact, a plague of crocodiles would —And in thy ovens. So great was the
have manifested itself in quite a different number of frogs, that they penetrated
and a more formidable manner than is into the dryest places, which they other-
H
 / i a
a.
asi ay ‫ר‬‎ 2
ren 1
a
8
8 ““EKODUS Vil. ‫יי‬‎
servants, and upon thy people, and into thy ovens, an 4
into thy kneading-troughs. 29. And the frogs shall come —
wise: avoid, and in which, if found there have been infected with a fetid smell;—
by the Egyptians, they must have ex- that the incessant inharmonious 0186
cited the greatest disgust. The proper dinned perpetually in the ears, allowing =
baking-ovens which are generally for them no rest either by day or night; that 4
0%
\ '

4 public use in Oriental cities, are little Pharaoh humbled himself so far as to —
different from ours. But, in remoter request Moses and Aaron to pray for the. i
times already, were also used large removal of the plague, and to promise
earthen pots, open at the top, about the release of the Israelites, and that even :
three feet high. A fire is lighted within, the destruction of those animals was 81-
generally with wood; then, if the sides tended with a pestilential odour: it will
are sufficiently heated, the dough is be easily conceived that there isa grada-
affixed to them from without, and the tion even in the two first plagues, over-
aperture above covered. At present, whelming enough to convince eyen a
the following is the usual mode of haughty and obstinate tyrant with what
making bread among the Arab tribes powerful Being he had madly engaged in
which remain for a longer time in the warfare, and what chastisements were
same place: “ They make rude ovens by still in reserve against his refractoriness. =
digging a hole about three feet deep, That frogs can, by their number, become 4
shaping it like a reversed funnel, and a plague, is confirmed by several ancient |
plastering it with mud. They heat it by writers, as Just. xv. 2, who relates, that \|
burning brushwood within, and then stick the Autariatae were compelled to leaye —
the lumps of dough, pressed into small their abodes because the frogs had multi- |
cakes almost half an inch thick, to the plied to a prodigious amount, and Phae-
sides, with the hand. The bread is ready nias, a disciple of Aristotle, writes thus,
in two or three minutes. .... All Arab on a similar case: “In Paeonia and -
bread is unleavened” (Layard, Dis- Dardania appeared once, suddenly, such =
coveries in Nineveh and Babylon, numbers of frogs, that they filled the
p. 288). The Samaritan codex has here houses and streets. Therefore, as killing =
again unnecessarily, as after verse 18, them, or shutting the doors, was of no
the words: “ and Moses and Aaron came avail, as even the vessels were full of —
to Pharaoh, and they said to him, Thus them, the water infested, and the food —
speaks the Lord,” and then it repeats uneatable, as they could scarcely set their
from verse 26—29.—If we compare the feet on the ground without treading on \
respective effects of the two first plagues, heaps of them, and as they were vexed
it is evident that the second is of a far by the smell of the great numbers which
more tormenting and calamitous nature. died, they fled from that region, as is—
For whilst during the first plague the reported” (Husthatius in Hom, II. AY,
Egyptians had at least water from the p. 35); compare Pliny, viii. 43; Aclian, —
wells, however inferior this is to that of xvii. 41. We subjoin an interesting de-
the Nile, the frogs filled not only the scription of a similar plague, which 00-
rivers and all waters—thus including the curred in Egypt, from Quatremére, i.
first plague—they not only infested the p- 121, who follows an account of |
streets and houses of the Egyptians, but Macrizi: “In the year 791, and in the
they molested even their persons, pene- subsequent years, the reptiles fatal to
trated into their bed-chambers, and dis- books, and wool-stuffs, increased in a mi-
turbed their sleep. If we add hereto, raculous degree. A trustworthy man_
that, under such circumstances, even the assured me that these animals ate and
water must have been singularly loath- spoiled 1,500 pieces of his 80108, being
some; that the whole atmosphere must more tk un fifteen camel loads, I -‫מ‬60‎
 EXODUS VIII. 99

up both upon thee and upon thy people, and upon all thy
servants.
vinced myself, by ocular inspection, that is here announced to Pharaoh; and the
this statement was not exaggerated, and beginning of the following chapter relates
that the worms, in the vicinity of the sea, its real occurrence; a punishment no
wey
wm
. had destroyed a great quantity of wood doubt the more grievous to the Egyp-
and stuffs. I saw, near Matariah, garden- tians, as, according to some authorities,
walls quite perforated by these little the frog was one of their sacred animals,
| animals. About the year 821 this plague although it has not been distinctly ascer-
appeared in the district of Hosainiah, tained whether this superstition had its |
near Kairo. The worms, after having cause in their esteem for, or their dislike
destroyed the provisions, the furniture, etc. of that animal. It is, however, certain,.
which caused to the inhabitants an incal- that on very ancient hieroglyphic tablets,
culable loss, attacked the walls of the and on several ancient gems, the frog is
houses, and gnawed at the wood, and represented sitting on the leaf of the
perforated it entirely. The proprietors sacred lotus, as a symbol either of the
‘hastily pulled down the houses, which Nile, or of Osiris, the sun. The frogs
had remained uninjured by the worms, stood under the authority of the goddess
so that this quarter was almost entirely Heki, one of the supreme deities of Egypt,
desolated.” From this account we may who was, in the time of Herodotus
infer what vexation an excessive quantity (ii. 155), worshipped in a magnificent
of frogs might become; and this plague shrine in the town 0.

CHAPTER VIII.
ND the Lord said to Moses, Say to Aaron, Stretch
forth thy hand with thy 'staff over the streams, over
the *canals, and over the ponds, and cause *the frogs to
come up upon the land of Egypt. 2. And Aaron stretched
—_ forth his hand over the waters of Egypt, and the frogs
‫ ו‬Engl. Vers.—Rod.‫‏‬ ? Rivers. 3 Frogs.
1. See on vii. 19. Stretch forth thy duced and fed by the rich and nutritious
hand with the staff; merely as a sym- mud of the river, chiefly at the season
bolical sign, that the frogs would come when the “Green Nile” gives way to
up from the waters of Egypt. the “Red Nile.” Thus the river, even in
2. And the frogs came up. Jonathan ordinary years, abounds in frogs, a fact
concludes the verse with the following which even our text (vers. 5, 7) mentions
remark explanatory of the fact that as known and acknowledged. One fe-
Aaron, and not Moses performed the male lays, even in our regions, in the
first wonders: “ But Moses did not smite spring, 600 to 1100 eggs. Hasselquist
the river either with blood or frogs, (p. 254) reports, that at present also the
because he had been rescued from it in inhabitants of Egypt are not unfrequently
his infancy, when he was exposed there visited by an enormous increase of frogs,
by his mother.”—And they (the frogs) which torment them by their intrusion
covered the land of Egypt. It is univers- and their shrieking and yelling (see also
ally known, that the Nile and all the Sonnini, 111. p. 365). But generally these
waters supplied from it, especially the animals are to a great extent destroyed
marshes, are exceedingly prolific in frogs, by serpents, crocodiles, and storks, and
reptiles, and other organic animals, pro- this is one of the reasons, why the Ibis is
H .2
100 EXODUS VIII. ‫ו‬‎
came up, and covered the land of Egypt. 3. And the
‘interpreters of secret signs did so with their *hidden arts, |
and brought up the frogs upon the land of Egypt. 4. Then
Pharaoh called for Moses and Aaron, and said, Entreat
the Lord, that He may take away the frogs from me, and
from my people, and *J shall willingly let the people go,
that they may sacrifice to the Lord. 5. And Moses said A
*e

' Engl. Vers,—Magicians, 2 Enchantments. 3 ‎‫ ך‬will let.

revered as a sacred benefactor. But the tata, the dotted Egyptian frog; it is of
facts related in our text manifest them- ash colour, with green spots; the feet are
selves as a miracle in the following points: marked with transverse bands, and the
1. The frogs came over the land at the toes are separated to half their length. It
command of Moses; 2. They appeared in is but seldom found in Europe.—In this,
4
‫ו‬‎ie
| "0
0le
such unparalleled multitudes, that they as in the following plagues, the humi-
molested even the persons of the Egyp- liation is augmented by the contemptible
tians; 3. They left their natural element, character of the animals which cause the
the water and its vicinity, and came into calamity. We find further therein an
the houses and even the driest places analogy to the haughtiness with which
(vii. 28); 4. The houses and persons of
the Israelites were exempted from the
the Egyptians looked down upon the
Israelites, as unclean creatures (see Philo i
‎‫ג‬

\‫|ו‬
plague (a fact evident from vii. 29, and Vit. Mos. i. 619). .
viii. 5; compare on vii. 22); and 5. The 3. And the interpreters of secret signs
i
frogs disappeared instantaneously and did so with their hidden arts : they could !
completely on the prayer of Moses (ver. 9; create and increase the evil, without / |

compare Bochart, Hieroz. p. 570).—Eich- haying the power to effect its removal,
horn, offering a similar explanation of which Pharaoh was compelled to demand
this plague to that proposed by him with of Moses. Besides, they produced only
regard to the transmutation of the water a small number of frogs in a little water; +
of the Nile into blood (see on vii. 20, 21), and thus, says Ebn Ezra, was Pharaoh
asserts, that Moses, about the beginning convinced that Moses’ power was greater
of the month of July, when the frogs than that of the magicians; and he there-
usually are so numerous in Egypt, that fore sent for Moses (see, however, on ver. 4).
0
many of them are compelled to leave And as regards the remark of Bochart:
the water and to seek food elsewhere, “Tt is even uncertain, whether the magi-
called forth, “by an artifice unknown to cians indeed produced real frogs; per-
us,” a quantity of them from a neigh- haps they brought them secretly from
bouring pond, assuring Pharaoh, that the other places and gave them out as their
same God, by whose assistance he had own, or imposed upon Pharaoh in any
produced these few frogs, creates annually other way by their tricks”; we refer to ‫ג‬

that vast number of these animals, which our note on vii. 12, where we have pointed
infests Egypt; which explanation, how- out the probability, that the Char-
ever, is not happier than that quoted tumim must, indeed, be considered as
and criticised on vii. 20, 21, or those standing also under the influence of‫ש‬
ee

‫בל‬ 07-
5
‫ל‬ -
0
‫* ה‬0
|-
ventured by the same critic about the God.
following plagues.—A description of the 4, Tormented by the prodigious in-
different kinds of frogs in Egypt will be crease of the frogs, which his wise men
found in the “ Déscription de l’Egypte,” had no power to stop, Pharaoh began to
xxiv. p. 134, et seq. The most usual be seized by some vague feeling of the
species in that country is the rana punc- superiority of the God of Israel; and in
 EXODUS VIL 101.
0‎‫ ל‬Pharaoh, Glory over me! ‘For when shall I entreat for
‎‫ ה‬and for thy servants, and for thy people, to destroy
the frogs from thee and from thy houses, 07 they may
remain in the river only? 6. And he said, * For to-morrow.
And he said, Be it according to thy word: that thou
> mayest know that there 08 none like the Lord our God.
4% And the frogs shall depart from thee and from thy
4 Engl. Vers.—When. 5 To-morrow.

his helplessness requested Moses to pray who explains (like Mendelssohn, Zunz
for him to that Deity of which he had Van Es, and others): “ Gain glory over
|_ but a short time since spoken in terms of me; i.e. in order to show the whole
| contempt and insult (v. 2), and promised extent of the divine power, in whose
| in his embarrassment to allow the de- name I come, I will expose myself to the
4= of the Israelites for the purpose apparent risk, to pray for the removal of
of worshipping that same Deity. the frogs at any time appointed by thy-
_ 5. And Moses said to Pharaoh, Glory self; I will thus yield to thee the advantage
cover me! For when shall I entreat for of incurring the possibility of a failure;
thee? i.e., I will in this point follow thy try therefore to obtain the glory, thus
command and acknowledge thee as my to confound me; understood in this
master, so that thou mayest save the manner, the exclamation ‘ glory over me!
| appearance as if thy will had removed has an infinitely ironical character, which
| 06 plague. This seems to be the sense describes most felicitously Moses’ con-
| of these much disputed words, about sciousness of his superiority and his con- =
which a considerable variety of inter- tempt for Pharaoh’—an irony, however,
pretations has been proposed. Targum utterly incompatible with the meek and
Onkelos renders: “ Ask for thee some- humble character of the legislator, and
thing great, and fix thou thyself the ill-suiting the quiet and unimpassioned
time”; but it does not appear how that tenor of our narrative; whilst our ex-
"meaning lies in the words of the Hebrew planation given above is in perfect har-
text. The same is the case with the trans- mony with the proverbial modesty of
lation of the Septuagint, and with those Moses.—See, on the other interpretations
renderings which agree with that in- of these words, the larger edition.— That
terpretation; the Vulgate, the Syrian they may remain in the river only, i.e., in
and Saadiah. Ebn Ezra explains: “I their natural element, and in the usual
shall give thee glory by praying to the quantity, but that they may retire from
> Lord to remove the plague on that day those places where their presence”is ob-
= onwhich thou desirest it”—but thus theim- noxious.
= perative, “glory over me!” would be inex- G. As the destruction of all the
= plicable.— Rashi interprets a correspond- myriads of frogs was a work of gigantic
ing passage in Isaiah .‫א‬‎ 15 perfectly power, Pharaoh did not require it in-
. correctly: “Shall the axe boast itself stantaneously, as might be expected, but
. against him who heweth with it, saying, for the following day, requesting Moses
_ I am greater than thou”? (compare also to pray the same day, that the frogs
_ Judges vii. 2)—but he explains our might die to-morrow; for, says Rashbam,
passage quite differently and strangely, it is not likely that they should all die at
thus: “Procure glory for thyself, by once. We need, therefore, not adopt the
shrewdly asking something which I might artificial reason assigned for the pro-
not be able to perform”—an interpretation crastination of Pharaoh by Ebn Ezra,
which is partly followed by Philippson, that according to the celestial constel-
 . 7” / .

102 EXODUS VI. =

,

ed

houses, and from thy servants, and from thy people; —

they shall remain in the river only. 8 And Moses and 4{
Aaron went out from Pharaoh; and Moses cried to the |
Lord concerning the frogs which He had brought upon —
Pharaoh. 9. And the Lord did according to the word of =
Moses; and the frogs died out of the houses, out of the =
lations the destruction of the frogs would “because of the promise concerning the
have ensued immediately, that very hour, frogs, which he had made to Pharaoh.”
but that Pharaoh wished to try the power Thus Van Es, no doubt following the -
of Moses, whether he was able to prolong rendering of the Septuagint and of the
the plague beyond its natural duration. Vulgate. So also Glaire: “a cause
Our text shows clearly the anguish of de la parole qu’il avait donnée 8 Parhé au
Pharaoh, who evidently did not know sujet des grenouilles.”
how long this troublesome vexation might %. Courtsbelonging to the private houses,
protract itself. Perhaps Pharaoh hoped which signification appears here deci-
that the plague might disappear before dedly preferable to that of villages,
the following morning, and that he thus which the Septuagint, Vulgate, Mendels-
might be spared the humiliation of ac- sohn, and others, adopt, as they are
knowledging the power of God in this included in the two other localities men-
infliction. tioned in our verse, the houses and fields.
s. The unhesitating certainty with 11. Pharaoh, when again freed from
which Moses had promised the destruc- the punishment, which had manifested
tion of the frogs—apparently without to him in some degree the power
any special command of God (see ver. 9) of the Almighty, unscrupulously broke
—made, as Ebn Ezra observes, the prayer the promise he had given to Moses, and
of Moses doubly necessary, and therefore hardened again his heart against the ex-
the strong expression, and Moses cried is hortation of God’s messenger, as God
used.— Which he had brought upon Pha- had repeatedly predicted (see iii.19; iv.21; =
raoh. Others explain less appropriately: vii. 4, 13).

CHAPTER VIII. 12—28.

Summary.— Third and fourth plague. Aaron smote the dust with his staff, and all
the dust of the land was converted into gnats, which the Egyptian magicians
endeavoured in vain likewise to produce, and which they were therefore compelled
to acknowledge as the work of a superior deity. But when Pharaoh persisted in
his obstinacy, God brought a most noxious kind of beetles over the land, which,
penetrating into the houses, attacked the persons, destroyed all kinds of property,
and devastated the fields of the Egyptians; but which neither molested nor injured =
the Hebrews in Goshen or in any part of the country. Pharaoh called for Moses
and Aaron, requesting them to pray to God for a removal of the insects, and
allowing the Israclites to sacrifice in Egypt. But when Moses objected, that they
could not, without imminent danger, kill before the eyes of the Egyptians animals,
which they worshipped, Pharaoh promised to permit their journey to a little
distance into the desert. The plague disappeared—and the faithlessness and
obstinacy of Pharaoh returned.
TuirD Pracur. Gnats, .‫מת‬‎
12. No warning was given to Pharaoh | 110000 immediately after the removal of
concerning this plague; but it was in- the frogs, to chastise him more strikingly
 .,
"EXODUSVILL.VI I 0
10. And they gathered
, and out of the fields.
000
‘ irts

eee0 heaps: and the land smelled offensively. 11. But

when Pharaoh saw that there was respite, he hardened
his heart, and hearkened not to them, as the Lord had said.
Be) 12. And the Lord said to Moses, Say to Aaron,
=Stretch out thy *staff, and smite the dust of thé land, that it
1 Engl. Vers.—Villages. ? Upon. 3 Rod.

for his treacherous vacillation. — Aaron the following means: the inhabitants of
was commanded to smite the dust of the Upper Egypt protect themselves by tur-
land that it may become kinnim or hinnam rets, in which they sleep; for the gnats
_(vers.13,14), It is a matter of difficulty are unable to rise to any considerable
precisely to determine the species or kind elevation. Those who live near the
_ of animals denoted by that expression; marshes, take a net, with which they fish
|but so much is certain: 1. That they by day, spread it over their beds by
- must be a very small kind of insects, as night, and sleep beneath it; the gnats,
_ they are represented to arise from the which sting through clothes or linen, do
- grains of dust; 2. That they are noxious not even try to penetrate through the
- both to man and beasts (ver. 13), and net”; for it isa fact, that mosquitos and
in a still higher degree than the frogs. other flies will not pass through nets,
> The singular form is used in Isaiah li. 6, although the meshes might be more than
- where it represents something very frail, large enough to enable them to enter.
weak, and perishable. The etymology Quite similar precautionary measures
leads to the Greek root, cvaw, to gnaw or against the dangerous stings of the
pinch—and this coincides with the English mosquitos are reported by the most
= noun gnats, with which, indeed, all the qua- recent travellers in Egypt.— Augustin
ities just mentioned perfectly agree. And further remarks: “The gnats in Egypt

|= the Septuagint, which is naturally of great

authority in all matters concerning the
breed in the slime; they are very small
flies, but most lively and versatile, not
natural phenomena of Egypt, its home, allowing man to rest; if they are scared
= translates also “mosquito gnats” (oxridec); off, they return with the greater eager-
which Philo, likewise an Egyptian, ness.” Besides, it is admitted on all
describes thus (Vita Mos. ipo OF; hands, that these insects molest especially
= Edit. Mang.): “Tt is an insect although beasts, as oxen and horses, flying into
> of yery small size, yet of a most trouble- their eyes and nostrils, driving them to
some nature; for it hurts not only the madness and fury, and sometimes even
surface, causing intolerable and pro- torturing them to death. Theodoret
tracted itching, but penetrates also into (Histor. Eccl. Libr. ii. cap. 26) mentions,
- the interior through the ears and noses. that when Sapores besieged Nisibis, his
It flies even into the eyes of those who horses and elephants were so fearfully
7 not guard themselves, and produces tormented by the stings of innumerable
19 10 s pain,” all which qualities are per- gnats, that they broke their yokes in wild
fectly applicable to gnats, especially if we fury, and ran madly about in all directions.
compare herewith the further descriptions They are, chiefly in seasons of a cool
“of these animals as given by ancient and atmosphere, a perfect plague, rendering
‘modern authors, from which the tor- both eating and sleeping almost impos-
menting character of this plague will be sible. These descriptions would well
obvious. Herodotus already observes agree with the 0062 raptans of Linné, |
Gi. 95): “Against the gnats, which or the cu/ex molestus of Forskal.—But it
are very numerous, the Egyptians use is eviden’ from all this,that the traditional
 2i ae a 27 ry " AIF a ak ‫ל‬‎ SS arty

‫ו‬

104 EXODUS 1
may become ‘gnats throughout all the land of Egypt.
13. And they did so, for Aaron stretched out his hand
with his *staff, and smote the dust upon the earth, and
*the gnats were on man and on beast; all the dust of the
land became gnats through all the land of Egypt. 14. And
the interpreters of secret signs did so with their hidden
arts, to bring forth gnats, but they could not: so there
were gnats upon man and upon beast. 15. And the_
+1 Vers.—Lice. * Rod. 3 It became lice in man, and in beast.

acceptation of kinnim as lice, which is they tried to do so, which application, al-
adopted by Josephus, Jonathan, Onkelos, though not without parallel, seems less
Hesychius, Dioscorides, Taylor, Buxtorf, unforced. Arnheim, quoting the explana-
Le Clerc, and Luther, and defended—but tion of Chiskuni, takes the words “ to bring
with insufficient arguments—by Bochart forth,” in the sense of leading away: the
and Bryant, is in no way appropriate, magicians tried to remove the gnats, but
whilst the translations of Zunz and Arn- they failed, and thus there were gnats
heim (noxious insects), and of Johlson and upon men and beasts. However, the ma-
Salomon (vermin), are too indistinct; and gicians had first to prove their power to
the rendering of Philippson, ants, is a produce the same miracles as Moses and
conjecture, neither supported by internal Aaron, and the Hebrew verb here em-
probability, nor by any ancient authority. ployed 18 to be taken as in Geni. 12:
13. The miracle connected with this “and the earth produced grass.” — But
plagueis expressed in the words: all the dust they could not, according to Nachmanides,
of the land became gnats through all the land because here some new creation was to
of Egypt, showing the unparalleled quantity be effected, whilst the blood was only
of these obnoxious insects, so that they a change of the same element, and the
became a perfect and dangerous plague. frogs were only called forth from the
And this is the climax in the third won- waters, where they existed already before,
der. Whilst the two first were only — So there were gnats upon man and upon
disagreeable or troublesome, the third was beast, an emphatical repetition, in order to
indeed dangerous for men and beasts, as point once more to the vexatious character
those insects penetrated into the most of this plague; and we find in these words
delicate and tender parts of the body, the no allusion that “the gnats came upon
eyes and nostrils. We are further justified the magicians also,” as Ebn Ezra be-
in supposing, that this plague also oc- lieves.
curred at an unusual season, in the month 15. The wise men of Pharaoh were
of February, whilst travellers inform us, now, for the first time, and most reluct-
“that the gnats generally increase about antly compelled to acknowledge: this is
the time of the drying of the rice, about the finger of God, that is, not by the power
the end of October, and that they are less of Moses and Aaron has this miracle been
numerous in other seasons of the year” produced, but by that of a Deity,
(Sonnini, Travels, i. p. 246). mightier than they or ourselves; thus, Ist.
14, And the interpreters of secret They did not admit that Moses and Aaron
signs did so with their hidden arts, ‘were more powerfully gifted than they
namely, they smote the dust as Aaron were themselves: and 2nd. They asserted
had done, in order to bring forth gnats. that not the God of the Israelites (Jehovah),
This is the easy and natural interpreta- indignant at Pharaoh’s refusal to allow
tion of the verse. Others translate the departure of His people, had inflicted
 EXODUS VIII. 105

interpreters of secret signs said to Pharaoh, This zs the

finger of God: but Pharaoh’s heart remained hardened,
and he hearkened not to them, as the Lord had said.
16. And the Lord said to Moses, Rise early in the morn-
ing and stand before Pharaoh—behold, he goeth out to the
water—and say to him, Thus saith the Lord, Let my
people go, that they may serve me. 17. ‘For if thou wilt
not let my people go, behold, 1 shall send ’the beetle upon,
‫ ו‬Engl. Vers.—Else.‫‏‬ 2 Swarms of flies.

this plague, but simply a superior deity Finger of God, is used instead of hand or
(Elohim), or the influence of the stars.— power, as Psalm viii. 4; cix. 27, etc.
FourtH Pracur. Berertizs (Blatta Orientalis), Ver. 16—28.
| 16, 1%. To fix precisely the animal wild); Zunz (Die wilde Brut), and
constituting the fourth plague (arob), is a many others. But against this opinion
matter of almost still greater uncertainty several objections must be raised: a. That
than to determine the objects of the pre- this would imply a violence of the plague
ceding calamity; but we have here, also, which is nowhere expressed or indicated
some criteria to guideus: Ist. These animals in the text, and which would, considering
do not only attack man, but they fill the its fatal character, and observing the
land (ver. 17); 2nd. They are of a de- steady gradation of the wonders, place it
vouring or rapacious propensity (‘ He immediately before the tenth plague (see
sent the arob, which devoured them,” Ps. supra, p. 89(.--6. It is altogether indis-
Ixxviii. 45); 3rd. They cause devastations tinct, and conveys but a very vague idea
in the land (ver. 20); 4th. They must be of the plague.—c. 0700 is evidently one
different from, and more seriously inju- individual animal, as appears from ver. 24;
rious than gnats, which formed the third for the expression “ one of amixture,” would
plague.—We shall now be able to judge be strangely illogical. 11. The Septuagint,
of the different opinions advanced on the and after it the greater part of the modern
signification of ₪700: -- 1. The old He- interpreters (Rosenmiiller, in the Scholia,
brew and traditional meaning is, “ a mizx- but not in his Orient; De Wette, in his
ture of noxious animals,” from the verb translation, although not in his Com-
arab, to mix. Thus it is understood mentary on the Psalms; Gesenius, in the
already by Josephus (Antiq. 11. xiv. 3): Dictionary, more decidedly than in the
“he filled the country with various and Thesaurus, and others), take arob as
manifold animals, such as had never dog-fly (kvvépuia), an insect abounding in
come into the sight of men before, by Egypt. But let us compare the most
which the men perished themselves, and emphatical descriptions of these animals.
the land was deprived of the usual agri- Sonuini (iii, 226) writes: “The most
cultural care.” The word 0700 is, fur- numerous and troublesome insects in
ther, similarly interpreted by Targum Egypt are the flies (musca domestica, Z.).
Jonathan (a mixed swarm of wild beasts); Man and beasts are most cruelly tor-
the Vulgate (omne genus muscarum); mented by them. It is scarcely possible
Saadiah (a mixture of wild beasts); Rashi to imagine their rage if they are deter-
(all kinds of noxious animals and ser- mined to settle on any part of the body.
pents and scorpions mixed together); If they are scared away they come the
Ebn Ezra (wild beasts in crowds, as lions, next moment again, and their pertinacity
and wolves, and bears, and leopards): exhausts even the greatest patience. ‘They
Luther (Ungeziefer); Mendelssohn (Ge- like, especially, to sit on the corners of
 - 1-4 , Tia | < |
+ : ba -

106 “EXODUS ‫צוזז‬‎

thee, and upon thy servants, and upon thy people, and
into thy houses; and the houses of the Egyptians shall 06
full of the beetle, and also the ground whereon they are.
18. And I shall ‘distinguish in that day the land of
Goshen, in which my people dwell, that no beetle shall be
! Engl. Vers.—Sever.

the eyes, and on the eye-lids, those most filled, in a few minutes, the whole house
sensitive parts, to which a little moisture of the resident missionary there. Only
attracts them.” Let us even hear the after the most laborious exertions, and
evidently exaggerated account of Philo after covering the floor of the apartments
(Vit. Mos. ii. p.101): “The flies rush on with hot coals, they succeeded in master-
without fear, and if they are driven away ing them. If they make such attacks
they repeat their attacks with tenacious during the night, the inmates are com-
obstinacy till they have satisfied them- 61160 to give up the houses; and even
selves with blood and flesh. ‘Thus, the little children, or sick persons, who are
dog-fly is a bold and insidious insect; for unable to rise alone, are then exposed to
it darts from a distance, like a spear, the greatest danger of life.” Hasselquist
with a buzzing noise, and, approaching and Forskal further report, that they
with great violence fixes its sting deeply inflict very painful bites with their jaws;
Ly
'‫י‬
.
into the skin.” If we compare these de- that they gnaw and destroy clothes,
scriptions with the essential criteria of household-furniture, leather, and articles
the arob above enumerated, it is obvious of every kind; and either consume or
that it cannot mean dogflies, because, render unavailable all eatables, “Those
a. these do not cover the ground; 6. they who have travelled about the Nile,” says
do not devour or corrode things; 0. they Munk (Pal. p. 126, 6), know what-a mo-
cause no devastations of the land; d. they lestation those insects are ; the houses are
are neither very different from, nor in infested by them, and they are often seen
any considerable degree more vexatious by millions.” These descriptions fully |
than the gnats (see our note to ver. 12). agree with the etymology, and with |
Thus the arob does not correspond with the narrative of our text. ‘These insects
that insect in any of its indisputable really fill the land, and- molest men and
qualities, and we are necessarily com- beasts; they consume all sorts of mate-
pelled to deviate here from the authority rials, devastate the country, and are in so
of the Septuagint and Philo.—Passing far more detrimental than the gnats, as
over the arbitrary and unsupported sup- they destroy also the property of the Egyp-
positions of Werner, who explains arod, tians; they form, in this respect, the
wolf (see also Rashbam), or of others, appropriate transition to the following
who take it as locusts, we believe that all severer plagues, which first ruin the
these criteria perfectly apply to the Blatta wealth, and then the lives of the Egyp- a
Orientalis, called in German Schabe or tians. And thus the clear gradation of
Kakerlake (Tarokan). This will at once the plagues will be easily discernible.
be acknowledged as the most appro- This beetle is an important emblem in
priate interpretation, if we give here the mythology of the Egyptians, and is . .
-/

some extracts from descriptions of that found on almdst all their sculptural and
insect. Pratte (Travels through Abyssi- pictorial monuments. The Egyptian
nia, p.143) narrates: ‘‘The Kakerlaks beetle is chiefly distinguished from the e

appear in a moment in the houses, and common one by a broad band upon the
break forth, as if by a spell, suddenly anterior margin of its oval corselet.
from every aperture and fissure. Shortly Kirby (Bridgewater Treatises, 11. p. 357)
E
before my departure from Adua, they mentions another etymological derivation:
 EXODUS VIII. 107

there, in order that thou mayest know that I am the Lord

in the midst of the earth. 19. And I shall put a division
between my people and thy people: to-morrow shall this
sign be. 20. And the Lord did so; and there came swarms
of beetles into the house of Pharaoh, and into his servants’
houses, and into all the land of Egypt: the land was
“Tt has been suggested to me, that the and that, therefore, theidols of the Egyp-
Egyptian plague of flies was ₪ tians are as impotent as the arts of the
(Blatta Agyptiaca). The Hebrew name magicians are fallacious and powerless.
of the animal, which is the same by Bruce, however, who has thoroughly in-
which the rayen is distinguished, fur- vestigated this subject (Travels, i. p.5;
nishes no slight argument in favour of it. vy. p. 191), explains the fact mentioned in
The same word also signifies the evening. these verses, in the following manner:
Now the cock-roach, at this time found “Tt is well known, that the land of
in Egypt, is black, with the anterior mar-
== Goshen was a land of pasture, which was
gin of the thorax white, and they never not tilled or sown, because it was not
emerge from their hiding-places till the overflowed by the Nile. But the land
evening; both of which circumstances overflowed by the Nile was the black
would furnish a reason for the name earth of the valley of Egypt. Now sandy
given to it; and it might be called the plains, or pasture-ground, are, even now,
evening insect, both from its colour, and always exempted from similar plagues,
the time of its appearance.” This would, which are invariably limited to the black
however, be a very indistinct designation, soil, and, even at present, the former
applying with equal, and perhaps greater kinds of territory are the usual refuge of
propriety, to a considerable number of all cattle from the destructive influence of
Other animals, both insects, birds and those insects.” But all this does not re-
wild beasts.— Rise early in the morning, etc. move the miraculous character of the
see note on vii. 15. -- Whereon they are, promise made to the Israelites with
that is, the Egyptians, in contradistinction regard to this plague, as the latter were
to the Israelites. not limited to Goshen only, but lived
1%, 19. The special providence of scattered through all parts of Egypt; and
God, in favour of His people, will mani- here also they were to remain free from
fest itself in this plague still more openly the calamity (ver. 19; see note on i. 7).—
and obviously than in the preceding three To-morrow shall this sign be. In this, as
calamities, by exempting them entirely in all similar cases, God fixed the time of
from the obnoxious insects, which will the plague before its occurrence, not only
prove 80 troublesome to the persons, and so to afford Pharaoh an opportunity of re-
destructive to the property of their Egyp- penting, but to preclude at once the insin-
tian neighbours, This fact will impress uation that it happened by chance, or
upon the latter the twofold truth: 1st. in natural course, and to convince the
That the Israelites are the people of God obdurate mind of Pharaoh still more
who sends the plagues over Egypt, on forcibly of God’s unlimited power; com-
account, and in favour of, His people; pare ix. 5.
2nd. That He is the omnipotent Lord 2. The predicted calamity took place
of the Universe; “that thou 4% at the appointed time; and enormous
know that I am the Lord in the midst of swarms of voracious beetles molested
the earth;” or as Rashi explains, “al- the palace of Pharaoh and the dwellings
though my glory is in heaven, my will is of all his people, and devastated the land
omnipotent on earth,” similar to the of Egypt. Referring to our exposition on
expression in verse 6 (compare ix, 14,29), ver. 16, we find the wonder of this plague
 - = ‫יער‬‎ ‫שי‬ 6 %- Toye ‫רו‬‎ if tee EE Re aT ‫תק‬‎ 7‫ה‬
STS Ce re Eee ‫ה‬-‫א‬‎ ₪ ‫ ל‬7 ‫יו‬ ‫וורו‬
‎‫ץצ‬ ie Se eke Shi On ₪ ‫ד‬

108 EXODUS VIII.

devastated by the beetle. 21. And Pharaoh called for
Moses and for Aaron, and said, Go you, sacrifice to your
God in the land. 22. And Moses said, It is not meet to
do so; for we shall sacrifice the abomination of the Egyp-
tians to the Lord our God: behold, shall we sacrifice the
abomination of the Egyptians before their eyes, and will
they not stone us ? 23. We will go a three days’ journey
in the following data: 1. That, as it oc- the cow, the sheep, and the gout, the
curred at the command of God, so it usual sacrifices of the Hebrews, were
disappeared at the prayer of Moses (ver. among the sacred animals of the Egyp-
28). 2. That those insects infested the tians; although we know that none of
land in prodigious numbers, and with a these animals—perhaps with the only ex-
violence unheard of before or after that ception of the cow, which was sacred to
time; and 8. That the Israelites, whether Isis (Herod. .‫גג‬‎ 4)—was universally wor-
living in Goshen or dispersed throughout shipped by the Egyptians ; but that the ּ
Egypt, were perfectly free from the cala- same animals which were considered in-
/
,

mity. Gesenius, who takes arob as dog- violable in some districts, were killed and
fly, is obliged to suppose the wonder to eaten in others. So, for instance, the
have consisted in the circumstance, that Thebans abstained from eating mutton,
those insects, which usually molest beasts but killed goats; whilst the Mendesians 4
only, changed their nature and attacked held the goats sacred, but killed sheep,
men also (ver. 17); and Rosenmiller, who The probable cause of these surprising 4
is well aware that the dog-flies do not discrepancies is, that each district, or no- 4
devastate the land, explains that by the mos, formed originally an independent 1
words the land, the inhabitants of the land state, mostly founded by priests, the cen- |4
are to be understood. The forced cha- tre of which was the temple, and that :/4
racter of either opinion is too obvious to even after the amalgamation of those
1
require comment.
21. This plague was so fearful, and.
different provinces and tribes under one
common rule, they retained the religious
.
so decidedly more alarming than the pre- customs of their ancestors, which were
ceding miracles, that the magicians did still clearly discernible in later times. It
not even try their arts to produce similar is not the place here, psychologically to
effects, and Pharaoh was once more com- investigate into the origin, extent, and in-
pelled to send for Moses and Aaron, and ternal character of so extraordinary a
to offer them concessions: Go you, sacrifice phenomenon as the animal worship, which
to your God in the land, that is, in Egypt;
naturally fearful, lest the Israelites if once
was not limited to Egypt alone, but was,
and partially is still, prevalent throughout
;
beyond his boundaries, would not return the whole of Africa; to enquire whether
to resume their slavish works, so cruelly the leading principle in declaring an ani-
and unjustly imposed upon them. mal sacred, was its usefulness or its
22. Moses objects, they could not ven- dangerousness, its majestic appearance or
ture to sacrifice in Egypt, for the people its beauty, or the contrary ;—it is sufficient
would stone them, 7¢f they sacrificed the to be conscious of the truth, that the
abominations of the Egyptians before monstrosity of animal worship is so dis-
their eyes; that is, if they killed and tant from civilised or refined notions, that >.9
90 250
SR
offered those animals which it was, in we experience the greatest difficulty in
the eyes of the Egyptians, an abomin- attempting to represent or to analyse to
able crime to kill, because they were ourselves its character and tendency.
objects of holy veneration. The bull, (Compare our supplementary note on ii,
 rate‫‏‬
‫ו‬ 0

‫ו‬
\
= ‫זז פספסאת‬
into the desert, and sacrifice to the Lord our God, as He
= 111 say to us. 24. And Pharaoh said, I will let you go,
_ that you may sacrifice to the Lord your God in the desert;
> only you shall not go very far away: entreat for me.
25. And Moses said, Behold, I go out from thee, and I
shall entreat the Lord, 'and the beetle will disappear from
! Engl. Vers.—That the swarms of flies may depart.

10). But already Herodotus (ii. 65) re- appears to us the opinion of Hengsten-
ports about the severity and fanaticism berg, Gerlach, and others, that the Israel- /
1 with which the killing of those beasts was ites feared to sacrifice animals, which were ia
- 0 - prosecuted: “If a person kills one of not worthy or pure enough in the eyes of ‘a
| them 068156017, the punishment is death; the Egyptians, to be offered to the Deity, Wi
| _ if it is done unintentionally, he pays the and which would thus be an abomination
» fine which the priests impose upon him, for them. It is true that the Egyptians
5 |But he who kills an ibis or a hawk, be it were most particularly careful in selecting
0 designedly or not, must mercilessly die.” the most faultless animals for their sacri-
| This was, for instance, the fate of a Ro- fices; that they had a great number of
| - - ‫זמהמ‬‎ ambassador, who had unintentionally minute precepts to regulate this matter,
| - killed a cat. At conflagrations the first and that capital punishment awaited any
| 7 and most anxious care of the Egyptians one who sacrificed an animal which had
| 7-5 was to save the cats and dogs from the not been examined by the priests, and, by a
flames. The Egyptian armies brought the impress of their official seal, declared
not seldom home, from their foreign ex- fit for an offering to the gods. But was it to
peditions, a great number of these ani- the deities of the Egyptians that the Is-
mals, which they had found dead, and raelites intended to sacrifice? Could it, //
which they buried in their own country, then, revolt the religious feelings of the
at appointed places, with great pomp and former, if they saw animals which, to
under general lamentation, after having their notions, were not perfectly clean,
_earefully embalmed them. If a cat died sacrificed to a deity which they did not |
ina house, the inmates, as a sign of acknowledge?—How Moses could expect o;.
mourning, shaved the eyebrows; but, if a that the shepherd-king, who was of Ara- ‘a
> dog died, the whole body was shaved.— bian descent, would admit the force of an
- Onkelos paraphrases correctly: because argument based on truly Egyptian idol-
i we take those animals, which the Egytians atry, has been explained in our note to
worship, as a sacrifice to the Lord our i.8, p.7. Besides, Moses had certainly to |
God. Others believe, that abomination of fear the Egyptians, who, although sub- 05
> the Egyptians is simply identical with gods jugated, formed still the majority of the |
of the Egyptians, as Camosh, the god of population.
the Moabites, is called the abomination 23. Moses demanded, therefore, per-
of the Moabites (1 Kings xi. 7). But how mission for the Israelites to go a three
can we suppose that Moses would, in ad- days’ journey into the desert (out of the
4 dressing Pharaoh, call the Egyptian gods sight of the Egyptians), and to perform
= abominations; and this objection is but there the sacrifices to the Lord—“ as He
artificially removed by the opinion of will say to us,’ namely, which animals
= some interpreters, that Moses really said we shall sacrifice, and in what quantity.
to Pharaoh Egypt's gods, but that he The Sept., Vulg. and Luther take, not in-
Te
ee
Tae
wrote down later Egypt's abominations: appropriately, the verb in the past tense:
- which precedent would lead to ques- as He has commanded us, (see iii. 18).
tionable analogies. Not more tenable 24—28. Pharaoh, forced by the in-

‫כ‬
 ‫‏‬iS ₪ ‫רג‬ 1 0
4 ‫יי‬

noo EXODUS :‫א‬‎ ‫"קש‬

Pharaoh, from his servants, and from his people, temo 4
row: but let not Pharaoh deal deceitfully any more in —
not letting the people go to sacrifice to the Lord. 26. And =
Moses went out from Pharaoh, and entreated the Lord.
27. And the Lord did according to the word of Moses;
and ‘the beetle disappeared from Pharaoh, from his
servants, and from his people: there remained not one.
28. And Pharaoh hardened his heart this time also, and
he would not let the people go.
' Engl. Vers.—He removed the swarms of flies.

supportable vexation of the beetles, con- Israelites—Moses, once deluded by Pha-

sents to the request, only adding, that raoh after the second plague (vers.4, 11),
they should not go too far away, i.e. not fears the same faithlessness on this occa-
more than a three days’ journey. Moses sion, well knowing that the submission of
did not object to this condition; he com- Pharaoh was not the consequence of true |
mitted himself entirely to the guidance contrition, nor of his acknowledgment of
and direction of God; he was contented the God of the Hebrews, but only the
if he but attained his immediate purpose momentary effect of an urgent embarrass-
of moving Pharaoh to allow the depart- ment. He, therefore, warned Pharaoh
ure of the Israelites; and he confided not to deceive him again; prayed then to
faithfully in God, who, he was assured, the Lord, caused the disappearance of the |
would by His judgments and the succeed- plague, but was as unscrupulously de-
ing events, remove the obligations which ceived by the hardened tyrant as before. |
that promise imposed upon him and the

CHAPTER IX.
| SUMMARY, —Pestilence among the cattle (ver.1—7); boils on the skin (ver. 8--19( ;
and a hail-storm of unparalleled vehemence, destroying the crops and herds of
the field, and killing men and beasts, constitute the three following plagues,
which although they manifested their purport and the might of the Lord still
more obviously by not injuring the Israelites, and although they produced by the
combined terrors of the elements (vers. 14, 23, 24) a momentary self-humiliation of
Pharaoh (ver. 27), did yet not effect an internal and thorough change of the
obstinate mind of the Egyptian king; and the Israclites were hopelessly retained
in their oppressive bondage (see besides notes on vers. 1, 8 and 138).

HEN the Lord said to Moses, Go to Pharaoh,

and tell him, Thus saith the Lord God of the
Firtsa ‎‫מש‬. PESTILENCE AMONG THE CATTLE. Ver. 1—7. =~
1. After the beetles, which had devas- plagues, to a country, the wealth of
tated considerable property, God inflicted, which consists, in a great measure, in
as the fifth plague, an extensive destruc- its cattle. Although neither ancient nor
tion of the most necessary and valuable modern travellers and geographers have
animals of the Egyptians: and 8 paid particular attention to the diseases
calamity caused, therefore, infinitely more of the cattle in Egypt, it is self-evident, 1
real damage than all the preceding that in a climate, where inundations, 1
 EXODUS IX. 111

Hebrews, Let my people go that they may serve me.

2. For if thou refuse to let them go, and wilt hold them
still, 3. Behold, the hand of the Lord is upon thy cattle
which 7s in the field, upon the horses, upon the asses, upon
morasses, burning winds, and other in- therefore, the assertion of Bohlen, that
jurious influences tending to infest the the Egyptians kept no asses, which they
air, are particularly prevalent, pestilence abhorred on account of their colour.
and similar diseases must be frequent The usual sacrifices of Typhon consisted
and endemic. It is confirmed by all in asses, and they must, therefore, have,
modern travellers, that in the Delta existed in Egypt. And admitted even,
of the Nile pestilence rages from time that asses were considered unclean ani-
to time among the cattle with such vio- ‘mals, they were, from this reason, as
lence, that the inhabitants are compelled little excluded from the land as swine,
to import oxen from Syria or the islands which were regarded with particular
of the Archipelago. We must, there- abomination, and were yet repeatedly re-
fore, find
——~= the miracle in circumstances presented on the monuments.— Although
similar to those of the preceding plague, the testimony of Minutoli, who is said to
namely: 1. In the aggravated character have found heads and necks of camels
of the pestilence (ver. 3); 2. that it took represented, two by two, upon the obe-
place on the command of God, evidently lisks of Luxor, is still an isolated monu-
at an unusual season; and 3. that the mental evidence for the existence of
Israelites were again exempted from it camels in ancient Egypt; we are by no
(ver. 6). means justified in impugning the truth of
3. Upon thy cattle, etc. In the enumera- the Scripture account, which mentions
tion of the domestic animals of Egypt, the these useful animals not only in our
horse occupies the first place, that country passage, but already in the time of
being particularly rich in horses of su- Abraham, who received some of them
perior quality, which were sought by from the Egyptian king as a present. It
foreign princes and monarchs, They is, a priori, improbable that the Egyptians
were chiefly used for the war chariots, should not, at a very early period, have
which formed one of the most famous been acquainted, through the medium of
arms of the Egyptians. See Deut. xvii. the Arabic tribes and the eastern mer-
16; Geny xlviili. 17; and our note on chants, with the valuable qualities of that
xiv. 7.—Mules and asses also are fre- patient animal. At present, it is one
quently found on Egyptian monuments. of the principal and of the most lucrative
Asses were commonly used for riding occupations of the Arabic tribes inhabit-
(see our note on iv. 20), and they are ing the borders of the valley of Egypt,
represented richly caparisoned. They to rear camels and to sell them into the
were further employed for treading out different provinces. They are extensively
corn, and for many, especially agricul- employed for the transport of goods, and
tural purposes, for which their hardiness especially for the ingathering of the crops,
and the small cost of their maintenance for which even those, who do not possess
rend them particularly appropriate. any, hire them according to their wants.
How great the number of asses was, is Although they were not used in war as
obvious from the fact, that a single in- by the Indians and other ancient nations,
dividual possessed not less than seven they were found very valuable for the
hundred and sixty of them as beasts of transport of baggage and provisions.
burden, and there is at present scarcely Under these circumstances it is of little
any husbandman who does not possess importance, that camels do not, except in
some asses. Perfectly unfounded is, very rare instances, occur on Egyptian
112 EXODUS IX.

the camels, upon the oxen, and upon the sheep: ‘a very @
heavy pestilence. 4, And the Lord will ?distinguish
between the cattle of Israel and the cattle of Egypt: and =
to the children of
there will nothing die of all that belongs
Israel. 5. And the Lord fixed an appointed time,
saying, To-morrow the Lord will do this thing in the land.
6. And the Lord did that thing on the morrow, and all
! Engl. Vers.—There shall be a very grievous murrain. 2 Sever.

sculptures or paintings. Not every thing, quality. In Thebes they were sacred;
which is not represented on the monu- and in the Mendesian district they were
ments, was therefore necessarily unknown sacrificed (Herod 11. 41,42); in Lykopolis
to the Egyptians. The monuments are they were eaten; they lambed and were
neither intended to furnish, nor can they shorn twice annually (Diod. i. 36, 87);
furnish, a complete delineation of all the on the monuments they occur most fre-
branches of public and private life, of all quently, and in some districts very great
the products and phenomena, of the whole numbers were kept. They are as abund-
animal, vegetable and mineral creation of ant at present in Egypt; their wool is an
the country. They cannot be viewed as important article of export; and their
a complete cyclopzedia of Egyptian cus- flesh forms the usual animal food of the
toms and civilisation. Thus we find no inhabitants (see Wilkinson, ii. p. 368;
representation of fowls and _ pigeons, Champollion, Letters, p. 51; Déscript. de
although the country abounded in them; Egypte xvii. .‫כ‬‎ 129).
of the wild ass and wild boar, although 5. And God fixed an appointed time
frequently met with in Egypt; none of for the occurrence of the plague (see on
the process relating to the casting of viii. 19).— Nachmanides explains more
statues and other objects in_ bronze, speciously than correctly: the cattle, which
although many similar subjects connected is in the fields will die, because the shep-
with the arts are represented; none of herds so despised among the Egyptians
the marriage-ceremony, and of numerous lived far from the towns,
other subjects. Since, therefore, no con- 6. And all the catile of Egypt (i. e.,
clusion can be drawn from the absence of the Egyptians) died. It is not unusual,
of monumental delineation to the actual that the adjective all signifies in Hebrew
existence of an animal in Eyypt, it is only a great part; for instance, in Deut,
unnecessary to recur, in this instance, to xix. 3, it is said, that “all murderers”
the supposition, that the Egyptians ab- should fly to the refuge cities, which the
stained from representing the camels on next verse qualifies by stating the class of
their holy monuments, because it was too murderers entitled to that privilege. And
much associated with the idea of the 80 we must understand that word here,
nomad shepherds, so detested by the since we learn from vers. 10 and 19, that
priests. This explanation, scarcely tenable all the cattle of the Egyptians was
in itself, would not apply to any of the destroyed. A similar interpretation we
other instances enumerated.—Sheep are are compelled to adopt in ver. 25, where
so far from not thriving in Egypt, as we cannot explain literally that “all the
modern critics have asserted with a grass of the field” was destroyed by hail,
polemical view to the Biblical statements, on account of x. 15, where the locusts are
that they are expressly reported by described causing the devastation of the
ancient and modern travellers to be found grass, “ which the hail had left.”—Rashi,
there in great abundance and of superior following the Midrash, interprets: * 1
 EXODUS IX. 113

the cattle of Egypt died; but of the cattle of the children

of Israel died not one. 7. And Pharaoh sent, and, behold,
there was not one of the cattle of the Israelites dead.
"But the heart of Pharaoh was hardened, and he did not
let the people go.
8. And the Lord said to Moses and to Aaron, Take
to you handfuls of soot of the furnace, and let Moses
1 Engl. Vers.—And.

cattle, which was in the field, died (ver. 3), was not destroyed.”—Bullet: “Des bétes
but that which the Egyptians either kept de toutes lessortes”; against the genius of
permanently in their houses, or had driven the Hebrew language.
home at the commencement of the plague

SrxtH PLAGUE. Bolts. ‫אמ‬. 4

8. Now even the persons of the Egyp- skin, and is characterized by glands in
tians were attacked with leprous diseases, the face and other parts of the body;
which although not fatal, are attended they are at first of the size of a pea, then
with the most excruciating pains, and of a walnut, or of a hen’s egg. But it is
might, if neglected, prove dangerous: known, that it is a peculiarity of this
this is the next step in the climax of hideous disease, that the patient feels in
the divine plagues dispensed against all other respects quite healthy, and may
Egypt. The geueral character of the live with that complaint for many years.
sixth plague is perfectly clear from the And these symptoms seem to be contrary
etymology of the Hebrew words with to the description of our text; because
which it is designated; and which mean 1, the magicians could not stand before
literally: “an inflammation of the skin, Moses because of the boils (ver. 11); and
which produces or breaks out into pustules 2. the latter caused certainly pain, but they
or blains.” But it is difficult to fix the were in themselves no more grievous plague
exact disease here expressed. That it than the gnats or the beetles; but only a
is an epidemic commonly prevalent in gradation in the same kind. Besides 3. the
Egypt, is obvious from Deut. xxviii. 27,35, Elephantiasis never infects animals (vers. 9,
where it is simply called a disease of 10).—Now, Eichhorn and others suppose
Egypt; and we learn from the same here that disease, which is thus described:
passage, that it belongs to those dis- * In the autumn men are attacked by ulcers
orders which defy human skill. But at the thighs and knees, by which they
the successive change of the inhabit- are destroyed in two or three days.’?
ants of Egypt and their customs, has But our text does not speak of a deadly
produced so essential modifications in the disease; for in no part is it mentioned,
sanitary condition of the country, that it that it was attended with the destruc-
is hazardous, at present, to decide on the tion of life——Other writers again un-
exact nature of that epidemic. MRosen- derstand it asa kind of painful blisters
miiller, Gesenius, Reinhard, and others, which at the time of the rise of the Nile
suppose it to be the elephantiasis, which are frequent in Egypt, which are increased
covers the skin with black scurfs, and by drinking water of the Nile, and which
tumefies the feet, producing tormenting are therefore called “grains of the Nile”
pain. It is by ancient writers called (Habe Nili, Volney, i. 192). But 1. this
“an evil peculiar to Egypt.” It begins cannot be called an “incurable disease”
generally with scrofulous tumours on the (Deut. xxviii. 35), for it generally passes
1
 114 EXODUS IX. a = 0

sprinkle it towards heaven before the 0708 of Pharaoh. |

9. And it shall ‘be like dust in all the land of Egypt,
and shall be a boil breaking forth with blains upon
man and upon beast, throughout all the land of Egypt.
10. And they took soot of the furnace, and stood before
Pharaoh: and Moses sprinkled it up towards heayen; and
it became a boil breaking forth 22th blains upon man and
1 Engl. Vers——Become small dust.

away from itself, or after the application and barbarous custom long in yogue
of simple domestic remedies; and 2. it among the Egyptians. They had several
never befalls the cattle.— And Jahn, towns consecrated to Typhon, the evil
lastly, (Archaeol, I., ii. 384) supposes 6 genius in Egyptian mythology; some of
to be the Barras or black leprosy, which, these Typhonic cities were Heliopolis,
however, according to the description Idithyia, Abarei, and Busiris, where an-
given by him invariably ends in death. nually, at certain seasons of the year,
We must, therefore, at the present state human sacrifices were offered to the
of the pathological observations of Egypt, ominous tutelary deity. It is reported,
content ourselves to know the general that for victims of these sanguinary rites,
character of the disease here expressed. persons were chosen with light, reddish
Osburn (Mon. Hist. ii. p. 585) rejects, hair, and a certain complexion rarely
without argument, this signification of met with among the native Egyptians.
Surnace “as a mistake altogether,” and Strangers were, therefore, usually taken;
translates, also without proof, “country they were burnt alive on conspicuous
on fire,’ connecting this expression with altars, and thus sacrificed to avert the
the burning of the stubble and weeds on wrath of the god, and to save the country
the high lands. But this is done in Egypt from destruction; the ashes were then
during the overflow of the Nile, whereas gathered by the priests and scattered in
this plague occurred in the course of March, the air, with the confident hope that with
9. And it shall be like dust in all the that sacred dust the blessings of heaven
land of Egypt, that is, it shall be spread would spread over the whole country.
by the wind throughout Egypt like dust, Now, it is supposed, that during the time
carrying disease along with it wherever it of the oppression of the Israelites in
settles. Others explain: it shall become Egypt, these unfortunate victims were
dust in the land of Egypt. If so, asks taken from them, as an offering particularly
Rosenmiiller, justly, why did not Moses grateful to that deity, and that Moses
take dust at once, and spread it towards spread the ashes from a furnace (which is
heaven? the usual Biblical type for Israel’s thral-
10. And Moses “ sprinkled soot of the dom in Egypt), likewise in the air, but
furnace towards heaven,” as a symbolical not to call forth a blessing, but a severe
action, indicating that God sends the punishment of God. However, if the
diseases through the infected air upon the ceremony of spreading ashes in the air —
Egyptians. It is well known that the was a usual symbol for producing a cer-
ancient nations were accustomed to such tain effect over, the whole land, we re-
mysterious signs, with which, therefore, quire no analogy to explain it; and if
most of the plagues are introduced (see individuals with “light reddish hair”
vii. 20; viii. 2, 13, etc.). Some archo- were chosen for that horrid rite, they
logists find a peculiar significance in the cannot have been Israelites, to whom that
ceremony here performed by Moses, quality does not apply, save by exception,
bringing it into connection witha strange ‫ ברי‬And the interpreters of secret signs‫‏‬
 EXODUS IX.
4upon beast. 11. And the interpreters of secret signs
] could not stand before Moses because of the boils: for the
boils were upon the interpreters of secret signs, and upon
all the Egyptians. 12. And the Lord hardened the heart
of Pharaoh, and he hearkened not to them, as the Lord
had spoken to Moses.
4
13. And the Lord said to Moses, Rise early in the
morning, and step before Pharaoh, and say to him,
_ could not stand before Moses because of struck at an infliction which covers the
the boils ; therefore they could not even whole body with ulcerous matter of the
try their arts; they were included in this most hideous nature. But the whole
_ plague, as in all the others, without being Egyptian people took a particular pride
» able to avert the calamity. The suppo- in cultivating habits of cleanliness, and
) sition of Ebn Ezra, that during the for- hence is explicable the aversion with
=mer plagues they knew, by their acquaint- which they looked upon those foreigners
ance with the natural sciences, how to who allowed their hair and beards to
secure for themselves an alleviation of grow, especially the Greeks, who were,
the evils, is open to the objection that, if from the times of Homer, famous for
- 80, they would certainly have shared, their long and beautiful hair, and to
| with Pharaoh at least, the benefit of this whom that poet applies the standing
superior knowledge; and yet the king epithet: “ long-haired Achzxans;” and
_ appears everywhere to have been among Herodotus (ii. 41, 91) asserts, that no
| the greatest sufferers. Besides, it is Egyptian of either sex, would, on any
repeatedly stated in the narrative of the account, kiss the lips of a Greek, make
preceding plagues, that they would fall use of his knife, his spit and cauldron, or
- upon Pharaoh’s servants, among whom taste the flesh of an animal which had been
_ the magicians are included. In this, the slaughtered by his hand.—Pharaoh did
| sixth plague, the fact that the Egyptian not request Moses to pray for him in this
priests participated in its odious effects, calamity (as he did at the fifth plague),
seems to have been expressly mentioned, perhaps because, as Ebn Ezra eee
from the reason that that caste con- it did not last long.
‘sidered the most scrupulous cleanliness 4. And the Lord hardened the 8
as a part of their superior sanctity. of Pharaoh, Here, for the first time, is
‘Therefore they carefully shaved the the obstinacy of Pharaoh, after 6
‘whole body every three days, as the hair general remark in iy. 21, referred to God.
might possibly harbour yermin; they We are justified in concluding from this
performed ablutions several times every fact, that Pharaoh’s sin preceded and
day, bathing twice a day, and as often provoked God’s punishments, which,
uring the night, and wore, during their however, far from moving his stubborn
iestly functions, no garments except of heart, tended, by the leniency of their
th] aincst linen, because wool might con- character, to harden it still more, and to
ceal either filth or insects. They must, bring him into a self-conscious opposition
therefore, have been particularly horror- to the God of Israel.

SEVENTH PLAGUE. Harn. ‎‫תמ‬. 4

"13. Six plagues, with increasing vehe- exclaims: “ Mine is the Nile, and I have
mence, had proved ineffectual, to work a made it” (Ezek. xxix. 9). The long-
change on that perverse pride of the suffering of God had mercifully allowed
Egyptian monarch, which impotently him ample time to convince himself of
12
116 EXODUS IX.

Thus saith the Lord God of the Hebrews, Let my

people go, that they may serve me. 14. For this time
I shall send all my plagues upon thy heart, and against
thy servants, and against thy people; that thou mayest
know that there 08 none like me in all the earth. 15. ‘For
now I might have stretched out my hand, and might have
smitten thee and thy people with pestilence; and thou
wouldst have been cut off from the earth. 16. But only
for this cause “have I let thee exist, in order to show *thee
my power, and that my name may be acknowledged
throughout all the earth. 17. As yet exaltest thou thy-
self against my people, that thou wilt not let them go.
1 Engl.Vers.—For now I will stretch out my hand, that I may smite thee and thy
people with pestilence; and thou shalt be cut off from the earth.
2 T raised thee up. 3 In thee.

the weakness and insignificance of his miracle. According to verses 31 and 32,
idols, compared with the Lord of Hosts; it occurred in the season when the barley
but in vain; and other, and still more was in ear, and the flax bolled, but when
awful chastisements were necessary, if wheat and rye were not in such a for-
not to reform his haughty mind, at least to ward state, that is, in the beginning of
bend his inflexible will. Why God did the year, in March. For “in Egypt the
not work this ulterior effect by one severe barley is gathered in the sixth. month
overwhelming punishment, instead of after sowing, wheat in the seventh”
ten successive blows, is answered in our (Pliny xviii. 7), and, as all grain is, in
text: “in order to show Pharaoh the that country, sown at the same time, in —
whole power of God, and to make His October, barley comes to maturity in
glory resound throughout the earth.” March, and wheat in April, a chronolo-
However, here begin those plagues which gical date which admirably agrees with
spread horror and awe over the country, the time of the Exodus. During their
and which destroy not only the property sojourn in Alexandria, Wansleben and
but the lives of the Egyptians. The Monconys witnessed thunder-storms in
hail, mixed with thunder and terrific the month of January, the former, on the
bolts of lightning, cause such devastation Ist, the latter on the 17th and 18th of
in the fields and such ravages among men the month; the tempest was accompanied
and beasts, that the stubbornness of with hail. Perry also observes, that it
Pharaoh is so much curbed as to exclaim: hails in January and February in Kairo,
“JT have sinned; the Lord is righteous, although but seldom. Pococke and
and I and my people are wicked,” and to Korte witnessed at Fium, in February,
request Moses anew to pray for the ces- rain-showers mixed with hail-stones.
sation of the calamity—although his ob- Bruce heard, in Cossir, during the roar-
tuse heart proved again incapable of ing of the wind, throughout the whole
repentance and atonement.—That hail is month of February, and a little later,
not unusual in Egypt is acknowledged in along the Arabian gulph, the crash of
our text (vers. 18, 24), but none of the the thunder. Whilst we have thus an
geographers or travellers relate such abundance of testimonials as to the fre-
destructive qualities of this phenomenon quency of hail- and thunder-storms in the
as are described to have taken place in this three first months of the year, we find
 4

EXODUS IX.
18. Behold, to-morrow about this time I shall cause it to
rain a very heavy hail, such as hath not been in Egypt
since the day of its foundation even until now. 19. Send
> therefore now, and ‘bring in safety thy cattle, and all that
thou hast in the field; for upon every man and beast
| which will be found in the field, and will not be gathered
into the house, the hail will come down upon them, and
they will die. 20. He-who feared the word of the Lord
among the servants of Pharaoh made his servants and his
cattle flee into the houses. 21. But he who regarded not
> the word of the Lord left his servants and his cattle in the
field.—22. And the Lord said to Moses, Stretch forth thy
|hand towards heaven, that there may be hail in all the
4 Engl. Vers.—Gather.

/ the same unanimity with regard to the signs of my majesty, will feel its weak-
general mildness and harmlessness of ness, and acknowledge my superiority
these phenomena. Du Bois Aymé over all the deities worshipped by men.
- (Déseript. xvii. 135) remarks, that the 16. God multiplied, in an ascending gra-
thunder which occurred in Egypt during dation, the plagues against Pharaoh, in
his stay there was so weak and gentle order to prove, by their peculiar character,
_ that several persons who were with him not only to Pharaoh, but to all the nations
at the same time did not hear or notice of the earth, that He favours His worship-
it. During the visit of Thevenot in pers and destroys those who obstinately
_ Egypt, there was a thunder-storm which disregard Him. Pharaoh was preserved
killed a man; this was an occurrence so by the forbearance of God, in the midst
4 ‘uncommon and unparalleled that nobody of many fearful plagues; and so he be-
- ‫אפ‬‎ able to explain it, and it caused came a more signal example afterwards,
ry niversal consternation. If we compare 18. The violent character of hail- and
herewith the fearful character of the thunder-storms is unusual in Egypt, al-
same phenomena as described in our though these phenomena are in them-
text (ver. 25), we can obviously perceive _ 861708 not uncommon in that country. See
its miraculous nature, which is again ver, 13.
enhanced by the circumstance that they 19. In the first four months of the year
occurred and ceased at the command of (that is, during the season, when the
‘Moses (ver. 33), and that the Hebrews seventh plague took place, see ver. 13),
were exempted from their effects (ver. 26). the cattleis sent out to pasture in the fields,
About the rarity of rain in Egypt, see on whilst during the remaining part of the
erse 33. year it feeds on dry food (Niebuhr, Tray.
44. For this time I shall send all my p.142; Hartmann, p. 232; Déser. de
plas es upon thy heart; that is, I shall lEg. xvii. p. 126).
iow inflict upon thee such a combination 260. We have to supply here, that
ofawful punishments—hail, and thunder, Moses executed the command of God and
4 fires of lightning, and torrents of announced the plague to Pharaoh; and
rain, in fact, all the united horrors of na- the Samaritan codex has here, as in simi-
ture, that thy heart, hitherto proud and lar preceding passages, an addition to
inflexible, but now overpowered by these that effect. See note to vii. 18. “ This
0
 118 EXODUS IX.
land of Egypt, upon man and upon beast, and upon every
herb of the field, throughout the land of Egypt. 23. And
Moses stretched forth his 'staff towards heaven: and the
Lord sent thunder and hail, and *fire came down upon the
earth; and the Lord rained hail upon the land of Egypt.
24. So there was hail, and *continuous fire in the midst
of the hail, very heavy, such as there was none like it in
all the land of Egypt since it became a nation. 25. And
the hail smote throughout all the land of Egypt all that
was in the field, both man and beast; and the hail smote
every herb of the field, and broke every trec of the field.
26. Only in the land of Goshen, where the children of |
Israel were, there was no hail. 27. And Pharaoh sent,
and called for Moses and Aaron, and said to them, I have
1 Engl. Vers.—Rod. * Fire ran along upon the ground. 56 mingled with the hail.

was a test for Moses to prove, how far the 28. And you shall stay no longer, pray
fear of that God, in whose name he had forthwith to the Lord. ,
come, had already found access to the 29. Moses went out of the town in
minds of the Egyptians.” order to pray, either because the solitude
23. And fire came down upon the earth. enhanced his devotion, or (according to
Fire, namely, lightning, as 1 Kings the Midrash) because the town was in-
XvVill. 88; Jobi.16,ete. The Engl. Vers. fested with idols.— The thunder shall
renders strangely: “fire ran along upon cease. ‘This sudden cessation of the
the ground,” (precisely as Ebn Ezra re- plague by the will of God was eminently
marks: “the fire here went on the ground, calculated to manifest to the king of
contrary to its nature, which makes it Egypt His paramount power over all the
ascend upwards’); which interpretation is elements and the whole earth, which
precluded by the Hebrew text. authority was not—as that of the idols -
24. So there was hail, and continuous was considered to be—confined to one
Sire in the midst of the hail. Targ. Onk., country or to any one part of the world.
Sept., and Vulgate render: “fire mingled 30. That you do not yet fear the Lord God.
with the hail;” so also Luther, Engl. Vers., Ebn Ezra connects this sentence with the
Vater, Rosenm., Philippson, and others, following verse, and renders: “ already,
without regard to the etymology of the before you feared the Lord, your flax and
Hebrew word, Zunz and Arnheim, a barley were smitten, and I can therefore
spreading fire, which would include con- not pray for their restoration,” which inter-
Jlagrations; Gesenius, De Wette and pretation must be considered as forced.
Maurer: conglomerated fire or balls of 31,32. And the flax (Linum usita-
fire, which would impart to the words a tissimum). It was in ancient times,
character not hinted at in the text. as it is now, much cultivated in Egypt, in
25. About every herb, and every tree, the well-known square beds; especially in
see on ver. 6. the Delta, in the vicinity of Pelusium
.‫ בב‬I have sinned this time; that is,‫‏‬ (Linum Pelusiacum); the stalks reach a
as Nachmanides explains: “ This time I‫‏‬ height of more than three feet, and the
acknowledge that I have sinned.”‫‏‬ thickness of cane (compare Herod. ii. 105;
 Bey
@ aM
EXODUS IX ‫ו‬
‘sinned this time: the Lord is righteous, and I and my
Peale are wicked. 28. Entreat the Lord, ‘for it is
= already too much to be more thunderings and hail; and 1
will let you go, and you shall stay no longer. 29. And
> Moses said to him, When I am gone out of the city, I shall
= spread out my hands to the Lord; and the thunder will
cease, neither will there be any more hail, that thou
mayest know that the earth 18 the Lord’s. 30. But
= 88 for thee and thy servants, 1 know *that you do not
yet fear the Lord God. (81. And the flax and the
_ barley were smitten; for the barley was in the ear, and
the flax was bolled. 382. But the wheat and the ‘spelt
“were not smitten; for they ‘are later.) 383. And Moses
went out of the. city from Pharaoh, and spread out
= 4 Engl. Vers.—For it is enough that there be no more mighty thunderings, etc.
‎‫שי‬ That ye will not yet fear. 5 Rye. 7 Were not grown up.

Pliny, xix.1,2). See our Introduction as high as barley, and is extensively cul-
to chap.xxv.: “The Holy Tabernacle;” tivated in the southern countries of Eu-
JI. 6.1. We have there remarked on the rope, in Egypt, Arabia and Palestine, in
very extensive use made of flax, and the more than one species. The Septuagint
various purposes to which linen was ap- translates it by éAupa, in Pliny “arinca,”
> plied. Egypt was, in fact, the great linen which corresponds with the French riguet;
‫ ו‬market of the ancient world; and thus‫‏‬ and Herodotus (ii. 36) observes, that it was
the enormity of the loss occasioned by the used by the Egyptians for baking bread.
‘seventh plague will readily be estimated. These were not smitten, for they are later.
4
Barley was both in Egypt and Pales- Wheat and spelt are still backward in
tine extensively sown, in October and March, when flax and barley are already
the beginning of November; it ripened in ripe for the sickle (see note on ver. 18).
March, and was generally cut in April. The former were still tender and flexible,
\
ft was partly used as food for animals, and, therefore, yielded to the violence of
especially horses, partly for bread for the the hail and rain, and remained uninjured;
poorer classes, and for the preparation of whilst the hard, stiff and dry stalks of
- @ common beverage. The barley-bread flax and barley were, by their resistance,
was considered very wholesome, though easily broken and destroyed.
not so nutritious as that of wheat; and 33. And the rain was not poured upon
the Arabs in Morocco eat, at present, ex- the earth. Rain 18 so seldom in Egypt,
clusively unleavened barley-bread.—And especially in those parts which lie low and
/e wheat which, as is universally known, flat, that Herodotus distinctly says: “ it
was the most cultivated grain in Asia never rains in that country” (ii. 14).
an d Egypt. And the spelt, Triticum > Egypt enjoys such fruitfulness,” observes
20168 Linn., with a four-leaved blunted Pliny, ‘ that she owes nothing to rain or
“ealix, small blossoms, with little awns, the skies.” Mela calls Egypt * a country
‘and smooth, as it were, shorn, slender without rain;” Lucilius says: * No pea-
s,the grains of which sit so firmly in sant looks to the skies,’ and Tibullus:
e husks that they must be freed from “the grass prays not to the rain-giving
them by peculiar devices; it grows about Jupiter.” The very construction of
120 EXODUS IX.

his hands to the Lord; and the thunders and hail ceased,
and the rain was not poured upon the earth. 34. But
when Pharaoh saw that the rain and the hail and the
thunders had ceased, 'he continued to sin, and hardened
his heart, he and his servants. . 35. And the heart of
Pharaoh remained hardened, and he would not let the
children of Israel go, as the Lord had spoken by Moses.
1 Engl. Vers.—He sinned yet more.

the houses in Egypt, of mere crude raoh’s guilt became greater, the more nu-
bricks, shows the rarity of rain, which, merous the corrections were, to which he
if it had fallen often and in 8 obstinately resisted, especially when a
quantity, would soon have endangered conviction of his criminal conduct had
the safety of the edifices. And, although come over him; the Hebrew words
modern travellers have sometimes wit- imply simply a continuation of the
nessed rain in that country, it was so same sin, a repetition of the former
lenient and excited such astonish- refusal to allow the departure of the Is-
ment among the inhabitants, (at Thebes raclites; and they are equivalent to the
showers fell about five or six times in the phrase: “ Pharaoh hardened his heart
course of the year, and a continued storm this time also ” (viii. 28).
of heavy rain is quite unusual) that we 35. Calvin finds in the concluding words
can well understand the force of the narra- of this verse: “as the Lord had spoken
tive of this plague, which had, besides by Moses,” an intimation of the circum-
other more formidable phenomena, violent stance, that Moses communicated to Pha-
torrents of rain as an ungrateful accompa- raoh the divine prediction of his obsti-
niment. nacy, and that, therefore, here is again a
34. And he continued to sin. Some in- significant progress in the narrative. But
terpreters explain: Because Pharaoh had the context does not justify such assump-
acknowledged God, saying, that He is tion. If Moses made any communica-
righteous, but he himself wicked (ver. 27), tion concerning the predicted continuance
and yet resisted His commands, he is of Pharaoh’s stubbornness, he made it to
henceforth a wanton, intentional sinner the Israelites, not to Pharaoh, upon whom
and, is therefore, still more criminal; it would have worked a very undesirable
and the English Version translates ac- effect, although even the former alterna-
cordingly: “and he sinned yet more.” tive is not necessarily implied in the
Although certainly the weight of Pha- word through or by.

CHAPTERS X. XI.
Summary.—Swarms of locusts are announced by Moses as the eighth plague. The
officers of Pharaoh, dismayed at the predicted infliction, earnestly warn him to
yield at last to the wish of the Israelites. Moses and Aaron appear again before
the king; but on hearing their request, that all the Israelites, with their wives,
children, and cattle, wished to go to celebrate a festival to the Lord, he expelled
them from his presence. Enormous swarms of locusts are, from Arabia, brought
over Egypt by an east-wind; they desolate the whole vegetation of the land, and
all the horrors of an impending famine torment the minds of the Egyptians.
The king sends once more for Moses and Aaron, confesses his wickedness, asks
them to pray for the discontinuance of this calamity; a strong west-wind drives
the locusts back; all their swarms perish in the Red Sea;—but Pharaoh remains a
hardened and treacherous,—As a transition to the last and most awful plague a q
 EXODUS ₪" 121
calamity is introduced—dense darkness during three days—more calculated to
fill the minds of the Egyptians with a deep sense of their helplessness before the
Lord of Israel, than to inflict real injury upon them; and, indeed, Pharaoh makes
¢ another concession, allowing the children to accompany their parents into the
wilderness; but when Moses and Aaron firmly insist upon taking with them all
their cattle also for sacrifices, Pharaoh forbids them, under penalty of death, ever
to appear again before him.—Moses promises this energetically, having already
received the revelation concerning the last plague, the death of all the firstborn
in Egypt, which calamity he now emphatically announces to Pharaoh, adding
that the Israelites will leave the land unhurt by the pestilence, honoured and
enriched by the Egyptians, and urged on even by the king himself.—Moses leaves
Pharaoh with indignation. A brief summary of the preceding plagues, and their
inefficiency upon the heart of Pharaoh, is annexed as a transition or preparation
for the last infliction (see xi. 1, 9).
/
ND the Lord said to Moses, Go to Pharaoh;
for I have hardened his heart, and the heart of
3 | his servants, that I might show these my signs 'among
1 Engl. Vers.—Before him.

‫זב‬ ‫ דד‬PLAGUE.‫‏‬ Locusts. VER. 1—20,

1. The eighth plague, consisting in lion, and it hath the bite of a lioness.
immense cloud-darkening hosts of vora- Ver. 7. It hath laid my vine waste, and
cious locusts, filled in its very announce- broken my fig-tree; it hath barked it
ment the people of Egypt with such bare, and cast it down; white are its
horror, that they murmuringly requested tendrils. Ver. 10. The fold is desolated;
the king, at last to dismiss the Israelites; the land mourneth; for the corn is de-
for the land was already ruined.—We stroyed; the new wine is dried up; the
have a variety of faithful and interesting oil is withered. Ver.11. Be ye ashamed,
descriptions of these insects, their wander- O ye husbandmen; lament, O ye vine-
ings, their desolations, and their destruc- dressers, for the wheat and for the barley;
tion; but there is none comparable in for perished is the harvest of the field.
accuracy of observation and sublimity of Ver. 15. Woe to the day! for the day of
poetical delineation, with the exalted pic- the Lord is near, and as a destruction
ture which the prophet Joel gives in the from the Almighty doth it come. Ver. 17.
two first chapters of his prophecies. We The seeds are rotten under their clods,
shall, therefore, subjoin here some extracts the garners are desolate, the barns are
from that description; and we deem this to broken down; for the corn is withered.
be the more properly illustrative of our Ver. 18. How do the beasts groan! in
passage, as the one has indeed the cha- consternation are the herds of cattle,
racter of a more detailed explanation of because there is no pasture for them; the
the other (compare Joel i. 2, and Exodus flocks of sheep also are perished. II. 1,2.
x.6; Joel i. 3, and Exodus x, 2, etc.); The day of the Lord cometh; it is nigh
and we shall then add such other infor- at hand; a day of darkness and of
mation as might besides be necessary for gloominess, a day of clouds and of thick
the illustration of our text. In the trans- darkness. As the morning spreads over
lation of these poetical portions, we have the mountains; so great ts the people and
been guided by the same principles which strong; never hath there been any like
we have generally adopted in this part it, neither shall there be any more after
of ourlabour. Joeli.6: “For a nation it, even to the years of many generations,
is come upon my land, mighty and num- Ver. 3. A fire devoureth before them,
berless, whose teeth are the teeth of a and behind them a flame burneth; the

1
 122 EXODUS X.
them; 2. And that thou mayest tell in the ears of thy
son, and of thy son’s son, what things I have wrought iin
land is as the garden of Eden before army foraging in secret. It is certainly
them, and behind them a desolate wil- much better to fall in with the Tartars,
derness; and nothing can escape them, than with these little all-devouring crea-
Ver.4. Their appearance is as the ap- tures; it might almost be said, that fire
pearance of horses; and as horsemen so accompanies them. Where their swarms
they run. Ver. 5. Like the noise of appear, everything green vanishes mo-
chariots they leap over the summits of mentarily from the fields, as if a curtain
mountains; like the noise of a flame of is rolled up; the trees and plants stand
fire that devoureth the stubble; like a leafless, and nothing is seen but naked
strong army arrayed for battle. Ver. 6. boughs and stalks, and thus the dreary
Before them the people trembleth; every image of winter follows rapidly on the
countenance groweth pale with horror. variegated exuberance of spring. If these
Ver. 7. They run like heroes, they climb locust-clouds move on, in order to fly
the wall like warriors; and they march over an obstacle, which stands in the way
every one its way, and they change not of their voraciousness, or still more rapid-
their ranks, Ver.8. One presseth not ly, over a waste soil, it can literally be
the other; they walk every one in its path; said, that the sky is obscured by them.
and through weapons they pass and. break It is a consolation, that this plague does
not their lines. Ver.9. They stray about not occur often, for there is nothing
in the city; they run upon walls; they which produces so invariably famine and
ascend into the houses; they enter at the disease.”— We subjoin, besides, a brief
windows like a thief. Ver.10. Before extract from the account of Denon, which
them quaketh the earth, tremble the offers several important analogies with
heavens; the sun and the moon grow the relation of our text: “Two days
dark, and the stars withhold their splen- later (after the burning south-wind had
dour.”—And if you sincerely repent (ver. begun to blow) we were informed, that
20): * 1 shall remove far from you the the plain was covered with birds, which
northern army, and shall drive it into proceeded like one solid body from east
aland barren and desolate, with its van to west. Seen from a distance, the field
towards the eastern sea, and with its rear appeared to be in motion, or at least a
towards the western sea; and its fetid long stream appeared to flow through the
smell shall ascend, and its odours shall rise plain. Believing that these were birds
up, because it hath done so great things.” of migration, which thus passed by in
—It will not be uninteresting to compare very great numbers, we hastened towards
herewith the description of a modern that direction to observe them. But in-
traveller, which confirms the Biblical stead of birds, we found a cloud of locusts
picture in every essential point. Volney which denuded the field, devouring every
(Tray. i. p. 235) writes: “ With Egypt, blade of grass, and not leaving the spot
Persia, and almost the whole of southern before it was perfectly stripped of every
Asia, Syria has a fearful plague in com< vegetation. As active, as lively and eager
mon, namely, those clouds of locusts, of as the Bedouins, they are, like them,
which almost all travellers report. Every- children of the desert. After the wind
body, except an eye-witness, must deem had turned, and became contrary to their
the enormous quantity of these insects flight, they were driven back into the
quite incredible; the ground is covered desert.”—We shall now introduce some
with them for several leagues. The noise other remarks on the character of this
which they cause when devouring leaves plague. ‘The locust (dx«pic, gryllus gre-
and grass, is heard at a considerable dis- garius, locusta, Pliny, ix. 50), has four
tance, and seems like the noise of an wings, mostly green or yellowish, spring~
 ae

%%
EXODUS ‎‫א‬
~ Egypt, and my signs which I have done among thang.
_ that you may know that Iam the Lord. 38. And Moses
feet, and attains a length of about five that they took four hours to fly over the
inches. It has a green thorax, with a spot where the observer stood. The
much eleyated ridge or crest on it, blunted approach of their swarms is announced
head, red-brown eyes, and antennae about by a yellow reflex in the skies, which
_ three quarters of an inch long. Their arises from their yellow wings. If the
teeth are extremely sharp and strong, rays of the sun shine upon them, the
and the four teeth of the two jaws cross earth itself assumes a yellow colour.
each other like the two parts of a pair of After they have converted the land into
scissors; and hence they are compared a desert, they proceed in their flight, but
by the prophet Joel with the teeth of leave behind them their eggs, and their
a lion, The Arabs, rich and lively as excrements, which cause a detestable
their imagination is, express the terror smell. Remarkable is the extraordinary
with which these insects fill them, in order and regularity of their swarms.
_, several hyperbolical similes. They com- “ They fly,” says Jerome, “after the will
| pare the head of the locust to that of the of the all-governing Deity, with such
horse; its breast to that of the lion; its order, that they keep their place like the
feet to those of the camel; its body to that figures made by the hand of the artist on
of the serpent; and its tail to that of the a pavement, and never in the least de-
scorpion. When they breed, which is in viate to the right or to the left.” They fly
the month of October, they make a hoie always in a straight onward direction,
in the ground with their tails, and having mostly northwards, but not always (see
Jaid 300 eggs in it, and covered them on ver. 13). Sometimes they penetrate
with their feet, expire; for they never even into the houses; they fly into the
live above six months and a half. Neither mouths of the inmates; they throw them-
rain nor frost, however long and severe, selves on the food; they gnaw leather
can destroy their eggs; they continue till and even wood. It has been unsuccess-
spring, and, hatched by the heat of the fully tried to keep them off or to repel
| sun, the young locusts issue from the them by pits and ditches, crying, drums,
earth about the middle of April. They smoke, and even soldiers. But though
often cover the ground for the space of all these devices fail, these formidable
several leagues to the depth of four, some- insects have a most powerful enemy in
34 times of six or seven inches. A swarm, certain birds, called samarmer, greatly
_ which was observed in India in 1825, resembling the wood-pecker, which seem
occupied a space of forty English square to have a natural antipathy to the locusts,
miles, contained at least forty millions of for they do not only devour great num-
= locusts in one line, and cast a long shadow bers of them, but destroy them in large
on the earth. And Major Moore thus quantities, whence they are regarded as
describes an immense army of these great benefactors by the peasants, who
animals which ravaged the Mahratta never venture to kill or injure one of
country: “The column they composed them. But still more fatal to the locusts
extended five hundred miles; and so are the southerly winds, which drive them
compa f was it when on the wing, that over the sea, on which they sit down
_ like an eclipse, it completely hid the sun, as on firm ground, or into which they
so that no shadow was cast by any fall, unable to continue their flight on ac-
> object.” Brown, in his Travels in Africa, count of damp vapours or rain. But even in
states that an area of nearly two thousand their destruction they are a curse to men;
square miles was literally covered by for their dead carcases, cast on the shore
them; and Kirby and Spence mention by the wind, and putrifying on the
thata column of them was so immense, ground, exhale such pestilential effluvia,
-
124 PEXODUS
and Aaron came to Pharaoh, and said to him, Thus saith
the Lord God of the Hebrews, How long wilt thou refuse
to humble thyself before me? Let my people go, that they
may serve me. 4. ‘For, if thou refuse to let my people
go, behold, to-morrow shall I bring the locusts in thy
*boundaries: 5. And they shall cover the face of the
earth, so that it will be impossible to see the earth; and
they shall eat the residue of that which is escaped, which
is left to you from the hail, and shall eat every tree which
eroweth for you out of the field. 6. And they shall fill
thy houses, and the houses of thy servants, and the houses
of all the Egyptians; which neither thy fathers have seen,
since the day that they were *in the land to this day.
And he turned, and went out from Pharaoh. 7. And
Pharaoh’s servants said to him, How long shall this man
1 Engl. Vers.—Else, if. 2 Coast. 3 Upon the earth.
that many thousand persons have perished misled many interpreters to suppose
from this cause. Augustine mentions a a long interval between this plague and
pestilence produced by dead locusts, which the preceding one of hail, which they
destroyed the lives of about 800,000 assert, had so completely destroyed the
people of Numidia, and many more in vegetation, that the circle of another year
the countries bordering on the coast. was required to produce new herbs and
They are, however, in the East, exten- trees to serve as a prey to the locusts.
sively used for food, prepared in various However, Ist. we have already observed
ways, and often preferred to the finest that expressions like “all grass of the
fish. Four kinds of them are allowed for field” must not be urged too literally
food in the dietetic laws of Moses (Lev. (ix. 25); 2nd. The wheat and the spelt
xi. 22).-These facts will convey some had not been affected by the hail, because
idea of the formidable character of these they were not yet sufficiently advanced;
insects, whose awful desolations were not 8 few weeks sufficed to make them wel-
unknown to the Egyptians (ver. 14), but come food for the voracity of the locusts;
which were now brought over the land in 3rd. As the hail-storm took place in the
unparalleled numbers as a fearful plague, beginning of March (see note on ix. 31,32),
more formidable than boils and hail, and the fruit-trees were, to a great extent,
well calculated to terrify both the people still in a backward state, and might, soon
and the king of Egypt; because it was afterwards, have put forth their blossoms;
not only disastrous in itself, but also in 4th. The whole picture which the sacred
its dire consequence of famine and_pesti- text draws of the ten plagues, shows dis-
lence.—The reason why God allowed tinctly, that they occurred all in rapid
Pharaoh to harden his heart is here succession, at the most in the course of
stated similarly as in ix. 16, in order to one year (see note on vii. 20, 21).
show him His whole power, and to reveal 6. And he (Moses) turned and went
His might to later generations. out with his brother Aaron (ver. 3).
₪. And they shall eat the residue, z. The servants of Pharaoh, that is, his
etc. The words “every tree which magicians, were now convinced, if not of
groweth for you out of the field,” have the disposing Providence, at least of the
 EXODUS X. 125

be a snare tous? Let the men go, that they may serve
the Lord their God: dost thou not yet know that Egypt
is ruined? 8. And Moses and Aaron were brought back
to Pharaoh: and he said to them, Go, serve the Lord your
God: but who are they that will go? 9. And Moses said,
With our young and with our old will we go, with our
sons and with our daughters, with our flocks and with
our herds will we go; for we have a feast to the Lord.
10. And he said to them, So may the Lord be with you
as I shall let you go and your children: ‘see, that you
have evil plans before you. 11. Not so: go now, you
men, and serve the Lord; for that have you desired. And
they were driven from the presence of Pharaoh.
12. And the Lord said to Moses, Stretch out thy hand
over the land of Egypt for the locusts, that they may
% Engl. Vers.—Look to it, for evil is before you.

unlimited might, of the God of Israel; of the modern expositors have adopted
and this confession is the first great this interpretation. But Onkelos renders
triumph of truth in this grand and majes- thus: “ Behold, the evil which you intend
tic combat between the light of religion to do, will turn back upon your face;”
and the darkness of superstition: and and Ebn Ezra: “the evil, that is, your
even Pharaoh yields to a certain degree. destruction, is near to you, and before
9. The detailed enumeration of all your eyes,” which is less adapted to the
classes of the people, and of their pro- context (so also Brown: “you are hasten-
perty, and the repetition of we will go, ing to your ruin”). Vater translates:
bears the character of manly and deter- ‘* May the Lord be so with youas I shall let
mined firmness: “we must go all, with you go; but as to your children, see, you
our cattle,” for we have a feast to the intend evil.” But besides the strange sepa-
Lord. This request cannot have been ration of * you” and “ your children,” the
unexpected to Pharaoh, as we know that first part of the sentence would contain a
the Egyptians celebrated frequently such blessing little in harmony with the violent
general festivals in the wilderness (see expulsion of Moses and Aaron immediately
note on .‫צץ‬‎ i; compare Herodotus, ii. following. —- Pharaoh urges the word
58; and note on xii. 16). serve, which Moses had always used in
10, 11. Pharaoh, however, is so irri- requesting the departure of the Israelites
tated by this demand, that his malevolent (vii. 16, 26; viii, 16, 23; ix. 1, 13), and
mind spontaneously discloses itself; he which appears to include the men only.
declares, undisguisedly, what wishes he He is, therefore, inclined to allow the
harbours for the fate of the Israelites, latter to go, “for that only have you
and expels Moses and Aaron from his desired,” forgetting that Moses had just
palace; “for,” said he “see that you reminded him that it is a festival
have evil plans before you,” that is, now which they intended to celebrate to the
it is clearly evident that you have Lord, and which required the presence
treacherous intentions. This sense has of all members of the community (Deut.
already been expressed by the Septuagint, xvi. 10, 11, etc.: “ thou, and thy son, and
the Vulgate, and Luther; and most thy daughter, and thy man-servant, and

6. 4
 126 EXODUS X.
come upon the land of Egypt, and eat every herb of the
land, every thing which the hail hath left. 13. And
Moses stretched forth his staff over the land of Egypt,
and the Lord brought an east wind upon the land all that
day, and all that night; and when it was morning, the
east wind brought the locusts. 14. And the locusts came
over all the land of Egypt, and rested in all the bounda-
ries of Egypt, a very heavy plague; before them there
were no such locusts as they, neither after them shall be
such. 15. For they covered the surface of the whole
land, so that the land was darkened; and they did eat
every herb of the land, and all the fruit of the trees which
thy maid-servant, and the Levite, and Gibraltar, or the Red Sea, but even over
the stranger, and the orphan, and the great distances, as the Mediterranean, if
widow, all who are in thy gates”). they are borne by a gentle wind (see
43. The Lord brought an east-wind Credner, p. 288; Niebuhr, Descr. p. 169);
upon the land ..... and the east- and a Syrian writer* observes: “In the
wind brought the locusts. It has fre- year 1463, very many locusts came from
quently been asserted, that an east-wind the Kast, they reached Egypt, where they
could not have brought the locusts devoured all herbs, ete.” It is, therefore,
into Egypt: 186. Because these insects neither necessary to translate here south-
always wander in a straight direction wind (Samum,with the Septuagint, Vulgate,
from south to north; and 2nd. Because Bochart, Rosenmiiller, and others), nor
they cannot well fly over the water, and to understand it, with Philippson, as that
they would, therefore, have perished in wind, and to suppose: “ that we have here
the Red Sea before reaching Egypt. But an inaccuracy of the language.” The rea-
as to the first objection, we remark, that son adduced by Bochart, that locusts are
although the swarms of locusts frequently more numerous in Ethiopia than in
move from south to north, so that if they Arabia, and that given by Rosenmiiller,
come from Arabia Petraa they generally that the verb to come up (ver. 14), is gene-
take their way through Palestine, Syria, rally used with regard tomovements from
Karamania, Natolia, etc.: they do not the south to the north (see on i. 10), are of
exclusively go in that direction, but are, little weight, for it is universally known,
in this respect, perfectly dependent on the that the locusts which come from Arabia,
wind which happens to blow. It has been are, by their enormous quantities, a real
sufficiently proved, that the locusts come plague; and the expression “the locusts
with every wind (see Credner, on Joel, went up over all the land of Egypt,”
p- 286). In Arabia, it is generally taken signifies only their appearingin large num-
as granted, that the locusts always come bers over the whole country (see viii.1, 2).
from the east, and the Arabians say, 14. Before then there were no such
therefore, that they are bred by the water locusts as they, neither after them shall be
of the Persian Gulf (Burckhardt, Notes on such, which appeared to many contra-
the Bedouins and Wahabys, p. 268). dictory with the passage in Joel (ii. 2),
The second objection is as little founded, where it is similarly said, that there has
since authentic travellers have reported never been, nor will there ever be a plague
that the locusts do not only fly over of locusts like that. If we really will
narrow parts of the sea, as the straits of pedantically weigh the syllables of a
 "‫א‬ 4

rat)
=.
BxoDUS xX.
the hail had left; and there remained not any thing green
in the trees, or in the herbs of the field, through all the
land of Egypt. 16. Then Pharaoh hastened to call for
> Moses and Aaron, and he said, 1 have sinned against the
Lord your God, and against you. 17. Now, therefore,
forgive, I pray thee, my sin only this once, and entreat
the Lord your God, that He may remove from me this
death only. 18. And he went out from Pharaoh and
-entreated the Lord. 19. And the Lord turned a very
strong west-wind, which bore away the locusts, and cast
them into the Red Sea; there remained not one locust in
all the boundaries of Egypt. 20. But the Lord hardened
| poetical phrase, the seeming discrepancy and to request the interference of Moses
‘might in the easiest manner be reconciled before God for the removal of the plague.
by the remark, that here the expression 19. And the Lord turned a_ very
refers to Egypt, and in Joel to Palestine strong west-wind. Although the locusts
- (Kimchi, Ebn Ezra, Rashi, and others, are borne by a gentle wind over long
believe that here the quantity, and in tracts of the sea (see ver. 13), they inva-
Joel the number of the different species riably become the victims of a heavy gale,
is unparalleled. See, however, Ps. lxxviii. which makes them almost instantaneously
| [ 46, and cy. 34). About similar and almost sink into the waves, whence they are
- proverbial hyperbolical phrases compare driven to the coasts, infesting the air
2 Kings xviii. 5, and xxiii.25. Hassel- with pestilence. — The Arabian gulf is
quist (Tr. p. 254), observes: “that Egypt called “the Sea of Weeds, or Bul-
is never visited by the locusts;” and rushes” (Sari, Alga Nilotica, see note on
others infer from it, that “the strangeness ii. 3), because it is said to abound in these
\ 0 the occurrence, contrary to the well- plants (Strabo, xvi. p.773, Cas.). We may,
known habits of the creatures, betokened however, add, that Bruce, an accurate
the interposition of Almighty power in and veracious reporter of his eastern tra-
bringing that plague upon the land” vels, maintains, that he noticed no weed
(Jamieson). But that assertion is not of any kind in the Red Sea, and that such
correct. For Niebuhr (Descript. of Ara- plants cannot be expected in a narrow
bia, p.168), states, that during his stay in gulph, under the immediate influence of
Kairo, the first great swarm of locusts the monsoons, blowing from contrary
yed there towards the end of Decem- points six months each year, and causing
ber, in the year 1761, and a still more too much agitation to produce such vege-
formidable one on the 9th of January, of tables, seldom found but in stagnant
the following year. They came with a water, and still more seldom, if ever,
south-west wind, and, therefore, probably, growing in sweet ones. His opinion is,
from the Lybian desert. Then, not the therefore, that it is from the large trees or
occurrence itself, but its extraordinary plants, of white coral, perfectly in imita-
character formed the miracle. tion of plants on land, that the sea has
15. About the faithfulness of this de- taken its name. But if his observations
scription, and the vast desolations caused in this respect are correct, we must sup-
by the locusts, see on ver. 1. pose that the gulf of Suez, which has in
- 16, 13. Pharaoh is again compelled to the course of time undergone consider-
bend his pride, to acknowledge his sin, able changes, has suffered similar modifi-
>
128 EXODUS X.

Pharaoh’s heart, so that he would not let the children of

Israel go.
21. And the Lord said to Moses, Stretch out thy hand
towards heaven, that there may be darkness over the land
of Egypt, 'so that they may grope in darkness. 22. And
Moses stretched forth his hand towards heaven, and there
was a thick darkness in all the land of Egypt three days.
23. They saw not one another, neither rose any man
from his place for three days: but all the children of
Israel had light in their dwellings. 24. And Pharaoh
1 Engl. Vers.—Even darkness which may be felt.

cations with regard to its vegetable pro- tionable, to admit of any uncertainty (see
ductions; for the name “ Sea of Bulrushes,” note on Xiii. 20),
and the identity of Sup’ are too unques-

NIntTH PLAGUE, DARKNESS, VER. 21—29.

21. Before the final and most fearful quently causes even complete, dreary
judgment, God strikes the Egyptians with darkness, filling the inhabitants with dis-
a plague intended to awe their senses and may and consternation. On such occa-
to impress their minds with the majestic sions the people in the towns and villages
grandeur of the Almighty, rather than to shut themselves up in their houses, in the
operate fatally or destructively; it is, in- undermost rooms or vaults; the tenants
deed, a worthy preparation for the mighty of the deserts hide themselves in caverns
strokes which were soon to fall upon the or pits, which they dig in the earth.
unhappy country. The Egyptians wor- There they await, with anxious suspense,
shipped Osiris as the god of the sun or of the end of this dangerous tempest, which
day; a palpable darkness obscured his generally lasts three days (see ver. 22).
rays; he was unable to dispel it; and he The streets are, during this time, perfectly
was thus proved to be powerless compared empty, and a deep silence reigns every-
with the God of Israel. Even darkness where as during the night. Du Bois .
was holy to them; but it came now in Aymé (Déscript. de ’Egypte viii. p. 110)
such unnatural and unexpected form, that writes: * When the Chamsin blows, the
the object of their worship became to sun has a pale yellow colour; his light is
them an object of horror. But this plague veiled, and darkness reaches sometimes
also had a natural basis; and its miracu- such a degree, that it appears to be the
lous character is to be sought in the un- most gloomy night; as we experienced it
usual extent of the phenomenon and the about the middle of the day at Kene, a
exemption of the Israelites from its effects city of the Said.” We possess further
(ver. 23). About the beginning of April accounts of complete darkness in Egypt:
—the time of our wonder—the fearful Thus writes Dschemaleddin in his Chron-
hot wind, known under the name of Sa- icle: “ Under the reign of Mostali-Billah,
mum or Chamsin, commences to blow in king of Egypt (about the end of the
Egypt and Arabia, and is always attended 11th century), a great and violent storm,
with a thickness of the air, which allows accompanied by black darkness, arose;
the sun only to throw a dim, yellow light houses were overthrown and trees up-
upon the earth, and which not unfre- rooted; but the darkness was so intense,
 w
0 ‫אפע‬
4
5 08 and said, Go you, serve the Lord; only
eC ‘

omage
| flocks and your Hort be stayed: let your chil-
dren also go with you. 25. And Moses said, Thou must
Beye into our hands also sacrifices and burnt-offerings,
- . . .

that we may sacrifice to the Lord our God. 26. Our

eattle also shall go with us; there shall not one hoof
remain behind; for thereof must we take to serve the
Lord our God; and we know not with what we must 80170 |
the
| Lord until we come thither. 27. But the Lord
hardened Pharaoh’s heart, and he would not let them go.
28. And Pharaoh said to him, Go away from me, take

| that everybody thought that the end of king naturally suspected the sincerity of
the world was approaching.” Thus we Moses’ demand; believing, that not
‘see that darkness comes generally as a merely an absence of three days, for the
concomitant of tempests, especially the purpose of sacrificing, but a departure
‘Samum; and from this reason, no doubt, from Egypt for ever was intended. And
theSept. Version, whose authors were so therefore, when by the answer of Moses
well acquainted with the phenomena of (ver. 26), this conjecture was strength-
‎‫ ל‬Egypt, inserts, * whirlwind,” after “ thick ened in his mind to a certainty, he was
- darkness,” iin ver. 22.—So that they may resolved rather to suffer the utmost per-
grope in darkness, quite analogous to dition than to yield to a request which he
‫ של‬y. ‫‏‬,41 “in the day they grope in thought was insidiously made to him, and
éarkness. ” Various are the interpretations which, if granted, would deprive him of
ed on these words. Targum Onkel. so many thousands of vigorous and use-
ren
‫ה‬‎ freely: “after the darkness of night ful workmen. We can, therefore, not see
has receded;” i.e. after the darkness of with Clarke any particular cruelty on the
ht another obscuration more dense and part of Pharaoh in making the demand,
my will ensue. Ebn Ezra and others that the cattle should be left behind; for
explain: “the darkness will be so thick there was, we think, little danger that
hat it will be felt or palpable.” Thus “the Israelites would, without their flocks,
the Sept. (Wnagdnrdyv oxdroc, palpable perish from hunger in three days.”
darkness), and the Vulgate. So also 25, 26. The sense of these verses is
Luther, English Version, Rosenmiiller, clearly this: it is not sufficient to permit
Salomon, Lengerke, and others. But a us to go into the desert to celebrate there
darkness which can be felt with the hand, a festival to our God, but thou must
like a solid matter, would be a hyper- allow us to take with us our cattle to offer
: expression, even too bold for the to Him sacrifices 3; and, as we do not
ing Oriental phraseology. See the know what animals it is right to use for
er edition. this sacred purpose—this being our first
‘2 . Compare the poetical description common festival of this kind—we must
4this plague in Sap. Sal. xvii. 1—6. take all our cattle with us; for in the desert
. Neither rose any man from his only God will teach us the precepts con-
==
‎‫יכ‬ 5 1.6. from his house; but Septuagint: cerning sacrifices.—Ebn Ezra, Rashi, and
‎
ray
=‫תי‬
his bed; which is improbable. others, explain artificially; * thou Pharaoh
ea mpare xvi. 29. also must give us animals to sacrifice in
|:4. Your flocks and herds shall remain thy name.” About sacrifices and burnt-
1076 as a pledge of your return, For the offerings, see note on xyiii. 12.—There
130 EXODUS ‎‫]א‬

heed to thyself, see my face no more; for in that day thou

seest my face thou shalt die. 29. And Moses said, Thou
hast spoken right, I will see thy face again no more.
shall not a hoof remain behind; a power- he leaves the palace, he announces to
ful expression signifying nothing at all, no Pharaoh the last plague (xi. 4, et seq.), and
particle of a thing. leaves him then only in anger (ver. 8),
29. I will see thy face again no returning but once more by the request
more, says Moses to Pharaoh; but before of the king himself (xii. $1).

CHAPTER XI.
ND the Lord ‘had said to Moses, One plague more
will I bring upon Pharaoh and upon Egypt;
afterwards he will let you go hence: when he will let you
1 Engl. Vers.—Said.
1. The close connection between this Maurer), or that x. 28, 29, are to be placed
and the preceding chapter is this: After behind xi. 8 (Houbigant, Townsend), or
Pharaoh had threatened Moses with ‎‫גוא‬. 1—20 after x. 20 (Townsend), or that
death, if he ventured to appear again the reading of the Samaritan Version of
before him (x. 28); Moses, already in- ver. 3 is correct, which has this alteration;
formed by the Lord of the final events “and I shall give the people favour in the
now so nearly impending, answered him, eyes of the Egyptians,” so that vers. 1—8
that he would willingly obey his com- are the announcement of Moses before Pha-
mands (ver.29); but, previous to his de- raoh (as Geddes believes). The interpo-
parting, he announced to the king the last lations of the Samaritan codex are here the
and most formidable calamity, death of more suspicious, just because they affect a
all the first-born of Egypt, and commu- greater simplicity and clearness; and the
nicated to him the other circumstances— remark of Clarke, that “some passages
the cries of the Egyptians, the glory of might have been omitted because an
the Hebrews, the wonders of the exodus— ancient copyist found the substance of
with which that event would be accom- them in other places,” is scarcely recon-
panied (xi.4—8). But, in order to ac- cilable with the anxious scrupulousness
quaint the reader that such revelations had with which that commentator usually ad-
been made by God to Moses, this commu- heres to the sacred text. He scarcely
nication is here parenthetically inserted allows a metaphor; he takes “the earth ~
(ver. 1), and the command concerning swallowed them,” in xy. 12, literally as an
the vessels of gold and silver, which God earthquake; the words: “the enemy said,”
had- repeated to Moses simultaneously in ver. 9, are to him a proof that Pha-
with that revelation, is naturally added raoh really uttered the following sen-
(ver. 2,3), although it has no immediate tences, etc. We take, therefore, the verb,
bearing upon the subsequent verses. with Ebn Ezra, as pluperfect: and God
Thus we think the context is clear and had said to Moses. Others (Rashbam, ete.)
coherent, and we require therefore none explain: God spoke to Moses whilst he
of the artificial and dissecting conjectures stood before Pharaoh; for the revelation
of modern writers, who suppose either came suddenly upon him. But this is at
that vers. 1—3 and even x. 21—29 are in- least unnecessary.— When he will let yougo,
appropriate fragments which interrupt he will surely drive you away hence alto-
the connection (so Vater, Schott, De Wette, gether, that is,hewill drive you entirely and
 [
Pat
cr!

| EXODUS ‫אז‬‎
‫ה‬ will - drive you away hence altogether.‫‏‬
.2.2
AY Speak now in the ears of the people, and let every‫‏‬
‘man *ask of his neighbour, and every woman of‫‏‬
her neighbour, ‘articles of silver, and articles of‫‏‬
ff

a£
old. 38. And the Lord gave the NE favour in the
aye of the Egyptians. Moreover, the man Moses was
very great in the land of Egypt, in the eyes of Pharaoh’s
| ‎‫ בי‬and in the eyes of the people. 4, And Moses
said, Thus saith the Lord, About midnight shall I go out
into the midst of Egypt. 5. And all the firstborn in the
2 Engl. Vers.— Borrow. 3 Jewels.
2

" | ‫מ‬‎haste out of the land, so that he will stance, Xenophon speaks of himself in
with the same impetuosity wish you to the Anabasis, or Cesar in his Com-
depart for ever, as he now pertinaciously mentaries. Besides, these words are
strives to retain you (see vi. 1). merely added to give an additional reason
ia.Speak now, etc. About this com- for the willingness with which the Egyp-
‘mand see note on iii. 22. tians loaded the departing Israelites with
= 3. And the Lord gave the people favour presents. These reasons were, then, four-
in the eyes of the Egyptians. Our verse fold: 1. The Egyptians’ fear of further
partly contains the reason, why the de- plagues; 2. The interference of God,
parting Hebrews would receive rich pre- who inclined their hearts towards the
sents from their old neighbours, and strangers; 3. The friendship which had
partly alludes to the result with which long existed between the Egyptian people
he command of God would be attended and the Hebrews; and 4. The extraor-
atthe time of the Exodus (xii. 36).— dinary power which Moses had displayed,
The reason is twofold: 1. The Egyptians and which they felt assured, could only
fayourably inclined towards the be imparted by preternatural influence.
Hebrews (see on iii. 21), no doubt because See note on iii, 91, 99. --- These facts are
the latter had proved faithful and obliging not unimportant for the true historical
neighbours, and because their unequalled estimation of the oppressions which the
ufferings inspired even the hearts of the Hebrews suffered in Egypt, as they evi-
idolators with sympathy and compassior; dently show, that the cruelty of the Egyp-
and 2. The authority of Moses was para- tian king, not the aversion of the nation,
mount throughout all Egypt; because it enacted the tyrannical measures against
| 4is evident that he was the messenger them; and that at least a large portion
1 -tignne of a God by far more power- of the Egyptians became now impressed
il than any of the Egyptian deities, and with the surpassing grandeur of the God
pause no doubt his modesty and un- of Israel. They enriched them, there-
fore, with presents, not merely from mo-
‫ו‬

suming conduct in the midst of the

ieendous miracles he wrought, filled tives of fear, or a selfish desire to be
e Egyptians with admiration for the freed of their ominous presence, but
‘are qualities of his character. With because they began to be imbued with
ical faithfulness and unaffected sim- a deep feeling of respect and awe fora
| city Moses makes these remarks about nation so evidently favoured by an omni-
his own person; they are historical facts; potent and all-governing God.
1d he relates them with the same ob- &. All the firstborn of Egypt shall die,
etive impartiality, with which, for in- from the son of the king, who sits on the
132 EXODUS XI.

land of Egypt shall die, from the firstborn of Pharaoh who

sitteth upon the throne, to the firstborn of the handmaid | 3
who is behind the mill; and all the firstborn of beasts.
6. And there shall be a great cry throughout all the land
of Egypt, such as there was none like it, nor shall be like
it any more. 7. But against any of the children of Israel
shall not a dog sharpen his tongue, against man or beast;
that you may know that the Lord distinguisheth between
throne (not who will once sit on the through the hole of the pivot, and the
throne), to the son of the meanest and flour is collected in a cloth spread under
most despised servant in the kingdom, or the mill. The ancient Egyptians had
as it is worded here, to the firstborn of the also larger mills, usually of granite, con-
handmaid, who is behind the mill, which is structed on a similar principle, and pro-
in xii. 29, expressed, to the firstborn of bably turned by oxen or asses, The
the captive ;for the toilsome and degrading stone used for the hand-mills was hard
task of grinding corn on handmills was grit, probably taken from the mountains
imposed upon the lowest persons, and of the Mokuttum, near Kairo. (See
especially on captives and slaves. ‘This Wilkinson, Manners, ii. 118; JZayard,
was, for instance, the fate of Samson Discoveries in Nineveh and Babylon,
after he had fallen into the hands of the p- 287).—In the whole Orient, the
Philistines (Judg. xvi.21). Isaiah (xlvii. firstborn son enjoyed, besides a greater
1, 2) describes the conquered Babylon personal authority, real and material
under the picture of a captive virgin, and privileges. After the father’s death
says, among other similar traits, “take he received a double portion of the in-
the millstones and grind flour.” The hand- heritance (Deut. xxi. 17), and was the
mills of the ancient Egyptians were most guardian of his younger unmarried
probably quite similar to those at present brothers and sisters; as the “ firstling
in use among their descendants and of the father’s strength” (Genesis xlix.
among the wandering Arabs. They 3), he was considered superior: and
were found in every house, and formed it was forbidden to transfer the right of
so indispensable a household-utensil, that primogeniture upon a younger son (Deut.
the Hebrew lawgiver expressly inter- xxi. 16). The death of the first-born
dicted to take them as a pledge for debts caused, therefore, in every family the
(Deut. xxiy. 6). The Bedouins carry deepest grief; and with this unusual
them in all their wanderings with them. calamity all the houses of Egypt are
Tt seems to have been a universal custom now threatened.—Even the firstborn of
in antiquity that only women worked beasts shall be killed to complete the
them; for not only was this the case misery of the Egyptians, and to make
among the Egyptians and Arabs, but also this plague the more manifestly a divine
among the Greeks (Homer, Od. vii. 104); visitation, since it is well-known, that a
and the women were, during this process, very considerable number of animals were
usually seated on the bare ground. Now worshipped as gods, who were tbus sud-
those hand-mills are simply two circular denly annihilated, together with a great
flat stones, generally about eightcen portion of that nation, which had lavished
inches in diameter, the lower one fixed, unavailing honours upon their idle service.
the upper turning loosely upon a wooden 6. Weneed scarcely remind the reader,
pivot, or shaft, rising from the centre of that in the East the manifestations of grief
that beneath it,and moved quickly round and mourning at the loss of beloved rela-
by a wooden handle. The grain is poured tives are of a far more violent character
 EXODUS ‎‫זא‬
th » Egyptians and between Israel. 8. And all these thy
servants shall come down to me, and shall bow down
themselves to me, saying, Go out, thou and all the people
that follow thee: and after that I shall go out.—And he
vent out from Pharaoh in burning anger.
m9. And the Lord 'had said before to Moses, Pharaoh
awill not hearken to you, that my wonders may be mul-
7
al 1 Engl. Vers.—Said. ? Shall.
- than in our countries; and there is some- their cries; and partly mythologically,
times an impetuosity in those lamentations their sacred God Anubis latrator (son of
which is attended with all conceivable Osiris) would not bark, but be silent, not
forms of self-castigation: the men tear indicating to them the flight of their
‎‫ ן‬out the hair of the head and the beard; enemies.—The same proverbial phrase
| strew ashes upon their heads; throw them- occurs in Joshua x. 21.
selves into the dust; tear their garments, ₪. And all these thy servants shalt
and not seldom lacerate their faces and come to me, namely, from the palace.
bodies; they fast; remove every ornament; The word to descend, is, as Rosenmiiller
_ they formerly hired even mourning women observes, used, not because the royal
Jeremiah ix. 16), who, like those of palace is situated on a higher elevation,
the Greeks and Romans, recited, during but because, according to the Hebrew
> the days of mourning, in the houses and idiom, going from a nobler place to one
at the graves, loud and woeful dirges. of less distinction, is called descending to
= If we add hereto the fact, that the Egyp- it; and thus kings, or royal officers,
jians were especially inconsolable and descend from the palace to private houses.
ed with deep consternation at the —Andall the people that follow thee. Moses
h of any of their sacred animals, was, in consequence of his supernatural
many of which were struck by the pesti- miracles, and the veneration in which he
lence (ver. 5); we shall scarcely find the was held by the Hebrews, considered by
expression of our text exaggerated, “that Pharaoh as the prince of the people, al-
there shall be a great cry throughout all though the humility of Moses never led
the land of Egypt, such as there was none him to attempt civil or political authority,
like it, nor shall be like it any more.” merely governing by the superiority of
- ₪. But against any of the children of his intellect, and the infallibility of the
Israel shall not a dog sharpen his tongue divine inspiration under which he acted.
against man or beast, that is, nobody, —And Moses went out from Pharaoh in
ever not the meanest of their ene- burning anger. Now Moses only left
mies shall attack or insult them; they Pharaoh’s palace not to appear again
: pu leave Egypt free and unmolested. before him on his own accord (x. 29).
ichaelis explains most forcedly: “ But 9, 10. The transactions before Pha-
any of the children of Israel shall not raoh are finished; God had shown to the
0
og let his tongue nate out of his throat refractory monarch the infinitude of His
r pain or illness;” which interpre- power, without using it to a disastrous
aon, however, is irreconcilable with destruction of the Egyptians; this terrible
the words immediately following from catastrophe has now become inevitable
man to beast. Not more acceptable is the by the inflexible obstinacy of the king:
exposition of Clarke, who takes our words it is the culminating point in the soul-
partly literally, the house-dogs will not, stirring tragedy narrated in our text, and
according to their natural instinct, bark with admirable skill, the inspired author,
esaging the death of their masters by as if following the strict rules of artistic
 ‫קי‬ Rg ee) es‫‏‬

134 EXODUS ‎‫דא'סא‬ 99 ‫ה‬

tiplied in the land of | Egypt. 10. And Moses and Aaron |
did all these wonders before Pharaoh: and the Lord —
hardened Pharaoh’s heart, so that he would not let the
children of Israel go out of his land.
composition, allows, before the real oc- “and the Lord had said to Moses,” are
currence of the overwhelming event, a therefore, to be understood of the pre-
momentary pause, consisting in the stand- vious revelations of God to Moses (Plu-
still of the action, to refresh and to perfect, as ver. 1), not of a new commu-
strengthen the mind of the reader for nication, as Rashi observes; and the
the last terrible blow. This is effected by words: “that my wonders may be multi-
the two following verses, in which all that plied in the land of Egypt,” refer to the
has hitherto happened to Pharaoh is past miracles, although they include also
again summarily repeated, and the result those which it is still intended to perform
of all the miracles wrought before him for the deliverance and glory of Israel
briefly stated. There is thus no progress and the punishment of the arbitrary and
in the narration intended, and the words: contumacious king.

CHAPTER XII.
Summary.—Before the final and decisive stroke, which forced Pharaoh to allow the
departure of the Israelites, God commanded, through Moses, the laws connected
with this miraculous event, and the ceremonies to be celebrated in commemora-
tion thereof: the institution of the month of Abib as the first of the religious year;
precepts regarding the selecting, killing, roasting and eating of the paschal-lamb;
further, concerning the use of unleayened bread from the fifteenth to the twenty-
first day of Abib, and respecting the persons who are to be admitted to the
paschal-lamb (see a survey of these rites in the notes on verse 1).—Then, on the
fourteenth of Nisan, in the evening, while the Israelites were consuming the
prescribed meal, all the first-born of Egypt, both men and beasts, are destroyed
by a pestilence, to the great consternation of the Egyptians, and of Pharaoh, who |
now presses the departure of the Israelites with such eagerness that they had no
time to leaven their bread. They left Egypt laden with the costly presents of
the Egyptians, accompanied by many others not belonging to their nation, The
first station to which they came was Succoth, south-east of Rameses, towards the
coast of the Red Sea. ‫שי‬

Tue FraAst oF Passover. Ver. IL

Tue precepts concerning the celebration of the festival of Passover constitute the first
of the Mosaic Laws, and the only one given in Egypt. Both the connection in which
it is introduced, and the force with which it is enjoined, and the supplementary — 4
ordinances, which the legislator adds in the course of the Pentateuch, are un-
mistakable proofs of the paramount importance which is attached to that extraordinary _
festival. 4 0.
0‫=י‬
‫י‬22". e‫ש‬ e ‫יל‬
‫יש‏‬ee
e‫לש‬e‫א‬e
a. The connection of the context in which the Passover is enforced, shows that it is ‫א‬
,‫ =גצ‬2"

intended as a symbol of the national covenant between God and Israel. This is
ee

manifest from the precepts that the paschal-lamb is to be eaten in the family circle, or,
if this be too small to represent the national unity, together with another family besides —
(vers. 3, 4); from the express injunction that “ the whole assembly of the congregation — Syse
he
ee,
of Israel” shall kill it (ver.6); from the otherwise singular precept, that the
lamb is not to be dissected, but roasted with the head and the legs and the entrails |
(ver. 9, compare ver. 46), as a representation of the wholeness or unity of Israel;
and especially from the circumstances, that the revelation of the Law stands in 4
‎‫=ויר‬

26

‫הרי‬ ‫וויה‬
 THE FEAST OF PASSOVER. 135

immediate connection with the Exodus (for Pentecost is called the feast of
conclusion to Passover, see on xxiii. 16), that only circumcised individuals are
permitted to partake of the paschal-lamb (ver. 48), and that this is to be killed in
Jerusalem only, at the temple, the great centre of the national unity of the Israelites
(Deut. xvi. 5—7). The law concerning Passover, is, in this respect, analogous to that
of circumcision, which is to be considered as an individual covenant between God and
every single Israelite (see infra on xx. 8). The latter was given to one man at a time,
when this one individual only acknowledged and worshipped God; the former was
enjoined at a period when the adorers of the true God had increased to a numerous
nation, and were on the point of being vested with political independence, and of being
led, as a nation, to a great and fertile land, to inhabit it as their exclusive inheritance.
From this point of view the character of Passover, as a festival of liberty or redemp-
tion, is self-evident, although only accessory. The deliverance of Israel from
Egyptian thraldom is only the negative element in that memorable event; the closer
relation with God, into which Israel as a peopie is brought thereby, forms its positive
and more important characteristic: they ceased to be physically slaves, and began to
become spiritually the messengers of divine truth; whilst the one tended only to di-
' minish their external woe, the other was calculated to free their minds from the fetters
of superstition and ignorance, to enlighten their intellects, to ennoble their souls, and,
in a word, to render them worthy to be the “ chosen people” of the Almighty.
5. A not less obvious proof of the importance of this great initiatory festival, is the
force with which it is enjoined. Its solemnisation is not only repeatedly, emphatically,
and even pathetically enforced, but any one who disregards any of its more essential
precepts is threatened with the solemn and awful punishment, “that his soul shall be
cut off from Israel,” not by earthly authorities, but by the divine Judge himself (see
Levit. xx. 5, 6); or, with other words, those who neglect the precepts connected with
the festival of the national covenant between God and Israel, cease, eo ipso, to belong
to that privileged community, because they disavow that which is the sign and funda-
mental condition of the covenant; as those who neglect the circumcision (at which the
same phrase is used) have individually destroyed their union with God. Passover is
the natal day of Israel’s political existence; it is the commencement of its historical
vocation, the transition from individual degradation to national glory, the primary
condition of its elevation to a holy people, and, therefore, in its innermost purport,
closely kindred with the sanctity of Sabbath, which is, indeed, in the Decalogue, based
on the deliverance from Egyptian thraldom (compare Isa. xliii. 1, 15—17; Deut.
y. 12—17). Hence the inexorable severity with which the laws of Passover are en-
forced; they concern not single accessory precepts, but the very root of Mosaism in its
historical genesis.
6. But the legislator, in order to impress the significance of this festival still more
energetically, returns to it on different occasions anew, in order to give such additional
prescriptions as might be required for its most appropriate and acceptable celebration.
However, none of those supplementary laws are superfluous additions (as has been
advanced by those critics who see a variety of authors in the Pentateuch), but essential
injunctions, in perfect harmony with the primary Jaw on Passover, in the following
manner: Ist. xii. 1—20, contains the fundamental laws which God communicated to
Moses concerning the paschal-lamb, its preparation, the manner in which it is to be
eaten, and the use of unleavyened bread. 2nd. In ver. 21—28, Moses informs his 60-
religionists of the precepts concerning the paschal-lamb, and the use which was at that
time to be made of the blood. 38rd. Verses 43—49 specify the individuals who are
allowed to participate in the lamb, and who not. 4th. In xiii. 3—10 Moses com-
municates to the people the precepts of the unleavened bread. 5th. In xxiii. 15, is a
brief allusion to the preceding laws of Passover, the mention of which could not en-
tirely be omitted in the enumeration of the preliminary laws contained in chap. xxi. to
 136 THE FEAST OF PASSOVER. ‫יט‬‎
0 4

Xxiii, constituting a little whole for themselves, and embodying, in a brief but distinct ‫שו‬

sketch, the principal statutes of the holy code (see infra, note on xxi. 1, beginning). ‘

6th. xxxiv. 18, forms a part of the renewal of the divine covenant with Israel, which
had been destroyed by the sin of the golden calf. 7th. In Levit. xxiii. 4—8, Passover
is mentioned in its due place in the system of Hebrew festivals, and ver. 9—14 contains
the regulations about the firstlings. 8th. Numb. ix. 1—14 embodies the law concerning
those who were, in the first month of the year, by some cause, prevented from duly
celebrating the Passover; and the general character of the festival is briefly premised =
only in order the easier to introduce that additional law. 9th. Numb. xxviii. 16—25
describes the sacrifices to be offered on Passover. 10th. Deut. xvi. 5—7 ordains, that
the festival is to be celebrated by the whole nation at the common sanctuary.
It is needless to add, with what importance tradition hallowed the sanctity of
Passover, which complicated system of laws rabbinical interpretation has erected on
the basis of the Biblical precepts, and with what scrupulous conscientiousness its
prescriptions are still observed by the Jewish people, and even by those, who otherwise
do not strictly adhere to the ritual injunctions of Mosaism, so that the celebration of
Passover, even with the greatest sacrifices, has become a standing proverbial character-
istic of the Hebrew nation (for instance, in the sentence: “If the Passover is celebrated
in the house, the shouts of joy resound without).” It is thus clear, that Passover was
always considered as pre-eminent among the national festivals of Israel, both on account
of its political importance, and its solemn religious character. It is considered second to
no precept except circumcision; it has the significance of a sacrament; it was formerly
the only expiatory sacrifice, which every Israelite could offer personally without the
mediation of the priest; thus the paschal-lamb showed manifestly Israel as “a kingdom
of priests”; it connected the individual with God, as a member of the chosen commu-
nity, and with his brethren, as leading to the same divine sovereignty. Those who |
neglected to pay this annual debt broke off their connection alike with God and their
fellow-citizens. Both the Israelites and their enemies were fully impressed with the
paramount religious influence, which the due observance of Passover, that corner-
stone and basis of the national life of Israel, exercised upon the people. Hezekiah
commenced his great religious reform with an invitation to all the tribes of Israel to
“repair to Jerusalem and to celebrate the festival of unleavened bread; and a perfect
change in the religious aspect of the country was the almost immediate consequence
(2 Chron. xxx. 1,5, 13,26; xxxii. 7,8). On the other hand, the law of Justinian interdicted
the Jews to hold the Passover before the Christians; the laws of Ricared in Spain
forbade the Jews to celebrate the Passover on the 14th of any month; this law was,
later, renewed and confirmed by the council of Toledo. All these and many similar
enactments rooted in the conviction, that if the Jews had only been induced to disre-
gard the precepts of Passover, a total neglect of their other religious rites would
gradually ensue and alienate them from the faith of their ancestors.
Before we enter into the different ceremonies connected with this festival,
we observe with regard to its name, that Pesach was originally only the lamb, which
was to be killed and eaten before the exodus, and with the blood of which the
door-posts and the lintels of the houses of the Israelites were to be marked, that the —
destroying angel might “pass over” them and “save” the Israelites. But as the
Pesach introduces the whole festival, and is undeniably one of its most prominent
(if not the most characteristic) features, as the evening of the fourteenth of Nisan is,
according to the Hebrew calendar, the beginning of the fifteenth day, and as on that
evening unleavened bread also was to be eaten with the paschal-lamb (ver. 8): it is
natural, that that name imperceptibly lost its original limited meaning, and was
applied for the whole festival of seven days, or of unleavened bread.
It is naturally divided into two parts: 1. The introductory sacrifice, or the Pesach |
par excellence, in the evening of the fourteenth day of Nisan; and 2. The principal

ss
 THE FEAST OF PASSOVER. LOL

4 festival, or the feast of unleayened bread from the fifteenth to the twenty-first of the
| ‘same month.
1, a) The Pesach was to be a male lamb or goat, one year old, and without blemish
(ver. 5)—the usual requisites in every sacrifice. However, Jewish tradition fixed the
use of a lamb for this purpose (compare Theodoret in Exod. quaest. xxiv). 6) It was
killed in the precincts of the temple (Deut. xvi.5—7)—certainly a considerable
sacrifice for those who lived in the provinces—either by the house-father or a priest,
towards the evening before sunset of the fourteenth day of the first month (Deut.
xvi. 6), but only after all leaven had becn removed from the houses (xxiii. 18). It is
undoubtedly a “sacrifice”; it is a peace- and thank-offering; and the annual
renewal of the national convention between God and Israel. ce) It was then roasted
entirely without any portion being cut off (ver.9); and d) consumed, in the holy city,
by the whole family, either alone or together with other admissible guests, invited to
the meal; so that e) nothing was left over to the following day; or if this was still the
case, it was to be burnt forthwith (ver. 10); the fat especially was forbidden to
remain over till the morning (xxiii.18); f) Bitter herbs, as a symbol of the severe
bondage, which they suffered in Egypt (1.14); and unleavened bread, as an em-
blem of the haste with which they left the land (ver. 8), were to be eaten with the
lamb. It is well known, that Jewish tradition now, since the temple is destroyed and
consequently the paschal-lamb cannot be sacrificed, has gradually collected a complete
order of seryice to be observed on the two first evenings of Passover, which contains
a brief history of the events connected with the festival, several allegorical rites and
copious hymns of praise, mostly Psalms.
2. a) The festival itself extended during seven days; under penalty of extirpation,
“unleavened bread,” or “ bread of misery” (Deut. xvi. 3), was to be eaten (see
| note ‫סמ‬‎ .‫ זס‬8(. 0) All leavened bread and leaven were to be removed from the house
| during that time, under the same severe punishment. c) The first and the seventh day
_are days of holy convocation, celebrated with particular sanctity (ver. 16), like
| the Sabbath (Lev. xxiii. 11,15(, by abstaining from all work, except that which is
| indispensable for the preparation of the necessary meals. d) On each day certain
| holocausts (two young bullocks, one ram, seven lambs of the first year) with the
1 | necessary meat-offering, together with a sin-offering (one goat, Num. xxviii. 19—24),
were offered in the name of the whole nation. Individuals sacrificed also thank-
offerings and held convivial repasts (compare Deut. xvi. 2). e) In order to combine
| with this festival a feature of agricultural importance, and thus to enhance its historical
|. or national significance by a more material and immediate personal interest, it was
> ordered, that on the second day of Passover, a ripe firstling sheaf was to be
- 6 up in the temple, accompanied by a burnt offering (a lamb one year old),
and meat- and drink-offerings (Ley. xxiii. 10--14; see notes on xxiii, 14--17(; and
then only the corn-haryest was universally permitted and commenced (except in some
southern parts, as around Jericho, where the harvest was begun before that time, from
fear lest the grains fall out of the over-ripe ears. Robinson found the wheat-harvest
almost finished in the vicinity of Jericho on the thirteenth of May, the barley-harvest
three weeks earlier). Every return of the Passover festival was intended to remind
the Israelites of their national regeneration, and of their transition from a scattered
state of single-life to a well-founded political unity. Nothing could, therefore, be
more appropriate than to bring it into connection with the regeneration of nature and
the progress of vernal vegetation. Josepnus (Antiq. 111. x. 5) describes the offering
of the first-fruits in the following manner: “ They take a handful of the ears, and dry
them, then beat them small, and purge the barley from the bran; they then bring one
tenth deal to the altar, to God; and casting one handful of it upon the fire, they leave
the rest for the use of the priest; and after this it is, that they may publicly or
privately reap their harvest.” It must, however, be observed, that in the festival of
 138 THE FEAST OF PASSOVER.

Passover, this agricultural feature is, in significance, decidedly inferior to its historical
and religious meaning.—/f) In the five days between the first and the seventh day of
Passover, the assembled multitude indulged no doubt in public amusements, as
dances and songs, to fill up the time in harmony with the joyful and solemn character of
the festival (Judg. xxi. 21,23). g) Those who were unclean on the fourteenth day of
Nisan, or far distant from the temple, or by any other cause precluded from cele-
brating the Passover, are to solemnise it from the fourteenth day of the second month
(Num. ix. 11; 2 Chron. xxx. 2,15). This is called by the Talmud, “the second
Passover,” which is to be kept in the same manner as prescribed for the ordinary
festival (Josephus, Bell. Jud. VI. ix. 3).—About Pentecost, which is to be consideredas
the necessary conclusion of Passover, especially in the individual, agricultural, and
material view, as the festival of the first show-bread, symbolising the perfect com-
pletion of the corn-harvest throughout the country, and, according to Jewish tradition,
also in the historical, national, and spiritual respect, as the festival of Legislation,
see note on xxiii. 16 B, :
These general precepts concerning the permanent celebration of Passover
(see ver. 14), were necessarily modified at the time of the exodus from Egypt,
when that festival was first instituted, and when several features and ceremo-
nies were not symbols, but the necessary results of circumstances. These altera-
tions are: a) The paschal-lamb was to be selected already on the tenth of Nisan,
in order to allow due time for its proper choice (see on ver. 3). 6) It was to be killed in
the houses of the Israelites by the head of each family; after which a bundle of hyssop
was to be dipped in its blood, and the lintel and the door-posts marked with it, both
as a guide for the destroying angel, and as a public and open ceremony before the
eyes of the Egyptians (vers. 6,7,22). According to tradition, this act of marking the
door-posts was limited to the Passover in Egypt, and not repeated at its later celebra-
tions, although this appears to be against the clear instructions of Moses, vers. 24 —28.
(see Ebn Ezra on ver. 24). But as the lambs were, in Palestine, killed at the national
sanctuary, the door-posts of the houses could, as a matter of course, not be marked
with their blood. c) It was to be consumed quickly, and quite in the costume of
travellers, “their loins girded, their shoes on their feet, and their sticks in their
hands” (ver.11). d) Unleavened bread was not necessarily eaten during the whole
seven days (see Mishn., Pesach. ix. 5), although the Israelites were almost compelled to
do so, because they had no time to prepare leavened bread (ver.39). e) The festival —
lasted only one day, as the departure from Egypt took place already in the night of
the fourteenth of Nisan. f) The women shared the meal of the paschal-lamb,
whereas, later, the men alone were bound to partake of it (xxiii. 17; Deut. xvi. 6—7,
16). g) Those who were infected with a levitical impurity were, in Egypt, not ex-
cluded from the Pesach, as at that time laws regulating purity and impurity did not
yet exist (Num. ix.6—14). h) No firstlings were offered; and 7) no sacrifices were
killed in Egypt, from obvious reasons (Num. xxviii. 16—24).
After such strict and rigid commands concerning the Passover, many thought it a
suspicious circumstance, that we find in the historical records of the Old Testament so
few direct allusions to its celebration; and they have therefore rashly concluded, that
the origin of the Passover is of a far later date than the time of Moses. But against =
these objections we observe: 1. That history is not required to record the regularly
recurring festivals, and that this omission can, therefore, not be used as an argument —
against the authority of the Pentateuch. But, 2, we find, indeed, a clear mention of
Passover in the following passages, a) in Josh. v. 10—11, at the arrival of the Israel-
ites in Canaan; 6) 2 Chron. viii. 13, under Solomon; 6( 2 Chron. xxx. 15, in the time
of Hezekiah; d) 2 Kings xxiii, 21, under Josiah; compare 2 Chron. xxxy.; 6( Ezra
vi. 19, 22, after the return from Babylon. If we add hereto the passages, in which the
Passover is also probably, though less distinctly, alluded to (Judges vi. 8; xi. 40;
 ‫שווומ‬i‫‏‬

THE FEAST OF PASSOVER. 139

xxi. 19; 1Sam.i. 3; Hengstenberg Auth. ii. p.79—85): we cannot doubt, that according
to the historical evidence of our Biblical records, Passover was celebrated by the
Hebrews during the whole period from Moses to the exile, although in different times
with more or less strictness and solemnity. We have, therefore, no reason to doubt
that the Passover dates from so early atime as that of Moses.
But the contrary opinion, that it was celebrated by the descendants of Abraham,
prior to the period of Moses, has as often, and with as much pertinacity, been
advanced. Ewald (Antiq. p. 356, et seg.), mentions the Pesach among the festivals
instituted before Moses. ‘Thus other reasons must be assigned for that festival than
the exodus from Egypt. Now, it is generally alleged, that the Hebrews, in common
with all other Semitic, or, rather, eastern tribes, which, as agricultural nations, are
perfectly dependent on the seasons and the course of the celestial orbs, especially the
sun, celebrated two principal annual festivals, namely, one at the beginning of the
spring, when the corn began to ripen, that is, at the time when the sun “passes
over” into the sign of Aries, and this is Pesach (analogous to a similar festival |
celebrated about that time in India, Persia, and Egypt, and called Nauritz, or
Huli, or Hilarian, see, however, on ver. 13); and the other at the beginning of the
autumn, when the last fruits are gathered in, and the earth assumes a similar impor-
tant position to the sun; which festival is identical with Succoth; and, in order
to show reverence to the moon also, the second great orb, both festivals were cele-
brated, when it presents to the earth its whole face illuminated. It is added, that,
on both occasions the fresh grains of barley were quickly ground the same day, from
which flour they baked unleayened bread; or they were merely roasted by the fire, or
ground in a mortar; the latter was offered on the altars; the unleavened bread served
as food for the people. Herewith an expiatory sacrifice was generally connected, as
this was a critical season, deciding either the fertility or barrenness of the year; and
this, it is asserted, was the Pesach, or “the passing over,” or the “rescue,” which
shielded from misfortune (as the Egyptians used, at such festivals, to sacrifice
a ram to Jupiter Ammon), and with the blood the lintel and the door-posts of the
houses were marked, as if to expiate the whole house: and its inhabitants (as the
ancient Peruvians reddened their temples and houses, in order to symbolise the
triumph of the sun over the winter, and his renewed power). ‘The meat was eaten
roasted, because it was believed, as is still the case in India, that the eating of raw meat
makes human nature savage and blood-thirsty.
We are far from denying the natural historical connection between the Israelites and
the other Oriental nations: on the contrary, it is the avowed aim of this commentary
always impartially to point out that connection, in order to produce a faithful picture
of the general development of the Israelitish institutions; but, although it is not
impossible that the Hebrews, before Moses, celebrated similar astrological festivals
about the time of the full moon of the first and seventh month—for the majority
adhered then to such pagan customs and rites, Josh. xxiv. 14; Ez. xx. 7—it must be
distinctly understood that none of the festivals of Israel, as they are contained and
ordered in the Mosaic code, has any bearing or reference whatever to heathen ceremo-
nies; the reason and origin of each holy day is, in all instances, clearly derived from
events connected with the history of Israel, or the doctrines for the first time promul-
gated by Moses; so that, if even in remote antiquity the Hebrews celebrated festivals
analogous in their rites, and coinciding in times, with those instituted by the Mosaic
law, these festivals and rites were, by this legislation, placed on a perfectly different
basis; the rites received another, original significance; the times were brought into
accordance with historical events, and the whole ceremonies. divested from all super-
stitious or idolatrous elements, spiritualised, and from arbitrary and often absurd
customs elevated into symbols full of enlightening truth for the mind, and ennoble-
ment for the heart. Even the most inveterate and radical critics will not be able to
 THE FEAST OF PASSOVER, 88 ©
0
‫יו‬ ‫וריו‬
4 ee. ‫‏‬2

find in the 2105676 law of Passover any connection with the course of the sun or other
astrological elements, or in the paschal-lamb a resemblance to the ram sacrificed by
the Egyptians to Jupiter Ammon, or in the marking of the door-posts an imitation of
the custom of the Egyptians, “to oil, at the vernal equinox, cattle, trees, and other
objects, to protect them against the destroying fire of the sun, because on that day the —
world was once destroyed by fire” (Lengerke, Ken. p. 421), or in the eating
of the
unleayened bread the custom of agricultural eastern nations to eat unleayened barley-
cakes at the festivals celebrated at the beginning of the harvest ( Wilson on xiii. 7 ), as
this analogy would require the command of unleavened bread at least on the feast of
weeks also; or any reference whatever to heathen customs. Are those writers prepared
to deny the historical fact of the exodus? or to prove the improbability of a festival
based on such an event? Is there any contradiction in the internal character of the’
festival? or does the Biblical account betray the least uncertainty or indistinctness?
Are there any cosmical or astronomical elements discernible in the rites as detailed in
our chapter? and is not the historical and ethical foundation pointed out with singular
clearness and force? If, therefore, indeed, there prevailed, in primeval times, among
the Asiatic nations, a superstition which the Hebrews had also adopted, we are forced
still more to admire the power of abstraction, and the vigour of their intellect, with
which they converted a superstition into a sublime doctrine. These remarks apply +

equally to all Hebrew festivals and rites, traces or analogies of which might be found
among other nations also. And in this sense, Lengerke himself (Ken. p.456), remarks:
“We must, however, confess, that the Mosaic laws, although based on, and derived "-
7

from, institutions and rites of natural religion, are perfectly free from such elements,
and are exclusively connected with the purest notions of monotheism. The law bore,
therefore, to the people the character of an entirely new legislation, since it combated
and disowned even every affinity with historical or natural ceremonies.” In the Mosaic
institutions, we must clearly distinguish between the external symbolical form
and their internal character. It is true, the former frequently coincides with
that of pagan religions; and this was natural from the course of the universal
development of mankind, and from the condition of the Hebrew nation in
particular. The vocation of the people of Israel did not imply a transplanting |
from the soil of its time into another later period; not a magical and miracu-
lous uprooting from every connection with the world and with nature; no leap
over the stages of development inherent in the nature of the human race; but 4
training of the people, which yet was entirely to remain a nation of its own time, and
which was subject to the general laws of human progress. Perfectly different is the
relation in which the internal character of the Mosaic rites stands to those of heathen
antiquity. Paganism is natural religion, deification of nature in its whole extent; its
basis is pantheism. If the idea of the unity of the Deity sometimes breaks through as
a dim and vague notion, it implies no personal being with self-consciousness and self-
activity, but something impersonal; it soon dissolves itself again into an infinite
multiplicity of gods, the mere personifications of the various powers of nature.
Above all moral government, stands the necessity of nature, the fate to which gods
and men must bend—the highest moral perfection at which man can arrive is the
completest resignation under the iron rule of necessity; the barren, gloomy virtue of
the stoic is the culminating point of heathen ethics; a passive identification with fate
or the natural events, is the ideal of a pagan sage. But thé God of Israel is abso-
lutely one, spiritual, perfectly and thoroughly personal; no abstract notion, but a
concrete being, as evidently existing as the human soul which He has bestowed, and
which is a part of His infinite essence. He is not identical with the world; He is its
Framer; the universe is subjected to Him, and obeys His will; it is merely ordained to
proclaim His might and His glory; it is a witness of His omnipotence, but not the
entire emanation of His power. He has created the world, and has thereby lost no

Ss

5
:
‫ש‬‎
‎‫ו‬ 7 A

aai eT ieee
 THE FEAST OF PASSOVER. 141

particle of His boundless might ; He pervades the universe, and His spirit is yet one
and undivided. He covers Himself with light as with a garment, and stretches out
the heavens like a curtain. But even if the heavens vanish away like smoke, and the
earth decays like a garment, His glory will exist through all eternity. (See Psalm
civ. 2; Isaiah li. 6; comp. Creuzer, Symb. iv. p. 151; Baur, Symb.i. p. 66; Baehr,
Symb. i. 34; ii. 640).
Mackay (in his work “ Religious Development of the Hebrews”) asserts, with much
boldness, but very little plausibility, “that the Passover was already celebrated ac-
cording to the rites of Moloch, or the atrocities of cannibalism, and that it was
notoriously in relation with the sacrificial (! ) infanticide of the Hebrews.” It is easier
to send forth such startling paradoxical opinions than to defend them; and even
Wilson, the unconditional and enthusiastic admirer of Mackay, finds that this suppo-
sition is not based upon “ cogent reasons.”
It is further, we grieve to remark, but too well known, that some confused, and, we
must add, malevolent writers, have endeavoured to spread the monstrous conjecture,
that the Israelites performed human sacrifices at their Passover rites. Ghillany, in a
book devoted to that subject, writes (p. 518): “ At the time of the first temple they
killed, for every section of the Israelites, a man, mixed his blood among the bread
instead of leaven, and ate this bread, to which they attributed an expiating power; then
the body of the killed was roasted,”—we shudder while we transcribe it—‘‘ and every
Hebrew was obliged to eat a piece of this flesh for the atonement of his sins.’ Such
fathomless, incredible absurdity, would naturally excite nothing but our pity and
ridicule, had it not, unfortunately, led the credulous and fanatic mob, in several coun-
tries, to bloodshed, rapine, and sanguinary persecution of the innocent Israelites. A
religion, which forcibly and repeatedly enjoins to abstain even from the blood of ani-
mals, “ because it is the soul,” should sanction the mixing of the sacred bread of Passover
_ with human blood? A religion, which gives so many detailed and strict prescriptions
concerning clean and unclean animals, should authorise the abomination of human
flesh “ for the atonement of sin?” A religion—but we think it unnecessary to dilate
upon that monstrous aspersion, which is, indeed, thrown among an ignorant popula~
tion, like a firebrand levelled by a maniac into a wooden city, but which has never
been, nor can it be, substantiated by any argument taken either from the law or the
practice of the Hebrews. May all future generations be spared the shame of witness-
ing a renewal of such ignominious scenes as those which excited Europe, not many
years since, in consequence of those hideous calumnies, which only the magnanimity
and influence of a Sir Moses Montefiore has been able to silence.
We will, however, mention, that among the many absurdities which ancient writers
relate concerning Hebrew customs and rites (see Introduction, § 3), it is also asserted
by Apion (Josephus 0. Apion, ii. 8), that the Israelites annually fed in the temple,
and then sacrificed, a Greek stranger; and, from the circumstances that the
Hebrews celebrated the seventli day, which is the day of Chronos (Saturni dies,
Saturday), and that the Egyptians offered to Osiris, the son of Chronos, human
sacrifices (Plutarch, De Iside, § 73), the fable was spread, that the Hebrews
sacrificed annually a human being! (see notes on xx. 8—11). Modern critics of the
opposite schools, as Hengstenberg and Ewald, reject the opinion of those who pretend
to conclude, from the trial of Abraham (Gen. xxii), and the vow of Jephthah
(Judges xi), that human sacrifices were not unusual among the Hebrews; and those
who still repeat this opinion, have certainly less scientific impartiality than fanatic
malice. Some have even found in the character of the Pesach, a resemblance to the
adoration of Moloch (see Work, Bibl. Mythol. i. p. 41), an hypothesis as arbitrary as it
is extravagant. The Biblical records must, indeed, be read with a singular bias, if
such senseless conjectures, devoid of every basis, or even appearance of probability,
are the deplorable result of those researches,
 " > * ‫דיל‬‎ 1 ‫יז‬ ‫יש‬ , a? 0 +
0
gq? / x % 5 7)1 = 5%Ss A*₪. i.
x 4 “A a vf re . .
‫לקה‬

fe EXODUS XI.
a / .

‫ו‬
+

The further and more detailed explanation of the rites and precepts connected with
Passover, will be found in the notes on the verses in which they are first mentioned.
The internal structure and unity of perhaps no part of Exodus have been more
questioned than those of the twelfth chapter. But, without enumerating the
various objections raised, we give here the obvious and clear connection of the
E different verses: Ist. ver. 1—13, the commands of God concerning the first Passover
= in Egypt; 2nd. ver. 14—20, regarding its future celebration; 3rd. ver. 21—27, Moses
8 communicates to the Israelites the import of those commands; 4th. yer. 28, the
Israelites make the necessary preparations for the paschal-lamb, and the other cere-
monies to be observed in the evening of the fourteenth day of Nisan; 5th. ver. 29—39,
the history of the tenth plague, and of the Exodus of the Israelites; 6th. vers. 40, 4l,
historical notice respecting the duration of the Israelites’ sojourn in Egypt;
7th. ver, 42, the sacred character of the night of the Exodus, for all future times, is
emphatically enjoined; 8th. ver. 43—49, precepts with regard to the persons to be
admitted to the paschal-lamb; 9th. ver. 50, the remark that the Israelites followed
these precepts, to which, in ver, 51, as an appropriate conclusion, the principal event
related in the chapter is briefly repeated. Thus the whole chapter is in perfect har-
mony with its parts; it is evidently written after the event; and the inspired author
had, therefore, already a sufficiently clear conception of the character of Passover to
enable him logically to combine the precepts concerning its present and future
celebration,

ND the Lord spoke to Moses and to Aaron in

the land of Egypt, saying: 2. This month shall
be to you the beginning of months; it shall be the first
2. This month (Abib or Nisan) shall be tival was fixed upon the fifteenth of
to you the beginning of months ; it shall be Tishri, apparently the beginning of the
the first month of the year to you. The year, this date might yet, as a general
translation of the Septuagint (which has term, be understood as the end of the old
been adopted by Houbigant and others): year, as the new circle of agricultural
“this month is to you the first of the labours for the following harvest com-
year,” would render this verse strangely menced only after that festival; and
superfluous, as no twofold emphatical Josephus (loc. cit.) observes: “ Moses ap-
assertion would be required to state pointed that isan, which is the same
a fact supposed to have been known with Xanthicus, should be the first month
to every Israelite. It is, thus, evident for their festivals, because he brought
from the tenor of our verse, that pre- them out of Egypt in that month; so that
vious to the institution of Passover a ₪16 month began the year as to all the
different chronology, with regard to the solemnities they observed to the honour
months, was in use among the Hebrews, of God, although he preserved the origi- ‫ד‬
=
and, although we have no direct state- nal order of the months [from Tishri], as
ments in the Bible, it is easy to conjec- to selling and buying, and other worldly
ture, if we compare Exod. xxiii. 16, with affairs.” It is natural, that an agricul-
Josephus, Antiq. I. iii. 3, that the seventh tural people like the Hebrews, considered
month (later called Tishri), in which the their civil year concluded with the termi-
harvest was perfectly completed, was nation of the harvest, which entirely
considered as the beginning of the year. finished the compass of their annual ————
‫ר—ה‬
For we read, in Exod. xxiii. 16: “the labours, and after which commenced a —

festival of in-gathering, or of Taber- new cycle, or year, characterised by the

nacles, is to be celebrated at the end same occupations, the same hopes, and
of the year,” and although that fes- the same anxieties. But, in order to keep
a
t

=
 , |
oe
* << ‫לש‬‎ .

‫אס‬ as‫‏‬
ie
‘month of the year to you. 3. Speak to all the congrega-
tion of Israel, saying, On the tenth day of this month
alive in the midst of the people the era, and we meet with it in no earlier
- memory of the miraculous redemption Hebrew work than the Second Book of
1
from Egypt, this event was to be consi- the Maccabbees, or not before B.c. 130.
dered as the beginning of a new epoch; Now, it is known, that the Hebrews
so that, Ist. not only the years were reckoned by lunar months, which is, in-
counted from it (see Exod. xvi. 1; xix, 1; deed, the simplest and most obvious
xl. 1; Numb. i. 1; ix. 1; x. 11; xxxiii. 38; calculation for a people little advanced
Deut. v. 1; 1 Kings vi. 1, ete.), but, 2nd. in astronomy, the regular return of the
also the months, simply as the second, new moon offering a natural measure of
third, fourth month, etc. But neither of time. As, however, the principal He-
the two chronologies have been long or brew festivals had a close connection with
exclusively observed; the years were, the produce of agriculture, that is, with
later, inaccurately described after the the influence of the sun, as, for instance,
> | reign of the kings, or the abduction of on Passover the first ripe ears of corn
| the Israelites into the exile (Ezek. .‫אאא‬‎ were offered in the temple, and on Pente-
21; x1. 1), and the months received, after cost the harvest was considered completed,
- the Babylonian captivity, foreign, pro- and as the lunar year has only 354 days,
_bably Chaldee, names (Nisan, Iar, Sivan, 8 hours (48 min., 38 sec.), and, therefore,
etc., already used in the later books of differs from the solar year (which has
the Old Testament, Ezra, Esther, Nehe- 365 days, 5 hours, 48 min., 45 sec.), annu-
> miah), which stand in no connection with ally by nearly 11 days; it was necessary,
- the historical reminiscences of Israel. in order to prevent interruptions in the
_ The names “month of ears” (xiii. 4), festivals, to make, from time to time, such
for the first month of the year; “the intercalations as to make both years
month of splendour, or of flowers” (1 Kings agree as nearly as possible. How this
yi. 1, 37), for the second month; “ the was effected, in the times before the exile,
month of perennial streams” (1 Kings viii. it is impossible now to conjecture; the
2), for the seventh month, and “ the month present Jewish calendar has, in the year |
| _ of rain,” (1 Kings vi. 38), for the eighth 357 A. C., been regulated by Rabbi Hillel,
> month—these appear to be more appella- the younger, after a cycle of nineteen
tive than proper names. Thus, the He- years (Metonic cycle), each of which
_ brew calendar has a double New-year, contains seven embolismic or leap years,
> one on the first day of Tishri for political namely, the third, sixth, eighth, eleventh,
= and civil transactions, the more convenient fourteenth, seventeenth and nineteenth
for the later times, because the Seleu- year, when one month is added after the
cidic era commenced likewise in October last month, Adar. For the chief conside-
(B. c. 312); and the other on the first ration in arranging the Hebrew calendar
day of Nisan, for the regulation of the must always have been the state of the
religious festivals; although the positive crops in February or March. If they were
injunction of our verse, and the usual mode then sufficiently advanced to warrant a
of counting. the months throughout the hope that they would, one month later,
Bible, lead us to suppose, that for many yield ripe firstlings-ears for the offering
“centuries after Moses, Nisan was alone of Passover, no alteration was adopted
considered the legal beginning of the year, with regard to the calendar. But if the
and that, only with the adoption of the grains were in a backward state so as to
Chaldean calendar, Tishri was counted as justify no such expectation, the interca-
> the opening month of the year. This seems lation of a certain number of days was
> to have taken place a considerable time necessary, to allow the corn to ripen; and
after the introduction of the Seleucidic this matter was, later, systematically
% 2

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2 ‫ו‬ ‘EXODUS XIL‫‏‬

‘Ca
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they shall take for themselves every man a lamb 'for a

°

fathers’ house, a lamb for a house. 4. And if the household

be too little for a lamb, let him and his neighbour next to |
1 Engl. Vers.—According to the house of their fathers.

fixed by the Metonic cycle. The months context only for that one Passover in
contain, alternately, thirty and twenty- Egypt, not for the future celebration of —
nine days. Thus the assertion of the festival, although some commentators
Maimonides is perfectly correct: “the suppose, that this precept applies also to 3 %
months of the year are lunar months, the later time. The lamb was to be chosen, ie ian
but the years which we compute, are that it might assume in the eyes of the
-

solar years;” and the Jewish calendar is, Israelites a peculiar character; a charac-
therefore, a strange and complicated mix- ter of significance and holiness. That’ it
ture of the lunar and solar systems (simi- was to be chosen on the tenth day of the
lar to the chronology of the Chinese, and month, whilst the commencement of the
the Indians), It is, however, so well festival was fixed for the evening belong-
regulated, that even a Scaliger admits ing to the fifteenth, seems also to be cha-
“that there is nothing more exact, no- racteristic. We find, indeed, a similar
thing more perfect, than the calculation correspondence between the tenth and
of the Jewish year.” Less acceptable is fifteenth day in the festivals of the
Maimonides’ opinion, that in our verse seventh month (Tishri); and there are
lunar months are introduced, whereas, traces of the particular distinction, at-
before that time, other divisions of the tached to the number ten in the Pen-
year were in use; for, in this verse, the tateuch, as the ten generations from
order of the months only, not their dura- Adam to Noah, and as many from Noah
tion or character is altered. These re- to Abraham, ten plagues in Egypt, ten
marks will suffice for the understanding commandments, etc. There are even
of our passage; for further conjectures signs, however faint, of the existence, —
about this difficult and disputed subject in primeval times, of a week consisting
(certain facts and results there are little of ten days. In Gen. xxiy. 55, Laban
‘more than those here condensed) we refer says: “Let the virgin remain with us
to the works mentioned in the larger some days, or ten,” which seems to signify,
edition. a few days, or a week often days. Insome
The time of the first month (Nisan) is parts of Asia there is still in use a small |
thus described by Josephus (Antiq. III. week of five days, to which a larger week =
x. 5): “The month of Xanthicus which often days would correspond. “For,” ob-
is the beginning of our year, when the serves Ewald (Antiq., .‫כ‬‎ 105), “the lunar ₪
sun is in Aries;” and he calls it else- month was either divided into four parts,
where (Antiq. 11. xiv. 6), corresponding and thus a week of seven days was
with the Egyptian month Pharmuthi, formed; or it was divided into three —
which was then, according to Ideler sections, each of which was a week of
(Chron. i. 143), from the 27th of March ten days; and thus the numbers seven and =
to the 25th of April of the Julian ten gradually assumed a sacred character” =
Calendar. (compare note on xxiii. 10--19(. But
3. Speak to all the congregation of Israel, although it is not impossible that the
in which introductory words already the Hebrews had, in common with other —
national unity of the people of Israel is al- Asiatic nations, in times beyond the
luded to; every independent individual is researches of history, a week consist-
included in this command. The paschal- ing of ten days; the Pentateuch knows
lamb was already to be chosen on the from its very first chapter only the heb-
tenth day of Nisan, according to the domadal week.—Tradition observes, that
 EXODUS XII. 145

his house take one according to the number of the souls;

you shall count for the lamb every man according to his
eating. 5. Your lamb shall be without blemish, a male,
one year old; you shall take z¢ from the sheep or from the
the four days between the tenth and Jonathan remarks on our verse, “the
fourteenth of Nisan were necessary to number of the members of the family
examine, whether the lamb was faultless, may be less than ten; if it is only suffi-
or to impress the merciful deliverance of cient to consume the lamb.”—The female
the Israelites still deeper upon their part of the community was also admitted
minds by leaying the lamb, the symbol to the paschal-lamb, but according to rab-
of that redemption, for a longer time binical regulation, the obligation to do so
before their eyes; or to give time for the cir- devolved on the men alone (See supra,
cumcision, which had been neglected in p- 138). But the Karaites permitted only
Egypt by many Israelites (see vers. 44, adult male persons to participate of it.—
48). We believe that a certain scope According to Joma xii. 1, foreign Israel-
was necessary for a whole enthralled ites, who came to Jerusalem to cele-
nation to procure a lamb of such a brate the Passover, were accommodated
peculiar description, and especially for with the necessary apartments gratuitous-
the poorer members of the community, ly, but were obliged to leave to their hosts
whom their more favoured brethren were the skin of the paschal-lamb, and the
bound to provide with it. vessels they had used in their religious
4. And if the household be too little for ceremonies. However, as the circum-
alamb; thus also Luther, and Mendels- ference of Jerusalem was little more than
sohn; more distinctly still translate one league, and as the number of the
the Septuagint and Vulgate. And this Israelitish visitors on Passover was ex-
sense is rendered by almost all other ceedingly great (at the Passover of 65,
translators. But Jonathan, in his para- A.C., there were in Jerusalem three mil-
phrastical manner, introduces a tradi- lions of Jews): it was impossible to lodge
_tionary element, rendering: “if, however, them all in houses; and it is probable
‘the men of the house are less than ten,” that most of the pious guests lived during
in accordance with the rabbinical axiom, their stay in tents around the town, as
that solemn actions, especially prayers, to this time the Mohammedan pilgrims
are to be performed by an assembly of at around Mecca (compare notes on xxiii.
least ten Israelites, because the presence 14—17.—You shall count for the lamb
of God prefers to dwell among such as- every man according to his eating, that
sembly, since that number represents the is, you shall, in selecting the guests
whole community of Israel. And so we and fixing their numbers, be guided by
have here again the notion of the unity the usual measure or amount of their
symbolised by the rites of Passover, eating, so that the lamb may be likely to
which is still more evident from the fol- suffice for them.—According to the rab-
lowing passage of Josephus (Bell. Jud. binical interpretation every Israelite was
VL. ix. 3): “they slay the paschal-lamb to eat of the paschal-lamb a piece at least
from the ninth hour to the eleventh, but as large as an olive; those who were un-
so that a company of not less than ten able to eat that quantity, as children and
belong to every sacrifice (for it is not aged persons, were not counted among the
lawful for them to feast singly by number of guests.
themselves), and many of us are 5. The paschal-lamb was to be: 1. per-
twenty in a company.” But although fect, faultless, without blemish in accord-
such assembly was considered desirable, ance with the general precept concerning
it was not indispensable; and Targum sacrifices in Levit. xxii. 20: “* Whatsoever
L
146 EXODUS XI.

goats : 6. And you shall keep it until the fourteenth day

of the same month; and the whole assembly of the con-
gregation of Israel shall kill it ’at dusk. 7. And they
1 Engl. Vers.—In the evening.

hath a blemish, that you shall not offer; and twenty minutes;” and this explana-
for it shall not be acceptable for ‫ץס‬‎‫ ל‬2. tion, which appears to be the most ra-
male in harmony with the general notion tional interpretation is also that of the
of antiquity, that the males are supe- Karaites and the Samaritans, and has
rior to females; and, therefore, more ap- been adopted by many others, The Ara-
propriate for offerings to the Most High bians have the same idiom in the same
(see Ley. xxii. 19), and 3. one year old sense: “the time between the two even-
that is, a lamb, which is within the first ings,” 1.0. between the beginning of
year from its birth, and has not yet darkness and the perfect setting of the
attained its second year. ‘This tender sun. The Septuagint and Vulgate ren-
age, the type of innocence, made it pecu- der: “ towards the evening;” which trans-
liarly adapted for a sacrifice of the cove- lation, although not clear, does not exclude |
nant to be concluded between God and the same interpretation. 2. Saadiah, who
Israel as a nation or a political commu- questions the possibility that the whole
nity.— You shall take it from the sheep or congregation of Israel could, within the
Jrom the goats; either from the one or from short space of one hour and twenty
the other. Ithink, says Bochart, that the minutes, sprinkle the blood on the altar of
pious used this liberty (of offering either the temple, observes: “ It was a tradition,
a lamb or a kid) so that they chose the that the people began to kill the lamb
lamb with predilection, as the sacrifice from the moment when it was evident
more acceptable to God, because its that the sun declined towards the west;
gentleness, docility, and innocence is and our text mentions the time ‘ between
greater. And this is also the reason why the two evenings,’ because the greater
the lamb was, even by heathen nations, part of the paschal-lambs were then
considered as the most sacred sacrifice. killed; and the disappearance of the‫א‬ -‫ב‬
light .|
"₪

Compare supra, p. 137. of the sun was the last point for the --

65. The literal meaning of the Hebrew performance of that rite.” This is also
words which we have translated: “ at the opinion of Rashi, who remarks;
dusk,” is: between the two even- “from noon and upwards is called be-
ings. The principal opinions, which tween the two evenings, which expression
have been proposed about this ob- embraces, therefore, the hours from the
scure phrase are: 1. Onkelos renders: commencement of the lengthening sha-
“between the two suns,” which Talmud- dows to the beginning of the night.”
ical expression signifies the space of time But we must urge against this expla-
between the setting of the sun and the nation: a) the words, “ between the
moment when the stars become visible two evenings,’ which 1876 no etymolo-
(between six and seven o’clock), an in- gical or internal connection with “the
terval sufficient for an ordinary walker to time after noon;” and 6) the passage
go half a league. The same opinion has Deut. xvi. 6, where it 18 commanded to
been more distinctly expressed by Ebn kill the paschal-lamb: “ in the evening,
Ezra: ‘“ We have two evenings; the first, when the sun goes down, the time when
the setting of the sun, that is, the time when thou didst depart from Egypt ” (compare
he disappears beneath the horizon; and vers. 31 and 42 of our chapter), evidently
the second, the ceasing of the light which with reference to, and in harmony with,
is reflected in the clouds; and between our verse. 3. The traditional accept-
poth lies an interval of about one hour ation, adopted by the Pharisees and the
 EXODUS 1. 147

shall take of the blood, and strike i¢ on the two side-posts

and on the lintel of the houses wherein they will 686 it.
8. And they shall eat the flesh in that night, roast with
fire, and unleavened bread; with bitter herbs they shall
Talmudists (Pesach, 61 a) and acted if thus manifestly to show, for the first
upon in the service of the temple was, time, that they were all equally sacred be-
that the “ first evening ” is the time in the fore their God, although later the Levites
afternoon, when the heat of the sun took a prominent part in these solemn
begins to decrease about three o’clock; sacrifices; see 2 Chron. xxx.7, xxxv. 5, ete.
and that the “second evening” com- @. And they shall take of the blood, ete.
mences with sunset. Thus writes Jose- Passover was the festival of initiation; the
phus (Bell. Jud. VI. ix. 3): “ The passover paschal-lamb the initiatory sacrifice; the
festival took place, for which they sacrifice blood is the soul, the life of the animal;
from the ninth to the eleventh hour,” i, e. the house is the representative of the
yaa three and five p.m. It is, however, family; the door-posts are the most
ot impossible, that although those words prominent part of the house; they are
mean, originally, the time at dusk, as de- that which leads into the house. Thus
scribed by Ebn Ezra, it was later, at the the deep significance of the extraordinary
actual service of the temple, found imprac~- command here enjoined is obvious. The
ticable to perform the increasing number blood of the national sacrifice was visibly
of sacrifices in such limited space of time, marked on the abodes of the Israelites;
and that it was, therefore, gradually it atoned for the families wholived therein;
extended from an earlier hour in the after- it made them worthy to enter the sacred
noon; but no doubt the later part was covenant; it was thus at the same time
preferred, as more in accordance with the a pledge of help and life. Thus this
literal injunction of the law, as is evident ceremony served for the following pur-
from the remark of Saadiah above quoted. poses: a) It was after the departure of
The translation of the English Version the Israelites, a proof to the Egyptians
in the evening, is too indistinct. Hitzig’s that the Lord had, in the midst of their
-7
opinion, that “the two evenings” are the own universal pestilence, protected and
hours before and after sunset, and “ be- delivered His people. 6) It was a sym-
tween the two evenings,” therefore, the bolical sign, in accordance with the gen-
precise moment of sunset, since the four- eral figurative phraseology, which is used
teenth of Nisan was likewise a Sabbath, in connection with this plague; ver. 12:
on which it was unlawful to make the “For I will pass through the land of
preparations even for the paschal-lamb, Egypt;” and ver. 13: “and when I see
can scarcely be seriously entertained; as the blood I will pass over you, and the
that expression recurs on many other plague shall not be upon you to destroy
occasions, undoubtedly in no connection you;” and analogous to the redeeming
with the Sabbath (Num. xxviii. 4; Exod. sign which Ezekiel (ix. 4) mentions
xxx. 8, etc.), and the one minute which in the description of a vision concerning
separates both days was certainly insuffi- a similar calamity. ence appears the
cient for the preparation and killing of impropriety of the conjecture, that that
the paschal-lamb; and admitted even, command was given to the Israelites in
that the fourteenth of Nisan was, in the order to show to the Egyptians publicly,
year of the exodus, a Sabbath, it was not that they dared freely to kill their sacred,
so in all the subsequent years.—We call inviolable animals. The rites connected
particular attention to the fact, that every with Passover are too holy, too signifi-
Israelite, not the priests and Levites alone, cant, to be used merely in opposition to
were allowed to kill the paschal-lamb, as the absurdest forms of idolatry; they have
1
PM
148 EXODUS XII.

eat it. 9. Eat not of it raw, nor sodden with water, but
roast with fire; its head with its legs, and with the
all a comprehensive, and deep, positive still living;” , and here we may observe,
value; they do not require the adyenti- that, according to Herodotus and Plu-
tious support of negative relations. tarch, several heathen nations, at their
s,9. The paschal-lamb was to be barbarous and idolatrous sacrifices in
eaten in that night, 1. roasted with fire; honour of Bacchus, which have their
and 2. roasted entirely, with its head, its origin in Egypt, used to tear off parts
legs, and its purtenance; but neither raw, from the living animals, and to consume
nor sodden with water. the raw and palpitating limbs. But
1. The principal reason why the lamb we need not to suppose the Israelites
was not to be cooked but roasted, was the to have inclined to this savage custom.
precipitancy with which the Israelites left —The lamb was, further, not to be cooked
Egypt, and which did not allow them in water, because this would make the
leisure for a more careful preparation of dismemberment of the animal indispen-
the meal. A variety of other, mostly sable.
artificial reasons (for instance, that eating 2. We have already above alluded to
roasted meat is the custom of free and the probable reason why the lamb was to
illustrious men; that roasting with fire be roasted entirely with all its members
produces uniformity in the arrangements; and parts, none of which was to be
that it excluded certain pagan rites; that broken (vers. 4,6); this rite served to re-
it is the cleanest mode of preparing meat, present the perfect unity of Israel as a
etc.), has been collected by Spencer. nation, and thus to symbolise their polit-
More plausible appears the explanation of ical existence now to be established by
Baehr (Symb. ii. p. 636), that the mere their exit from Egypt, and sealed by that
roasting of the Jamb by the fire shows the sacrifice of covenant between God and
Hebrews as leaving their settled abodes, the people. All who partook of that
as entering upon the struggle and combat undivided sacrifice should consider them-
of their wanderings as ‘‘the army of selves asan undivided community. Those
God,” for it was especially the custom of who were assembled for the paschal meal,
soldiers to eat meat hastily roasted by whether they belonged to the same or to
the fire. But he urges the words ‘in different families, represented, in a smaller
all the armies of the Lord” too much; compass, the whole people; and that as-
armies is here, as frequently, the hosts, the sembly again, by seeing the whole lamb
numbers, comprising the whole people. before them undissected and intact, was
If boiling the meat causes “not much naturally and forcibly reminded of its
more delay” than roasting, it occasions unity with their absent brethren, and of
certainly some delay; and it was all-im- the national significance of the whole
portant that the people should, at a mo- festival—Some illustration of several pre-
ment’s notice, be ready to commenee their cepts connected with the paschal-lamb
journey. According to Rashi, the entrails might also be furnished by the follow-
were first taken out, cleaned, and then put ing observation of Layard (Discoveries,
again into their original place (see, how- p. 287): “A sheep was always slain for
ever, infra, the extract from Belon). The the guests;. . . . if there were not stran-
prohibition, that the meat should not be gers enough to consume the whole, the
eaten raw, was not superfluous, because rest was given to the workmen or to the
even at present eastern travellers (as needy, as it is considered derogatory to
Burckhardt) have found persons eating the character of a truly hospitable and
the raw flesh of killed animals, without generous man to keep meat until the
any preparation or dressing. Targum following day .... Even the poorest Be-
Onkelos and Jonathan render: “while douin who kills a sheep invites all his
 =

a -

EXODUS XII. 149

purtenance thereof. 10. And you shall not leave any-

thing of it until the morning; and that which is left of it
friends and neighbours to the repast, and dough, mixed with water, lie for some
if there be still any remnants, distributes days, till it fermented; and is, therefore,
them amongst the poor and the hungry, considered as a kind of corrupted sub-
although he should himself want on the stance, incompatible with the sanctity
morrow.” It might, in our countries, of sacrifices. ‘‘ Leaven,” says Plutarch,
appear a difficult task, to bring a whole “comes from corruption and corrupts the
lamb well roasted on the table. But, in dough with which it is mixed, and every
the Orient it is not unfrequent to roast fermentation seems to be a putrefaction.”
entire lambs and sheep. Belon narrates And Gellius observes: * "70 touch flour
(b.i.c.60): “At the end of the bridge mixed with leaven was not allowed to the
we met with shepherds, roasting entire priest of Jupiter '' (Noct. Att. x. 13, 19).
sheep, to sell them to travellers; the en- Every leayen was to be removed from the
trails had been taken out and the body houses; the Israelites were to separate
again sown together. Those who have themselves from sin, and impurity, and
not seen it can scarcely imagine how corruption; for only with purified minds
commodiously such a mass of flesh can and divine thoughts they could become
be roasted.” About other methods of the teachers of nations; and this was the
roasting sheep, customary in the East, great end which Providence pursued in
see Thevenot, Trav. ii. p. 236. releasing them from their ignominious
This roasted paschal-lamb is to be bondage (see on ver. 13, and p.135; com-
eaten with unleavened bread and bitter pare Deut. xiv. 2; vii.6—8). It is well
herbs. The former had a _ double known. that, in accordance with these
symbolical meaning: 1. It was or- notions, the Rabbins frequently compared
dered in commemoration of the suffer- the good instinct of man with un-
ings under which the Israelites sighed leavened bread, whilst they metaphori-
in Egypt; and is, therefore, called cally compared the evil propensity with
“bread of affliction,” Deut. xvi.3; and leaven.—The law does not fix the species
no more appropriate emblem of that long of corn from which the Passover-bread
₪‫ו‬ misery could be selected than that, * poor, was to be baked; tradition, however,
unpalatable bread,” consisting only of supplying this deficiency, permits 6
flour and water. ‘Thus the use of un- flour of wheat, barley, spelt, and oats
leavened bread was to remind the Israel- (Pesach, ii. 5). Some suppose that they
ites of their past oppression; it was to were first baked from barley, as that
keep alive a grateful remembrance of the grain which men used in the very ear-
miraculous redemption from the tyran- liest time for their food. “ Among
nical yoke which they had borne for the Bedouins and Kabyles, as soon
centuries. But it represents purity and as the dough is kneaded it is made
sanctity; it points forward to the future into thin cakes, either to be baked imme-
glory of Israel, to its vocation as a diately upon the coals, or else in a shallow
nation of priests, as a community of sanc- earthen vessel like a frying-pan, called
tity and religious life. It is thus Tajen” (Paxton, Illustr. of Script. i. p. 369;
intended to fill their minds with a deep compare note on ver. 39).
feeling of the sublime mission for which Bitter herbs symbolising the bitterness
the Eternal had graciously destined of bondage, with which the Israelites
them; it is the spiritual bread, which were tormented, are rendered by the
is life and spreads life. Unleavened Septuagint with wild lettuce or endive,
bread was later used at the public meat- which is, according to Niebuhr, still
offerings (Exod. xxix. 2; Lev. ii.4, 5, 11, used by the Jews in Egypt and Arabia
ete.); for leaven was prepared by letting on the first evenings of Passover,
 150 EXODUS XII.

until the morning you shall burn with fire. 11. And
thus shall you eat it: with your loins girded, your shoes on
your feet, and your stick in your hand; and you shall
eat it in haste: 16 isa!Pesach to the Lord. 12. For I
shall pass through the land of Egypt this night, and shall
smite all the firstborn in the land of Egypt, both man and
1 Engl. Vers.— Passover.

— According to a remark in Ebn especially well-founded at the hasty cele-

Ezra’s commentary, it was very gene- bration of the first Passover in Egypt,
ral in Egypt to eat bitter herbs to and which might also have suggested
all meals, even to bread alone, for the the command, not to take any part of the
purpose of digestion, which in that coun- paschal-lamb out of the house; but to
try suffers much on account of the hea- consume it there with religious devotion
viness and dampness of the air. But (ver. 46). Annihilating by fire was by
even if such custom really prevailed, and all antiquity considered as the purest and
if, therefore, the use of bitter herbs were most purifying process.—As the probable
superfluously enjoined, that external cus- number of persons sufficient to consume
tom received, under the circumstances of a lamb, was fixed beforehand (ver. 4),
our context, a new typical meaning and Ebn Ezra explains the possibility of a
a higher signification; for the whole remnant by supposing the case, that the
festival of Passover symbolises the per- company included an invalid, who cannot
fect and eternal separation between eat his portion; and Targum Jonathan
Israel and Egypt (xiv. 13); and in a expresses the rabbinical interpretation of
cycle of ordinances so specifically spi- the words: “and that which is left of it
ritual, we shall scarcely expect to find till the morning, you shall burn with
any dietary prescription. fire,” rendering: “and that which re-
16(. Macrobius (Saturn. ii. 2) relates mains over of it you shall keep till the
that the heathens, previously to their morning, and burn on the sixteenth day
undertaking a journey, were accustomed of Nisan; for it is not right to burn the
to offer a sacrifice, which was called rest of a holy sacrifice on a festive and
propter viam (because it was intended to sacred day.”
secure a prosperous journey), and to i. The paschal-lamb was to be con-
eat the whole of it, if possible; but if any sumed by the Israelites completely pre-
part was left, to burn it with fire. pared for their departure; namely: 1. Their
Herodotus (i. 182) narrates, that the loins girded; for as the Orientals wear
Persians used to look upon the remnants long and loose robes, they fastened them
of their sacrifices with superstitious vene- on their journeys round their waist,
ration, and in order to prevent a similar with a strong girdle, generally of leather
abuse, to which the Israelites, in their (compare 2 Kingsiy. 29; ix. 1. Jeremiah
idolatrous disposition, might then have 1.17, etc.). 2. Their shoes on their feet ;
inclined, the precept of burning the un- for they wore shoes or sandals on their
consumed parts of the paschal-lamb was, travels (Josh. ix. 5, 13), but not in their
according to Rosenmiiller and others, houses. See our note on iii. 5. 3. Their
enjoined. That command might, how- sticks in their hands; for sticks are not
ever, have originated in exactly the re- only useful but necessary for travellers in
verse motive, namely to preclude portions the sandy desert; and 4. in haste, like
of the sacred meal being afterwards thrown wanderers, and in order to be able to
disrespectfully away, contrary to its solemn commence their journey immediately after
destination; an apprehension, which was having finished the meal, which was to be
| 4 4

7 = : -

EXODUS XII. 151

.

beast; and against all the gods of Egypt I shall execute

judgment: I the Eternal. 13. And the blood shall be
to you for a sign upon the houses where you are: and
when I see the blood, I shall pass over you, and the plague
will not be upon you as a *destruction, when I smite the
land of Egypt. 14. And this day shall be to you as a
2 Engl. Vers.—To destroy you.

considered as a sign of the new sacred may know, that I am the Lord.”—Simi-
covenant between God and Israel. The larly explains Ebn Ezra: ** All the gods
haste was to increase the solemnity of the of Egypt will be smitten by the same
act, excluding, as it did, every luxurious fate which befell Dagon, the idol of the
effeminacy. Targum Jonathan renders Philistines, whose head was broken off
the beginning of our verse: “and with and fell down, when the ark of the Israel-
‘these rites you shall consume the lamb ites was brought into his temple” (see
this time, but not in future generations,” 1Sam. v. 3,4). Others, as J. D. Michaelis,
which is self-evident; and Ebn Ezra says take our verse still more literally: “ That
pointedly against those, who yet recom- many of the firstborn animals, which
mended the observance of the same cere- would also die, were among the Egyptian
monies in later times: ‘they are all deities” (see note to viii. 22); but the
wandering in their minds! let them also emphatical expression: “that all the
annually on the fifteenth of Nisan go out gods of the Egyptians would experience
of their land in commemoration of the the might of the Lord,” does not allow us
exodus from Egypt.” to limit that punishment to the animal
uz. The power of God will fearfully ma- deities alone. The translation of those
nifest itself in the land; His majesty will who render: “the mighty of Egypt,”
create terror; His justice will produce awe seems quite improbable.
and veneration—and thus He will pass a4. After the precepts concerning the
through theland.— And against all the gods Passover in Egypt had been communi-
of Egypt I shall execute judgment: which cated to Moses, till ver. 13, the obsery-
words evidently mean, that the uniform ances for its future celebration are now
and general extirpation of all the first- enjoined to him from ver. 14 to 20 (see
born of the Egyptians, which calamity p. 142), Philippson remarks: “ Albu (Ik-
their gods will be powerless to avert, will karim, iii. 16) dilates largely upon the
be a manifest proof to those, who have term: ‘‘an ordinance for ever,’’and he is of
hitherto worshipped them, that they are opinion, that “for ever” is also applied
a vain support and an idle refuge: thus to a limited time, and does not necessarily
the authority of the idols will be destroyed signify eternity. So in Prov. xxii. 28;
in the eyes of the Egyptians, and this Isa. xlv. 17; Exod. xxi. 6 (where a ser-
was the severest “ judgment,” which vice till the jubilee is called an eternal
the omnipotent Lord of the Universe one), [but this passage is of disputed
could exercise against them, The rab- meaning, see our note on it]; xxvii. 21;
binical interpretation of that phrase has Levit. xxiv. 3.” It is, however, evident,
again been expressed by Targum Jona- that a similar restriction is not contained
than: “ Against all the idols of Egypt in the precept of our verse, and that it
I shall execute four judgments: the idols was certainly the intention of the legis-
made of metals shall melt, those of stone lator to enjoin the celebration of Pass-
shall be overthrown, those of clay shall over for all futurity. Such alterations in
be smashed, and those of wood shall its rites as became necessary, in conse-
crumble into dust, that the Egyptians quence of the destruction of the temple
 152 EXODUS XII.

memorial; and you shall celebrate it as a feast to the

Lord through your generations; you shall celebrate it as
an ordinance for ever. 15. Seven days shall you eat
unleavened bread; even the first day you shall remove the
leaven out of your houses: for whosoever eateth ‘anything
leavened from the first day to the seventh day, that soul
shall be cut off from Israel. 16. And on the first day
there shall be a holy convocation, and on the seventh day
there shall be a holy convocation to you; no work shall be
done on them, save that which is to be eaten by every
man, that only may be done by you. 17. And you shall
observe the feast of unleavened bread; for on this selfsame
1 Engl. Vers.—Leavened bread.

(see p. 137), are no deviation from the of the fourteenth day of Nisan (ver. 6):
precepts, but their observance, according the Rabbins have ordered the removal of
to their spirit; and it is these modifica- the leaven on this day, and they render here:
tions only, in which the festival, as at “on the first day you shall have removed
present observed, differs from the com- the leaven,” similar to Gen. 11. 2: “on the
mands contained in our chapter. seventh day God had completed His
15. Seven days shall you eat unleavened work.” If, indeed, during an interval
bread. This command can, as Ebn Ezra of full seven days unleavened bread was
remarks, only refer to the future Pass- interdicted, it is natural, that, as a mea-
overs, as the first time, at the departure sure of precaution, all leaven was to be
from Egypt, they were only, by the removed before the first day, that is on
pressing events, precluded from letting the fourteenth day 01 Nisan.— But he who
the dough ferment, as appears from eats leavened bread during these seven
ver. 39, see supra, p.138. In commemo- days, that soul shall be cut offfrom Israel,
ration of this circumstance, however, the that is, those who neglect the precepts
use of unleavened bread during seven connected with this covenant between
days was ordered; and this precept is God and Israel, cease, thereby, to be
already here inserted, although it had its members of that privileged community
origin in, and was given after, a later (ver. 19), exactly as the personal relation
event. The contradiction between our between God and those who neglect the
passage, and Deut. xvi. 8: “Six days circumcision is severed by such disregard,
thou shalt eat unleavened bread, and on see p. 135, .
theseventh day shallbe a holy (concluding) 16. On the first day on which the
assembly to the Lord thy God,” is only exodus took place, there shall be a holy
in appearance, as the seventh day shall, convocation, and so also on the seventh
besides the eating of unleavened bread, day, in commemoration of the passage
which it has in common with the whole through the Red Sea, and the destruc-
festival, be distinguished by a final con- tion of the Egyptian army. In the
vocation.— Even the first day you shall East, and chiefly among the Mohamme-
remove leaven out of your houses. As, dans, the festivals and popular assemblies
according to xxiii. 18, the paschal-lamb are still announced by heralds, from con-
was not to be offered when leavened spicuous places, especially the towers of
bread was still in the houses and as the temples.
it was to be killed towards the evening .‫ רצ‬And you shall observe the feast‫‏‬
 -

EXODUS XII. 153

day have I brought your hosts out of the land of Egypt:

therefore shall you observe this day throughout your
generations as an ordinance for ever. 18. In the first
month, on the fourteenth day of the month, in the even-
ing, you shall eat unleavened bread, until the one-and-
twentieth day of the month in the evening. 19. Seven
days shall there be no leaven found in your houses; for
whosoever eateth that which is leavened, even that soul
shall be cut off from the congregation of Israel, whether
he be a stranger, or born in the land. 20. You shall eat
nothing leavened; in all your habitations you shall eat
unleavened bread.
21. Then Moses called for all the elders of Israel, and
of unleavened bread, that is, you the other strangers also, who lived in the
shall take care to eat, on that day, un- Hebrew cities, were bound, as a precanu-
leavened bread, as a commemoration. tionary measure, to abstain from leavened
Ebn Ezra, Rashi and others, interpret food during the seven days of Passover.
these words literally: “you shall watch Natives of theland are those who are born
the unleavened cakes lest they fer- from Israelitish parents, although these
ment;” which idea would stand in no might themselves have been proselytes,
connection with the reason immediately natives of another country or belonging
following: “for on this day have I to another nation and a different creed.
brought you out of Egypt.” Not quite correct is therefore the opinion
19. Those who eat anything leavened of Clericus, who believes that the natives
during those seven days, shall be cut off, of the land were the direct descendants
both the stranger and the native of the of Abraham, “ because they are the pro-
land. The Hebrew law distinguishes two geny of Isaac and Jacob who were born
kinds of strangers: 1. The proselytes in Canaan, which land they had received
of justice who have, by the rites of by God as their perpetual abode.” The
circumcision, been received in the cove- strangers of the gate cannot be strictly
nant of Abraham, and who have, there- included in this command, as the ex-
fore, in every respect, the same duties pression: “that their soul shall be cut
and the same rights as born Israelites; off from the congregation of Israel”—to
and 2. The strangers of the gate, who, which they do not belong—cannot be
without having undergone that. first applied to them.— About the further
ceremony of the Abrahamic covenant, relation between stranger and foreigner,
have pledged themselves to keep aloof see note on xxii. 20.
from idolatry, and to observe the so-called 20. In all your habitations, that is,
seven laws of Noah (enumerated on according to tradition, even out of Pales-
xxii. 20); they were only tolerated tine, where the paschal-lamb is not
members of the state, without en- offered.
joying any religious privilege. It is 22. Moses communicates now (ver.
scarcely necessary to add, that the per- 21—28) to the elders, and through them
fect parity established in our verse (and to the people of Israel (see note to iii. 16),
in verse 49) between the native Israelite the law concerning the paschal-lamb;
and the stranger, applies only to the first but our text contains rather the general
class, the proselytes of justice; although sense than the exact words, which Moses
 154 EXODUS XII.

said to them, Draw out and take for yourselves a lamb

according to your families, and kill the 'Pesach. 22. And
you shall take a bunch of hyssop, and dip z¢ in the blood
that 2s in the basin; and none of you shall go out from the
door of his house until the morning. 23. For the Lord:
will pass through to smite Egypt; and when He seeth the
blood upon the lintel, and on the two side-posts, the Lord
will pass over the door, and will not suffer the destruction
to come into your houses to smite you. 24. And you
1 Engl. Vers.—Passover.

used on this occasion, in order to avoid a nalis, which has small pointed leaves,
monotonous repetition. Therefore lamb about one inch long and rather hard;
is here briefly said instead of sheep ramifying stalks, about one inch and a
or goat (ver.5); the paschal-lamb, is half high; and blue or white blossoms,
merely mentioned, whilst the explanation, which appear from June to August, and
by which alone that expression becomes furnish the bees with ample honey-stuff.
intelligible, follows later in ver. 23; and For sprinklings, for which it is ordered
the use of the hyssop in the evening of here, and for other holy ceremonies,
the fourteenth day of Nisan for the pur- it is well adapted; for it has small, nu-
pose of marking the door-posts is here merous, tender, and slightly villous leaves,
for the first time ordered, whilst it is not which when dipped in water or blood,
mentioned in the preceding part of our easily imbibe the fluid, and when softly
chapter. The time, when the lamb is to shaken give it forth again. It grows
be chosen, the number of guests, the man- almost in natural bunches, for a single
ner in which the lamb is to be eaten, and root produces a great number of suckers,
the precept concerning that which might be But the plant Sahtar, which Saadiah,
left over to the following morning —all this Maimonides, and others who follow the
is here omitted from the reason assigned. Jewish tradition, mention as hyssop, be-
22. And you shall take a bunch. of longs to the species of Origanum, which
hyssop. Hyssop was almost by all ancient is very usual in Palestine and near Mount
nations considered to possess a purifying Sinai, an aromatic plant, with a strong
power, and was therefore frequently used straight stalk, one foot high, many vil-
for the holy ceremonies. Bunches were lous leaves and white blossoms; and it
also extensively applied for lustrations grows on stony soil, dust-hills, and
and sprinklings; the Greeks used for similar places.—As Origanum resembles
these purposes one formed of the boughs the hyssop very much (Plin. xx. 6, 7),
of the olive-tree or laurel, called thallos. the discrepancy between Jewish tradi-
—But the exact species of hyssop is un- tion and the old translators is easily
certain. Saadiah translates it by Sau- accountable; but as in ritual matters
rar; and the Talmud asserts distinctly, tradition is the safest authority, we are
that the Hebrews did not coincide inclined to understand hyssop rather as a
with the Greeks in fixing the spe- species of Origanum than as Hyssopus
cies expressed by hyssop. Now the officinalis, although the former might
hyssop is in 1 Kings vy. 18, described have included the latter also. The monks
as “coming forth from, or growing of Mount Sinai identify the plant Dshah-
on, the wall,” in opposition to the dah with Hyssop—And you shall dip it
lofty cedar of the Lebanon. This would (the hyssop)in the blood that isin the basin;
well agree with the 1580208 offici- others translate: “ that is on the threshold.”
 ‫"וו‬

ma‫‏‬
| 2 J‫‏‬

\ EXODUS XII. 155

shall observe this thing for an ordinance to thee and to
thy children for ever. 25. And it shall come to pass,
when you are come to the land which the Lord will give
you, as He hath spoken, that you shall keep this service.
26. And it will come to pass, when your children will
say to you, What do you mean by this service? 27. That
you shall say, It zs the sacrifice of the Lord’s Pesach, who
passed over the houses of the children of Israel in Egypt,
when He smote Egypt, and delivered our houses. And
the people bowed their heads and prostrated themselves,
However, the supposition on which this Compare 2 Sam. xxiv.16; Ps. lxxviii. 49,
interpretation is based, that the paschal- where we have such clear analogy as the
‘lamb was killed on the threshold of the 13th verse offers, it is unnecessary to recur
house, has little probability, and is in to notions of the angelology, dating only
itself forced and artificial—The reason from a very late period of Israel’s history.
why “nobody should go out from the 24. And you shall observe this thing.
door of the house until the morning” is 16 would appear from the context (see
obyious. According to tradition this vers. 23—27), that the eternal observance
command was given, lest the destroying here enjoined refers to the marking of the
angel, who made no difference between door-posts with the blood of the paschal-
the righteous and the wicked, might lamb (see p. 138); however, the tradi-
attack and kill them. Clericus remarks: tional Jewish interpretation has applied
“lest some Egyptians suspect that their it to the general precepts concerning Pass-
countrymen may have been killed by the over, and limited that ceremony only to
Israelites.” But our text calls this night that one Passover in Egypt.
“a night of watching” (ver. 42), a time 2%. It is evident, from this verse, that
of a solemn and religious sanctity; the complete rites of Passover, especially
it was to be spent at home with devo- the offering of the paschal-lamb, were
tion and pious reflections calculated to only to be observed in the holy land,
impress the mind of the Israelites with except one Passover, which was celebrated
the high importance of that critical in the desert in the second year after the
period, the manifold and arduous duties exodus, on the especial command of God
they undertook by the new covenant (Numb. ix. 1—5).
entered into with the God of their an- 26, 5%. The many unusual and striking
cestors and the numerous trials, which observances of Passover will induce the
awaited them in following His guidance children to enquire after their origin and
through the trackless desert. meaning; and, by the detailed informa-
23. And He will not suffer the destruc- tion which the parents are expected to
tion to come into your houses to smite you; offer them upon those national subjects,
this is perfectly the same idea as ex- the memory of the great and miraculous
pressed in yer. 13, where we must also events will annually be revived, and
translate destruction, not destroyer. ‘The operate every year as a renewal of the
ancient, and many of the modern trans- political covenant between God and
lators have, indeed, here destroyer; but Israel. In the service for the two first
not one of them has thereby, like Targum evenings of Passover, as at present per-
Jonathan and Clericus, understood the formed, this command has found its en-
destroying angel, who executes the plague tire and solemn realization.
under the command and direction of God. 28. The people, who had by a series of
 156 EXODUS XII.
28. And the children of Israel went away, and did as the
Lord had commanded Moses and Aaron, so did they.
29. And it came to pass, that at midnight the Lord
smote all the firstborn of the land of Egypt, from the
firstborn of Pharaoh who sat on his throne, to the first-
born of the captive who was in the dungeon; and all the
firstborn of cattle: 30. And Pharaoh rose up in the night,
he, and all his servants, and all the Egyptians, and there
amazing wonders become irresistibly im- formed all these miracles, and with hum-
pressed with the omnipotence of God, ble submission (ver. 27), they executed
believed now unreservedly in His faithful all the preparations which had been pre-
messenger, through whom He had per- scribed to them.

TentH Prague—DerstH or THE First-Born or Ecyrt. Verses 29—33,

29. In spite of the repeated exhorta- of the population from the effects of the
tions of Moses, Pharaoh persevered in his calamity, without parallel or analogy.
obduracy; and thus the last and most Michaud (vii. p.29) remarks: “ The Be-
fearful of all plagues, which had been douins are generally very sober and
threatened at least five or six days before abstemious; they have no physicians and
it took place (seever.3), became inevi- few diseases; the eye-pestilence, which
table. It is natural to suppose a pesti- ravages so frequently and destructively in
lence as the basis of this infliction; and, Egypt, is almost unknown to them; and
indeed, such fatalities are not unusual in the plague seldom appears among them.”
Egypt during the months of March and However, the following are the miraculous
April, about the season of the exodus of features in our narration: 1. That the
the Israelites. The pestilence in Egypt is pestilence breaks out exactly in the night
generally a concomitant of hot, oppres- predicted by Moses; 2. that it rages in
sive winds; and, as the darkness, which that night only; 8. that only the first-born
constituted the ninth plague, was pro- die; 4. that the first-born of the cattle are
duced, or at least attended by, such in- also destroyed; and 5. that the Israelites
festing storms, especially the Chamsin are entirely free from the influence of the
(see note on x. 21), the succession of these plague. This extraordinary character of
two calamities is founded on the natural the calamity excludes the merely natural
and usual phenomena of Egypt. Minu- interpretation of Eichhorn, that the fetid
toli (p.224), remarks: “ Pestilence ap- exhalation of a certain river (Caleg) causes
pears in Kairo usually at the end of an enormous mortality among the chil-
March or the beginning of April. The dren of those who live near it, and who,
miasm is spread by contagion. But local therefore, at such periods, remove from
peculiarities may increase its fatal cha- its vicinity. But, according to our text, the
racter, and even the prevailing winds are plague was in all parts of Egypt, nor did
of important influence upon its progress; the children die promiscuously, but only
if the Chamsin blows, the plague increases the first-bornWe . trust that the unin-
to a fearful degree and destroys its victims terrupted climax in the ten inflictions has
rapidly.” The Arabs are accustomed, at been sufficiently pointed out, to let the
the cessation of the Chamsin, to con- opinion of .‫א‬‎ H. Wessely (on Aboth.
gratulate each other on having survived v. 6) “that two severe plagues alternated
that period; so ordinarily is that wind regularly with one of a less formidable
accompanied by pestilential diseases. character,” at once appear as perfectly
Nor is the exemption of certain portions unfounded. The mercy of God gave to
 EXODUS 1 157

was a great cry in Egypt; for there icas not a house where
there was not one dead. 31. And he called for Moses and
Aaron in the night, and said, Arise, go out from among
my people, both you and the children of Israel; and go,
serve the Lord, as you have said. 32. Also take your
flocks and your herds, as you have said, and go; and bless
me also. 33. And the Egyptians were urgent upon the
people, to send them out of the land in haste; for they
Pharaoh ample time for repentance. 1. in every family a first-born son, to be
By the signs which preceded the plagues. made a victim of death, it is sufficient that
2. By the interval between one chastise- the vast majority of the Egyptian houses
ment and the following; and 3. By the contained a fearful, though silent witness
warning announcement which preceded of divine judgment (see note on ix. 6).
seven of these inflictions, Pauses in the But questionable 18 Rashi’s remark
course of the tragic struggle of Pharaoh (adopted by Calmet, Clarke and others),
would, therefore, have been both untimely “that the first-born was smitten in those
and unavailing. The seventy-eighth Psalm families where there was one; whilst in
(ver. 43, et seq.), in which but six plagues the other houses the eldest and most
are mentioned, cannot possibly be adduced respected individual was destroyed.” Al-
as a proof to the contrary; poetical spe- though sometimes the most influential
cification is widely different from minute individual is called the firstborn (Ps.
historical narration; a proof of which is lxxxix.27; compare Exod. iv. 22); the re-
the irregularity with which those six peated phrase “the first-born of man and
plagues are enumerated; the order is so the first-born of beast,” excludes a figura-
little preserved, that it is obvious, the tive acceptation.
Psalmist intended merely to offer a 31. And he called, namely Pharaoh,
general, though emphatical description of which the Septuagint adds.
God’s greatness displayed in favour of 32. The refractoriness of Pharaoh was
His people. — And all the firstborn at last broken, and not only did he allow
of cattle died. The animals were in- the departure of the Israelites with their
cluded in the general destruction on wives, children and cattle, but he added
account of the sacredness with which the humiliating request: “pray for me also,
they were regarded by the Egyptians; when you sacrifice, that the Lord may avert
their sudden annihilation added, there- further calamities from me and my people;”
> fore, religious grief and mortification to so that the words 01 Moses (x. 25): “Thou
the personal sufferings caused by the must give us also sacrifices, that we may
death of the nearest relatives (compare sacrifice to the Lord our God,” are al-
note on xi. 6). most literally verified. The proud king
30. For there was not a house where is compelled to entreat for the blessing
there was not one dead. ‘The history of of those who had hitherto been to him
the fearful punishments inflicted upon objects of contempt and aversion; so per-
Pharaoh and his subjects is narrated fect was the victory of the Lord over the
with such emphasis and even tragical obstinacy of the monarch,
pathos, that we cannot be surprised if a 33. For they said, We are all dead
poetical hyperbole is sometimes employed men; Targum Jonathan and Jeru-
to indicate the force and energy with salem translate: “If the Israelites stay
which the inspired writer felt the enor- here one hour longer, we shall all be
mity of those calamities (comp. ix. 18, 24; dead.” These words cannot include an
x. 14, etc.). If, therefore, there was not apprehension on the part of the Egyp-
 158 EXODUS XII.
said, We are all dead men. 94. And the people took
their dough before it was leavened, their kneading-vessels
being bound up in their clothes, upon their shoulders.
35. And the children of Israel did according to the word
of Moses; and they 'asked of the Egyptians articles of
' Engl. Vers.—Borrowed. 2 Jewels.

tians, that this plague might be sent to portable things. A description of the
destroy all Egyptians, since Moses had Haik will be found in the note on
clearly stated to Pharaoh, that only the xxii. 26, About ovens, and the prepara-
first-born would be struck by the pesti- tion of unleavened bread, compare notes
lence (xi. 5). Nor can this passage be on Vii. 27, and xii. 8, 39.
brought into connection with y. 3: 35, 36. See note on iii. 22, The
* 1686 He fall upon us with pestilence,” in usual interpretation of lending, which the
which words, Ebn Ezra believes, the Septuagint and Vulgate haye first in-
Egyptians are also included, so that the troduced in ver. 36, is as objectionable as
latter now fear the realisation of this the rendering of borrowing iniii.22. We
menace; see, however, our note on v. 3. add the following analogous passage from
The Egyptians urged the Israelites to Tacitus (Germ, xxi): “ On the departure
depart, because they feared another still of a guest, it is the custom to present him
more fearful plague, which might kill with whatever he may ask for; and with
them all, accustomed as they were to a the same freedom a boon is desired in
steady gradation in the dispensations of return. They are pleased with presents,
divine justice. but think no obligation incurred either when
34. As the Israelites bound their they give or receive.”
kneading-troughs in their clothes, and 33. And the children of Israel journeyed
took them upon their shoulders, we must JSrom Rameses to Succoth. That Rameses
understand these troughs to have been is a province, most probably identical
rather small and light, perhaps similar to with Goshen, has been remarked on
the utensils which the Arabians still use I.11, to which we refer. The rendering
for kneading the dough of their un- of Targum Jonathan, ‘from Pelusium,”
leavened cakes, and which are merely is, therefore, incorrect. It is, however,
small wooden bowls, in which the cakes still more probable to suppose one town
are also preserved. Large kneading- than a whole province to have been the
troughs are, indeed, unnecessary in place of general meeting; for such a vast
the East, as every family daily bakes number of emigrants required a centre;
the necessary quantity. The thin bread and the whole plan was no doubt care-
cakes would scarcely preserve them- fully preconcerted, in all its details, among
selves for a longer time; they soon be- the whole Hebrew population. We be-
come perfectly dry, and are, therefore, lieve, therefore, that although Rameses
mostly eaten fresh, The shape and use is the whole province of Goshen, they
of the garments in which the Hebrews took their departure from a_ principal
carried their troughs upon their shoul- town of that district, perhaps Raamses,
ders, may be easily imagined after the where they assembled during the general
analogy of the dress at present common confusion and, consternation of the Egyp-
among the Bedouins of Asia and Africa, tians caused by the death-spreading pesti-
and known under the name of Haik. It lence.—The place, which formed the first
resembles the toga of the Romans, and station of the Israelites after their de-
the peplum of the Greeks. Its wide folds parture, is here called Succoth, i. e., tents
above the shoulder make it a useful and or booths. Nomads give this name fre-
appropriate receptacle for all kinds of quently to the places of their temporary
 EXODUS ‎‫]א‬ 159

silver, and articles of gold, and raiment. 36. And the

Lord gaye the people favour in the eyes of the Egyptians;
and *they gave them gladly. And they plundered Egypt.
37. And the children of Israel journeyed from Rameses
to Succoth, about six hundred thousand men on foot,
3 Engl. Vers.—They lent unto them such things as they required.
encampments (as, for instance, Jacob did very convenient for an encampment, and
in Gen. xxxiii. 17, ete.); and it appears where the great pilgrim caravan from
from the context, that that station was Kairo to Mecca awaits the arrival of the /
already called so previous to the Exodus western pilgrims previous to its final
of the Israelites, and that it must have departure. This is, with much probability,
been known as an appropriate locality thought to be the Succoth of the text.
for pitching the tents of a great number At this place there is a rather large lake,
of travellers. — Tradition has fixed the called Birket-el-Hadj (Pilgrim’s Pool),
+ between Rameses and Succoth which receives its waters from the Nile,
t 40 parasangs or 120 miles; evidently and near which there are several small
an exaggerated statement, if we consider villages, with country houses and date-
that it was the journey of one night.— plantations belonging to the principal
It is impossible now to determine the inhabitants of Kairo.”—But 1. It is diffi-
exact situation of this Succoth; the list cult to reconcile this supposition with the
in Num. xxxiii. 5, 6, affords no clue; and statement of Josephus, above quoted;
Josephus does not even mention the same for Babylon, which, in the time of
or a similar name, writing thus on the de- Cambyses, was founded at the place of
parture of the Israelites (Antiq.II.xv.1): Letopolis, is situated to the south, and
“So the Hebrews went out of Egypt.... not to the north of Goshen; 2. The
Now they took their journey by Letopolis, Israelites did, in fact, not travel north-
a place at that time deserted, but where eastwards, but south-eastwards; in order
Babylon was built afterwards, when Cam- to reach the Red Sea from Goshen—and
byses laid Egypt waste,’ which is im- in this direction lies Succoth; but as they
probable, as Babylon was situated in the had gone too far southwards, they re-
south of Old Kairo.—Philippson, coincid- turned (xiv.2) to the north, until they
ing with the Pictorial Bible, proposes the arrived nearer to the northern extremity
following conjecture: “ From xiv. 2, it is of the gulf of Suez, where the passage
evident that the Israelites did not at first was practicable (see note on xiv. 2),
proceed to the Red Sea, as they after- Kitto himself, in his History of Palestine
wards turned round to arrive there. ) p. 176), abandons that supposition,
According to the position of the places believing that, “Succoth must be sought
they could, therefore, first only go up somewhere about a day’s journey in the
to the isthmus of Suez (at the borders direction towards Suez.” The conjecture
of the desert, xiii. 20), consequently to of Osburn, who identifies Suecoth with Xois
north-east. The course was probably in the centre of the Delta, is as untenable
nearly that which is now taken by the as his supposition concerning the situation
pilgrim caravans from Kairo to Mecca, of Rameses (see note on vy. 1).— They went
which is not directly eastward, but first out about six hundred thousand men on
by north-east, and then by east, in order foot, i.e., men capable of bearing arms,
to round the ‘Arabian mountain’ of or as Rashi observes, above twenty
Herodotus, which, in the east, shuts in years of age (compare Num.i. 3); besides
the valley of the Nile. On this route, at the children, “under twenty vears” (bn
a distance of about 12 miles N.N.E. from Ezra).—600,000 men above twenty years
the present Kairo, lies a place, which is (according to Num. i. 46, more accurately
 I ia lS -
160 EXODUS XII.
besides the children. 38. And a mixed multitude went
up also with them, and flocks, and herds, very much
cattle. 39. And they baked the dough which they brought
from Egypt into unleavened cakes, for it was not yet
603,550, and 22,000 Levites) justify us three-fold amount in other thirty years;
in supposing the whole population of the and in fourteen generations they would,
Israelites, including women, children, and after this calculation, amount to about
servants, to have consisted of at least thirty-three millions; and, therefore, no
two and a half million of souls; for the reasonable critic will find the number of
males above twenty years of age are two and a half millions impossible or
about one half of the total male popula- exaggerated; even irrespective of the
tion; and the females might be put down opinion of Philo (IL. p. 210), that the
to the same number. A similar propor- circumcision enhances the fruitfulness.
tion is stated by Cesar (Bell. Gall. i. 29) Thus the curious supposition of Bauer
concerning the Helvetii, who numbered (Hebr. Hist. I. 268), “that only on their
92,000 men capable of bearing arms, journey at the other side of the Red Sea, a
whilst their whole population, “including Jarge number of Israelites living in Arabia,
children, 016 men, and women,” amounted joined the stock and general mass of the
to 368,000 souls, or exactly four times people [which is against our text] and
the former number.—But it has often made up that number”; further, the
been found questionable, if not impossible, opinion of Vater, “that the mixed multitude
that the seventy souls, who immigrated which accompanied the people (ver. 38)
into Egypt in the time of Jacob, should, is included in that number,” and several
during their sojourn there, have increased other conjectures require no further com-
to such a great nation. To explain this ment.— The singular increase of the
apparent difficulty, we remind the reader Hebrews must astonish us the less, if we
of the following facts and arguments: consider that the land of Canaan, which
1. Among the Hebrews, like the other was but very thinly populated at the time
Eastern nations, polygamy was the rule; of the emigration of Jacob’s family, be-
2. They married early, as it is still cus- came, during their sojourn in Egypt, a
tomary in the East to enter the conjugal most populous country, and Jost observes
life in the thirteenth or fourteenth year; correctly: “the increase of the Israelites
3. They lived longer, and attained no since they left Canaan, stands in propor-
doubt in the average to an age above tion with the increase of those, who occu-
ninety years; 4. ‘“ By a singular provi- pied it during that time.”—We refer the
dence of God they were not weakened by reader further to the authentic and in-
pestilence or famine” (Rosenmiiller); teresting account concerning the English-
5. The prodigious fruitfulness of the man Pine, who was, in the year 1589, by
Hebrews in Egypt is expressly mentioned a shipwreck, thrown, with four females
in i, 7 (where we have quoted similar upon a deserted island south-east of the
statements from other ancient writers); Cape of Good Hope, and whose descend-
6. The period which elapsed between the ants had, after seventy-eight years (in
immigration of Jacob and the Exodus 1667) increased to more than 11,000
amounts to 430 years (see Introduction, souls.—About the question, how this vast
§ 2). Now, if we take a generation to number could, during forty years, find
extend about thirty years, and suppose food for themselves and their cattle in
that in the average every man had no the barren and dreary wilderness, which
more than three sons, the sixty-nine souls had at the same time to support many
(excluding Jacob), trebled in thirty years; other Arab tribes, we refer to our note
this number was again increased to the on xvi. 2.
 EXODUS XII. 161

leavened; because they were driven out of Egypt, and

could not tarry; nor had they prepared for themselves
any provision. 40. Now the sojourning of the children
of Israel, during which. they dwelt in Egypt, was four
38. And a mixed multitude went up slightly convex iron plate, called a sadj,
also with them. If we compare our passage moderately heated over a low fire of
with Nehem. xiii. 3, it is clear that this brushwood or camels’ dung. The lumps
means the mass of strangers, Non-Israelites, of dough are rolled, on a wooden platter,
who joined them on leaving Egypt, and into thin cakes, a foot or more in dia-
who were by no means a desirable class of meter, and laid, by means of the roller,
associates, as appears from Numb. xi. 4, 5. upon the iron. They are baked in a
As the new dynasty, which invaded very short time” (Layard, Discoveries in
Lower Egypt, and subdued it (see note Nineveh and Babylon, p. 288; where we
on i. 8), no doubt included the native read also a description of the preparation
gyptians in the tyrannical oppression of unleavened bread by the Bedouins,
nflicted upon the Israelites, since the whilst riding on horse-back, in times of
same reasons of policy existed for para- haste or danger). Even in Rome there
lysing the energy of both races (see note were no bakers till after the year 580
oni. 10), many Egyptians, most likely, from the building of the city; “and
eagerly seized the opportunity of freeing this,” says Pliny (xviii. 11), “was among
themselves from the king’s tyranny, the occupations of women, as it still is in
which they had every reason to fear many countries.”—It is clear, from the
would, after the departure of the Israel- tenor of our yerse, that the Israelites ate
ites, still more severely fall upon them- unleavened bread after the exodus, not
selves. The misery which the native by a command of Moses, but only in con-
Egyptians shared with the Hebrews, en- sequence of the extraordinary circum-
gendered that sympathy of the former stances of that time (see supra, p. 138).
towards the latter, several instances of “The law of God, and the history of
which we have already had occasion to Israel, reflect each other; a mere result of
point out (see note on iii. 22). That this chance does not exist in this sphere”
—-
“mixed multitude” did not accompany Josephus asserts, that the Israelites ate
the Hebrews, because they were convinced unleavened bread during thirty days after
of the truth of the new religious prin- their departure. However, after they
ciples, which Moses proclaimed and ~ reached the eastern shore of the Gulf,
preached, is obvious from their very there existed no obyious reason why they
name, which distinguishes them clearly should not prepare their bread in the
from the Israelites, both nationally and usual manner, if they were still provided
religiously, and from the manner in with flour—which might have been the
which they are mentioned in the Penta- case, as only after the lapse of thirty
teuch (Numb. xi. 4, 5). days the 1878011608 complained of want of
39. They were driven out of Egypt. food (xvi. 1—3).
This statement clearly points back to the 40. Now the sojourning of the children
previous prediction in xi. 1; and the of Israel, during which they dwelt in
latter forms, therefore, an integral part Egypt, was four hundred and thirty years.
of the narrative (see note on xi. 1). That in spite of differing versions, this is
Cakes baked under hot cinders, such as the correct reading, and that, notwith-
the orientals are still accustomed to make, standing the apparent difficulties, it is to
especially when on a journey, or in haste. be understood in its literal sense, has been
“The tribes who are always moving from demonstrated in the Introduction, § 2, to
place to place, bake their bread on a which we refer,
M
162 EXODUS XII.

hundred and thirty years. 41. And it came to pass at

the end of four hundred and thirty years, on the self-
same day it came to pass, that all the hosts of the Lord
went out from the land of Egypt. 49. It is a night of
celebration to the Lord for bringing them out from the
land of Egypt: this 7s that night of celebration to the
Lord for all the children of Israel in their generations.
43. And the Lord said to Moses and Aaron, This 7s the
41. On the self-same day, that is, on it as a night of waking or vigilance,
that fourteenth day of Abib, already in which the Israelites are to avoid
mentioned (ver. 6; compare ver. 51; sleep, and which they are bound to pass
xiii. 4).—All the hosts of the Lord, that in pious and devoted prayers connected
is, the Israelites, who are the people or with the miraculous deliverance from
army of the Lord, under whose imme- Egypt. If the Hebrew words were, in this.
diate leadership they went out from the acceptation, corroborated by any other
land of Egypt. This metaphor must, parallel passage, that interpretation
however, not be taken too strictly, as if would deserve particular consideration,
the Hebrews were the soldiers of God, as it is well known that the ancients ab-
who had to conquer the world, and to stained from sleep in such nights, which
pitch everywhere the standards of His they considered particularly holy. So,
truth; thus understood, that term neces- for instance, was the High Priest obliged
sarily leads to hazardous or artificial to be awake in the night of the Day of
conclusions. Atonement. But the traditional practice
4&2. It is a night of celebration to the among the Jews has but very partially
Lord...this is that night of celebration to observed that night as one of vigi-
the Lord for all the children of Israel. lance.
Various are the interpretations proposed 4%. The following verses (to ver. 50)
on this verse; Rashi observes: “ It is called contain supplementary precepts with re-
night of observation, because God observed gard to the individuals to be permitted to =
and looked out to fulfill His promise to partake of the paschal-lamb (see p. 135).
lead them out of Egypt,” and finds We have already observed, that, as this
further in these words an allusion to the whole ceremony was the symbol of the
fact, that the Israelites were shielded in political covenant between God and Is-
that night against the devastations of the rael, it is natural that such persons
pestilence (ver. 23). But the expression, only could be admitted to it, as had, by
night of celebration, appears too distinct circumcision, been personally received
and characteristic to admit, in the same into the covenant of God: all other in-
sentence, of two so different meanings, dividuals were to be excluded. As this
neither of which, moreover, has much injunction was, no doubt, already to be
probability in itself. Similar, and there- observed at the first celebration of Pass-
fore liable to the same objections, is the over in Egypt, it is justly believed that it
exposition of Ebn Ezra, whom Philipp- was promulgated previous to the exodus
son follows: “because God shielded (according to tradition on the fourteenth of
them, and did not suffer destruction to Nisan); and that its more appropriate
approach their houses, He ordered, that place would have been after the 28th
that night should be observed by all verse, but that it has been inserted here
Israelites by eating the paschal-lamb, to bring it, as a general precept, into
unleayened bread, and _ bitter herbs.” closer connection with the law concerning
Other Jewish interpreters understood the sanctification of the first-born (xiii. 2).
 EXODUS XII. 163

ordinance of the Pesach: There shall no alien eat thereof:

44. But every ‘male servant who is bought for money,
when thou hast circumcised him, then may he eat thereof.
45. A foreigner and a hired servant shall not eat thereof.
46. In one house shall it be eaten; thou shalt carry forth
nothing of the flesh abroad out of the house; nor shall
you break a bone thereof. 47. All the congregation of
1 Engl. Vers.—Man’s.

There shall no alien eat thereof, that is, community occupied in society, the
a Non-Israelite, who has not, by the act Mosaic law acknowledges, in a religious
of circumcision, entered the covenant of respect, no distinction of classes of any
Abraham. The word alien 18 ren- kind; all are equally admitted to all the
a dered by Targum Onkelos: “an Israelite
2ahaot sources and means of grace and salva-
‫בו‬ who has swerved from the strict ob-
— tion; there is no authority of person
~~% servance of his religion”; which sense before the Lord; a feature in the Mosaic
4 is still more clearly expressed by the dispensation, the more to be appreciated if
ancient reading of the same version: compared with the invidious exclusive-
“an apostate Israelite.” Rashi follows ness of the principal pagan religions of
the former more comprehensive sense, by the East.
explaining with the Rabbins: “a man 45. A foreigner and a hired servant
whose deeds have alienated him from shall not eat thereof: because neither of
his Father in heaven,” and a heathen them, as heathens, stands in a nearer
and an unbelieving Israelite are, in this permanent connection with the Israel-
respect, in the same category. Targum ites; for the former is only tolerated in
Jonathan paraphrases similarly: ‘“ every the land, which he may leave at his
heathen and every Israelite who has be- option, being bound by no religious
come faithless to his religion and has not duty or obligation; and the latter, if a
repented.” heathen, may at any time be dismissed,
44. When thou hast circumcised him. when his services are no longer required:
This translation is preferable to another whilst the purchased servant (verse 44)
usual rendering: “then thou shalt cireum- is the permanent property of his Hebrew
cise him,” which would almost exclude the master, and, therefore, under conditions,
alternative, that the servant declined en- admissible to the paschal rites. Ebn
tering into the community of Israel; and it Ezra explains: “a Hebrew stranger and
would thus appear, that every slave of the a hired servant shall not eat of the paschal-
Hebrews was compelled to undergo that lamb if they have not been duly counted
ceremony; than which nothing could be for the lamb” (see verse 4), obviously
more foreign to the genius of the Mosaic against the context, which speaks of un-
legislation; and Ebn Ezra remarks ex- circumcised foreigners.
pressly: ‘‘ he is to be circumcised, if this 46. The paschal-lamb shall be eaten
is his wish, and if he is of a mature age, in one house, that is, as Onkelos renders, “in
and able to judge in religious matters.” one company;” every Israelite shall finish
Jonathan translates: “when thou hast cir- his paschal meal at the same table with the
cumcised and baptized him;” for these two same co-religionists. This, as well as the
ceremonies, circumcision and baptism, precept not to break the bones of the
were, according to rabbinical regulations, paschal-lamb, are emblems of the unity of
necessary for every proselyte (see note on Israel, as we have already observed in the
xxii.20). However different the positions introductory survey of the Passover rites,
were which the members of the Hebrew p. 134. About the reason why nothing
M 2

₪
>
164 EXODUS ,.‫אזז‬‎ XIII.
Israel shall sacrifice it. 48. And when a stranger will
sojourn with thee, and will sacrifice the Pesach to the
Lord, let all his males be circumcised, and then let him
come near and sacrifice it, and he shall then be as a native
of the land: 'but no uncircumcised person shall eat thereof. —
49. One law shall be for the native and for the stranger
who sojourneth in the midst of you. 50. Thus did all the © |
children of Israel; as the Lord commanded Moses and
Aaron, so they did. 51. And it came to pass on the self-
same day, thatthe Lord brought the children of Israel out
of the land of Egypt by their hosts.
' Engl. Vers.—For.
of the flesh shall be “carried forth out of 50, 51. “And the Israelites did ac-
the house,” see note on verse 10. cording to the command of Moses and
az. That all the congregation of Israel Aaron,” which words are repeated from
shall eat the paschal-lamb, is emphatically ver. 28, because new precepts regarding
repeated, in order to impress upon the the Passover have been added; and the
reader unmistakably the principal and sense is, that the Hebrews executed all
leading idea of the whole festival. these commands, which they had an op-
48. And when a stranger will sojourn portunity of performing, and that they
with thee, and will sacrifice the Pesach to especially admitted to the paschal-lamb
the Lord, that is, and wishes to perform those strangers only, who had been cir-
that sacred ceremony. Before a stranger cumcised. Unnecessary, therefore, is bn
can be permitted to kill the paschal-lamb, Ezra’s opinion, that this verse refers pro-
not only he himself but all the male mem- leptically to Num. ix. 5, where the same
bers of his house must undergo the rite of words occur, since then only the Israelites
circumcision; for he must eat it with his had occasion to carry out all those in-
family (verse 3); and his adherence to junctions. The same commentator opines,
Mosaism could not be deemed firm and un- that the 5186 verse is to be connected
shaken, unless all the members of his family with the beginning of the following chap-
had renounced every idolatrous worship.— ter, so that the sense is: * at the time of
But no uncireumeised person shall eat there- the exodus, God gave the command con-
of. This sentence sums up, as it were, all the cerning the sanctification of the firstborn.”
preceding precepts concerning those who But the retrospective words: “ Thus the
are to be allowed to eat the paschal-lamb Lord brought the children of Israel out
without allusion to any individual class of of Egypt” conclude appropriately the
persons, as Rashi, Ebn Ezra, and others chapter, in which the history of the
endeavour to specify. exodus has been narrated in 1
4&9. See on verse 19.

CHAPTER XIII.
Summary.—Besides the repeated injunction of the festival of unleavened bread
(vers.3, 6, 7), two other, specifically Mosaic, laws were enforced in connection =
with the deliverance from Egypt: 1. About the sanctification of all male firstborn
of man and beast (vers. 2, 12,13; see on ver.2); and 2. About the phylacteries
of the head and the hand, as a remembrance of the exodus from Egypt, and the
divine commands (see on ver. 9). At the same time it is repeatedly enjoined, that
the history of the miraculous release of Israel, and the meaning of all the laws
 EXODUS XIII.
“based upon it, should be faithfully handed down to the coming generations and
preserved in eternal and grateful reminiscence (vers. 8, 14, 15).—The narrative
then resumes the march of the Israelites, and points out first the general direction
of their journey to the south, towards the desert, not northwards to the land of
the Philistines, although this latter would have been the direct and shorter route
(see on ver. 17); thus they proceeded from Succoth to Etham, at the northern
extremity of the gulf of Suez (see on ver. 20).—The chapter concludes with two
other historical remarks: 1. In fulfilment of a promise made to Joseph, the
Israelites took his bones with them from Egypt (ver.19); and 2. God leads the
people miraculously on their journey by a pillar of cloud by day, and a pillar of
fire by night (see note on vers, 21, 22).

ND the Lord spoke to Moses, saying, 2. Sanctify

to me all the firstborn, whatsoever openeth the
womb among the children of Israel, both of man and
2. The miraculous events connected derangingly interfering with the social
with the exodus give rise to another and domestic relations of the people.
most significant ordinance, which stamps The tribe of Levi, from which Moses
the whole Mosaic legislation perhaps and Aaron had sprung, had on different
more characteristically than any of its occasions exhibited a distinguished zeal
various commands and statutes.— Sanctify for the defence of the Law: they “ say to
to me all the firstborn, whatsoever openeth the father and to the mother, I have not
the womb among the children of Israel, 8001 them; and their brothers they ac-
both of man and beast. ‘The prerogatives knowledge not, and their children they
which the firstborn enjoyed in patriarchal know not; for they guard the word of
institutions, and which are constantly God and preserve 1118 covenant” (Deut.
kept in view throughout the Pentateuch, Xxxlii.9); and, therefore, later the reli-
did not only consist in an external pre- gious primogeniture of the people was
ference with regard to property, but in conferred on this tribe; 22,000 Levites
the superior authority, which he exercised took the place of as many firstborn
in his family, as whose legitimate repre- Israelites; and every one of the 278 first-
sentative and protector he was acknow- born, who were still among the people
ledged aud respected (see note on xi. 5). besides that number, was bound to redeem
The Israelites had, even in their Egyptian himself with five shekels; and this was
bondage, preserved these ancestral notions. instituted as the custom for every future
Tt was, therefore, the wise and profound firstborn son in Israel, except those, whose
intention of the Mosaic law, to combine fathers or mothers were of the tribe of
all these honoured and influential heads Levi (see ver. 13; Num. iii. 11, et seq.;
of families into a powerful phalanx for 40, et seg.). Thus the theocracy, without
the defence of their national faith, by ap- being converted into a hierarchy, was se-
pointing them to the perpetual religious cured and strengthened by receiving per-
service, as, indeed, in the patriarchal manent representatives of divine authority
ages, the house-father, or the eldest mem- (see note on xix. 6).—The same custom
ber of the family, performed the necessary prevails still among the Jews, and the
priestly functions. We must admire the ceremony of “redeeming the son”
profundity and comprehensiveness of this is solemnised on the thirtieth day
idea, so eminently calculated to create a after the birth of the child (Deut. xviii.
thoroughly religious nation, and to secure 16).— But the firstborn animals also
an unaltered adherence to the holy doc- belonged to God, to whom they were to
trines. However, the legislator himself be offered as sacrifices; and it was there-
felt later the necessity of abandoning it, fore ordained, that all clean firstborn
and of substituting for it a scheme less male beasts be offered from the eighth day
166 EXODUS XIII.

of beast; it 08 mine. 3. And Moses said to the people,

Remember this day, on which you went out from Egypt,
out of the house of slaves; for by strength of hand the
Lord brought you out from there: nothing leavened shall
be eaten. 4. This day are you gone out, in the month
Abib. 5. And it shall be, when the Lord will bring thee
into the land of the Canaanites, and the Hittites, and the
Amorites, and the Hivites, and the Jebusites, which He
swore to thy fathers to give thee, a land flowing with milk
of their birth within their first year.— given to the priests as their property.
Now, the flesh was, according to Deut. But the firstborn of unclean animals, as
xii. 17, 18, and xv. 19, 20, to be consumed horses, camels, or asses (Num, xviii. 15),
in the holy places by the offering Israelites; was either to be redeemed by a clean
whereas, in Num. xviii. 18, it seems to be animal, with the addition of the fifth
assigned to the priests: “and their flesh part of its value, or it was to be killed
[that of the firstborn animals] shall be- (Lev. xxvii. 26, 27). If we add hereto,
long to thee [the priest]; like the wave that the firstlings of all agricultural pro-
breast and like the right shoulder it shall duce were also holy to the Lord, we have
be thine.” This apparent contradiction a comprehensive and consistent frame-
has already been felt by Augustin, who, work of a theocratical legislation, creating
however, attempted ‫מס‬‎ reconciliation. and cementing an immediate connection
Ebn Ezra and Jarchi believe, that the between God as the monarch, and Israel
commands in Deut. xii. 17, 18, and xv. as His subjected people (compare note
19, 20, are addressed to the priests, which on xxii. 28, 29).—The law of the sancti-
is completely against the context and the fication of the firstborn is in our text
words. Not happier are the opinions (ver. 15) based upon the circumstance,
of Gerhard, that they refer to female first- that the firstborn of Israel remained un-
born animals; or of J.D. Michaelis, whom injured at the general destruction of the
Jahn and Bauer follow, that the jirst first- firstborn sons of the Egyptians, who
born animal belonged to the priests, the were thus smitten because they had op-
second firstborn (!) to the Israelites; or of pressed Israel, the firstborn son of God
Eichhorn,who simply supposes—a mistake. (iv. 22,23). This was the idea, which
But the addition in Num. xviii. 18: “ like the Israelites at all times, since the days
the wave breast and like the right leg of Moses, combined with that law, the
it shall be thine,” fully decides the question. character of which is in no way influenced
The blood and the fat belonged to God by the fact, that, indeed, in all primitive
(ver.17); and if we compare herewith or natural religions, the firstborn of men
Lev. vii. 28, et seq., we find that the breast and animals were sacred to the respective
and the right leg were the portions deities; or by the concession, that the
of the priest; all the other parts were Israelites were, perhaps, even before Moses
retained and consumed by the Israelite. familiar with that idea. We observe
And thus exists the greatest harmony here the same skilful commutation of an
between the different precepts concerning idolatrous rite into-a pure religious notion,
the firstborn of animals. (Compare Exod. which we have already had occasion to
xxix. 27, 28; Lev. x. 14, 15).—If they notice in a striking instance (see p.139,
had a blemish, they were to be killed and 140).—Weread in Wilson’s Commentary:
eaten at home (Deut. xy.21,22); others * Aristotle was of opinion that all sacri-
suppose, less probably, that they were fices to the Deity originated in the idea,
 EXODUS XIII. 167

and honey, that thou shalt keep this service in this month.
6. Seven days shalt thou eat unleavened bread, and on
the seventh day shall be a feast to the Lord. 7. Un-
leavened bread shall be eaten those seven days; and
there shall nothing leavened be seen with thee, neither
shall there be leaven seen with thee, in all thy boun-
daries. 8. And thou shalt ‘tell thy son in that day,
saying, This 48 done because of that which the Lord did to
' Engl. Vers.—Show.

that he would be gratified by the return of the Israelites, to the Lebanon and the
of his choicest gifts. Hence Abraham’s Euphrates, is called the land of the
readiness to put to death his only son Hittites. The additions of the Samaritan
at a supposed demand from above. and Alexandrine Versions in our text,
Agreeably to this precedent, remarks are, therefore, uncalled for. It is evi-
Mr. Mackay, the claim to the firstborn dent, from the context, that the killing
forms the great prerogative of God’s of the paschal-lamb is chiefly to be un-
supremacy.” But the Mosaic law con- derstood by “this service,” as that was
cerning the firstborn sons has no con- only, according to Deut. xvi. 5—7, to be
nection whatever with sacrifices, much less sacrificed “in the place which the Lord
with human sacrifices; and the offering chose for Himself to dwell in,” although
of Isaac was not the custom, but an we must admit that it was offered in the
unusual exception, and an extraordinary desert of Sinai, in the time of Moses
trial— Even in our time the firstborn (Numb. ix. 1—5), and, according to
Israelites keep the fourteenth day of Josh. v. 10, 11, in Gilgal, under the
Nisan as a fast, in grateful commemo- leadership of Joshua. The precept about
ration of the miracle wrought for their the unleavened bread, however, was, no
ancestors,— Whatsoever openeth the womb, doubt, observedalwaysduring the seven
that is, the firstborn of the mother, days from the fifteenth to the twenty-first
not of the father;....¢¢ is mine, for God of Abib (see xii. 15, 16).
had rescued the firstborn of Israel, and G. Seven days shalt thou eat unleavened
might thus consider them as His especial bread. ‘The Samaritan and Septuagint
property. Versions have here siz days, apparently
3. From the house of slaves, that is, leaning on Deut. xvi. 8, where we read:
from the country, where they were se- “six days shalt thou eat unleavened
verely treated like despised bondsmen; bread, and on the seventh day is the final
and hence Egypt is frequently denoted assembly to the Lord thy God.” But the
the iron furnace of the Israelites (Deut. sense of this verse is, that six days un-
iv. 20; 1 Kings viii. 51; Jer. xi. 4; see leavened bread shall be eaten, but that on
note on i. 14). the seventh, besides this observance, a
5. Here five tribes of the Canaanites holy convocation shall be held; or that
are mentioned, whilst, naturally, all the unleayened bread shall be eaten during
others are also included. In Gen. xv.19, six days besides the first, the celebration
ten, in Deut. vii. 1, seven, and in Exod. of which had been treated more fully in
ili, 8, 17, six nations of Canaan are enu- the preceding verses. And on the seventh
merated, without any difference in the day shall be a feast tothe Lord. See note
real meaning; the more important na- on xii. 16.
tions imply the weaker tribes also; and 9. ON PHYLACTERIES.
in Josh. i. 4, even the whole deal land It was the wise intention of the legis-
 168 EXODUS XIII.
me when I went out of Egypt. 9. And it shall be for a
sign to thee upon thy hand, and for a memorial between
lator, to make the great act of the Egyp- Moses judiciously leaned on the custom
tian redemption as profitable for virtue of eastern nations, te write important
and morality as its nature would allow. sentences of religion or of wordly wisdom
Not easily was, in the history of the on paper, or linen sttips, and to wear
Hebrew nation, an event to be expected, them round the neck or on the forehead;
the grandeur of which was so much cal- or even to burn into the hand all kinds of
culated to rouse all minds, however ob- significant signs with the ashes of Henna,
tuse, and lastingly to impress them with which produces an indelible colour. Now,
the omnipotence and loving Providence if according to heathen notions such
of the God of their fathers. Therefore, strips were supposed, like amulets, to be
besides the observances already esta- a preservative against dangers and mis-
blished, besides the Passover with its nu- fortunes, Moses refining or spiritualizing
merous rites—the appointment of the this belief, could justly assert, that indeed
month of Abib as the first of the year— the observance of the divine command-
and the sanctification of the first-born— ments, which were symbolized by the
a series of other precepts was introduced Tefillin, was the most efficacious protec-
which tended to keep in permanent and tion against all the trials and vicissitudes
lively commemoration both that great of fate. Our passage, however, affords
event and the precepts of the Law, which very little information about the nature
was the ulterior and proper end of Israel’s of this symbol; it says merely: “And it
redemption (ili. 12); and thus to exercise shall be for a sign to thee upon thy
a beneficial influence upon the ennoble- hand, and for a memorial between
ment of the heart and the improvement of thy eyes.” Nor can we derive any dis-
conduct. For a people little practised in tinct inferences from the other passages,
abstract ideas, and sunk in slavish mental which treat of the same commandment
torpor, the prudent legislator thought it (ver. 16; Deut. vi. 8, and xi. 18), where
advisable to facilitate the understanding only instead of memorial, the obscure
of the laws by visible, external symbols expression generally translated frontlets
and signs; and, for this purpose, he chose: is used. Therefore a not inconsiderable
1, Memorials to be borne on the arm and number of interpreters have conceived
the forehead (phylacteries Tefillin); 2. the whole phrase metaphorically, so that
Memorials to be written on the door- its meaning would be: the miraculous re-
posts of the houses (Mesusoth, Deut. vi. 9; demption from Egypt, all precepts con-
‎‫וא‬, 20); and 3. Fringes and threads, to nected with it, aud, generally, the whole
be worn on the borders of the garments .Law, shall unchangingly live in your
(Zizith, Numb. xv. 37--41( ; with respect hearts and minds, and constitute the in-
to which it is expressly said (ver. 39, 40): variable rule for all your actions. It
“and you shall see them and shall re- must be admitted, that similar figurative
member all the commandments of the phrases are found in other Biblical books;
Lord and do them.” ‘These three pre- but this is only the case in poetical por-
cepts, and the practical support they tions, as Proy. 11. 3: “Bind them (the
afford, are comprised in the following commandments) round thy neck, write
talmudical passage: “ He who has Tefillin them on the tablet of thy heart;” vi. 21:
on his head and his arm—and Zizith on “Bind them (the precepts of thy father)
his garment—and a Mesusah on his door always on thy heart, fasten them on thy
—has every possible guarantee that he neck;” vii, 3: * Bind them on thy finger,
will not sin.” write them on the tablet of thy heart.”
We shall here speak only of the first Compare also Isaiah xlix. 18; Cant. viii. 6;
symbol, the Vefillin. And herein, also, Jer. xxii, 24; Haggai ii. 23. But, although
 EXODUS XIII. 169

thy eyes, that the Law of the Lord may be in thy mouth;
for with a strong hand hath the Lord brought thee out of
our verse, considered by itself, does not with regard to the Tefillin by the indis-
exactly exclude a similar interpretation, tinctness of the text, and has compiled
yet partly the connection in which that very minute precepts concerning their
precept stands in other passages, and arrangement and their use. In accord-
partly the analogy with similar symbols, ance with the text were ordered, phylac-
forbids such conception. For, 1. In teries of the hand and phylacteries of the
Deut. vi. 9, and xi. 20, those words are head. They consist of small square leather
followed by the precept: “and thou shalt boxes, the former with one leather thong,
write them on the door-posts of thy house which is tied round the left arm and the
and on thy gates;” and, as this command fingers; the latter with a double thong,
is not to be taken figuratively, but lite- which hangs down at both sides of the
rally, so our passage also; 2. The com- head. The box contains, on parchment-
mandment about the fringes shows un- strips, the following four sections from
==mistakably the tendency of the Mosaic the Pentateuch: 1. About the sanctifi-
law, by all kinds of symbols to stimulate cation of the first-born, Exod. xiii. 1—10;
and excite the mind to the exercise of the 2 Further precepts about the same sub-
moral precepts; to this comes 3. as Phi- ject, ver. 11--16; 8. The observance of
lippson rightly observes, that in our verse the Law and its injunction to the rising
the end of the external action is imme- generation, Deut. vi. 4—9; and 4. The
diately introduced by the words “ that the blessing attending the strict adherence to
Law of the Lord may be in thy mouth,” the divine precepts, Deut. xi, 13—21;
whereas the simple conjunction and would which four passages, according to the
be required, if the preceding words had Kabbalah, signify the wisdom, the reason,
the same internal, figurative meaning. the grandeur, and the power of God; and
The Biblical text speaks only in general an old Hebrew work says on this point:
terms of this precept; it decides nothing ** And these four portions have been chosen
on the form of those memorials, what in preference to all the other passages of
they must contain and how and when the Pentateuch, because they embrace the
they are to be worn. The only nearer submission under the yoke of the kingdom
qualification is suggested by the expres- of heaven, and the unity of the Creator,
sion: “you shall bind them.” Further, and the exodus from Egypt; and these are
according to the precept of our text, these the fundamental doctrines of Judaism;
bands were of a double nature: on the therefore we are commanded to put them
hand, and “between the eyes,” that is, on the forehead and on the tablets of
on the forehead. In the later Jewish the heart; for, according to the philoso-
literature the word Tefillin is applied phers, those two parts of the body are
to this memorial; which signifies most the seats of reason and of feeling; and
probably “ prayer-thongs.” In Matt. xxiii, by applying to them the phylacteries,
5, they are called phylacteries (¢vAak- those faculties are strengthened, and
Tnpia), which would, after the easiest deri- produce a higher degree of piety and
vation, concur with remembrance or me- religious obedience.” And in accordance
morial; to translate this word by “ pro- with this idea, the phylacteries of the
tecting amulets,” is too artificial; certainly hand are put on the upper part of the
this signification was not attached to the left arm, just opposite the heart — the
word in the Apostle’s time, For further source of feeling,—and those of the head
etymological deductions we refer to our on the brow, there where the marrow of
larger edition. the brain—the seat of understanding—is
Now tradition has made the most supposed to commence.
extended use of the liberty left to it Manifold are the other symbolical inter-
170 EXODUS XIII.

Egypt. 10. Thou shalt therefore keep this ordinance in

its season from year to year.—1l1. And it shall be, when
the Lord will bring thee into the land of the Canaanites,
as He swore to thee and thy fathers, and will give it thee,
12. That thou shalt set apart to the Lord all that openeth
the womb, and every firstborn which is brought forth by
a beast, which thou hast; the males shall be to the Lord.
13. And every firstling of an ass thou shalt redeem with
a lamb; and if thou wilt not redeem it, then thou shalt
break its neck: and all the firstborn of man among thy
‘sons shalt thou redeem. 14. And it shall be when thy
1 Engl. Vers.—Children.

pretations by which it has been tried to ten in the Tefillin, relate to the unity of
elucidate the idea of the Tefillin, and of God, to reward and punishment, and the
which we shall adduce but a few more. exodus from Egypt, because this is an
According to the Talmud, Abraham re- undeniable proof that God is invisibly
ceived already the commandment concern- connected with His creatures, watches
ing the fringes and the Tefillin; and as he over them with His providence, and
was by the former, as it were, invested knows their deeds.”
with the priestdom, so by the latter with Although the phylacteries were ori-
the kingdom; so that the Tefillin of the arm ginally, at least by pious persons, worn
signify the power, those of the head the dia- throughout the whole day (see Cusari
dem or the crown. But this kingdom is not loc. cit.), their use was later limited to the
of an earthly but a heavenly or religious time of the morning prayer (except on
character; for it is only intended to arm the the Sabbaths and festivals), and to the
Israelite with the power of self-denial, men; and, in this circumstance no doubt
the chief of all moral duties, and procure the name “ prayer-thongs” originates.
him the triumph over the realms of sin. All these details are already ascribed
In this acceptation, the thongs, which are to Moses, and, from this reason, ob-
fastened to the boxes, would symbolize served with the greater strictness. Cer-
the self-fettering by the divine com- tain it is, that this so striking command-
mands, and thus coincide with the inner- ment of the Tefillin, daily practised and
most essence of religion itself. In executed, has contributed, not a little,
the book Cusari (iii. 11) we read an to keep the Jews in their dispersion after
explanation of the Tefillin, which is based the exile, in their peculiarity and in
upon the simple wording of our text: strict Mosaism: and thus the end of the
“Thus the Israelite unites his thoughts legislator was, in this point also, com-
with God by certain observances, which pletely accomplished.
either Holy Writ or tradition has taught .0‫ ב‬Thou shalt therefore keep this‫‏‬
him. He wears Tefillin at the head, the ordinance, i.e. Passover, with all its‫‏‬
organ of the faculty of reflection and specified rites; for the text, after having‫‏‬
memory; and lets from thence hang down briefly inserted the precept concerning‫‏‬
thongs which reach to the hand, and the phylacteries, returns now to the lead-‫‏‬
which he shall see at every hour; he ing idea which occasioned that precept.—‫‏‬
wears further the Tefillin of the hand, Jonathan erroneously refers “this ordi-‫‏‬
issuing from the heart, the source of our nance” to the precept of the phylacteries‫‏‬
powers, ‘Those portions, which are writ- and paraphrases: “and thou shalt keep‫‏‬
 EXODUS XIII. 171

son asketh thee in time to come, saying, What is this?

that thou shalt say to him, By strength of hand the Lord
brought us out from Egypt, from the house of slaves:
15. And it came to pass, when Pharaoh hardened himself
not to let us go, that the Lord slew all the firstborn in the
land of Egypt, both the firstborn of man, and the first-
born of beast: therefore I sacrifice to the Lord all the
males that open the womb; but all the firstborn of my
2sons I redeem. 16. And it shall be for a sign upon thy
hand, and for frontlets between thy eyes: for by strength
of hand the Lord brought us forth out of Egypt.
2 Engl. Vers.—Children.

this commandment of the Tefillin in its and the tradition has embellished this
proper time; on work days, not on the fact by attributing that distinction to the
Sabbaths or festivals; and by day, not by asses on account of the services they did
night.” to the Israelites in carrying their golden
11. The law concerning the sanctifica- treasures from the land of their oppres-
tion of the first-born, which had been sors. Thou shalt redeem with a lamb.
alluded to only in general terms (verse 2), The priest receives a lamb for himself,
is here (to verse 15) more fully developed; and then the firstborn ass is allowed for
and it appears, from our verse, that the the use of the Israelites.— And if thou wilt
execution of that precept was only to be not redeem it then thou shalt break its neck.
enforced after the conquest of the Holy This precept, to kill an unredeemed male
Land by the Israelites, as was the case unclean animal, implies no “ blood-steeped
with the sacrifice of the paschal-lamb; cruelty” (Wilson), since it was in the
see on verse 5. power of the owner to redeem it; but in
12. Thou shalt set apart. This correct order to ensure the scrupulous and faith-
rendering of the English Version is in ful execution of this command, on which
accordance with the explanation of Ebn the whole structure of the Mosaic theo-
Ezra: “thou shalt put it aside for the cracy is based (see on ver. 2); the legis-
Lord, lest it be mixed and confounded lator wished to deter from transgressing
with other beasts,” with the interpretation it by the severe injunction of putting such
of Rashi, and the translation of the Sep- unredeemed animal to death, which has
tuagint; see Numb. xxvii. 8.— The male undoubtedly been done but in very few
first-born only were to be sanctified to cases, as it would have been to the
God; see note on verse 2. owner’s pecuniary injury.—And all the
13. And every firstling of an ass thou Sirstborn of men among thy sons shalt
shalt redeem with a lamb, with the ad- thou redeem with five shekels, according to
dition of the fifth part of its value, Num. iii. 47.
according to Levit. xxvii. 27. Although 15. The Lord smote all the firstborn of
the same precept applies to all kinds of Egypt (and rescued our firstborn, and those
unclean animals, as horses and camels of our cattle), therefore I sacrifice to the
(as is evident from Numb. xviii. 15), the Lord all male firstlings, naturally with
firstborn of the ass is here expressly men- the restriction regarding the unclean
tioned, because this was, probably, the animals (ver. 13). The sanctification of
only species of beasts of burden which the firstborn took place, not on account
the Israelites possessed after the exodus; of the death of the firstborn of the Egyp-
 172 EXODUS XIII.

17. And it came to pass, when Pharaoh had allowed

the people to go, that God led them not on the way of the 4
land of the Philistines, although that was near; for God
said, Lest perhaps the people repent when they see war,
tians, but in memory of the preservation (iii, 12). It is true, that this route is
of those of the Israelites. These, and the little inviting or to be recommended; both
similar precepts, are the only regulations the wide, barren, and waterless sand-
of the Mosaic law concerning the educa- plains, and-the wild, rocky and rugged
tion of the children; all the rest was left mountainous tracts, seem little adyan-
to the exigencies of the times, and the tageous for the march or the maintenance
individual judgment of the parents. of such a vast number of emigrants. But
16. See note on ver. 9. the reasons which induced Moses to choose
.9‫ ב‬After the people has been in-‫‏‬ this way are as obvious as they are con-
structed in all the laws called forth by‫‏‬ vincing. First, he apprehended, that
the departure from Egypt, the narrative‫‏‬ if the Israelites should see the necessity of
proceeds with the further journeys and‫‏‬ fighting with the powerful and warlike
fates of the Israelites. First, the general‫‏‬ Philistines, they would avail themselves
direction of their wanderings is distinctly‫‏‬ of the little distance which separated
thus stated: “God did not lead the Is-‫‏‬ them from Egypt, and timidly return to )
784011608 the shorter way through the‫‏‬ the old yoke of slavery, rather than yen-
territory of Philistia, but ordered them to‫‏‬ ture a doubtful combat for liberty, fame .
take the opposite route to the desert of‫‏‬ and property. And, indeed, the Israel- 4
the Red Sea.” This is clear in itself,‫‏‬ ites, who had just escaped, as if from a ‫ו‬‎
From Rameses to Gaza, the most‫‏‬ dungeon, a mass without discipline and
southern town of the Philistine Penta-‫‏‬ without energy, were not yet, in any
polis, is a straight and much frequented‫‏‬ degree, prepared for regular warfare (see
way of eight to ten days, either north-‫‏‬ note on xiv. 10), and much less enabled
wards, through the pass of Dshebel-el-Tih‫‏‬ to encounter a tribe which they were,
as Russegger travelled (ili. 55), or more‫‏‬ even in the height of their power, incapa-
eastwards, through that of Dshebel-el-‫‏‬ ble of perfectly subduing, and to which
Edshmeh (Robinson, i, 124, 488); and‫‏‬ they, in future ages, succumbed more
the sons of Jacob journeyed, in not‫‏‬ thanonce. Heretomay be added, that even
many days, from Palestine to Egypt, to‫‏‬ then the Philistines were inimically op-
buy corn. But, instead of taking this‫‏‬ posed to the Israelites (1 Chron. vii.
way northwards, they turned to the south‫‏‬ 21, 22); and no doubt seized eager-
or south-east, encamping first in Succoth‫‏‬ ly every opportunity of punishing, by
(see note on xii. 37), and thence proceed-‫‏‬ new triumphs, the boldness of the
ing in the same direction to the extreme‫‏‬ Hebrew freebooters. Already in the
point of the Gulf of Suez, to Etham, which‫‏‬ times of Joshua, the Philistines appeared
naturally forms, at the same time as it‫‏‬ in a federal union of five states, go-
were, the boundary of the desert of the‫‏‬ verned by their respective chiefs, the
peninsula of Sinai (ver. 20), From the‫‏‬ principal towns of which were: Gaza,
very beginning this had been the inten-‫‏‬ Ashdod, Askelon, Gath and Ekron, be-
tion of Moses in his scheme of deliver-‫‏‬ sides many other open villages (1 Sam.
ance, for he had invariably requested‫‏‬ vi. 18). Moses, therefore, with the same
Pharaoh to permit the Israelites to sacri-‫‏‬ moderation with which he had repressed, i
i
Be
on
6<‫דב‬‎

fice in the desert, and already, at the first‫‏‬ for more than forty years, his fiery pa-
revelation of God on Horeb, it was an-‫‏‬ triotism for the deliverance ‘of 8
nounced to him, that the descendants of‫‏‬ people, in order not to endanger the sue-
Jacob would serve God at that mountain‫‏‬ cess of his important undertaking by rash
 EXODUS XIII. 173

and they return to Egypt: 18. But God 'let the people
turn to the way of the wilderness of the Red Sea: and
the people of Israel went up harnessed out of the land of
! Engl. Vers.—Led the people about through the way.

and untimely attempts, chose here, like- xiv. 23, 30).—Those commentators, who
wise, the more laborious and wearisome like Philippson, place Succoth north-east
but more certain and promising. plan, of Rameses, that is just in the direction
first to accustom his uncivilised co- of the land of the Philistines, are com-
religionists to fatigues and hardships pelled to suppose, that the plan of the
by a long and tiresome march in the journey was already altered at Succoth,
desert; then to lead them, by a new and that the Israclites returned there
comprehensive and noble religious sys- already, whereas this only took place
tem, to morality and to obedience to after the following station in Etham (see
their invisible guide, and His earthly note on xiv. 1—3). Now, according to
representative; further to train them to the notions and the language of the
military discipline and martial virtue Pentateuch, this divine plan serves at the
by occasional expeditions against weaker same time as a means for further ends,
tribes of the desert; and then at last, namely for the glorification of the name
thus internally and externally organised, of God among the nations, for an ex-
to bring them by long circuits from the hortation to renounce the idols and to
east of the Jordan into the land of adore the omnipotent Lord of the Uni-
promise. This plan was conceived by verse, and for the chastisement of re-
Moses with such self-denial, that he fractory minds, especially the still hard-
scarcely seems to have considered, whe- hearted despot of Egypt (xiv. 3, et seq.),
ther he would himself have the happiness —God led them not in the way of the
and glory to witness and to enjoy the results land of the Philistines, “ although that was
of such a protracted and complicated ex- near.” Many ancient and modern inter-
pedition; but for this modest disin- preters translate here: because that was
terestedness and moderation, which al- near. But we have retained the translation
most reaches the limits of humanity, of although, as offered in the English Ver-
rests on his name the blessing of his sion, and adopted also by Gesenius and
people to the latest generations; for it others; for it is sophistical to say, that a
was only by this moderation, that the person does not take a certain route, just
ultimate suecess of the hazardous under- because it is the shortest; on the con-
taking was secured. ‘Thus were the trary, the inspired author deems it neces-
forty years of wandering through the sary, to anticipate the objection of the
desert a time of trial, of purification, and reader in this respect; and then only to
of religious preparation for their national add the reason, why they, in spite of
independence (see Deut. viii. 2; Hos. ii, that argument in its favour, did not take
16). By these considerations the following that way: “for God said,” etc. But in
groundless and oftea repeated remark of fact the significations of because and
Gothe finds its refutation: * ‘The picture although are here closely connected; if
ofaman, who, like Moses, was by his nature we translate: they did not go the way of
driven to the highest aims, must be quite the Philistines, “ for this would have been
disfigured, if we see a vigorous, resolute, the nearest route”; this parenthetical for
quick man of active life, without mean- approaches in its sense very nearly to
‎‫]?חו‬‫ ש‬or necessity, roam about on a small although.
territory and in the face of his great aim, 1s. But God let the people turn to the
with an enormous number of men” way of the wilderness. The signification
(compare note to xvi.2; see also Num. of these words cannot be doubtful after the
 174 EXODUS 1

Egypt. 19. And Moses took the bones of Joseph with

him; for he had solemnly sworn the children of Israel,
saying, God will surely ‘remember you; then you shall
! Engl. Vers.—Visit.

explanation of the preceding verse; only been shown on ver.17, that, from the com-
the general direction of the march, not mencement, the march into the Arabian
its nature shall here be described; the desert, towards the Mount Horeb, was
Israclites did not journey towards the the design of Moses; and if, therefore,
land of the Philistines, but they turned Succoth, the first station, was situated in
just away from it to the southern line a south-eastern direction from Rameses
towards the desert. Those translations (xii. 37); Etham, in the same direction at
which deviate from this acceptation de- the end of the Arabian desert, on the side
stroy the clearness of the text; and thus of Egypt, and, therefore, near to the head
the English Version, which renders: of the Gulf of Suez, formed the second
> But God led the people about, through resting-place. The same name denoted,
the way of the wilderness.”— The way of according to Num. xxxiii. 8, a part of the
the wilderness of the Red Sea; see note desert east of that Gulf, which is also
on x. 19, and ii. 3. called the desert of Shur (xv. 22), and
19. Moses took the bones of Joseph, the whole part round the extremity of the
i.e. probably his mummy, with him from isthmus bears the common name of the
Egypt, according to the wish of the desert of Dschofar. Jablonsky (Op. ii. p.
latter, expressed to his surviving brethren 157) believes that the name Etham itself,
before his death (Gen.1. 24,25); and in which he thinks to be of Egyptian origin,
Joshua xxiv. 32, it is faithfully recorded, signifies * the end of the sea.” Niebuhr
that the remains of their illustrious an- considers the little fortress Adjeroud
cestor were, in accordance with his re- garrisoned with Egyptian troops, as the
quest piously handed down to the follow- Etham of our text. It lies about eleven
ing generations by tradition, interred English miles north-west of the town of
in the ground of Shechem, which Jacob Suez, generally forms the third stage of
already had bought, for himself and his de- the pilgrim’s caravan (proceeding from
scendants, as an eternal property. Since Kairo to Mecca), and has copious wells of
Joseph, as formerly Jacob, firmly relied water, one of which is two hundred and
on the divine promise, that the land of fifty feet deep. Winer believes with
Canaan would be assigned to their de- Du Bois Aymé, that the following
scendants as a permanent possession, and station Pi-hahiroth, (xiv. 2), is Adjeroud
that Egypt was only a place of temporary (see, however, on xiv. 2). Positive identi-
sojourning for them; and as the ancients, fications of ancient localities are the more
longed, even after their death, to lie in their precarious in this region, as it is certain
native earth, abhorring the idea of being that the northern part of the Gulf of
buried among strangers, whom they re- Suez has formed itself, in the course of
garded either as barbarians or idolators: centuries, into firm land, a fact which,
the commands of Jacob and Joseph, to besides other reasons, is indisputably
bring their bodies back into the land of their established by the circumstance that
forefathers, are expressly mentioned, and towns, as Muza, which are mentioned by
their execution is repeatedly narrated. the ancients as sea-places and harbours,
20. And they journeyed from Succoth, are now situated in the interior of the
and encamped in Etham, in the edge of land. The whole Gulf extended 90,000
the wilderness. The situation of Etham paces, with an average breadth of 18,006
is here described with sufficient precision. or 20,000 paces, But, from this point of |
If we are compelled to suppose, as has view, a town, which lies at present eleven
 EXODUS ‎‫]זא‬.

take my bones up hence with you. 20. And they jour-

neyed from Succoth, and encamped in Etham, in the edge
of the wilderness. 21. And the Lord went before them
by day in a pillar of cloud, to lead them the way; and by
miles from Suez, might formerly have deeply convinced of the reality of the
been situated at “the edge of the desert,” miracle, that he offers remarks on the
but yet considerably to the west of the shape of the pillars, which he says did
coast of the Gulf. “ Besides,” remarks not, like other clouds, expand to all 01-'
Kitto, “from hence the sea is seen to rections, but reached like columns from
make a bend to the west, and, by joining heaven to earth. In the same manner
the high chain of Mount Attaka, to ter- fluctuates Abarbanel, who, on the one
minate the desert to the south.” side, explains the pillars figuratively, as
21, 22. God guided the Israelites in the symbols of God’s providence which went
day by a pillar of cloud and in the night before them to ward off every evil; and,
-=- by a pillar offire. This circumstance is on the other side, points out the wonder
here evidently reported as a miraculous with particular emphasis. As to the his-
interposition and special providence of torical analogies, they are of a very varied
God; and it is inadmissible to interpret character. Xenophon mentions in his
it as a merely natural occurrence. Both Spartan republic, in describing the mili-
in our passage and in many others (xiv. tary expedition of a Spartan king, that a
19,24; Numb. x, 34; xiv. 14; Deut, i. 33; servant or officer, who was called /ire-
Psa. cv. 39; Neh. ix. 12, etc.), that event bearer, preceded the king with the fire,
is represented in such a manner that we which had been taken from the altar, on
should indeed be compelled to do violence which he had just before sacrificed at the
to the text, if we attempted to draw it frontier of the Spartan territory. After
from the region of the miraculous. The they had sacrificed once more, and the
pillars serve to the Hebrew army as a march had commenced, a fire which was
guide (Exodus xl. 36, et seg.) and pro- lighted at the second sacrifice preceded
tector (Psalm cv. 39); whenever the army the lines, without ever extinguishing. In
encamped they stayed over the holy tent Curtius v. 2 we read: “ He (Alexander
(Exod. xl. 34; Numb ix. 15); God Him- the Great) ordered a lofty pole, visible
self is present in them (Num. xiv. 14) from all sides, to be raised over the gene-
and speaks out of them to Moses (Exod. ral’s tent, and from the top of this pole
xxxili.9; Numb. xii. 5); and the prophet streamed a signal conspicuous every-
Isaiah (iv. 5) sees in the protecting shadow where to every one, smoke by day and fire
of the pillar of cloud, and in the shining by night.” Alexander had in this, as in
light of the pillar of fire, a symbol of the many other points, imitated the custom
eternal presence of God, ever shielding of the Persians, who, in common with
and glorifying Zion. It is true, both our most of the eastern nations, on their
more enlightened notions regarding the marches through deserted regions, bear
providence and interference of God, and before the army high poles, on which
indisputable historical analogies, invite us iron pots are affixed, filled with lighted
urgently to a symbolical or rational in- combustibles; so that the smoke by day,
terpretation. In the former respect Ebn and the flame by night, signalised the way
Ezra already remarks: “We know that tothe troops. Further parallels are quoted
the Lord thrones in eternal majesty in in our larger edition. Thus we cannot but
heaven; but the Scriptures speak like the acknowledge a certain curious similarity
language of men; because the power of between the Biblical miracle and a gene-
God accompanied the Israelites.” But the ral military custom prevailing in the Kast.
same interpreter is, on the other hand, so Under these circumstances we entirely
176 EXODUS ‎‫ זחא‬XIV.
night in a pillar of fire, to give them light, to go by day
8 night: 22. 'The pillar of the cloud did not cease by
day, nor the pillar of fire by night, from before the bebe
1 Engl. Vers.—He took not away the pillar, etc.

approve of Faber’s remark (Archzol. of day and in the night. Which shape
the Hebrews, p. 244): ** Both the miracle the pillar had, whether it was a single
and the custom, collated and compared, or a double one, whether it appeared
give light to each other. The custom immediately after the exodus or only
effects, that we find the miracle dignified after the transit over the Red Sea;
and worthy of God; and the miracle these and many similar questions with
shows, that that very custom cannot have which, besides a host of ancient authors,
been quite unknown to the Israelites.” even Rosenmiiller has troubled himself, —
As the Hebrew army could by day, on are futile, and we leave them willingly to
account of the exceeding heat, march those who criticise rather from the sug-
but little and slowly, they continued their gestions of a lively imagination than
journeys also in the cooler nights; and from facts of holy or profane records.
thus they required a guide both in the Compare also Cusari i. 97.

CHAPTER XIV.
SummMARy.—God commands Moses to go back to the north and to encamp in Pi-
hahiroth (see on ver. 1—3); Pharaoh, therefore, believing that the Israelites have
lost their way in the desert, and repenting his having allowed so many useful slaves
to depart, pursues them with six hundred battle-chariots and a great army. When
the Israelites saw them approach towards the evening, they murmured against Moses,
reproaching him with his rash and heedless plans. God, however, encouraged
him with the promise of a miraculous deliverance. The pillar of cloud placed
itself behind the army of Israel, and separated it during the whole night from
that of the Egyptians; the one had light, whilst the other was surrounded with
darkness. God now dried up the sea by a strong wind; the waves divided them-
selves, and stood to the right and to the left like a wall, The Egyptians pursued
their enemies; but it was with great difficulty only that they could follow with
their chariots; towards the morning their confusion became complete; they
thought of return and flight. The Israelites had in the mean time accomplished
the passage over the sea; when God led the waters back to their usual bed—and
all the Egyptians, with their horses and chariots, found their graves in the billows.
—Confidence and faith in God and His servant Moses, were, on the part of the
Israelites, the immediate results of this extraordinary protection of God.

ND the Lord spoke to Moses, saying, 2. Speak to

the children of Israel, that they ‘return, and
encamp before Pi-hahiroth, between Migdol and the sea,
1 Engl. Vers.—Turn.
1, 3. We are accustomed to see the tines, or, declining to the south-east, to
next movement of the Hebrews from direct their march into the desert of Sinai,
Etham, which must have been decisive towards Mount Horeb (see on xiii, 17);
for their whole journey, so represented, but that, to the great surprise of the
that from here still the two ways were Egyptians, who no doubt carefully
left to them, either to proceed to the watched their journey, through scouts,
north, towards the territory of the Philis- they took neither of these two usual
 EXODUS XIV. 177

over against Baal-Zephon: before it shall you encamp by the

sea. 3. ?And Pharaoh will say of the children of Israel,
2 Engl. Vers.—For.

routes, but, in apparently inexplicable have already alluded in our note on

infatuation, returned to the western xiii, 20, that the Gulf of Suez (Heroopo-
60886 of the Gulf of Suez, nearer to lites Sinus) extended, in former millen-
Egypt, evidently into the very arms of niums, considerably farther to the north
their sanguinary and menacing enemies. (as even now, in a distance of 60,000
But the absolute improbability, nay im- metres north of Suez, 18 found a marshy
possibility of such a route, we shail, in plain about 12,000 metres broad, which
the course of this note, have opportunity exhibits undeniable traces that in former
of showing. For the explanation of our ages the sea had covered this part); that
text, we remark, that the Israelites had therefore Etham could lie “at the end of
evidently, in the precipitation of their the (Egyptian) desert,” without just co-
march, advanced too far to the south; and inciding with the most northern point of
Moses observed, with terror, that if, as the Gulf, and that thus the Hebrew army,
was to be foreseen, they were pursued in having arrived at Etham, might have
the west by the Egyptians, the passage become aware of the danger in venturing
through the more and more widening a march so far to the south, and seen the
Red Sea in the east would become im- necessity to return northwards. In har-
possible for them, whilst, in the south, mony with these circumstances, we shall
they would be shut up by mountains and have to fix the position of this new
impervious passes. Moses was, therefore, camping-place, “before Pi-hahiroth, be-
compelled, at every risk, to return north- tween Migdol and the sea, over against
wards, relying upon the existence of Baal-Zephon.” Pi-hahiroth, which cer-
passable fords in the extreme part of the tainly has the sound of a Hebrew name
Gulf, if unexpected danger should threaten (“ entrance of passes or 087078"(,is pro-
them from the Egyptians. It is certainly bably, as Jablonsky conjectures, of Egyp-
possible, as some interpreters assert, that tian origin, and signifies a place over-
Etham was already the third day’s jour- grown with reeds. Piis the Egyptian ar-
ney, and that, therefore, the Egyptians ticle, therefore the same place is, in
persecuted the Israelites then only, when Numb. xxxiii.7,8, simply called Hahiroth.
they saw that they did not, in accordance The opinion mentioned by Rashi, that
with their pretence, sacrifice, and when it Pi-hahiroth is identical with Pithom in
was evident that this had only been a 1. 11, deserves no notice.—Migdol, origi-
pretext to effect their escape. But it is, nally tower, or, as an Egyptian word,
on the other hand, as probable, that they “abundance of hills,” is, by Ezekiel
made, just on the third day, that unfor- (xxix. 10; xxx. 6), mentioned as a
tunate march to the south, although the northern frontier town of Egypt, over
text offers no information how far they against the southern town of Syene
proceeded in that direction (see note on (which is twelve Roman miles from Pelu-
ver.9 sub finem). However this may be, sium), near which Pharaoh Necho de-
that backward movement of the Hebrew feated the invading Syrians (Herod. ii.
army naturally suggested to the Egyp- 159). Certainly, by this general state-
tians the idea: “they are entangled in ment we gain little for the exact position
the land; the wilderness hath shut them of the Hebrew station. The Septuagint
in,” and enhanced their assurance to pur- also renders it Magdolon, a town situated
sue the confused troops, and to force near the Pelusian arm of the Nile, in
them to an ignominious return. Now it is Coptic Meschtol, which name has preserved
of the highest importance, distinctly to itself in the Arabie Meschtul. But this
bear in mind a circumstance, to which we also is much too indistinct, although the
N
178 EXODUS XIV.

They are eres in the land, the wilderness hath shut

them in. 4. And 'I shall harden Pharaoh’s heart, that
1 Engl. Vers. —Will.

Migdol of our text might, according to ships were still enabled to come up
our explanation, have been situated much higher in the Arabian Gulf, the town
more to the north. Hengstenberg Kolsum, so celebrated among Arabic
(Moses und igypt. p.58, 59) believes, writers, was situated near the place,
therefore, that the designation “ between where afterwards Suez was built. Ai-
Migdol and the sea,” does not describe the though we see here nothing but large
exact geographical position of the place, but hills of ruins, without any relics which
is only intended to point out the great dan- deserve our attention; still its name has
ger to which the Israelites exposed them- been preserved till our time, for in Suez
selves by encamping before Pi-hahiroth, they are still called the ruins of Kolsum.”
since, probably at that time, a strong We know that there was, besides,
military garrison, later translocated to the another town Kolsum, more than a de-
neighbouring Daphne (Herod. ii. 30), was gree south of Suez, at the port of the
stationed there, and might have suddenly mountain of the same name. But this
attacked the resting Hebrew army from town is here perfectly out of the question,
the left, while the sea opposed them on as it is decidedly too far to the south.
the right. This supposition is, however, For already have the Israelites returned,
more ingenious than plausible. That that is, they have proceeded northwards;
Migdol is Mount Attaka, as Tischendorf and it is impossible to suppose, that the
and Kutscheit assert, is without any Israelitish army strayed under the pru-
foundation. Niebuhr (Descr. of Arabia, dent leadership of Moses, heedlessly so —
p. 409) supposes it to have been near the far to the south. But the former Kol-
modern Bir Suez, which is not at soum agrees entirely with the description
variance with the text. — Baal-Zephon, of our text; for in the north, west, and
probably the town of Typhon, who was south, it is surrounded by the desert, but
the evil genius, or the enemy of fertility, in the east it borders on the Red Sea.—
who came in the burning wind from the As this subject forms one of the most
desert, to destroy the creations of Osiris important and interesting points in the
in the valley of the Nile (see note on ix. history of the deliverance of Israel, and
10). Baal-Zephon is therefore, Typho- as the defining of the situation of Pi-
nia, or according to Forster, Hero- hahiroth includes at the same time the
opolis (where, as Egyptian mythology momentous question concerning the part
asserts, Typhon was killed by lightning), of the Red Sea at which the Hebrew
which is in Egyptian Aouwari, from which army effected the passage, we will examine
the Greeks seem to have made Heroo, here some remarks from Kitto’s History
adding 66, town; and the whole region of Palestine (i. p. 177), in which the
in the uncultivated desert-tracts between opinion, entertained by many others,
the Nile and the Red Sea is called, *6 of a considerably more southern posi-
seat of Typhon.”—Now, if we combine all tion of that town is thus explained by
these statements concerning Pi-hahiroth, the author: “ About the head of the Gulf
Migdol, and Baal-Zephon, and keep in of Suez a desert plain extends for ten or
mind the direction of the return above twelve miles to west and north of the city
pointed out, the conjecture, that Kolsoum of that name. On the west this plain is
was the place of encampment described bounded by the chain of Attaka, which
in our verse, or the point of passage over comes down towards the sea in a north-
the Red Sea, seems perfectly plausible. easterly direction. Opposite Suez this
About its situation says Niebuhr (Tray. i, chain is seen at a considerable distance,
p. 218): “In ancient times, when the but, as we advance southward, the moun-
 EXODUS XIV. 19

he ’will pursue after them; and I will be honoured

through Pharaoh, and through all his army; that the
2 Engl. Vers.—Shall.

tains rapidly approach the sea, and pro- haste of the journey, he proceeded too
portionately contract the breadth of the far to the south, so that the sea was
valley; and the chain terminates at the between his hosts and Arabia; which
sea, and seems, in the distant view, to compelled him to return northwards, in
shut up the valley at Ras-el-Attaka, or order to march round the head of the
Cape Attaka, twelve miles below Suez. Gulf—which he no doubt would have
But on approaching this point, ample done, if he had not, by the pursuing
room is found to pass beyond; and in Egyptians, been compelled to a sudden
passing beyond we find ourselves in a passage through the sea (as the com-
broad alluvial plain, forming the mouth mand in xiv.15: “and he shall proceed
of the valley of Bedea. This plain is on northwards,” sufficiently shows). But it
the other or southern side nearly shut up is perfectly impossible to suppose, that
| by the termination of another chain of Moses, having once taken the right route,
these mountains, which extend between should intentionally and wantonly, instead
the Nile and the western shore of the of passing round the head of the Gulf
Red Sea. Any further progress in this into the Sinaitic peninsula, proceed south-
direction would be impossible to a large wards, through a multitude of impassable
army, especially when encumbered with mountains, and designedly occupy a po-
flocks and herds and with ‫חסמו‬‎ 7 7 ‘ition which must almost inevitably de-
dren, and baggage; and this /
manner, in which the rocks, the
‫ו‬ ver the army into the hands of their
| Sgyptian enemies. We respect the pious
tories, and the cliffs advance /wh‫‏‬rep ‫ו‬ sense,
‫ה‬ in which that hypothesis originates;
western shore. And, besides, any ad- for that very infatuation, so obvious and
yance in this direction would be suicidal so manifest, is represented as pre-destined,
to a body desiring to escape from Egypt, in order to afford God new opportunities
as they would have the Red Sea between for mighty wonders; but even according
_ them and Arabia Proper, and would only to that theory, the Hebrew army did not
get involved among the plains and valleys give itself blindly up to a miraculous
which separate the mountain-chains of guidance, but calculated the possibilities
Egyptian Arabia.”— This is the decided and advantages of the different routes;
opinion, at which the author has ar- for it did not proceed beyond the valley
rived after the fluctuating conjectures in of Bedea, because “ any advance in this
the Pictorial Bible (pp. 168—170), from direction would be suicidal to a body
which we may, however, gather several desiring to escape from Egypt.” In all
arguments for the support of his opinion; human calculation, every advance to the
and this will be at the same time the south, in the west of the Red Sea, was
easiest way to refute it. Before all, we every way equally suicidal. Further,
must at the very beginning emphatically even if we suppose, that the Israelites
protest against a supposition, which would proceeded, on the command of Moses,
at once stamp Moses as the most inca- six German miles to the south of Suez—
pable and most infatuated of all military for that is the distance to Bedea—this
leaders. It has, as we have seen in our must have been accomplished in one day;
note on xiii. 17, always been his unshaken and it is impossible for a large and much
intention to lead the people into the encumbered multitude to advance at so
Arabian desert towards Horeb; he was rapid arate. And in general, the scien-
therefore obliged to take from Goshen tific interpretation must recur to miracu-
the direction to south-east. Now we can lous expedients, only after all attempts
well imagine, that in the unavoidable at a rational explanation have failed.—
N 2
180 EXODUS XIV.

Egyptians may know that I am the Lord. And they did

so.—5. And it was reported to the king of Egypt, that
the people fled: and the heart of Pharaoh and of his
servants was turned against the people, and they said,

Further, the width of the Gulf in the to be asked, as the locality of any ancient
south of Attaka, amounts, according to event. And all those names deserve,
Robinson (i. 93), to three German miles; therefore, no critical examination.—A bout
and it is impossible that so numerous a the passage itself, we refer to vers, 21, 22.
host should, in one night, advance such a On a similar basis like the opinion above
distance; although we do not urge the analyzed, is founded the following remark =
circumstance, that at that point the sea is 01 Ebn Ezra on our verse: “In truth no
so deep, that it cannot well be dried up man, however wise, ought to search after
by a wind (ver.21). Besides, the valley the deeds of the Lord, for all His works
of Bedea is far too narrow and too small, are profound; and the wisdom of man is
to offer space for a camp to a multitude like nought before Him. And I make
of about three millions of souls. Further, this observation, because it appears, that
the Hebrew expression: “and they shall God commanded the Israelites to return,
return,” does not even admit an interpre- in order by this stratagem to tempt
tation like that quoted above, according to Pharaoh to pursue them, and thus to
which the Israelites would not have gone bury him and his army in the sea. For
back the same way towards Egypt, on the ways of the Lord are inscrutable.”—
which they had proceeded before, but The wilderness hath shut them in; that is,
taken quite a different route to the south, the mountains of the wilderness preclude
without any plan or design, But in our ex- their further march; or the pathless de-
planation the command: “they shall re- sert has so entangled them that they have
turn,” retains its literal meaning.—The ar- lost the direction of their journey. Targ.
guments for a more southern passage: that Jonathan translates ** the idol Typhon has
otherwise the Egyptians would have pre- shut them in from the side of the desert,”
ferred to pass-round the little way at the which strange paraphrase, it is curious to
head of the Gulf in order to intercept the observe, has been adopted by Mendelssohn.
Israelites on the other, eastern coast; that Philippson translates: “the desert has shut
in the north the sea has not water enough itself before them,” and remarks, that the
to drown the Egyptian army, and that it usual translation: “the desert hath shut
is not wide enough to hold at the same them in,” has no sense or meaning, since
time the whole line of that army; all the Israelites did not go at all into the
these, and similar arguments are of little desert; but in this severe stricture he for-
importance, as the former nature and gets, that it is not the Arabian, but the
extent of the northern part of the Gulf Egyptian desert, in which they seemed to
of Suez, are so little known to us, and at have been hopelessly entangled.
all events, the changes which it has suf- 4. And I shall harden Pharaoh’s heart.
fered, lead our conjectures about the After an interval of several days, during
situation of Pi-hahiroth, rather north- which the king gradually recovered from
wards than southwards.—The Arabian his panic and reflected on the enormity
tradition mentions as the point of pas- of the loss he had inflicted upon himself
sage of the Israelites a great variety of by dismissing so many thousand indus-
names, which, however, are so little trious labourers, his innate pride and
authentic, that Shaw remarks, the Be- obstinacy returned, his heart was hard-
douins point out to the travellers gene- ened again, and the inclination of his
rally just that place, where they happen mind was strengthened into a firm deter-
 EXODUS XIV. 181

Why have we done this, that we have let Israel go from

serving us? 6. And he made ready his chariot, and took
his people with him: 7. And he took six hundred chosen
chariots, and all the chariots of Egypt, and 'warriors in
! Engl. Vers.—Captains.

mination by the report that the Hebrew ship God, but, in fact, to escape entirely,
army had made movements which seemed and he strongly repented of his fatal
to indicate a perfect ignorance of the concessions, which, although slight in /
territory through which they had to jour- themselves, threatened to deprive him
ney, and a cessation of the special provi- of a very useful class of subjects. For
dence and guidance which their God had the permission which he granted to the
hitherto manifested in their favour. Thus Israelites to depart, was distinctly limited
Pharaoh’s refractoriness proceeded en- to a three days’ leave for the purpose of
tirely from the perversity of his own offering sacrifices, but never extended to
‘heart; the very circumstances and events allow their total emigration; he had
which would have reformed a less de- clearly pronounced, “ Go, serve the Lord
praved mind, proved to him as induce- as you have said” (xii. 31); and therefore
ments for new acts of pride and disobe- now, when the stratagem of the Hebrews
dience. We can, therefore, not admit the was obvious, the heart of the king, more
interpretation of those who translate here, vividly susceptible to the faults of others
and in ver. 8, “I shall encourage Pha- than to its own wrongs, was “ turned
raoh’s heart,” to follow his evil propen- against the Israelites,’”’ whilst it was for-
sity. By this rendering, the dogmatical merly, at least for a short time, inclined
explanation would be rather aggravated in their favour.
than facilitated, whilst its lexicographical 60. And he made ready his chariot, that
correctness is questionable-—And J will is, Pharaoh ordered it to be done, not “he
be honoured through Pharaoh and through did so himself in the heat and passion of
all his host, that is, as the Jewish inter- his revengefulness,” as Rashi, following
preters aptly explain: By punishing the the rabbinical interpretation, remarks.
wicked, God manifests to the world His
———— . The use of chariots was common in
justice and power, and impresses upon Egypt from very remote periods; it is
> the nations of the earth that His mercy even, perhaps, one of the first countries
protects the virtuous, and His indignation where they were known; for Egypt was,
chastises the insolent and the haughty, on account of its numerous plains and
so that such acts of just retribution teach the general flatness of the land, peculiarly
the heathens that He is the Lord (com- adapted for them. A double sort of
pare Ez, xxxviii. 22, 23; Ps. Ixxvi. 2, 4). chariots was, in early times, in use: 1,
This is a far higher ground than that The pleasure-and travelling-carriages,
taken by Cahen: “According to the and the transport-wagons (Gen. xlv. 19,21,
Biblical or Oriental notions, revenge 27), and 2. The battle or war-chariots,
taken upon the enemies is a matter of xv. 4, ete; 2 Chron. xii.3; Jer. xlvi. 9).
pride and glory.” The former kind, it is difficult, at present,
5. The three days after the departure clearly to describe; but the greatest proba-
of the Israelites had elapsed, and Pha- bility has the supposition, that they resem-
raoh, informed by his scouts that far bled a sort of vehicles which are still used
from performing the pretended sacrifice in some parts of the Orient, and which are
they seemingly strayed about without a light covered carts, without springs,
certain aim, believed now that it was called Arabah. The travelling-carriages
perfectly certain that the people had fell, later, more and more into disuse, as
not left the country in order to wor- the whole land was so intersected with
182 EXODUS XIV.

every one of them. 8. And the Lord hardened the heart

of Pharaoh king of Egypt, and he pursued after the
children of Israel: and the children of Israel went out

numerous canals, that it became unsuit- foreign kings enriched their studs with
able for horses and carriages (Herod. ii. horses of Egyptian breed (1 Kings x. 28;
108); and, according to the most recent 2 Chron. xiii. 3). But riding on horse-
travellers, even now neither wagons nor back was, even many centuries later, not
carriages are seen in Egypt (May, ii. 40). in use among the Egyptians; and neither
But of the battle-chariots the old monu- the circumstance that profane writers
ments offer us numerous representations, ascribe that art to so old and genuinely
from which we learn their construction an Egyptian deity as Osiris or his son
and application with sufficient clearness. Orus, nor that on ancient Egyptian paint-
It is commonly a small box, mounted on ings mounted figures are represented,
two low wheels of six generally round prove such a custom at an earlier period;
spokes, of such small dimensions, that it the accounts of the former are too indis-
allows to the one warrior, who occupies tinct and fabulous, and the monuments
‘it, scarcely more than standing room. It represent riders on horseback only among
is generally drawn by two horses adorned the enemies of the Egyptians, or among
with rich trappings; a third ran often at foreigners; and it is sufficient merely to
their side to be in readiness should one mention the vague assertion of Wilkinson
become disabled. The warrior in full © (Manners i. .‫כ‬‎ 289), who accounts for the
arms (with a bow and arrows, or a javelin omission of every notice of Egyptian
and a kind of reaping-hook) stood erect cavalry on the monuments by sup-
in his car; the reins were fastened round posing “that the artists intended to
his waist; and he thus governed the horses show how much more numerous the
by the movements of his body; and even horsemen of the inimical nations were
Egyptian officers of distinction and sons of than of their own people.”
kings managed their own cars, and sought An organised and powerful cavalry of
a particular fame in excelling in that art. the Egyptian army is, therefore, in the
It is, however, not improbable that these times of Moses, out of the question. But
chariots had often room for two warriors the passage, Gen. xlix. 17, can by no con-
and, in the manner of the Homeric war- sideration be adduced asa proof of the
chariots, or those of the Romans (which art of riding among the Egyptians, as
contained the bellator and the auriga), has been done by Kitto, since it refers
were driven by a charioteer, whilst the not to Egyptians, but to Hebrews,
warrior could, with greater safety and although then living in Egypt. For
firmness, direct his whole attention to the agricultural labours the horses were, ac-
combat. Still in later centuries the Egyp- cording to unanimous testimonies, not
tians remained so renowned for their used in Egypt.—As, therefore, the horses
battle-chariots, that the Israelites, from were chiefly applied for the purposes of
this reason, sought their alliance against war, especially for battle-chariots, the
the Assyrian and Chaldean invaders decay of their breeding is naturally ac-
(2 Kings xviii, 24; Is. xxxi. 1; Ezek. countable by the gradual decay of the
xvii.15),—That Egypt abounded in beau- martial spirit and of the military or-
tiful horses is well known (see on ix. 3); ganization of the Egyptians. — The
according to Diodorus Siculus the Egyp- distinction between the “chariots of
tian kings before Sesostris had along the Egypt” and “the selected chariots,”
banks of the Nile, between Thebes and justifies us in supposing, that the former
Memphis, two hundred stables, each of belonged to the guard of the hing. The
which contained a hundred horses, and existence of such a privileged body is
 \ ==
6

EXODUS XIV. 183

with a high hand. 9. But the Egyptians pursued after

them, all the ‘chariot-horses of Pharaoh, and his horse-
men, and his army, and overtook them encamping by the
1 Engl. Vers.—Horses and chariots.
certain, not only from testimonies of landed property from the principlé that
Herodotus (ii. 168), but from frequent the occupiers of the soil are most inter-
representations on Egyptian monuments ested in the safety of the country. Every
(Rosellini, I1., iii. p. 201). They were dis- soldier received twelve aurore of land,
tinguished by their arms and garments, free from all charge and tribute (the
and enjoyed peculiar privileges besides aurora Was a square measure, containing
those which were common to the warrior 10,000 cubits). Besides, no civil autho-
- caste. They were especially important rity had the power of arresting and im-
and influential in later times, under the prisoning a soldier for debt (Diod. i. 79).
dynasty of the Ptolemies; they possessed Herodotus (ii. 164—168) relates that they
the royal confidence in a high degree, were divided into two classes; the Her-
and were used to the most momentous motybies and the Calasiries, who were
offices and commissions, especially the originally, no doubt, different tribes.
“chief of the guards.” The number, “six Both were stationed in different nomes or
hundred chariots,” must appear very mo- districts, but almost exclusively in Lower
derate, and therefore trustworthy, if we Egypt; four-and-a-half nomes were, within
consider that Diodorus of Sicily )1.54( the Delta, occupied by the Hermotybies,
describes the military power of Sesostris and eleven others by the Calasiries, whilst
consisting of 600,000 men infantry, 24,000 each of these classes had but one district
riders, and 27,000 battle-chariots. in Middle and Upper Egypt, namely,
₪. And the children of Israel went Chemmis and Thebes. And if, as we |
out with a high hand, that is, openly, have no reason to doubt, this distribution .
confidently and joyfully (see Numbers of the warriors was already made in ante- 1 |
xxxlii. 8, where it is added, by way Mosaic times on account of the frequent |
of explanation “before the eyes of all invasions from Asia, the promptness with
/ Egypt”), or, as Mendelssohn says: “ they which the Egyptian army could be called
. made themselves banners and military out in Lower Egypt, is the easier ac- | ‫ה‬‎
standards, and went out cheerfully and counted for. The Hermotybies consisted,
singing and playing on cymbals and in the time of their greatest strength, of
lyres, like men who are for ever free 160,000 men; the Calasiries of 250,000.
from thraldom, not as slaves who intend They were not allowed to learn trades,
to return to the old yoke.” ‘The joyful- which pursuits they were accustomed to
ness and confidence of the Israelites consider as undignified and unmanly, but
refers to the exact time of the exodus; were obliged to devote themselves ex-
for, but a short time later, when the clusively to their military calling. How-
approaching Egyptians became visible ever, as they were landed proprietors, it
(verse 10), despondency and apprehen- is very probable that, in times of peace,
sion prevailed through their hosts. they engaged besides in sports of the
9. It cannot appear surprising, that field, and gymnastic exercises, in the
Pharaoh was, in such a little interval, occupations of agriculture, which pro-
enabled to pursue the Israelites with so mote the physical strength and foster
numerous an army, as it is well known habits of activity and temperance; al-
that the warriors formed the second though, according to an account of Diod-
hereditary caste of Egypt, which was so orus, they were accustomed to let out
influential that the kings were generally their lands to husbandmen. Annually
taken from it, and that it was alone, 1000 Hermotybies and Calasiries had to
except the priests, allowed to acquire serve as a guard to the king; and they

a
184 EXODUS XIV.
4rf
sea, beside Pi-hahiroth, before Baal-Zephon. 10. And
when Pharaoh approached, the children of Israel lifted up
their eyes, and, behold, the Egyptians marched after
them; and they were much afraid; and the children of
Israel cried to the Lord. 11. And they said to Moses,
Because there were no graves in Egypt, hast thou taken us
away to die in the wilderness? Wherefore hast thou done
received, during this time, an additional the greatest dangers; however, if we
allowance of meat, bread, and wine. suppose, instead of this, that they on that
After the lapse of one year they were day erroneously continued their way from
relieved by others; and the neglect of Etham to the south, so that, in order not
this practice caused the emigration of a to be shut out from Arabia by the Gulf of
large portion of the warriors to Ethiopia Suez, they were compelled 70 return, and
(Herod. ii. 30). It appears from our note to encamp in Pi-hahiroth, we haye a new
on verse 7, that the Egyptian army in- illustration of our opinion concerning the
cluded well-exercised chariot-warriors, situation of Pi-hahiroth and the signifi-
and an excellent infantry, but no con- cation of “ they shall return,” in verse 2.
siderable cavalry, at least not in earlier Targum Jonathan inserts here a rather
times. The interpretations, which would long addition describing the Israelites
find a cavalry mentioned in our text, are occupied in gathering from the sea-shore
incorrect; the infantry is mentioned in precious stones and jewels, which had
verse 9. Thusthe remark of Hengsten- belonged to the drowned Egyptians.
berg that, under the circumstances of 16. When the Israelites saw the
a quick and sudden pursuit, the infantry approach of the Egyptian army, they were
could here not be applied, is unfounded.— very much afraid. Ebn Ezra aptly re-
It would not be unimportant with regard marks on ver. 13: “It is very surprising
to the passage of the Israelites through that such a large. army, consisting of —
the Red Sea, to know the day on which 600,000 men, should be so terrified by an
Pharaoh overtook the encamping Israel- approaching enemy, and that they did
ites. The sacred text offers no clue on not fight for their own lives and for their
this point; tradition fixes the day upon wives and children. But our astonish-
the 9156 of Nisan, which statement Mi- ment ceases if we consider that the Egyp-
chaclis and others have tried to support, tians had been the lords of the Hebrews,
and to make plausible, by the following and that that generation, which had just
computation :—On the 15th day of Nisan departed from Egypt, had learned from
the Israelites arrived in Succoth (xii. 37); their youth to respect the Egyptians as
on the 16th in Etham (xiii. 20; from their superiors, and patiently to endure
Raamses to Etham is a distance of about all insults which they inflicted upon
nine German miles); on the 17th they them; thus had their minds become de-
rested in Etham; on the 18th they en- pressed and servile, and how could they
camped in Pi-hahiroth (xiv. 2); on the now fight against their masters? Besides,
19th, about noon, Pharaoh marched out the Israelites were weak and not experi-
to pursue the Israelites, and he overtook enced in the practices of war. They
them on the 20th, in the evening; so that could not even combat against the Ca-
the transit of the Israelites took place in naanitish tribes till the following genera-
the night of the 2lst of Nisan. In this tion had grown up, which had not sighed
specification we find only this one point under the foreign servitude, and which
improbable, that the Israelites should was bolder and more high-spirited.” This
have rested on the 17th of Nisan, under idea of Ebn Ezra has been still further
 EXODUS XIV. 185

_ thus to us, to lead us forth out of Egypt? 12. Js not

this the word that we spoke to thee in Egypt, saying, Let
us alone, that we may serve the Egyptians? For 8
better for us to serve the Egyptians, than that we should
die in the wilderness. 13. And Moses said to the people,
Fear ye not, stand still, and see the salvation of the Lord,
1 Engl. Vers.—Had been.

\
developed by Mendelssohn. Besides, the despondency and the disbelief of the
Hebrews were, undoubtedly, not provided Israelites opposed to his plans, as in
with battle-chariots, and, in general, not vi. 9: “They did not listen to Moses;’
so well equipped as the Egyptians. But or, v. 21: “The Lord may look upon
experience in the use of arms it was you and judge.” As faint reminiscences,
almost impossible for the Hebrews to and fluctuating traditions from past
possess, as in Egypt those only who be- centuries, were the only bonds by which
longed to the warrior caste, were per- the vast numbers of the Israelites were
mitted to wear arms. It may be a very feebly connected; as, further, the tyran-
wise and beneficial law, which forbids to nical measures of the Pharaohs had per-
wear arms in the streets; but it is scarcely fectly attained their aim in making the
a proof of so exalted a degree of civilisa- Israelites indifferent, and deadened to all
tion and political order, as Wilkinson higher interests—for this large population
finds in that prohibition (Manners, i. did not even attempt a revolt against
pp. 347, 402, et 560.(. A state may be their oppressors—and as political inde-
perfectly despotical, the personal liberty pendence was an idea which they had
of the citizens may be completely fettered, neither inherited from their ancestors,
and such a law might yet be enforced, as nor had themselves practically acquired:
is, indeed, even at the present day, in the miraculous interposition of God,
many absolute and autocratic govern- which, working through the agency of
\ ments. Despotism has, in fact, the very Moses, had effected their release, had
greatest interest in making +6 8 only silenced, not extirpated their doubts
forget the use of arms.—And the children and their reluctance; and now, when they
i
of Israel cried to the Lord, that is, saw themselves in an endless, dreary and
partly in prayer, partly in agitation and trackless wilderness, in which they must,
murmuring. Certainly those who are even under the most favourable circum-
in this verse represented as crying, are stances, expect all the horrors of famine,
the same who, in the following, as- and when, to complete their consterna-
> sail Moses with reproaches; so that tion, they beheld their mortal enemies
the translation of Targum Jonathan wrathfully follow behind them, and the
“and the wicked of that generation foaming sca wildly rage before them: was
said to Moses,” is quite arbitrary. In it not natural that the people, forgetting
ver. 18 and 14, the same _paraphrast a feeling of honour which had as yet
divides even the Israelites into four taken no root in their minds, wished
classes: those who wish to return to longingly to return to the old yoke of
Egypt, those who are eager to fight servitude, to the miseries and humili-
against the Egyptians, etc. ations to which long habit had almost
12. Although the text does not men- reconciled them, and in which their daily
tion similar remonstrances of the wants were, at least, tolerably provided
Israelites before the exodus, the pre- for?
ceding narrative offers more than one 13, 14. Moses calms the desponding
allusion to the resistance which the Israelites; but still without severity or
 186 EXODUS XIV.

which He will show to you to day: “for as you have seen

the Egyptians to-day, you shall see them again no more
for ever. 14. The Lord will fight for you, “hed you shall
keep yourselves quiet.
15. And the Lord said to Moses, Wherefore criest thou
tome? Speak to the children of Israel, that they go for-
ward: 16. And lift thou up thy 2staff and stretch out
thy hand over the sea, and divide it: - the children of
Israel shall go on dry ground through *the sea. 17. And
I, behold, I shall harden the hearts of the Egyptians, and
they will follow them: and I will be honoured through
1 Engl. Vers.—For the Egyptians, whom you have seen to-day, etc. 2 Rod.
3 The midst of the sea,

censure: they must, in this apparently with respect to ver. 10: you shall desist
desperate situation, not rely upon their from your clamouring and mourning; or
own strength, but upon the help of God, more probably: you may quietly and con-
who would combat for them, without the fidently trust in the assistance of God,
least co-operation on their part.—For as who will fight your combats for you.
you see the Egyptians to-day, you shall see 15—18. God repeats to Moses the
them again no more for ever. Against the promise of a happy deliverance from the
usual translation (“ The Egyptians, whom pursuing Egyptians (ver. 4), now stating
you have seen to-day, you shall see them the manner of this rescue, that He will
again no more”) may be urged, besides divide the sea before the Israelites, and
- other arguments, that such idea would lead them as through dry land, whilst He
militate against history and against would immerse the whole Egyptian army
the spirit of the Mosaic legislation: for in its depths.—And the Lord said to
the connection of the Israelites with the Moses, Wherefore criest thou to me ? which
Egyptians was, in later times also, especi- is by Targum Onkelos thus incorrectly
ally inthe epoch of the Hebrew monarchy, rendered: “I have heard thy prayer’;
vividly entertained; and Moses facili- and Rashi infers from it, that Moses,
tated the admission of the Egyptians into although consoling and encouraging the
the Hebrew community by special pre- Israelites, yet sought internal fortitude
cepts (see note on xxii. 20). Therefore, by prayer, which the Syriac version really
the assertion of Philippson: “that this adds. Natural and probable as is this
was the complete act of separation be- opinion, it is questioned by Ebn Ezra,
tween the tyrannical Egyptians and the who believes, that Moses is here named
enthralled Israelites, and thus their con- only as the representative of the people
nection was entirely and for ever dis- of Israel; which would be plausible only
solved,” is but partially true—But on on the supposition that the Israelites also
the other hand, it is perfectly correct, that invoked God’s assistance—— That they go
the Israelites saw the Egyptians no more forward, “tothe coast of the sea,” says
so as they beheld them on that day; by Ebn Ezra; but it is unquestionably more
a special providence in favour of the probable, that Moses, as a cautious leader,
Israelites, the flower of their army was in this critical moment, proceeded further
destroyed, and they were deeply .humi- northwards, where the passage was much
liated before all the nations of the earth. easier and safer, even in the case that
—And you shall be quiet, which very em- they should not succeed to pass round
phatical expression can signify either, the head of the Gulf (see on xiv. 1—3).— J
 EXODUS XIV. 187

Pharaoh, and through all his host, through his chariots,

and through his horsemen. 18. And the Egyptians shall
know that I am the Lord, when I have been honoured
through Pharaoh, through his chariots, and through his
horsemen. 19. And the angel of God, who went before
the camp of Israel, “withdrew, and went behind them; and
the pillar of cloud withdrew from before their face, and
stood behind them: 20. And it came between the camp
of the Egyptians and the camp of Israel; and it was a
cloud of darkness fo them, but it gave light by night 0
these: so that the one came not near the other all the
+ Engl. Vers —Removed.

Moses is commanded “to lift up the staff, one and the same pillar, accede to the
and to stretch out his hand over the sea,” opinion of Targum Jonathan, that it
analogous to similar symbolical acts per- divided itself into a bright and dark half,
formed at the Egyptian plagues (compare the former of which shone cheeringly
note on ix.10). For it was not the staff upon the path of the Israelites, whilst the
which divided the sea; but, according to latter benighted the ranks of the Egyp-
ver. 21, God kept back the waters by a tians; or,as Maurer explains, it appeared
strong east-wind; although this began to dark to the Egyptians, but bright to the
blow the moment when Moses lifted up Israelites; so also Vulgate, Luther, and
his staff.—Through the sea, not exactly others.—This is the general clear sense of
through the midst of the sea, but they these verses, which several ancient trans-
crossed it at that very point, on which lators render rather obscurely and con-
they happened to be at the beginning fusedly.—But certainly the text narrates
of the evening. a miraculous fact, and it is futile to
19, 20. In order to enable the Israelites explain it naturally, as, for instance,
to effect the passage over the Red Sea Vater has attempted to do, in the follow-
during the night, in safety and without ing manner: “ We can represent to our-
danger of being attacked or pressed on selves the circumstance, so that the vapour,
by the Egyptians, both armies were which might easily have been increased
divided by the pillar of cloud, which by lighting still more combustibles, was,
passed between them, so that they did not by the strong wind, driven upon the
touch each other during the night; and Egyptians, whilst the Israelites had the
in order to enhance the protection of the flame before them; and that the former
one, and the confusion of the other, the beheld towards the morning the red
former were surrounded by shining light, reflex of the flame breaking through the
the latter by deep darkness. Now those, vapour; and believed it in their conster-
who suppose that the pillar of cloud and nation to be a sign of the presence of
that of fire were two distinct columns, God.” ‘The precarious character of such
follow the opinion of Rashbam and of conjectures is self-evident—As God or
others, that the pillar of fire spread Jight His angel was in the cloud (see xiii. 21,
before the army of the Israelites as 22), the one recedes, when the other goes
usually in all nights, whilst the pillar of back; and therefore the phrases: “the
cloud stood behind them, and before the angel of God withdrew,” and “the pillar
Egyptians, causing darkness to the latter. of cloud withdrew” (in ver. 19) appear
But those, who believe that both were but to be synonymous.
 188 EXODUS XIV.
night. 21. And Moses stretched out his hand over the
sea; and the Lord caused the sea to go back by a strong
east-wind all that night, and made the sea dry 000, and
24, 22. In these two verses the memo- pressed in xy. 8: “the floods stood
rable and miraculous passage of the upright like a mound.” In these phrases
Israelites through the Red Sea is related the word wall is not exactly in-
in simple and clear words, and yet not tended to convey the idea of protection
without poetical grace. As in all the (as Michaelis believes), but only of hard~-
wonders of Egypt (see p. 88), this also, ness and solidity, into which the fluid was
the greatest of all (the division of the converted. More clearly thanin our text,
Red Sea), is based upon a natural cause, the similar miracle of the passage of the
and in this the boundless power of Jordan is related in Joshua iii. 18, 16,
God, who, by an insignificant change, where also the expression wall, is used
knows how to convert the natural and of the erect floods. Clericus and others
common course of things into extra- take the words wall and mound quite
ordinary and marvellous events, is su- figuratively, so that they signify mere-
blimely manifest. And, in this sense, ly, that the waters receded and formed
Rashbam observes: “God acted in the low fords. But those expressions
_ usual way, for the wind dries up and cannot possibly stand, by way of meta- |
coagulates the rivers;” and Ebn Ezra phor, for a thing which has not the re-
mentions, with particular stress, that the motest internal connection with them;
wind did not cease to blow during the they are evidently meant to represent a
whole night, even not at the time of the miraculous stand-still of the waves on
passage itself. It is a strong east-wind, both sides of the marcuing Israelites;
which produces the drying-up of the sea, which idea is expressly urged in Psalm
and “divides the waters;” for storms Ixxviii. 18, asagreat wonder, with the same
work at all times similar effects, although word; whereas that explanation would,
in an infinitely more limited degree; and contrary to the intention of the author,
the prophet Hosea (xiii. 15) says, with a disavow the miracle. We have already,
similar metaphor: ‘an east-wind shall in our notes on verses 1—3, refuted the
come, the wind of the Lord (that is, a conjecture, that the point of passage was
strong wind) and his spring shall cease to as far to the south as Bedea, and have
flow, and his fountain shall be dried up.” declared ourselves in fayour of Kolsoum,
The Hebrew term, however, here usedis not which was situated near the present Suez,
necessarily, the east-wind, which would and with which both the sacred text and
just have driven the waves into the faces the circumstances of the event harmonise,
of the Israelites, who stood at the western On this point the sea is only 757 double
coast, but only a strong, vehement wind, paces broad; and the Hebrew army could
from whatever part it may. blow. The well journey this distance within six or
Septuagint translates here, as ‫מ‬1‎ 8 seven hours, from the evening to the
(which see), sowth-wind, and the Vul- morning watch; and it is unnecessary to
gate, a burning wind, which dried recur, as Eichhorn, Rosenmiiller, and
up the sea by heat. But both ver- others do, to the conjecture that a large
sions are against our text. In fact, portion of the people had already reached
no individual wind applies exactly to the the eastern coast of the Gulf before that
description of the text; for the sea made time; a supposition quite untenable, and
a dry path from west to east, and from in no way justified by our text. Further,
both sides of it, to the right and to after the testimony of Niebuhr (Deser. of
the left, the waters formed a wall, Arabia, p.412), the bed of the sea is in
which sense is still more poetically ex- this part sandy, and, therefore, easily
 EXODUS XIV. 19
the waters were divided. 22. And the children of Israel
went ‘through the sea upon the dry ground: and the
1 Engl. Vers.—Into the midst of the sea.

passable, and not slimy or covered with To that fact Josephus also alludes, in a
corals, which are very numerous in the passage which is, besides, remarkable in
southern part. Besides, the water is here other respects. He writes, in his Antiq.
free from sea-weeds, which, in more II. xvi. 5: “As for myself, I have de-
southern sections, considerably aggravate livered every part of this history as I.
the passage, and render a quick march found it in the sacred books; nor let any
impossible. one wonder at the strangeness of the nar-
The extraordinary narrowness of the ration, if a way was discovered, even
Gulf of Suez, which appears here like a through the sea, by those men of ancient
river, has been noticed both by ancient times, who were free from wickedness,
and modern geographers, Strabo, Dio- whether it happened by the will of God,
dorus Siculus, Niebuhr and others. ‘The or whether it happened of its own accord,
sea has, in fact, on this point been since, for the sake of those who accom-
crossed by others also, although with panied Alexander, king of Macedonia,
great danger; so by Christopher Furer who yet lived, comparatively, but a little
and Jacob Beyer, from Nurnberg, in while ago, the Pamphylian Sea retired,
November, 1565; by Niebuhr, on horse- and afforded them a passage through
back, in September, 1762, whilst Arabs itself, when they had no other way to go,
accompanied him on foot; by Napoleon, I mean, when it was the will of God to
in the year 1798, also on horseback, but destroy the monarchy of the Persians;
who narrowly escaped; and by several and this is confessed to be true by all who
others. In general, passages over the have written about the actions of Alex-
sea, even with armies, are not without ander. But, as to these events, let
parallel; thus narrates Strabo (xiv. every one determine as he _ pleases.”
2. § 9) concerning Alexander the Great: Further, Livy (xxvi. 45) narrates, about
* About Phaselis 18 that narrow passage Scipio Africanus: “When he learnt
by the sea-side through which Alex- that the ebb was approaching, and
ander led his army. For Mount Klimax, that he could, from the sea-side, easily
which adjoins to the Pamphylian coast, reach the walls (of Carthago Nova), he
leaves, near the shore, a narrow passage, led his troops thither. It was about the
which, in calm weather, is bare, so as to middle of the day, and, besides the ebb,
be passable by travellers, but which is a heavy north-wind arose, and the sea
quite covered with water when the sea became so low that the water reached, at
overflows. Now then, the ascent by some places, only to their nayels, at
the mountain is very circuitous and labo- others, scarcely to their knees. Scipio
rious; Alexander arrived there in a represented this circumstance, which he
stormy season, but, as he mostly relied had discovered by attention and reflec-
upon his good fortune, he commenced the tion, as a miracle, and ascribed it to the
march before the sea had retired, and his gods, who, in order to prepare a passage
soldiers were obliged to journey a whole for the Romans, had ordered the sea to
day through the water, which reached to retire, and opened paths never before
the navel.” ‘This fact, which Alexander trodden by human feet; he, therefore,
himself describes in his letters as plain and commanded his troops to follow N eptune
natural, has, by later writers, as Arrian, as the guide of their way, and to proceed
Appian, Menander and others, been drawn to the walls through the midst of the low
into the sphere of the miraculous, and re- water.” Dr. E. D. Clarke (Travels, i.
presented as an extraordinary occurrence, p. 824) writes: “A remarkable pheno-
190 EXODUS XIV.
waters were a wall to them on their right hand and on
their left. 23. And the Egyptians pursued, and went in
after them into the sea, all Pharaoh’s horses, his chariots,
and his horsemen. 24. And it came to pass, that in the
morning watch the Lord looked upon the host of the
menon occurs in the Sea of Azof during cal literature if it were attempted to argue
violent east-winds: the sea retires, in so away that miracle (compare Exod. xy.
singular a manner, that the people of 14--19; Ps. lxvi. 6; Ixxvii. 17; lxxviii.
Tanganrog are able to effect a passage 13; cvi. 9; cxiv. 3; Josh. iv. 23, etc).
upon dry land to the opposite coast, a 8rd. Even the Egyptians acknowledge
distance of twenty versts, equal to fourteen (ver. 25) the miraculous character of this
miles; but when the wind changes, and event; 4th. The ebb lasts only so short
this it sometimes does very suddenly, the time that the whole army would not
waters return with such rapidity to their safely have reached the opposite coast,
wonted bed that many lives are lost. without being overtaken by the returning
The depth here is five fathoms.” See flood, and the supposition of Mich-
also Plutarch, in the Life of Lucullus, aelis, that a double ebb took place just in
cap. 24, about his passage over the Eu- that night, as that on the Dutch coast,
phrates, on which the natives of the in June 1672, would imply quite as great
country looked with astonishment as a miracle as that which it is intended to
upon a miracle.—However, in spite of all remoye, Then, to sum up this subject,
these analogies, we cannot accede to the although a passage through the Red Sea
usual supposition, which has, since many in the neighbourhood of Kolsoum, in a
centuries, been zealously advocated, that natural way, is not quite impossible, and
Moses also availed himself of the ebb to has, indeed, several times been effected
lead the Israelites over the Red Sea; for, in later periods; it was yet, according to
it is asserted, that his long sojourn in the holy text, executed under so extraor-
those regions must have made him ac- dinary circumstances that the literal sense
quainted with the regularly returning of our narrative shows, unmistakably, that
tides; and thus the history of the passage it is intended to describe here a miracle.
would be deprived of every miraculous Profane writers alsomention the drying out
element, and would simply become a of the sea, and the transit of the Israel-
natural event. But, although both an- ites; thus, according to Diodor. (iii. 39),
cient and modern writers confirm the the Ichthyophagi, a poor and not very
considerable ebbs at the Red Sea, the- numerous tribe in the east of the Gulf of .
following facts militate against such con- Suez, have preserved the tradition, that
jecture: Ist. The holy text makes no “by a great ebb once the whole Gulf
allusion whatever to ebb or flood; on the became dry, the waters gathered on the
contrary, the description of the event opposite side, so that the bottom was
“that the waters of the sea stood like a visible; but then a violent flood filled up
wall to the right and to the left,” ut- the bed again.” On the account of Arta-
terly excludes such interpretation; 2nd, panus, see in the Introduction, § 3. iy.
According to the spirit of our narrative, 23. The Egyptians, either seeing the
evidently no natural event is related, but dry path of the sea, or (as Abarbanel
an extraordinary miracle, to which the believes) surrounded by darkness (ver.20),
later Hebrew historians, poets and pro- not perceiving at all that the Israelites
phets, incessantly refer, as the greatest effected their passage over the dry bed of
act of God’s special providence in favour the waves, followed them in blind fury;
of Israel, and it would require nothing in the former case, hoping to share the
less than a contortion of the whole Bibli- miracle wrought in favour of the Israelites;
 EXODUS XIV. 19]

Egyptians through the pillar of fire and of the cloud, and

‘confounded the host of the Egyptians; 25. And ?made
glide out their chariot-wheels, “and led them on with diffi-
culty; so that the Egyptians said, Let us flee from before
Engl. Vers.—Troubled. 2 Took off. 5 That they drave them heavily.

in the other alternative, not even aware indignation on the pursuing refractory
of the imminent danger, into which they idolators, and He thus confounded them.
madly plunged; and thus all their horses, — Similar metaphors derived from the —
chariots, and warriors ran into their ‘‘wrathful eye” of the Lord occur also
destruction. in Amos ix. 4; Ps. civ.32, ete. Our text
24. And it came to pass in the morning describes merely the sudden consternation
watch. Like all nations which calculate of the Egyptians, and points to God as
after the course of the moon (as the the author of this horror, without in the
Arabians, Greeks, Gauls, and others), least alluding to the means, by which
the Hebrews reckoned the civil day that unexpected panic was produced.
from sunset to sunset. ‘The division of Tradition believes thunder and lightning,
the natural day into twelve hours, which together with earthquake and torrents of
were in the different seasons of unequal rain to have been the cause of the
length (as among the Egyptians, Greeks, confusion; and already in the Psalms
and Romans), seems to have been adopted (Ixxvii. 18, 19) the event is thus repre-
by the Israelites not earlier than in the sented: “The clouds poured out water;
time of the exile, when they followed the skies sent out a sound; Thy arrows
their Babylonian masters (Herod. ii. 109). also were darted. The voice of Thy
The hours were counted from sunrise; thunder was in the whirlwind; the light-
the first corresponded with our sixth in nings illumined the world; the earth
the morning; the sixth to our twelfth. trembled and shook,” and similarly Targ.
The longest day in Palestine lasts four- Jonathan and Jerusalem, which opinion
teen hours and twelve minutes; the is also followed by Ebn Ezra, Rashi,
4
shortest, nine hours forty-eight minutes. Rashbam, and others, and even by
.| The night was divided into “ watches,” modern interpreters; and Josephus also
> that is, into sections after the lapse of (Antiq. 1 xvi.3) writes: “Showers of
which the watch was relieved. 6 rain came down from the sky, and dread-
= the exile three such watches were in use ful thunders and lightning, with flashes
among the Hebrews: 1. the first watch of fire; thunder-bolts also were darted
of the night, from about six to ten upon them; nor was there anything
in the evening (Lament. ii. 19); 2. the which used to be sent by God upon men,
middle watch, from ten to two o’clock as indications of His wrath, which did
in the night (Judg. vii. 19); and 8. the not happen at this time.”—We repeat,
morning watch, from about two to six in that our text offers no hint concerning
the morning, or to the morning-dawn (here these or similar phenomena.—God, “ who
and in 1 Sam. xi. 11); and as the exodus was in the pillar of fire and of cloud,”
of the Israelites took place at the beginning confounded the Egyptian army.
of April (see note on xii.2), sunrise was 25. And He made their chariot-
about six o’clock in the morning.—But wheels glide out and led them on with
later, in the time of Christ, the Israelites difficulty. Many different explanations
had, after the custom of the Romans, of these words have been proposed; but
four watches of about three hours each. if we follow the construction and con-
—And the Lord looked upon the host of text without artificial efforts, we arrive
the Egyptians through the pillar of fire simply at the following sense: God
andof the cloud. God cast a glance of brought confusion over the Egyptians,
 192 EXODUS XIV.

Israel; for the Lord fighteth for them against the Egyp-
tians.—26. And the Lord said to Moses, Stretch out thy
hand over the sea, that the waters may ‘return upon the
Egyptians, upon their chariots, and upon their horsemen.
27. And Moses stretched forth his hand over the sea, and
the sea returned to 5148 usual flood towards the morning ;and
Engl. Vers.—Come again. 2 To his strength when the morning appeared.

for, eager as they were to pursue the into their wonted bed, and devour the
Israelites, their chariots could not move Egyptian chariots and their warriors in
ae
=.

on the slippery bottom of the sea, as if one common grave.

by higher interposition; they glided in- .‫בל‬ And the Egyptians fled against‫‏‬
cessantly out or back; and thus the it. For when they saw that the floods‫‏‬
Egyptian chariot-army went but slowly were approaching, they turned round,‫‏‬
and heavily on, whilst the Israelites, and thus hastened towards the waters;‫‏‬
mostly on foot, reached the opposite but they were overtaken by the waves,‫‏‬
ec‫‏‬
‫ו‬
coast with rapid steps. — The trans- before they could gain the Egyptian‫‏‬
ae
>
lation almost generally adopted is: coast.‫‏‬
“and He took off their chariot wheels”; 2s. And the waters returned and
thus Onkelos, Ebn Ezra, Rashi (who covered the chariots, and the horsemen,
ascribes these destructive effects to the together with all the host of Pharaoh.
lightning, which struck also the bodies That this is the only admissible transla-
of the warriors), Luther, Mendelssohn, tion has been grammatically proved in
307‫‏‬
20%
ES
Oe
:‫ב‬
and others. But if the wheels of the our Hebrew edition, For we are not
oe
2-2 chariots were broken off, God did not permitted to suppose, that only the
lead them on with difficulty or slowly, Egyptian chariots pursued the Israelites
but the chariots would not have moved in the sea, whilst the infantry (ver. 9)
on at all; at least, the Egyptians would remained behind; so that the former
have at once and entirely abandoned the alone were devoured by the waves. It
war-chariots without wheels, 88 per- is true that both in this and in the fol-
fectly unfit either for pursuit or combat.— lowing chapter, and in most other parts
The Septuagint translates: “and he tied generally, the destruction of the chariots
up the axles of their chariots, and led and its warriors is chiefly alluded to
them on with force,” which rendering (ver. 26; xv. 4, 19, 21, etc); so that this
is both arbitrary and ungrammatical. particular stress would, perhaps, justify
Into a similar mistake, besides others, the that conclusion. But it is evidently the
English Version also has fallen, translat- intention of the sacred historian, to
ing with a change of the subjects: “ so describe the total annihilation of the
that they drove them heavily.” — Cer- whole military force of the Egyptians,
tainly, the general sense of the words, and he probably mentions the Egyptian
“and He tied up the wheels,” if taken war-chariots and horses with particular
figuratively for, “He arrested them,” is emphasis, only because these formed the
on the whole correct. See the larger chief pride and strength of the Egyptian
edition. army, and because these required a
26. After all the Israelites had reached greater depth of the waves to drown
the opposite shore, God commanded them. But still more decidedly must
Moses to stretch out his hand, when all we reject the opinion of Wilkinson |
the waves, which had hitherto stood like (Manners i. p. 54), that “there is no
a wall, firm and immovable, at both sides authority in the writings of Moses for
of the traversing Israelites, would return supposing that Pharaoh was drowned
 teal see 2

<<
®
‫ו‬
.
2
EXODUS XIV.‫‏‬ 193

the Egyptians fled against it; and the Lord overthrew the
EgEgyptians in the sea. 28. And the waters returned, and
= covered the chariots, and the horsemen, *together with all the
host of Pharaoh that came into the sea after them; there re-
mained not so muchas one of them. 29. But the children
of Israel ‘had walked upon dry land through the sea; and
3 Engl. Vers. —And, 4 Walked.

inthe Red Sea.” There is the strongest be true, that “ whenever any fact is men-
possible authority for this supposition. tioned in the Bible history we do not
= The whole plan of pursuing the Israelites discover anything on the monuments
originated in Pharaoh (vers. 3, 5), who which tends to contradict it”; but it is
strongly blamed himself for his rash con- most precarious to form Biblical con-
sessions; he took his own chariot and set jectures on so uncertain a basis as hiero-
out at the head of his whole army (vers. glyphical inscriptions; and Egyptian
6 7), and followed the Hebrews; then history is still too much disputed, even
" God promised to glorify Himself “through in its fundamental outlines and its very
Pharaoh and all his hosts” (ver. 17), framework, to be used as an authority
which is emphatically repeated in ver. 18. equal to that of the sacred text. Wil-
d They, the Egyptian army, led by Pharaoh, kinson’s results must, in this respect, be
follow the Israelites into the sea and are viewed with the greater precaution, as
drowned; “there remained not one of he follows the questionable opinion of
them.” We believe this is too clear to be those, who count but 430 years from the
‘mistaken; andif Wilkinson maintains, that immigration of Abraham into Canaan
in the song of Moses no mention is made to the exodus of his descendants from
of the king’s death, he has overlooked Egypt, and places this latter event into
‎‫ וצ‬- 9, which clearly points back to xiv, 2; the fourth year of the reign of Thotmes
“The enemy said, I will pursue.” This 111. (see Introduction, §§ 1, 2).
| is evidently Pharaoh, and none else; and 29. But the children of Israel had walked
the same “ enemy” who said this, was upon dry land through the sea, etc. As
covered by the waves (xv. 10). Further, the same sentence occurs already, almost
tne authorit#of Psalm exxxvi. 15, is more with the same words, above in ver. 22,
conclusive than Wilkinson believes, if Rashbam proposes to take the verb as
considered from the Hebrew text, which pluperfect: “ But the children of Israel
says distinctly, “He (God) drove Pha- had walked,” etc; an explanation equally
raoh and his host into the Red Sea” favoured by grammar and the context.
the translation of the Authorised Version But this sentence is repeated, in order
“overthrew” is certainly too indistinct; once more strongly to contrast the rescue
and the same verb is used in our text, of the Israelites with the destruction of the
ver. 27, originally to shake, to throw Egyptians. However, Ebn Ezra finds in
ywn). In fact, the retaliation of divine those words, combined with xv. 8, 10,19,
stice would have been very imperfect, the following sense: “ When Pharaoh
ad it not included him who was the perished with his army in the returning
source and the author of the miseries floods, all the Israelites had not yet crossed
of the Israelites, against whom the ten the sea; a new wonder was necessary;
plagues were chiefly directed, and who and it happened, that at the same time
iad by his obstinacy plunged into endless a strong wind dried up that part of the
alamities his unfortunate subjects, who Gulf where the Israelites were passing,
ere themselves less unwilling to obey whilst another wind from the opposite
he command of God (see x.7). It may direction blew the waves, which had just
0
 + ‫ \"צץ‬Le > — a. ‫ת‬
aa 2 ‫י‬
oe‫‏‬

194 EXODUS XIV., XV.

the waters had been a wall to them on their right hand, and
on their left. 30. Thus the Lord saved Israel that day
out of the hand of the Egyptians; and Israel saw the
Egyptians dead upon the sea-shore. 31. And Israel saw
that great 'might which the Lord *had shown against the
Egyptians: and the people feared the Lord, and believed
in the Lord, and in His servant Moses.
1 Engl. Vers.—W ork. 2 Did upon the Egyptians.

been solid like a wall, upon Pharaoh and and believed in the Lord and in His
his army.” It is scarcely necessary to servant Moses. They feared God on
mention, that this conjecture is no way account of His severe justice, which
borne out by the holy text.—The same condemns, and His omnipotence, which
commentator raises here also the question, chastises, every obstinacy; and they
how it was feasible, that more than two believed in Him, relying on His paternal
millions of people could cross the sea in care in the sterile, dreary desert, because
one night; and attempts a solution by He had hitherto so lovingly and so mira-
the remark, that the hosts of the Israelites culously guided them; but they believed
divided themselves into several sections, now in Moses also as the obvious mes-
which effected the passage one at the side senger or servant of God, in whose name,
of the other along the Gulf; quoting a and under whose direction he undertakes
rabbinical remark, according to which the all his schemes. Only with this awful
Israelites made the transit over the sea miracle, which destroyed the flower of the
in a semicircular line, and met again in Egyptian youth, Israel’s redemption was
the desert of Shur on the eastern coast of completed; the first and principal con-
the Gulf. dition of their organization into an inde-
30. Now only were the Israelites com- pendent community was realized; Moses
pletely and for ever rescued from the could now, without impediment, lead his
tyranny of the Egyptians, “and Israel nation to the place where it was to
saw the Egyptians dead upon the sea- receive the divine revelation, and then,
shore;” for the carcases of the Egyptians after such internal preparation, determine
had been driven to the western shore. on the measures best calculated to ad-
Josephus (Antiq. 1. xvi. 6) adds the vance his ulterior aim, the immigration
following circumstance: “On the next into, and the conquest of, Canaan. But,
day Moses gathered together the weapons before proceeding with any new plan, |
of the Egyptians, which were brought to his pious mind feels that a holy debtis
the camp of the Hebrews by the current first to be paid, a debt of praise and gra- |
of the sea, and the force of the winds titude to the Lord of Hosts, for the mira-
assisting it; and he conjectured that this culous rescue, and His fatherly guidance;
also happened by divine Providence, and Moses acquits himself of this duty |
that they might not be destitute of wea- in a manner worthy alike of his brilliant —
pons.” genius and of his deep and enthusiastic
31. And the people feared the Lord, piety.
/

CHAPTER XV.
Summary.—Hymn of praise of the Israelites after the successful passage over ne
Red, Sea (ver. 1—21). They proceed farther, in a south-easterly direction,
to Marah, where they break out into open murmuring on account of the
bitterness of the water. Moses makes it, however, potable, by throwing into itd
 EXODUS XV. 195
{ on the command of God, the wood of a certain tree. He avails himself of this
( miraculous event to exhort the people anew to obedience and submission to the
divine guidance (ver. 22—26). From Marah they journey to Elim. where they
encamp at the side of refreshing fountains, and under shady palm-trees (ver. 27).

THE HYMN OF MOSES.—VEeEnr. 1—19.

PREFATORY REMARKS.
Tue following song, the interpretation of which we approach with a feeling of reve-
rence and veneration, is as sublime and vigorous in its contents as it is masterly and
perfect in its form; it has not only served as a model for all later hymns of victory ”
in sacred lore, but it has scarcely been equalled by any production of a similar class
in any other literature. But the richer the contents are, and the more finished the
form, the nearer lies the temptation artificially to divide and subdivide the one, and
violently to force the other into metrical laws, contrary to the simplicity of its struc-
ture. And great is the number of interpreters who have gone astray in either direc-
a they have indulged in logical niceties, and linguistic subtleties, which must
ecessarily destroy both the sublimity and the grace of this immortal lay. The
inspired poet, powerfully moved by the mighty impulse of extraordinary events,
Surrounded by a people miraculously delivered from an all but certain ruin, and be-
holding the corpses of the revengeful foes heaped up on the opposite coast, is carried
away to a glowing effusion of gratitude, of rapture, and of hope, an effusion in which
neither his mind heeds the fetters of pedantic logical connection, nor his imagination
the restraints of prosodical rules: it is an ode of the highest lyrical flight, the result
of the enthusiasm of the moment, the production of a lofty genius and an over-
flowing heart. Nobody will, in such a poem, expect a prosaical and regular disposition, a
strictly systematical arrangement of ideas, or a rigid observance of the metrical pre-
cepts. But, notwithstanding all this, such composition is far from being confused in
contents, or arbitrary in form; for that is just the mystery of heavenly inspiration, that
it is the highest order in the midst of the greatest apparent arbitrariness, and that it
1

__ creates laws whilst it seems to bid defiance to all laws. And thus we find the burden
_ | of our song clearly divided into two most characteristic parts, namely: Ist, in a retro-
ys spect upon the deliverance from the land of the Egyptians, and the punishment of the
impious enemies (ver. 1—12); and, 2nd, a prospective view into the future, describing
= the terror of the warlike neighbouring nations, the Philistines, the Edomites, the Moab-
ites, and lastly of the Canaanitish tribes, and penetrating, with a prophetic eye, for-
ward to that glorious event which formed the noblest aim of the Egyptian redemption
= —the erection of the sanctuary on Moriah (ver. 13—18). In the Decalogue also we
find those two elements: in the first commandment an allusion to Egyptian servitude;
in the fourth, to the land of promise. Readers susceptible of great poetical impres-
sions, may, from these wide outlines, imagine what scope for gigantic descriptions is
opened in such theme: the omnipotence of the Lord, the vindictiveness of the enemies,
their ferocity and their destruction, praise and jubilation, gratitude and promises and
| hopes; and they will thank us that we do not, by anatomizing, annihilate the beautiful
organism of the song—that we do not offend the obvious presence of the deity by pro-
fane declamation. But we must call attention to the wonderful instinct with which
the poet, just at this moment, when the Israelitish nation happened to be between
= Egypt and Palestine, both as regards time and place, when they left the land of their
ignominy with mixed feelings of joy and apprehension, and impatiently longed to
1
i] teach the promised abodes of their future glory, that he, just then, described that
double relation with so firm a hand and such characteristic traits. And thus has that,
which many critics consider as a historical anticipation, carrying us into the times of
Dayid and Solomon, been ennobled into a poetical beauty by the sanctity of prophetic
‫יס‬
2
 196 THE HYMN OF MOSES.

inspiration. And Herder remarks, in this respect: “If this poem contains parts
which, 16 might seem, could not well have been sung in that period, it must be remem-
bered, that the temple, the holy places, and the land, which the Israelites were destined
to occupy, existed already clearly in God’s and Moses’ minds; and the latter prepared
the people successfully for the exertions and sacrifices necessary for the realization of
their hopes.”
The same master-mind which manifests itself in the contents, is easily obvious in the
form also. ‘This ode has, with regard to the metre, shared the same fate with all the
other poetical compositions of the Old Testament; some have discovered in it the
artificial Greek measures, especially the Sapphic strophe, others the iambic and anapestic
rhythm, as Bellermann, who, in order to carry out his theory, arbitrarily divides our
chapter into forty verses; and, where such operations are unayailable, the prosodists
either propose self-invented metrical rules, at variance with every analogy, or they
change the vowels of the sacred text, asserting that the correct pronunciation of
Hebrew is totally lost to us, or, lastly, where all this even is insufficient to support their
aerial systems, they admit that the metre and the feet of the verses frequently vary
according to the varying contents of the poem, and they thus destroy, with their
own hands, the laboriously erected edifice of a metrical art, the first and chief law
of which would necessarily be the uniformity and the regular recurrence of the same
feet. Certainly, the efforts to trace the metre of our song are justifiable, since
Josephus distinctly observes, that it is composed in hexameter verse; and similar
assertions we find in Philo, Eusebius, Jerome, and Isidorus Hispalensis. But none of
all these writers has so much as tried the attempt to prove their hypothesis in one single
verse; and the conjecture of Loscher, that those authors had, in that assertion, regarded
the members or parts of the verses, rather than the measure of the syllables, is the more
plausible, as it seems impossible, practically to apply any of those metres to our song,
according to the laws of classical prosody. But, instead of this, we find here that free
rhythmical grace, and that “ parallelism of the members” which has, ever since the mid-
dle of the last century, been acknowledged as the only characteristic metre of Hebrew
poetry, and which, indeed, forming a sort of rhyme of the sense, is capable of represent-
ing the lyrical inspiration of the soul with more vigour, originality and enthusiasm, than
all artificial metres based merely on the uniformity of syllables. Whilst the poet seems
merely intent upon expressing his idea with greater and greater lucidity, power and
energy, assailing, in the impulse and fire of his effusions, the mind of the reader, from
different sides with new images and new arguments, this very reiteration and renewal
of attempts constitute a harmony of the form, the effects of which are the more oyer-
powering, the more the modified form is adapted to the modified idea. Thus that
parallelism of the members, if judiciously applied, produces the same beauty, and cer-
tainly implies the same power and grandeur as the complicated metres of the classics;
and so far from imposing upon the poet the same burdensome fetters, it supports and
facilitates the expression of the ideas, by those repetitions and additions peculiarly
adapted for rounding and finishing the sentence. It is true, we are accustomed not
only to expect a regular metre, in poetical composition, but even to consider it indis-
pensable, But De Wette observes justly: * Everything depends on the character of
the poem. 61006 has, just in the most sublime odes, disdained strict and regular
metres, and contented himself with a certain free euphony. This formlessness has,
indeed, a more elevated character than a certain prescribed form, and as sublimity
is the character of the Hebrew poetry, the absence of regular metres cannot be found
surprising.” However this may be, the parallelism of the members seems to be a
fundamental rhythmical law in all poetry; it forms the basis of the rhyme, of the
strophe and autistrophe, the distich (hexameter and pentameter), the stanza, the
ottayerime, and almost all modern metres.
The three principal kinds of parallelism occur in our poem also, namely; I. the
 THE HYMN OF MOSES. 7
‘synonymous parallelism (which consists of two or more members expressing the same
idea with different words), in ver. 2 (second half), ver. 3 (see note), vers. 4, 6, 8
(where the same idea, concerning the great miracle of the drying up of the sea, is
thrice repeated), vers. 11, 14 and 17.—II. The antithetical parallelism (which consists
in the opposition of the ideas), in ver. 16 (where the four members contain a double
a antithesis), ver. 19 (which certainly approaches already to prosaic diction, and does
not perhaps strictly belong to the poem, see note); and, III, the synthetic parallelism
>
(where a mere co-ordination, or a simple progress of the ideas, takes place), which is
the most frequent in this song, and is the most lively form of parallelism, because it
> | 16808 the sense onward: vers. 1, 2 (first half), 5, 7 (where the second member is, with
peculiar emphasis, divided into two parts), 10, 12, 13, 15. Besides these, we find a
remarkable instance of a merely rhythmical parallelism, which, without synonym,
antithesis, or synthesis, only consists in a harmonious division of the parts, and de-
scribes the progressing action with particular emphasis; it is in ver. 9: “ The enemy
said, I will pursue; overtake; divide the spoil; my lust shallbe satisfied upon them; I will
draw my sword; my hand shall destroy them.”—And the whole concludes with a brief
| and pithy ejaculation: “The Lord will reign for ever and ever” (ver, 18), forming a
finished unity with the beginning: “I will sing to the Lord” (ver. 1).
a From this short outline the reader, gifted with an imaginative mind, will derive
already some notion of the power and variety displayed in this song, and will, we hope,
be better prepared to appreciate its poetical beauties, than if, like some writers have
done, we had indulged in empty exclamations on the elegance of every individual
; syllable, or word, or similar minutiz.—But the assertion, that our poem compared with
the blessing of Jacob (Gen. xlix.) manifests a great progress and development,
apparently originates in a want of logical distinctness, Both compositions are equally
perfect in their kind; but the blessing of Jacob is a prophecy, and therefore necessarily
_____abrupt, obscure, and brief; whilst our song is a lyric ode, and leaves therefore naturaily 3
9
-___ more scope to imagination, and is more perspicuous and descriptive; the one has to
depict the changeful fates of twelve tribes with a few emphatic words; the other
has to delineate one single historical fact, poetical in itself, with all the means of
| __ artistic invention; both productions are, therefore, of heterogeneous, but not unequal
| 0 merits; the difference lies only in their nature, not in the execution of the subjects
| treated; and as our song has become the model of the lyrical ode, so is that blessing
| the type of prophetic revelations.—But we add a remark of Herder, both a poetical
and philosophical mind, about the grand economy of our poem: “The passage
through the Red Sea has given occasion to the oldest and most harmonious triumphal
‘song, which we possess in the Hebrew language.....Its structure is simple, full of
assonances and rhymes, which I am unable to render in our language, without
. violence to the words: for the Hebrew language is rich in such sounding assonances,
on account of its uniform organism. Light, long, but few words echo away in the
air, and mostly a deep monosyllabic sound finishes the verse.”
But we have to discuss one feature more, which materially contributes to the singular
effect which this ode is calculated to produce. It would appear partly from the
introduction: “'Then sang Moses and the children of Israel,” partly from vers. 21
and
“a
22, in which it is related, that Miriam, the sister of Moses, went out with timbrels
and dances, singing, “ Praise the Lord, for He is exalted gloriously; the horse and its
rider hath He thrown into the sea”; it would appear from these circumstances, with
some probability, that our song was recited with the accompaniment of a chorus.
How this was executed was already among the Rabbins a much disputed question.
Some say, that the Israelites responded to Moses after every verse with the words,
> ‫ך‬‎ will sing to the Lord,” etc. Others believe, that the Hebrews repeated every
sentence, as Moses sang it before them. But Rabbi Nehemiah is of opinion, that
= Moses began with the words: “ Then shall Israel sing,” and the Israelites fell in: “ 1
 198 THE HYMN OF MOSES.
will sing to the Lord,” ete.; Moses then continued: “'The Lord is my praise and song,”
etc.; and the Israelites resumed: “ He is my God, and I will glorify
Him,” etc.; and
so on through the whole song.—According to Midrash Tanchuma
, Moses recited alone
the whole poem in the name of all Israel.— But Philo observes: “
This song on the Red
Sea was chaunted by allthe men; not blindly and wildly, but
with a clear consciousness,
Moses singing every verse before them. The women recited
it likewise under the direc-
tion of Miriam. And this hymn was sung by the two choruses;
for it has an admirable
epodos (refrain), extremely agreeable to repeat.” Nor are
these the only conjectures
proposed on this subject; it avails little to enumerate them,
a3 all are but personal
suppositions, devoid of every Biblical foundation, In similar
disputed cases, in which
everything is to be derived from reflection and imagination,
and nothing from the
sacred text, the simplest interpretation, and that most suitable
to the circumstances, is
the most preferable. First, no statement of the text compels
us to suppose a choral
song. If it is stated, “that Moses and the children of Israel”
sang this hymn, the
one may be considered as its author, whilst the others learnt
it by heart and sang it
with him, according to the analogy of David’s elegy
on the death of Saul and
Jonathan, which the poet ordered to teach the people
(2 Sam. i. 18). And the
recitation of the quoted words of Miriam, “with timbrels
and with dances,” points
only to a combination, so common in antiquity, of poetry,
music, and dance. But
even if we suppose the application of choruses in the
chaunting of this hymn, the
remark in vers. 20 and 21, leads us with sufficient certainty
to the conjecture, that if
one recited the song, the chorus responded with the
words: “Sing to the Lord, for
He is gloriously exalted; the horse and its rider hath He thrown into the sea,” like
a
kind of refrain, after appropriate points of rest or sections
of the poem; perhaps after
ver.3 (the briefness and pith of which is itself well suitable
for such refrain); after
ver. 5 (where the description of the ruin of the Egyptians
is finished); after ver. 10,
(to where the anger of God is represented); after ver. 17
(to where God’s mercy in
guiding Israel into the Holy Land, the building of the temple,
and the annihilation of
all enemies is described, who might oppose them in this
double purpose); and as a
most appropriate conclusion serves the 18th verse: “The Lord
will reign for ever and
ever.” It is remarkable, that each of these parts commence
s with a praise of God; so
that the hymn, perfectly in harmony with the beginnin
g words: “I will sing to
the Lord,” etc., seems to be intended as a song of praise to
God, but most character-
istically coloured by the events of the moment; which
is a new proof of its authenticity.
Such a similar participation of the chorus in the recital
of the triumphal hymn, is not
only natural and easy, but in accordance with the usage
of most ancient and modern
nations; it is as impressive as it is unaffected; and could
easily be performed even by
a numerous people unskilled in the secrets of art (compare
Ps. cxxxvi). Most of the
other conjectures destroy the native vigour and originalit
y of the song.—Thus the
objection, that it was impossible to teach so quickly an
uncultivated nation, as the
Hebrews then were, so long and elaborate a poem, is of no
weight, and might besides,
be removed by considering that the adverb then, does not
exactly signify the moment
or even day of their arrival at the eastern coast of
the Red Sea, but only about that
time, between their passage and their departure to
the wilderness of Shur. It has
further been acknowledged, that this song is distinguished
by a remarkable simplicity
of ideas and expressions, that it contains very few of
those bold elliptical construe-
tions, which constitute one of the chief difficulties of Hebrew
poetry, and that, how-
ever grand and sublime, it is so easy and clear, that even
the multitude might com-
prehend and learn it. Further, the length of the poem has, in the minds of some
critics, raised doubts as to its authenticity; since the epinicia
of the Hebrews and other
nations are usually but very brief ejaculations, as, for instance,
that song of the women
in 1 Sam. xviii. 7: “Saul hath slain his thousands, and David
his ten thousands.”
But on the one hand, the occasion for an enthusiastic song of praise was in our case
 EXODUS XV. 199
by far more grand and sublime than at the first victories of David, and on the other
hand, nothing prevents us from regarding that verse also as the mere refrain of some
longer song, quite similar to our case, where the women repeat likewise, in very few
impressive words, the burden and tendency of the ode.—But that Moses was able to
compose so quickly, and almost extempore, so elaborate a song, will appear surprising
to those only, who are not familiar with the astonishing facility with which Oriental
poets exercise the art of improvisation, and who have not clearly represented to them-
selves the grand and overwhelming situation, in which this poem has been conceived,
~ and which was of that extraordinary nature, which carries the mind beyond its natural
capacities and inspires it with an enthusiasm not ordinarily belonging to it.

HEN sang Moses and the children of Israel this

song to the Lord, and spoke, saying: 1 will
sing to the Lord, for 'He is gloriously exalted: the horse
and its rider hath He thrown into the sea. 2. The Lord
ws my “praise and song, *for He hath become my salvation;
He ts my God, and I will ‘glorify Him; my father’s God,
and I will exalt Him. 3. The Lord is a man of war:
1 Engl. Vers.—He hath triumphed gloriously. 2 Strength. 3 And.
4 Prepare him an habitation.

4. The notes which we can here offer now glorified Himself through me also;
on this sublime hymn are necessarily thus the God of tradition has become a
brief; for its beauties can only be appre- God of my own experience, the God of
ciated and enjoyed if it is considered belief, a God of knowledge.
from the Hebrew text, the power and 3. The Lord is a man of war. God
nerve of which is inimitable in any trans- has annihilated the powerful enemies, who
lation or paraphrase. Those who are approached with a formidable might ; and
not acquainted with the holy tongue, thus He has shown Himself as a God of
lose here both many vigorous ideas and war and 1840108. -- The short sentence
poetical beauties of the highest order. concludes with the very significant words,
We refer, for a more copious philological the Eternal is His name. It 18 obvious,
explanation, to the larger edition of this that Jehovah is here used with regard to
commentary. iii. 15, and vi. 8, where this holy name of
I will sing to the Lord. These words, the “Eternal and unchangeable God”
to the end of the verse, express the aim was, in its full and deep meaning, first
and tendency of this poem as a song of revealed to Moses and the people of
praise to God for the deliverance of Israel Israel, with the promise that He would
and the destruction of the Egyptians; lead them miraculously from the Egyptian
and are, therefore, pre-eminently adapted thraldom, after fearful chastisement of
as a refrain for the chorus. The verse their adversaries. Now, when this pro-
itself is, both in its individual members, mise has been so gloriously realized, His
and in its structure as a whole, an excel- whole unfathomed might and grandeur
lent, most powerful, and suitable in- are comprised in the attributes of His
troduction to the following descriptions, nature, which is expressed and manifested
and betrays the master at the very com- by His very name.—After this short em-
mencement. phatical verse, which condenses all the
2. He is my God, etc. The sense is: preceding ideas in one shout of jubilation,
The God who has shown Himself mer- the introduction of our poem is finished,
ciful and gracious to my forefathers, has and it proceeds now to the description
 200 EXODUS XY.
the Eternal 7s His name.—4. Pharaoh’s chariots and his
host hath He cast into the sea: "his choicest warriors are
drowned in the Red Sea. 5. The depths have covered
them: they sank into the bottom as a stone. 6. Thy
right hand, O Lord, * glorified in power, thy right hand,
O Lord, *dashes in pieces the enemy. 7. And in the
greatness of Thy ‘sublimity Thou °overthrowest those
who °rise up against thee: Thou 78620686 forth Thy
wrath; it consumes them as stubble. 8. And with the
blast of Thy nostrils the waters were ®piled up, the floods
' Engl. Vers.—His chosen captains. ? Is become glorious, 3 Hath dashed.
+ Excellency. 5 Hast overthrown. 5 Rose. 7 Sentest. 5 Gathered together.
of the overthrow of the enemies (vers. (see note on xxii. 5). Compare Is. v. 24;
a8); Xvii. 14,
The verses 6 and 7, may be considered ₪. After the poet has, in the three pre-
as a general description of God’s omnipo- ceding verses, dilated upon the power of
tence and justice, to which the poet feels God, with which He punishes and de-
himself urgently invited by the remem- stroys the wicked, he now describes His
brance of the late glorious events; so mercy towards those who have committed
that only in ver. 8, the application on the themselves to His protection; and how
present case, the destruction of the Egyp- unlimited this love is, he proves from the
tians, would follow; we may, therefore, astounding miracle of the division of the
aptly translate the verbs as present tenses: sea, which, giving up its nature, formed,
“ Thy right hand, O Lord, dashes the ene- with its waves, a firm wall, and, instead
my,” etc., by which those exclamations evi- of streaming like a fluid, congealed into
dently gain in intensity; for they cease to a hard substance.
be single facts of a transitory experience; 99. One of the most beautiful descrip-
but they become general and permanent tions is, perhaps, contained in this verse,
truths. The anthropomorphistic expres- which delineates, with as much poetical
sions: “the right hand of God,” “man of grace as characteristic vigour, the fury,
war,” etc.; will not give offence to those, the vindictiveness, and the sanguinary
who can feel purely and poetically. If vehemence of the foes. The brief but
God is at all to be praised by human lan- pithy sentences, introduced without con-
guage, scarcely a more powerful, majestic, nection or conjunction, are heaped in
and dignified form can be imagined, than irregular abundance, to represent the
that of this incomparable song. insatiable desire of the adversaries: “The
.‫ ב‬And in the greatness of Thy excel-‫‏‬ enemy said, I will pursue; overtake; divide
lency Thou overthrowest those who rise up‫‏‬ the spoil; my lust be satisfied upon them,”
against Thee, that is, Thy adversaries,‫‏‬ — According to some interpreters (as
those who oppose themselves to Thy will,‫‏‬ Rashbam and others) Pharaoh uttered
here referring to the Egyptians. Onkelos,‫‏‬ this self-exhortation, when he saw, that
Jonathan, Rashi, and others, explain‫‏‬ the sea had divided itself before the
less plausibly, ** Thou overthrowest those‫‏‬ Israelites, and when he was seized by the
who rise up against Thy people Israel;”‫‏‬ natural desire to avail himself of this
after the analogy of Ps. Ixxxiii.3, 4.—‫‏‬ miracle for himself and his army also,
The wrath of God consumes the enemies‫‏‬ and thus to conquer the Israelites already
with the same facility and rapidity with‫‏‬ in the sea. With this Opinion, the con-
which fire devours the stubble of the field‫‏‬ tents of the following yerse do not dis-
 EXODUS: XV. - 901
stood upright like a °mound, and the depths congealed in
the heart of the sea.—9. The enemy said, I will pursue;
overtake; divide the spoil; my lust be satisfied upon
them; I will draw my sword; my hand shall destroy
them:—10. Thou didst blow with Thy wind, the sea
covered them; they sank like lead in the mighty waters.
11. Who zs like Thee, O Lord, among the gods? Who
is like Thee, glorious in holiness, awful 2 praises,
doing wonders? 12. Thou stretchedst out Thy right
hand: the earth swallowed them.
9 Engl. Vers.— Heap.

agree: “But Thou didst blow with Thy those who mention them are compelled
wind, the sea covered them.” However, to designate them with that name, al-
in a high lyrical enthusiasm, the poet though such idol is in reality ‘a not-god,”
returns once more to the beginning, de- who is god in name, not in reality (Deut.
scribing with a few, but rapid and vigor- XXxii.21; comp. note on vi.7).— Who is
ous traits, the operations of the enemies, like Thee glorious in holiness. God has anew
from the moment, when the idea of pur- manifested His holiness by miraculously
suing the Israelites arose in their minds, protecting the righteous and annihilating
a desire which was to end with the fearful the wicked.
overthrow of their power. ‘Thus we see a2. Thou stretchedst out Thy right
in one significant moment the sanguinary hand : the earth swallowed them. Geddes
Egyptians return to their obduracy, equip believes that these words would more
themselves for war, depart, pursue, and suitably stand after the tenth verse than
perish in the sea. Where with so sim- here, which remark seems to have the
ple means has so powerful a rhetorical greater probability, as, with verse 11, the
effect been ever produced? first chief part of the poem, the retrospect
11. Deeply moved by the remembrance into the past, is finished. However, Ist,
of the chastisement of the haughty ene- These words explain the conclusion of
mies, whose destruction the poet had the 11th verse, “doing wonders”; 2nd,
once more represented to his mind with they comprise, once more, the leading
the most lively colours, he breaks out idea of the first part, in a few concise
into an enthusiastic praise of God, whom words; and, 3rd, they form an appro-
no being of the whole universe can ever priate transition to the following verses:
equal in grandeur, in holiness, in exalted God destroyed the Egyptians by a won-
glory and miraculous power.— Who is like der in the sea; but He leads the Israel-
Thee, etc. The Egyptians had naturally ites lovingly on into the land of promise.
under the auspices of their gods, that is, of So this verse forms, most internally, the
those beings, whom they considered to be connection between the two principal
mighty gods, marched against the Israelites. parts of the song, pointing as it does, in
Therefore, together with the Egyptians one respect, to the first, in another, to the
their gods also had been conquered; and latter part. Thou stretchedst out, etc. see
most appropriate is, therefore, the exclama- xiv. 26. The earth swallowed them, that
tion: * Who is like Thee, O Lord, among is, the deep abyss of the sea, which
> the gods”? Whether the idols of the covers the earth.
heathens are indeed gods, is here indif- 13. The verbs of this and the following
ferent; they call them so, and therefore verse are, according to the sense, futures,

5
 09 EXODUS XV.
13. Thou in Thy mercy 'leadest forth the people which
Thou hast redeemed; Thou *guidest them in Thy strength
to Thy holy habitation. 14. The *nations will hear 7,
and will be afraid; ‘terror will seize the inhabitants of
*Philistia. 15. Then the chiefs of Edom will be amazed ;
the mighty men of Moab, trembling will seize them; all
the inhabitants of Canaan will melt away with fear.
16. Fear and dread will fall upon them; by the greatness
! Engl. Vers.—Hast led. 2 Hast guided. 3 People. 4 Sorrow.
5 Palestina.

but may, with poetical vivacity, be trans- sometimes called “The Habitation of
lated as presents, till, in verse 15, the text God.” Compare Jer. 1. 19.
itself passes over into the future forms. 14. The report of the fearful judg-
Those who date the origin of this song in ment executed against the Egyptians,
the times of David or Solomon, translate spreads such terror among the nations in
those verbs here naturally as preterites: and around Canaan, that they tremble
“thou hast led,” etc. as also the English before the approaching Israelites; and
Version, although its authors certainly they partly permit them to pass through
did not question the authenticity of the their country, and partly leave it to them
poem (see supra, p.196). The following as an easy prey.—Philistia consisted of a
part describes, in prophetic images, the narrow tract of land along the coast of the
providence of God for the Israelites, shield- Mediterranean, from Ekron (Josh. xiii. 3),
ing them till they have overcome the till near the Egyptian frontier, and which
dangers of the desert, conquered the bordered on the tribes of Dan, Simeon,
nations of Canaan, and erected the and Judah (see note on xiii.17). It
sanctuary on Zion.— The people which signifies, therefore, not the whole land;
Thou hast redeemed, Not in vain has for the tribes of Canaan are, in the fol-
God so miraculously delivered Israel lowing verse, mentioned separately.
from Egyptian servitude; His mighty .15‫ ב‬Then the chiefs of Edom will be‫‏‬
deeds in favour of His people are a amazed. Edom, a mountain land, inter-‫‏‬
pledge that He has selected it for some sected by rocks and cliffs, and resembling‫‏‬
glorious future; and thus is the redemp- a natural fortress, was situated at the‫‏‬
tion a guarantee for the safe arrival into, south-eastern frontier of Palestine, and‫‏‬
and the happy conquest of, Canaan; one especially of the tribe of Judah, was ori-‫‏‬
mercy is the harbinger of other acts of ginally called the land of Seir, and‫‏‬
graciousness. Ebn Ezra, and others, reached, in the south, to the 10181010 Gulf‫‏‬
are of opinion, that the “ holy habi- of the Red Sea. ‘Therefore, the fertile‫‏‬
tation” here alluded to, is Mount and rich tract of Eb-Shera, including the‫‏‬
Sinai, on which God dwelt when He district of Gebal adjoining it to the north,‫‏‬
revealed the Law through Moses. But is the territory of the ancient Moabites,‫‏‬
both the enumeration of the hostile which is thus, according to the Greek‫‏‬
tribes, which become only of importance division, a part of Arabia Petra. It is‫‏‬
when the Israelites attempted to enter known, that the Edomites positively re-‫‏‬
into Canaan, and the distinct expressions fused to allow the journey of the Israel-‫‏‬
of verse 17, prove sufficiently that here ites through their land, and thus com-‫‏‬
the Mount Moriah, and the holy temple, pelled them to pass round it, under the‫‏‬
are hinted at. However, Canaan, or the greatest difficulties (Numb. xx. xxi;‫‏‬
Holy Land, may, likewise, as Rashbam compare Judges xi. 17, et seg.) If our
believes, be denoted in that place, as it is text, therefore, speaks of the terror of
 EXODUS XV 203

of Thy arm they will be dumb as stone; till they pass,

O Lord, till the people pass, which Thou hast acquired.
17. Thou wilt bring them in, and plant them in the
mountain of Thy inheritance, 7m the place, O Lord, which
Thou hast made for Thy abode, zn the sanctuary, O Lord,
which Thy hands have established. 18. THe Lorp wit
REIGN FOR EVER AND EVER.—19. For the horse of Pharaoh
went with its chariots and with its horsemen into the
sea, and the Lord brought back the waters of the sea upon
the Edomites, this is more a momentary scribed. That fear is aptly compared
effect of the divine omnipotence, without with the “becoming dumb like a stone”;
lasting consequences, just as Pharaoh they will remain quiet and motionless,
showed a temporary submission after without in any way opposing the transit
each plague, but soon hardened himself of the Israelites.— The people which Thou
again into his old obstinacy. It is fur- hast acquired, namely, by the redemption
ther to be remarked, that “the Edomites from Egypt; “they were servants to the
did not exactly fight against the Israelites Egyptians, now Thou hast acquired them
in the desert ” (Ebn Ezra).— The mighty to be Thy servants” (bn Ezra); com-
men of Moab, trembling shall seize them. pare vi.7; xiii.2; Deut. iv. 34.
The Israelites did not, on their wander- .‫ ב‬And plant them. Planting, signifies,‫‏‬
ings and marches from the Red Sea, figuratively, to grant a firm, safe abode,‫‏‬
touch the territory of the Moabites (Deut. which has, as it were, taken deep roots.‫‏‬
ii. 9; Judges xi. 15, 18), by whom they Comp. Amos ix. 15; Ps. xliv.3; lxxx. 9.—‫‏‬
were even provided with many necessa- That the allusions to the conquest of Ca-‫‏‬
ries (Deut. ii. 28); but later, after the naan and the building of the temple, neither‫‏‬
mighty king Sihon had been subdued, the exclude the authorship of Moses, nor lead‫‏‬
king of Moab, Balak, tried to induce the to a later time, as that of David or Solo-‫‏‬
famous Balaam to curse the Israelites mon, has been observed in the prefatory‫‏‬
(Numb. xxii. etc). They lived in the remarks to this chapter, pp. 195, 196.‫‏‬
east of the Dead Sea and of the Jordan, as. The exode from Egypt is happily
but had already before the immigration effected; the tyrannical king, and the re-
of the Israelites into Canaan, been con- vengeful army, have become a prey of
fined by the Amorites, under their king the waves; in his mind, the poet sees
Sihon, to the south of the river Arnon already the realization of his most glorious
(Numb. xxi. 13, 26). From here their hopes, the possession of the land, and the
territory extended southwards to the erection of the sanctuary—and, inspired
“ willow-brook” (Isaiah xv.7), that is, by the wisdom, power, and mercy of the
Wadi-el-Ahsi, and formed thus a part of Lord, he bursts once more forth as into
the present Kerrek. The Moabites were, an energetic pean, * The Lord will reign
almost uninterruptedly, in a hostile poli- for ever and ever”—and with this em-
tical position against the Israelites, and, phatic ejaculation the immortal song con-
in the prophetic writings, they are very cludes.
frequently mentioned with menaces and 19. For this verse does no more belong
imprecations, (Isa. xi. 14, 15, 16; Amos to the poem; but, forming the transition
ii. 1; Zeph. ii.8); and, in a similar sense, to the following narrative, it mentions
they are already named here. once again the historical facts on which
16. The terror, the anguish and con- the song is based. The diction is per-
pternation of the enemies, are further de- fectly prosaical, without rhythm or paral-
 204 EXODUS XY.
them; but the children of Israel went on dry land through
the sea.
20. And Miriam, the prophetess, the sister of Aaron,
took the timbrel in her hand; and all the women went out
after her with timbrels and with dances. 21. And Miriam
lelism. This was already the opinion of therefore, Samuel (according to 1 Sam.
Rashbam, whom many later commenta- x. 5; xix. 19, 20) trained a number of |
tors have justly followed. But Ebn Ezra, prophets, these might have been theo-
and others, believe that this verse forms cratical preachers or speakers, who were
|
|
a part of the song, and that it is intended at the same time instructed in the
briefly to rehearse the wonders of the Red musical delivery of their discourses, and
Sea. In the Jewish Scrolls of the Law, who could thus not lack opportunities for
this verse is also embodied in the song. the exercise of their poetical abilities
20. And Miriam, the prophetess, the also; and so we read in the former
sister of Aaron, took the timbrel in her passage distinctly: “thou wilt meet a
hand, etc....Miriam is here designated company of prophets coming down from
as prophetess. The use of this name the high place with a psaltery, and a
has the less difficulty in this instance, tabret, and a pipe, and a harp, before
as it appears from Numbers xii. 2, that them; and they will prophesy.” For
Miriam was really considered as a pro- the sublime subjects and the solemn oc-
phetess in the usual acceptation of the casions, on which the public orator pro-
word, however inferior her prophetic gift’ nounced his addresses, were naturally
was to that of Moses (ver. 6). Compare calculated to carry him away, almost —
Mich. vi.4; and Talm. Sot. 12 b. But spontaneously, to a higher flight of speech,
that the word prophet is also applied in a to a more elegant and even poetical
more extended sense with regard to those, diction, But, nevertheless, we are not
who, inspired by a higher intelligence, justified in acceding unconditionally to
suggest to others the words, they wish to Herder’s remark, which has been too ex-
promulgate, has been observed in our tensively adopted: “ Miriam and De-
notes on iy. 6 and vii. 1, to which we borah are called prophetesses, because
refer, Still more comprehensive is the they were inspired poetesses; and
application of prophet in the meaning of sacred poetry was always considered as
favourite and friend of God, whom He the language of the gods.” This is
uses as an instrument, to proclaim His essentially correct if limited to heathen
nature and His wisdom, as, for instance, nations, especially the Greeks and Ro-
with respect to Abraham (Gen. xx. 7); ‫סע‬‎ mans, who regarded the poets, as such,
the Patriarchs (Ps.cv.15). It is evident, standing under the influence of Apollo
that Moses is, in the Pentateuch, called or the Muses, or other deities of poetry;
prophet, because he combines in his person and although Apollo was both the God of
all those three categories or degrees (see divination and of song, these two qualities
Num. xii.6; Deut. xviii. 15—20; xxxiv. were as little united by a higher, internal
10).—But the etymology of the Hebrew and necessary bond, as the various attri-
word leads to the meaning of singer or butes of Diana or Mercury. It was
poet. Music and recitative song were different with the Hebrew prophets, Not
no doubt a very impressive accom- the language was inspired by the deity,
paniment of the prophetic dicta; and but the zdeas ; every prophet retained his
therefore the different significations of individual style, and he expressed the
prophet may, ultimately, have been com- thoughts which he was commanded to
bined in one notion; as in Latin, vates proclaim in the manner which appeared
means both prophet and poet; and if to him personally most effective. Among
 EXODUS XV. 205

answered them, Sing ye to the Lord, for He ‘is gloriously

exalted; the horse and its rider hath He thrown into the
sea.—22. And Moses caused Israel to journey from the
Red Sea, and they went out into the wilderness of Shur;
! Engl. Vers.—Hath triumphed gloriously.

the heathens, poetical diction is regarded firmed by modern travellers. Sacred

as an emanation of the gods, or as in- music and sacred dances were also in
spiration; among the Hebrews, the lan- very general use among the Egyptians
guage is, in itself, no mark of a higher from very early times. For we see fur-
influence; for prophets were not neces- ther in our verse joined with the pro-
sarily poets (for instance, Abijah, Elijah, phecy, besides the music, also the dance.
Elisha, and others), nor were the poets > What enthusiastic luxuriance this im-
necessarily prophets, in the strict sense of parted to the song, when an assembled
the word (for instance, David, Solomon, nation executed it for the glory of God,
and others).—Miriam is called the sister or as some public thanksgiving, full of
of Aaron, because, as Rashbam observes, national pride and national joy, this may
he was her e/der brother (compare Gen. be left to the feeling of every reader to
XXviii. 9). represent to himself. On such occasion,
The hand-drum, Spanish, Aduffa, or not artificial, but enraptured music and
Doeff, Tambourine; consists of a hoop language were required; no cold con-
of wood or metal, of about one hand- ventional rules fettered the souls, no
breadth, and covered over with lea- northern clime constrained the tunes,
ther; it is still a very favourite in- The song of Moses and of Miriam, the
strument in the East on festive and united hymn of a delivered host of many
sacred occasions (Gen. xxxi. 27; Job thousands, who praise their God with
‎‫ן ולו‬2‫ ו‬2 .mas ;5.iv .51, ,217.7 .).cte the sound of timbrels and with dances
It is beaten by the hand, and serves under an Arabian sky; where is a song
especially to keep the tact in singing and soaring aloft like this?” (Herder, Ebr.
dancing. It is usually played by females Poes. ii. p. 30). About the different kinds,
at public processions and in choral dances, and the nature of Oriental, especially
as the instrument more generally appro- Egyptian, dances, see Wilkinson, Manners
priated to men was the flute (Judg. xi. 34; ii. p. 828—340.
1 Sam. xviii. 6; Psalms Ixviii. 26, etc.). 21. And Miriam answered them, Sing
At the rim thin round bells are frequent- ye to the Lord, etc. Moses conducted
ly fastened, which increase the strength the chorus of the men; so Miriam that
of the tone. But the Egyptian timbrels of the women, who sang either at the
were probably not provided with such bells, end of the poem, or after its principal
as the representations on monuments show, parts, the words, which form the begin-
from which it also appears, that the Egyp- ning of the hymn, and which contain, as
tians knew three kinds of tambourine: one it were, its theme and burden in brief
was circular, another square or oblong, and expressive words, and which are
and the third consisted of two squares therefore very much adapted for such
separated by a bar. Our text shows fur- refrain (see supra, p.198). That among
ther a remarkable coincidence with Egyp- many ancient, and some modern, little
tian manners in the circumstance, that civilized nations, very short pseans, in
here also the chorus of the men sings and cessantly repeated for hours with dance
dances separately from that of the women. and music, are much in use, is testified
That the Egyptians frequently dance by numerous travellers (see Rosenmiiller,
to the sound of the tambourine, without Orient. 11. ,‫כ‬‎ 23—26).
the addition of any other music, is con- 22—25. These verses 701800 a miracle
 206 EXODUS XV.
and they went three days in the wilderness, and found no
water. 23. And when they came to Marah, they could
not drink of the waters of Marah, for they were bitter:
which happened a few days after the wonder, for instance, by the simple com-
transit over the Red Sea, on its eastern mand of Moses; but that the latter
coast, in the desert of Shur. The waters applied, for that purpose, by the direction
of Marah were unpalatable on account of of God, a certain tree; and perhaps the
their bitterness; God showed to Moses a special providence of God consisted here
species of wood, which he threw into the in the circumstance, that He taught
fountain, and which made the water Moses that remarkable quality of the tree,
drinkable. We have here again an event, whilst it was not known before, nor was
which our text evidently represents as a discovered later. That it was any tree,
wonder, but which many expositors have which did in no way possess that virtue,
yet tried to interpret as a natural occur- is improbable, as it would be strange, to
rence. It is true, that such explanation throw wood into the water as a mere
is favoured by the fact, that in some symbol of changing its taste. Jewish
regions trees are found, the wood of tradition calls the tree hirdophne; the
which, if thrown into bitter, saltish, or Karaites, Nerium Oleander; the Arabian
otherwise undrinkable water, makes and tradition calls it Aluah, the herb Galgant,
preserves it available and tasteful. This with its root. To fix upon a certain tree
power possesses, for instance, the tree is impossible, unless one possessing sini-
Nellimaram, which grows at the coast of lar properties should be discovered in
Coromandel; further the plant Yerva that region.—The Israelites were natu-
Caniani in Peru, the tree Sassafras in rally the more vexed at the bitter waters
Florida, the Perru Nelli (Phylanthus of Marah, as they were accustomed to
emblica) in East India; and eyen the the incomparably agreeable water of the
Chinese are said to have originally used Nile (see note on vii. 18).—We add, how-
the tea in order to correct the bad quali- ever, the following narration of our event,
ties of their water. We may further re- by Josephus, who seems to point at the
mark, that Burckhardt throws out combination of miraculous and natural
the conjecture (though it is not very pro- influence still more distinctly; and ob-
bable) that the berries of the Gharkad serve, that travellers haye related similar
might have been used to sweeten the procedures practised in other parts of the
waters of Marah. It is a low, bushy, globe, under similar circumstances:
thorny shrub, producing a small fruit, “ Moses took the top of a stick which was
which ripens in June, not unlike the lying at his feet, divided it in the middle,
blackberry, very juicy, and slightly acidu- and made the sections lengthways; he
lous, and grows near the brackish foun- then let it down into the well, and per-
tains in and around Palestine. But ac- suaded the Hebrews that God had heark-
cording to the testimony of Niebuhr ened to his prayers, and had promised
(Descript. of Arab. p. 403) there exists to render the water such as they desired
in Arabia, no tree which produces a it to be, in case they eagerly and zealously
similar effect on the water; in which case obeyed Him in what He should enjoin them
the inhabitants of those tracts would not to do; and when they asked what they
omit to avail themselves of so welcome a had to do,in order to have the water
means for improving their water, which changed for the better, he bid 6
is there, in the nitrous soil, almost invari- strongest men among them who stood
ably salinous and vitiated. We admit, our there, to draw up water, and told them
text does not state, that the transmutation that when the greatest part was drawn
of the water was effected by a direct up the remainder would be fit to drink:
 EXODUS XV. 207

therefore the name of it was called Marah. .94. And the

people murmured against. Moses, saying, What shall we
drink? 25. And he cried to the Lord; and the Lord

so they laboured at it till the water was rocky valley, two or three miles in dia-
so agitated and purged as to be fit to meter, It is near the centre of this
drink.” (Antiq. IIL i. 2); see also valley, and springs out of the top of a
2 Kings iii. 16—18, and compare with it mound, which has the form of a flattened
Josephus, Bell. Jud. IV. viii. 3, where hemisphere, and an elevation of, perhaps,
Elisha changed the bitter and barren thirty or forty feet above the general
spring near Jericho, by “an earthen level of the valley. The water rises into
vessel full of salt..... and proper ope- a basin, which is formed by the deposit
rations of his hands after a_ skilful of a hard shining substance, and may be
manner.” from eight to ten feet long, by a breadth
After the Israelites had reached the somewhat less; in depth it is about five
eastern coast of the Gulf of Suez, oppo- or six feet, and contains three feet of
site Kolsoum (see on xiv. 1--8(, they water.” (Kitto, on ver. 23; see Burch-
continued their march for three days in a ‘ hardt, ii. 777; Robinson, i. 106). The
south-easterly direction, along the coast, ancient tradition, which considers “the
through deserted, sterile and hilly parts, Well of Moses,” about two German miles
passing by the “ Well of Moses.” south-east of Suez, as our Marah, is im-
We have already observed, on xiii. 20, probable, as a journey of three days was
that the barren region east of the head not required for such a little distance.
of the Gulf is called the desert of If, therefore, Howarah, which the cara-
Etham or Shur, whilst the tract on both vans touch even now on their journey to
sides of it is the desert Dshofar; and the Sinai, is our Marah, and if this was
Saadiah translates Shur by Dshofar, indeed situated in the desert Shur, this
whilst Josephus (Antiq. VI. vii. 3) ren- desert must have reached along the
ders it by Pelusium. Still now a desert Dshebel-er-Rahat to the beginning of
El-Dshofar extends between the Arabic the desert Sin, so that the Cape Ham-
Gulf and the Mediterranean Sea, at the mam Bluff was its south-eastern boun-
western and north-western border of the dary. — There He [God] made for
desert El-Tih, from Pelusium to the them a statute and an ordinance. These
south-western frontier of the old Pales- words find their simple explanation in
tine. Abulfeda (Descript. p. 13, 14) the contents of the following verse:
includes that desert in Egypt. It con- the law which God made then for
sists of white sand, has but few cultivated the people of Israel, was, that if they
spots, and is about a seven days’ journey continued to follow and obey Him, they
in length. Now, the probable situation would be free from all dangers and evils.
of Marah compels us to suppose the de- We pass, therefore, by the supposition,
sert Dshofar to have extended still that, besides the so-called seven laws of
farther to the south than it does at pre- Noah (see on xxii. 20), the precepts of
sent, according to modern geography. Sabbath, and the duties of filial love,
For Marah is, probably, the fountain were here enjoined to the Israelites, or
Howarah, which lies about eight Ger- that general directions were given to
man miles south-east of the head of the them about their conduct to each other
Gulf, and the bitter and saltish water and to the surrounding tribes, in war
of which is famous throughout the whole and peace. — And there He tried them,
country, and even camels disdain it namely, by the want of water which they
unless they are extremely thirsty. ‘The suffered, as if to try how they would bear
fountain of Howarah is situated in a this first privation, whether they would

- , .

al
 208 EXODUS XY.
showed him a tree; and he cast it into the water, and the
waters were made sweet: there He made for them a statute
and an ordinance, and there He tried them; 26. And
said, If thou wilt diligently hearken to the voice of the
Lord thy God, and do that which is right in His eyes,

trust in His promises or not (see xvi. 4; fearful character.” Pestilence scarcely
Deut. viii. 16), “ Besides,” observes Ebn ever ceases in Kairo, and especially in
Ezra, “this first wonder, after the passage Alexandria; dysentery causes an awful
over the Red Sea, corresponds with the mortality, chiefly among children; at
first plague of the Egyptians; in the one least one individual among five is infected
case drinkable water became undrinkable, with diseases of the eye. Volney found,
in the other, undrinkable water became in Kairo, among one hundred persons
drinkable.” whom he met, twenty quite blind, ten
26. 7 willbring noneof those diseases upon wanting one eye, and twenty others whose
thee whichI have broughtupon the Egyptians. eyes were either red, or purulent, or ble-
By the diseases we cannot here understand mished, and the small pox rages there much
real sickness, but the plagues with which more fearfully than in Europe. Compare
the Egyptians were visited, and which Déscript. xiv. p. 216, where a great num-
were certainly still in the fresh and lively ber of diseases prevalent in the different
memory of the Israelites. And with the seasons of the vear are specified.
same figure the text continues: For I am 27. From Howarah the Israelites
the Lord that healeth thee, that is, who marched on, and arrived at Elim. The
shields thee from misfortunes and dan- Situation of this place is more distinctly
gers, and bestows happiness and _pros- defined by the statement, that there
perity upon thee. Besides, the expres- were twelve fountains or wells, and
sion, * who healeth thee,” is, perhaps, seventy palm-trees. These circumstances
not unintentionally used with im- agree, as nearly as possible, with the
mediate reference to the change of the Wadi Gharendel, which is situated two
water; for, in Ezek. xlvii. 8, the phrase and a half miles south of Howarah,
“the waters were healed,” is applied and two miles north of Tor,in a very
with regard to the sweetening of bitter beautiful valley, of almost one English
and saline water. However, in other mile in length, and abounding in good
passages, as Deut. vil. 15; xxviii. 60 water. Even according to the most re-
(compare verses 27, 35), real diseases cent travellers, excellent fountains and a
common among the Egyptians are men- great number of trees, especially tama-
tioned or alluded to, from which the risks and palm-trees, are still found in
Hebrews are promised to remain free if that valley, so that it is generally chosen
they walk in the ways of God. And we as one of the chief stations on the journey
certainly are informed, from many sources, to Sinai, Shaw found there still nine
that, although the Egyptians were one of fountains, and more than two thousand
the healthiest and most robust nations of palm-trees; and states, that the inhabitants
antiquity (Herod. 11. 33), the land was in- of Tor esteem this spot very highly as
fested with peculiar and fearful epidemics, the place of encampment of Moses. The
Wagner calls it ‘‘a great and universal other opinions, that Elim is the Wadi
focus of pestilence.” De Chabrol ob- Useit, or the Wadi Shebekeh, have been
serves: “as the temperature of Egypt refuted by Winer.—The date-, or palm-
is generally uniform, and the sky mostly tree (Phenix dactylifera, L.), which
serene, it has but a small number grew formerly in great abundance in
of diseases, but these are mostly of a different parts of Palestine, as around
 EXODUS XV. 209

and wilt give ear to His commandments, and keep all His
statutes, 1 will bring none of those diseases upon thee
which 1 have brought upon the Egyptians: for I am the
Lord that healeth thee.—27. And they came to Elim,
where were twelve wells of water, and seventy palm-trees:
and they encamped there by the water.
Jericho, Engedi, and the Dead Sea, are, and, with their ends semi-cireularly’
but is now rarely found there, is still bending to the ground, spread their sha-
very numerously met with in Arabia, dow afar, They stand usually by six in
Egypt, and Persia, in which countries it number around the stem, and have
was always much planted and cultivated reedy, sword-like, evergreen leaves, of

‫ ו‬as a most useful tree. It has been intro- about two inches in width, and eight to
-

duced in some parts of southern Europe, twelve feet in length. Between the up-
as in Malaga, where it thrives favourably;
ae permost and the youngest branches is a
in some parts of France (at Bordaghieére), pointed marrowy heart, about two yards
from where generally the leaves are sold long, which conceals in it the germs of
.
for Palm Sunday and the Jewish Suc- the new boughs and leaves. Male and
ee
a
coth; and in Italy, as near Genoa, where, female blossoms are on separate stems.
however, it does not develop itself to any In order, therefore, to be certain of their
considerable degree, being here also culti- produce, an artificial system of fecunda-
vated only for the sake of the leaves, tion is required, in which the exact pe-
which are annually sent to the pope’s riods are most scrupulously to be observed.
chapel at Rome, where, after having been For, in February, shoot from the fissures
blessed, they are distributed to the clerical of the undermost branches, long closed
dignitaries as a symbol of the triumph of husks, with a hard leather-like skin; they
yore
erm
8
the church. It requires a light, sandy, spring up in May, and produce blossoms
warm, but not dry, soil, and indicates, in the male, and buds in the female tree.
therefore, where it is found, the presence The former are then taken off, cut through
of water, as in the case of our text. The lengthwise, and put on the female germs,
root neither spreads far, in proportion to The fruits, which come to maturity within
the tree, nor does it descend deep in the five months, sit in numerous clusters,
earth. The tree attains a height of thirty have the shape of acorns, but are gene-
or forty feet, sometimes even of sixty or rally larger, and covered with a thin
one hundred feet, is often two hundred reddish or white skin. The very various
years old, and has a tall, erect, single uses to which the palm-tree can be ap-
stem, marked with a number of protu- plied, in its fruits, branches, fibres, kernels,
berances, which are the points of inser- and its wood, is universally known, and
tion of former leayes; it is about ten to has already been described by Strabo
eighteen inches in diameter, and not pro- (xvi. 472). The dates are either eaten
perly surrounded by a rind, but by scaly dry, with bread and Jaden (a preparation
layers. “For the centre of the stem is of milk), or fried in butter, a very favour-
soft and spongy, and the bundles of ite dish of the Bedouin (Layard, Dis-
woody fibres successively produced in the coveries, p. 291). Jewish tradition finds
interior are regularly pushed outwards, in the twelve wells an allusion to the twelve
until the outer part becomes the most tribes, and in the seventy palm-trees a re-
dense and hard.” ‘The tree bears about ference to the seventy elders; to which
from forty to eighty thin boughs, which modern commentators add, that the wells
grow exclusiyely at the upper part of the and palm-trees are types of the twelve
stem, becoming shorter the higher they apostles and the seventy disciples.
P
210 EXODUS XVI.

CHAPTER XVI.
Summary.—From Elim (Wadi Gharendel) the Israelites proceed in a south-easterly
direction to the desert Sin (in the north of Sinai, see on ver. 1), where they arrive
on the fifteenth day of the second month. ‘Threatened with famine in the sterile
desert, the Israelites murmur against Moses, and repent their departure from
Egypt. In this critical moment, God miraculously grants them abundant food;
in the evening a great number of quails covered the ground round the camp (see |
on ver.13), and in the morning the manna descended (see on vers. 2 and 15). |
Of this latter food so much only was to be gathered as was sufficient for the |
daily use of every family; that which was left became verminous and fetid; but |
the seyenth day the Hebrews were commanded not to gather manna; instead of
which they found on the sixth day double of their usual portions. On this
occasion the institution of Sabbath was already communicated to the Israelites,
although only in its negative bearings. As a memorial for later generations an
Omer of the manna was to be collected in a vessel set apart for this purpose and
preserved before the ark of the covenant. By way of anticipation, our text
mentions at the same time, that the Israelites were furnished with the manna
for forty years, till after their arrival in Canaan, in the west of the Jordan
(see on yer. 35).

es D they journeyed from Elim, and all the con-

gregation of the children of Israel came to the
wilderness of Sin, which zs between Elim and Sinai, on
the fifteenth day of the second month after their departing
.‫ ב‬If from Wadi Gharendel (Elim, xv.‫‏‬ its rich pastures. In no part of the
)28 the journey is continued to south-east‫‏‬ peninsula are the tamarisks found 0
along the coast, it leads, after a march of‫‏‬ abundantly; and in the southern portion
two days, into the valley of Mokatteb,‫‏‬ of the valley, they form a dense forest.—
which is three English miles wide, and‫‏‬ Robinson and Lengerke believe the desert
three hours long, and lies on the principal‫‏‬ Sin to be the waste plain, which extends
road to Sinai. Laborde, Raumer, and‫‏‬ from El-Murkah along the sea almost to
others, believe this valley to be the‫‏‬ the southern extremity of the peninsula,
* Desert Sin,” in which the Hebrew army‫‏‬ But it is questionable, whether the manna
encamped, according to our text, one‫‏‬ is there found in such quantity.—But it =
month after the exodus from Egypt. But‫‏‬ can in no way be justified, if some critics,
as the Israelites gathered here the manna‫‏‬ as Bohlen (Genes. p. 67, Introd.), identify
in abundance (ver. 14), which is obtained‫‏‬ our Sin with the Egyptian town Sin
from the tamarisk and the shrub Tarafa‫‏‬ )120%. xxx. 15), which is unquestionably
(see note on ver. 4), Rosenmiiller sup-‫‏‬ Pelusium, and was situated at the eastern
poses with greater probability (Antiq. iil.‫‏‬ mouth of the Nile. As it was, according
p. 146), that the desert Sin is identical‫‏‬ to Strabo (xi. 491), 1500 stadia from the
with the Wadi esh-Sheikh, in which those‫‏‬ northern point of the Red Sea, it is
trees grow in great numbers. If we‫‏‬ evident, that that opinion is absolutely
proceed from Wadi Gharendel some dis-‫‏‬ perverse.— Our text describes the situation
tance along the sea, and turn then more‫‏‬ of Sin, “between Elim (Gharendel) and
to south-east through the Wadi Taybe‫‏‬ the Mount Sinai,” or with regard to xvii. 1,
and Wadi Feiran, we arrive. after three‫‏‬ between Elim and Rephidim; and with
days’ journey, at Wadi esh-Sheikh. 8‫‏‬ reference to Num. xxxiii. 12, between
one of the most beautiful valleys which Elim and Dophkah; and Jerome remarks:
those regions contain, and is much fre- “We must not forget, that the whole
quented by the Bedouins on account of deserted tract to Mount Sinai is called
 EXODUS XVI. 211

out of the land of Egypt. 2. And the whole congregation

> of the children of Israel murmured against Moses and
. Sin, and that, besides, one particular and Aaron, their leaders, reproaching
| place in that region might also have them, that they had, without charge or
received the same name, just as Moab sanction from the God of their ancestors,
is the name both of a town and a pro- but induced by their own temerity or
vince.”—According to the list of the ambition, torn them from their compara-
stations in Num. xxxiii. 10, 11, the tively easy and agreeable life in Egypt,,
Israelites, before arriving in the desert where they enjoyed at least an abundance
of Sin, encamped also “at the Red Sea.” of meat and bread, and had led them
This alludes probably to the valley Taybe, away to suffer a dreadful death of starva-
through which the road of caravans tion in the pathless desert. ‘We re-
__ passes from Wadi Gharendel to Mount member,” they said, “the fish, which we
Sinai, and which opens to the Red Sea. did eat in Egypt freely; the cucumbers,
But that station is here omitted, as gene- and the melons, and the leeks, and the
rally all those places, where no remark- onions, and the garlick.” And who can deny
able event happened. For in general, that, on merely human considerations, the
although with some important exceptions, arguments of the people were well ground-
exists, as already ancient commentators ed? And our sympathies will incline still
have observed, between the historical nar- stronger to the people, if we consider, that
rative and the list in Num. xxiii. a rela- they were doomed to forty years’ wander-
tion like that between a book of travels ings ina wilderness, in which at present, in
and a map: the latter contains the names its whole extent, scarcely 6000 souls can
of all places which are touched on the find a scanty subsistence. So observes,
way, whilst. the former mentions those among numerous other. writers, the
only which offer an opportunity for in- modern traveller, R. Pringle: * The
teresting remarks or observations.—Tra- whole of our route lay through the
dition believes that the Israelites arrived country traversed by the Israelites on
in Sin on a Sabbath. their way from the Red Sea to Mount
2. After the people had wandered a Sinai, and enabled us to form a very
whole month through barren districts, complete notion of that part of Arabia
the stores, which they might have brought Petraea, which must either have greatly
with them from Egypt, must have been altered in character from what it used
exhausted, especially as no doubt a great to be, or such a multitude as composed
part of their 681016 had perished on the the host of Israel could have been sus-
march from thirst and want of proper food tained only by a succession of the most
| (see xvii. 3), So was then the enormous stupendous miracles, as indeed 68
host of people of more than two millions Scriptures give us reason to believe they
> 01 souls left under a scorching sky, in a were.”
_yast, solitary wilderness, uncheered by This question has justly engaged the
any reasonable hope of supporting them- attention of almost all antiquaries; for
selves, but for a short time, in this dreadful already in the second year after the
‫ ו‬. region. And when was the end of their exodus, the Israelites counted 603,550
. wanderings to be expected? whither males above twenty years, and 22,000
_ should they turn? which people should Leyites above one month (Num. ii. 32;
'they, with arms in their hands, force to iii. 39); and where did this constantly
grant them abodes? what was, therefore, increasing multitude find their food in
under such circumstances, more natural, the desert, besides other tribes inhabiting
> than that the people, still fluctuating and those regions? It is as easy as it is in-
wayering in their belief, murmured with admissible, to cut off the whole problem,
despondency and despair against Moses with Gdothe, Bohlen, and others, by the
Pp ‎‫ל‬

/ Tt! ₪ 7
212 EXODUS XVI.

Aaron in the wilderness. 3. And the children of Israel

said to them, Would to God we had died by the hand
of the Lord in the land of Egypt, when we sat by the
groundless supposition, which 18 per- where the air is pure and refreshing,
fectly at variance with the repeated where fountains abound, the vegetation is
assertions of the text (Num. xiv. 33, 34; luxurious, and a variety of game is
xxxiii.38; Deut. viii. 2), that the sojourn found (see Numb. xi. 31): 3rd, Even
of the Israelites in the Arabian desert is the nomadic Bedouins are still now in
to be reduced from forty to about two the habit of cultivating the districts
years. In order to make this conjecture which appear suitable for agriculture,
more plausible, Gothe asserts among other they live, during this time, in tents, and
arguments: that in the list of the stations change their abodes after every harvest;
in Num. xxxiii. between Hazeroth (ver. thus several tribes may be met with, even
17) and Kadesh, or Sin (Num. xii. 16), now, which are, at the same time
eighteen fictitious places have been in- nomads and agriculturists; and nothing
serted, which the Israelites never passed. forbids us to suppose the same practice
He continues: “Now the interpolated among the Israelites, during their sojourn
stations stand with the superfluous years in the desert, especially as some parts of
ina happy fabulous relation. For eighteen the peninsula are extremely inviting for
places, about which we know nothing, agriculture: 4th. The Jsraelites brought
and thirty-eight years about which we numerous herds and flocks with them
learn nothing, give the best opportunity, from Egypt (Exod. xii, 38; xxxvii. 3),
to go astray in the wilderness with the which furnished them clothes and food of
children of Israel’ (compare on xiii. 17). various kinds (Deut. viii. 4; xxix. 4); it
By such arbitrary proceeding not only is natural to assume that they did not
the whole chronology of the Hebrew neglect the breeding of cattle on their
history would be brought into confusion, journeys, and even the Biblical narrative
but the difficulty would, essentially, only Jeads us to suppose, that especially the
be diminished, not removed. For even three tribes of Reuben, Gad and Ma-
to live two years in the desert with such nasseh, remained faithful to their former
a host is a problem beset by almost all occupations, and, as proprietors of large
the difficulties of the original question. flocks and herds, requested Moses to allot
16 cannot surprise us, that so little is them, as their inheritance, the rich dis-
reported about the journeys between the tricts in the east of the Jordan, with their
second and the fortieth year, as the fertile pastures (Numb, xxxii. 1, et séq.;
Israelites wandered from district to Xxxiv. 14): 5th. The Israelites had no
district without coming into contact want of gold and silver, and other
with hostile tribes, or encountering precious property, to buy from the com-
other remarkable incidents. But the fol- mercial caravans which traversed the
lowing circumstances may serve to ob- desert, or from the neighbouring nations,
viate the objections: Ist. By far the many necessaries, especially corn; a fact
greater part of the period of forty years which is clearly alluded to in Deut. ii. 6:
(namely thirty-six years), the Israelites 6th. It is universally acknowledged, that
lived near the populous Mount Seir and Arabia Petra was, formerly, consider-
the Red Sea, where they could not fail to ably richer, and could maintain many =
come into commerce with rich nations more souls than is the case in its present
and tribes, which provided them easily neglected state. Various circumstances
with all the necessaries of subsistence: may contribute to the gradual deteriora-
2nd. Nearly a whole year the Israelites en- tion of a country, and Arabia Petreeais
camped in the fertile region around the not the only district in which such un-
Sinai (Numb. x. 12; compare p. 47), favourable change has taken place: 7th.
 EXODUS XVI. 213

flesh-pots, and when we did eat bread to satisfaction; for

you have brought us forth into this wilderness, to kill this
whole assembly with hunger.—4. Then said the Lord to
The tribes may, either singly, or ina born, by which they wished to have like-
united body, have made excursions from wise been destroyed. The Israelites com-
Kadesh for the purpose of procuring pro- piained of want of meat, although they
visions: 8th. It is well known, that the possessed much cattle (x. 26); but they
inhabitants of those climates require could not venture to kill them in
comparatively but little food for their great numbers, as they would have de-
subsistence and the support of their prived themselves of their milk, an article
physical strength: 9th. It sufficed per- of the greatest importance for their sub-
fectly, if the Israelites were but scantily sistence.— Bread is here to be understood
provided with the most necessary wants; as food in general. In this general
abundance or superfluity would have led meaning, it is also to be taken in ver. 4
them away from their great aim, the (see note on ver. 8). This extended use
— conquest of Canaan, especially after so of the word bread may have originated
long wanderings, whilst the scarcity of in the fact, that this food forms, in Asia,
their subsistence kept their longing after often the exclusive sustenance of the
better and permanent abodes uninter- nomads for many successive months.— 0
ruptedly alive (see Deuter. xxix. 5): hill this whole assembly with hunger, that
Lastly, if all these natural circumstances is, the consequence of the inconsiderate
combined should not be deemed sufficient journey into the desert, to which Moses
to account for the sojourn of the Israelites and Aaron had, as they said, persuaded
in the desert during forty years, the holy them, without the command of God,
text informs us of the constant supply of would be their death in the wilderness,
manna, a nutritious and agreeable food, although this might not have been their
with which they were abundantly fur- intention; compare Gen. xviii. 5.
_nished during that whole period. And, 4. In this, and the following verse, as
in this sense we read in Deut. ii. 7: * The also in vers. 14,15, and in Numb. xi.
Lord thy God hath blessed thee in all the 7—9, the descending of the manna is
works of thy hand; He knoweth thy mentioned in a way which shows, beyond
walking through this great wilderness; doubt, that here also a miraculous event
these forty years the Lord hath been with is narrated. (About the quails, see on
thee; thou hast lacked nothing” comp. ver. 13). If we compare, and combine
Deut. xxix. 4.—Ebn Ezra observes, that a the different notices of the Bible con-
gradual increase is observable in the dis- cerning the nature of the manna, we
content in the Israelites; at Marah, only a ascertain the following points: Ist. It
part of the people had murmured; in Sin, falls from the air (ver. 4): 2nd, It de-
the whole community; at the former scends daily (with the exception of the
place, against Moses only, at the latter, Sabbath): 3rd. It comes down simulta-
against both Moses and Aaron; there neously, or nearly so, with the dew, like
only for water, here for all other neces- which it covers the earth (ver. 14): 4th,
saries also, as bread and meat. It is thin, like a scale, or fine, like
3%. Would to God we had died by the the hoar-frost on the earth (cid.):
hand of the Lord in the land of Egypt. 6th. It melts, if the sun shines upon
To die “by the hand of God,” signifies,- it (ver. 21): 7th. It breeds maggots if
in old age, and by a natural death, not preserved to the following day (verse
py famine, as Rashbam correctly ex- 20): 8th. It is white, like coriander seed
plains; others (as Rosenmiiller) refer it (ver. 31), or like bdellium (Num. xi, 7):
more artificially to the plagues of Egypt, 9th. Its taste is “like cake with honey ”
especially the last, the death of the first- (ver. 31), or like “olive-cake (Numb,

e
 214 EXODUS XVI. 1
Moses, Behold, 1 shall rain bread from heaven for you;
and the people shall go out and gather 'every day what is
' Engl. Vers.—A certain rate every day.

xi. 8): 10th. It can be ground in mills, or instance, by Fabri, Shaw, Forskal, and
beaten in mortars, or baked in pans, and others, About the manna of Arabia Pe-
prepared for cakes (Numb. 706. cit.): and, trea, the following passage in the travels
11th. It served the Israelites as their or- of Breitenbach (i. p. 49) offers the best
dinary food during their forty years’ illustration: * 15 falls in the neighbour-
wanderings in the desert (ver. 15). hood of Mount Sinai, in August and
If we compare all these circumstances September; resembles, when fresh, the
with the very numerous and very detailed hoar-frost or the dew, and hangs in drops on
accounts of ancient and modern travellers, leaves, herbs, boughs, and stones. When
it appears evident, that the Biblical text it is gathered, it curdles like pitch, but
mentions two sorts of manna, which have melts before the fire, and by the heat of
a different origin, and are in many 26- the sun. In taste, it resembles the honey,
spects distinct from each other. For and sticks in the teeth when it is eaten.”
that manna, which “ is ground in mills Fabri compares it with the coriander
or beaten in mortars,” cannot be iden- seed; and Eurmann states, that its colour
tical with that, which is white like cori- is similar to that of the snow, which ap-
ander seed, and melts by the rays of pearance it keeps, if it falls on stones and
the sun. We may call the one kind the boughs, but that it must be gathered
manna of the air, the other, the manna of before sun-rise; for it melts if exposed to
the trees and shrubs. We shall first in- the sun. We need scarcely point out,
troduce some accounts on the first species. that this air-manna coincides in many,
Aristotle already observes (Hist. Nat. y. and in the most characteristic, features,
22), “ Honey falls from the air, especially with the properties which the Biblicat
at the time of the rise of the great orbs, text ascribes to the manna, To explain
and when the rain-bow disappears; but the formation of manna, no doubt a re-
not before the rise of the Pleiads” ; which markable phenomenon, Oedman (Miscell.
is the case about the vernal equinox, Collect. iv. p.7) observes, * We may re-
whence the Romans call them Vergiliz. present to ourselves, that the great heat
Pliny (Hist. Nat. xi, 12), writes, “ From in Arabia presses a great quantity of
the rise of the Pleiads, honey falls from sweet juice from the trees and shrubs’
the air, towards the dawn of the day. which grow there [see infra], especially
Then the foliage of the trees is found from the Algul, from different sorts of
covered with that substance, and those Rhamnus, from the date-groves, etc., that
who are early in the free air feel their these vapours fly in the air or rise, as long
clothes as if oiled and their hair gluti- as they are specifically lighter than the
nous.” Avicenna (p. 212 of the Arabic atmosphere, but that they condense
text) describes the manna thus: “It is a themselves by the coolness of the night,
dew, which falls upon stones or plants, has till, by the law of gravitation, they fall
a sweet taste, becomes thick like honey, down with the dew, or rather compose
or concreted into small granular masses.” with it one common substance. If they
And in another passage (p. 233), hespeaks descend in a greater quantity, they must
of a sort of honey-dew, similar to an as- naturally form themselves into a sticky
cending vapour, which receives in the air honey-like mass, which assumes still
some natural preparation, and falls down greater compactness by the frost of the
in the night upon trees and_ stones, night. If, after the fall of the dew, the
and has resemblance to honey. These watery parts of this glutinous dew evapo-.
observations have been fully confirmed rate, the sweet and heavy manna-sub-
by many travellers in the East; so, for stance remains, like hoar-frost or sugar;
 EXODUS XVI. 215

sufficient for the day, that I may try them, whether they
will walk in ny law or not. 5. And it shall come to pass,

but when the rays of the sun begin to but when the manna falls, every one, who
shine with greater force, these grains wishes it, is permitted to go into the
also melt.” forest and take as much of it as he likes,
This is, no doubt, a clear and accept- without requiring any special permission
*Ad
able theory; but it explains in no way from the government or private persons.
the fact, that the manna was ground, and It is gathered in three different ways,
e
‫ שד‬. l
beaten, and cooked. In order to account and is of different quality accordingly
for this, we are obliged to consider the Some go into the forest in the morning
second species of manna more minutely. before sun-rise, and shake the manna
ty There are some trees in the south of from the leaves upon a cloth. This
Europe and in the East, from which oozes manna remains quite white, and is of the
ae a resinous, sweet, whitish juice, either most superior quality. If it is not shaken
spontaneously or by the puncture of a in the morning, and a warm day ensues,
certain insect, which Ehrenberg calls it melts in the heat of the sun. But it is
Coccus manniparus. Some sorts of this still not quite spoiled, but accumulates on
manna are imported into our countries the leaves more and more, which thus
also, mostly from Calabria and Sicily, in grow thicker every day. Now, in order
dried grains, and are frequently applied to secure this manna also, the leaves are
Fe
TESS
> for pharmaceutical purposes, especially taken home in any quantity, and thrown
as a laxative. The trees which contain into boiling water, when the manna ap-
this substance are, among others, the pears on its surface like oil, and can
Ornus Europza and Fraxinus rotundi- easily be taken out. But many persons
folia (in Sicily,and Italy), Alhagi (frequent do not even take that trouble, but they
in the East, chiefly in two species, A. mau- beat the leaves with the manna together in
rorum and A. desertorum); Tamarix mortars; and this is the most inferior
mannifera (called by the Arabs, Guz, and sort.” The reader will easily discover
Tarafa); the Gharb or Garrab (which the manifold parallels which this account
yields the Beiruk honey, in the valley offers with the Biblical description, and
of the Jordan); the Gundeleh (which especially understand how the manna
produces the Sheer-khisht manna, in > was ground in mills, beaten in mortars,
Candahar); Calotropis procera (which and cooked in pans.”
exudes the Shukar-al-ashur); Ballot or The shrub, from which this manna is
Afs (in Mesopotamia). Before we de- usually obtained in Asia, is the Alhagi
801100 some of these plants, and that (called by the Arabs * Camel’s Horn’),
insect, more in detail, we insert the fol- It grows almost throughout the whole
lowing passage from Niebuhr’s Descrip- Orient, in Arabia Petraea, but especial-
tion of Arabia (p. 145), in order to ex- ly between Sinai and ‘Tor; it is of
plain the grinding of the manna: “ The middle height, has lancet-like, blunt
manna-harvest falls, in Merdin (in Meso- leaves, and blossoms of half an inch in
potamia), in the month of August, or, as length. From these come out glutinous
others’say, in July. Observers have, after legumina one inch long, which contain
a thick fog, or if other vapours fill the reddish-brown, bitter seeds. ‘The manna
atmosphere, noticed a greater quantity of of Alhagi maurorum is employed as a
it on the leaves of the trees, than when substitute for sugar, and is from Persia,
the air is pure. These trees (called where this tree grows most abundantly,
Ballot, Afs, Elms, Elmahleb, ete., be- exported to India; it is in Persian and
longing, probably, to the oak family), are Arabian works called Terendshabin.—
not particularly cultivated or attended to; The Tarafa is an evergreen tamarisk with
 216 EXODUS XVI.
that on the sixth day, if they will prepare that which they
bring in, it shall be double of that which they gather daily.
6. And Moses and Aaron said to all the children of
thorny legumina, which grows in great descends in such quantities, that the
abundance in Wadi esh-Sheikh (see on whole people of Israel is supplied with
ver. 1); but although the tamarisk is it, whereas, according to authentic reports,
very frequent in Nubia, throughout even in the most abundant years, the
Arabia, on the Euphrates, on the Asta- Whole peninsula of Sinai yields scarcely
boras, and in different other valleys of 600 to 700 pounds, and in ordinary years
Asia, it seems, according to Burckhardt’s not more than the third part of this quantity.
testimony, that it produces manna almost 3. It serves as the usual, nutritious and sa-
exclusively in the region of Mount Sinai. tisfying food, whilst it is in fact only a
Now from these plants the manna exudes medical, relaxing substance, and would,
either as a vegetable juice spontaneously, if taken for any length of time, lead to
or by incisions or fissures, or by means of the dissolution of the body, although it
that small insect coccus, above alluded may be applied to sweeten the meals; nor
to, which scratches the boughs with its do the Arabians use it now as an article
sting, and thus causes the resinous fluid to of 1000. 4. It falls on the sixth day in
trickle out—The coccus manniparus is double quantities, and on the seventh not
an unwinged insect, about one or two at all. 5. It breeds worms, if it is pre-
lines long, bluntly cuneiform, yellow, served to the following day, whilst that
hairy at the upper part, and chequered, kept from the sixth to the seventh day
with twelve ringlets on the body, feelers remains sweet and wholesome. 6. It is
of nine links, six four-linked fect, and to the Israelites perfectly unknown, and
small, indistinct eyes. causes their astonishment (ver. 15), and
From all this it is evident, that the an omer full of it is preserved (ver. 32),
holy text speaks both of the air-manna that the posterity might see the miracu-
and of the tree-manna, since only the lous bread of their ancestors; and in the
qualities of both sorts combined yield all same sense it is called a food, which their
the characteristics of the Biblical manna. fathers had never known (Deut. viii. 3).
At the same time, it is not only not im- As such miraculous bread the manna is
possible, but even probable, that the vege- mentioned throughout the Old Testament;
table or tree-manna is frequently carried it is called “ celestial bread” (Psalms, ey.
away by the air, and falls again to the 40); or similarly: “heavenly food” (Ps.
ground like dew, so that in the end both Ixxvili.24, although the Arabians call it also
kinds of manna coincide in their origin.— “heavenly gift”); and in Ps. lxxviii,4
However, although the manna of our text it is enumerated among the wonders,
has thus many qualities in common with which God did for Israel (compare
the natural character of that substance; Nehem. ix. 20). About the name see on
and thus proves anew, that God applies ver. 15.—As the reason, why so unsub-
natural means for His great deeds (as in stantial a food was chosen as the chief
the plagues of Egypt, the passage over means of subsistence of the Israelites for
the Red Sea, the change of the bitter so long a period, is mentioned in Deut.
waters of Marah, and in many other vill. 3, that Israel may learn, “that man
instances); it is yet obvious, that here a does not live by bread alone, but by every-
miracle is narrated, from the following thing which the word of God produces”;
points: 1. The manna of the Israelites that, therefore, God may apply whatever
falls uninterruptedly through forty years means He pleases to maintain His crea-
at all seasons, whilst in reality it is only tures. And thus the sacred text itself
found during two or three months in the alludes to the higher typical meaning
year, and in some years not at all. 2. It which the manna is intended to convey,
 EXODUS XVI. 217

Israel, In the evening, then you shall know that the Lord
hath brought you out from the land of Egypt: 7. And
in the morning, then you shall see the glory of the Lord;
and invites to a symbolical interpretation. find that they have gathered double the
The providence of God manifests itself quantity of that which they have collected
chiefly in supporting all the numberless on the previous days, that is two omers
beings which people the universe. 6 (ver, 22).
gives to everybody his food in due time; 6, 9. The following words of Moses
but because He sends it through agents have a deeper background. After the
and messengers, man is apt to forget that deliverance at the Red Sea, the Israelites
it proceeds from Him, who is the source had learned to identify the cause of God
of everything created; because He con- with that of Moses, and to look upon the
ceals Himself in the veil of nature or latter as the true messenger of the former
natural events, man is prone to ascribe (xiv. 31). In the privations which they
his daily support to this concatenation of had already suffered since that event,
external occurrences, and to speak himself they felt an inducement to separate again
free from every duty of gratitude towards the guidance of Moses from the provi-
Providence, But in order to teach the dence of God, who, they believed, would
released people immediately after its lead them, without trouble or vexation,
entrance into the inhospitable and barren into a happy country. They murmured,
desert, that great truth that He alone is therefore, against Moses (ver. 2), without,
the bestower of all earthly gifts, that the however, disowning God’s power (ver.
maintenance of every individual is in 3). It is, therefore, the intention of
reality one uninterrupted series of mira- Moses, to prove to the Israelites again,
cles, and that He may use any medium, that God is the immediate ruler of their
however insignificant in appearance, to destinies, and that he himself, and Aaron,
maintain His creatures; God applied the are but His feeble instruments. Although
light food of the manna to remind them the brothers lost thus in worldly great-
every day anew of His watching Provi- ness, they rose high in heavenly dignity,
dence, of His goodness and His omni- and the cause of Israel appeared again
potence; and He thus prepared them as thoroughly divine. This murmuring
‘practically to comprehend the first and ef the people, which is thus not directed
fundamental doctrine of every true against Moses, but against God Himself,
and pure religion.— We abstain from assumes a still more criminal character,
further allegorical applications, in which The proof of that truth shall now be more
many commentators, tempted by the openly displayed, by the miraculous
fruitfulness of the subject, have exten- supply of quails in the evening, and of
sively and often vainly indulged. manna in the morning, and the glory of
God will try the Israelites by the God will manifest itself to the disheart-
manna, and see, whether they would ened hosts.— The glory of the Lord, that is,
indeed, with contentment and confidence, His might, to give you, even in this wil-
gather every day only as much as was derness, unexpectedly your sustenance
necessary for them, nor leave anything to (compare xiv. 17; Numb. xiv. 22), whilst
the following day (ver. 19), or whether in ver. 10, the same expression signifies
they would feel tempted to go out on Sab- the deity in its supernatural splendour,
bath also to gather (ver. 26); in a word, which manifests itself to the mortal eye.—
whether they would walk in the law and What are we, namely, able or capable to
follow the command of the Lord. perform? We execute only that which
₪. On the sixth day after the first God bids us to do.
supply of the manna, they shall examine ₪. This verse is closely to be combined
that which they bring home, and they will with the preceding one, which it is in-
 218 EXODUS XVI.
‘when He heareth your murmurings against the Lord:
and what are we, that you murmur against us? 8. And
Moses said, This shall be, when the Lord will give you in
the evening flesh to eat, and in the morning bread to satis-
faction; when the Lord heareth your murmurings which
you murmur against Him: and what are we? Your
inurmurings are not against us, but against the Lord.—
J. And Moses spoke to Aaron, Say to all the congre-
gation of the children of Israel, Approach before the
' Engl. Vers.—For that he.

tended to illustrate; at the same time it solemn occasion God repeats, to Moses
represents a former idea in a new light, alone, His previous assurance, verses
and the logical connection is this: when 10—12; so that the economy of this sec-
God will send you food in the evening tion is perfectly logical.
and in the morning, His glory will im- 9, 10. The pillar of the cloud, which,
press itself upon your minds; at the same during the day, passed constantly before
time, the nature of that food, and the the army of the Israelites (xiii. 22), was
manner in which you will obtain it, will to them the visible sign of divine guid-
be a new proof that not we (Moses and ance, and now, when a new extraordinary
Aaron), in our weakness, but God in His miracle, clearly announced, was to be
omnipotence and wisdom, has led you granted and confirmed to them, they are
from Egypt, and so your murmuring very appropriately and impressively re-
against me falls back upon Him. In our quested to rally round that sacred symbol,
verse, meat and bread appear really to be in order to accept, as it were, from God
used in their usual and more limited Himself, the certainty of the promise.
meaning, whilst in ver. 3, dread is ap- But the pillar of the cloud was, as the
plied as the generic, and meat as the spe- Israelites had alienated themselves from
cific notion, so that the literal reference their God by their murmuring, “ farther
to ver. 3, which has, by some _inter- before them in the desert,” and they * ap- -
preters, been found in our yerse, is but proached” it now (ver. 9),or they “turned”
in appearance.—The order of the verses towards it (ver. 10), and saw the majesty
of this chapter has been attacked, especi- of God in the cloud (see on ver. %‫ל‬‎
ally from the circumstance, that in ver. 11, 1. According to Ebn Ezra, this
4, the manna alone seems to be pro- is asecond revelation of God to Moses,
mised, whilst here the animal food also which was granted to him on the same
is mentioned, wherefore, some propose to subject, as an acknowledgment of the
place vers. 11,12 immediately after ver. reverential spirit with which the Israelites
3. However, the whole difficulty dis- looked upon the glory of God appearing
appears if we take in ver. 4 also, bread to them. However, it seems rather,
in its wider sense, as food in general, so that the promise of the miraculous food
that it comprises the promise of the quails is here repeated to Moses alone, in the
also, and the progress of the narrative is presence of the people, because he was
therefore this: promise of God to Moses properly the medium between Him and
and Aaron concerning the manna and the people.
the quails, vers. 4, 5; then announcement 13. Our verse relates to the first kind
of this promise to the people through the of food with which the Israelites were
brothers, vers. 6—9; and, lastly, its ratifi- supplied, the quails (selav). The exact
cation by a divine apparition, on which species of birds, designated by the name
 EXODUS XVI. 219

Lord; for He hath heard your murmurings. 10. And it

came to pass, as Aaron spoke to the whole congregation
of the children of Israel, that they ?turned towards the
wilderness, and behold, the glory of the Lord appeared in
the cloud.—11. And the Lord spoke to Moses, saying,
12. | have heard the murmurings of the children of
Israel: speak to them, saying, *Towards the evening
you shall be satisfied with bread, and you shall know that
I am the Lord your God. 18. And it came to pass, that
2 Engl. Vers,—Looked. 3 At even.

selav, has been a long-disputed question, Prosper Alpinus, Hasselquist, Shaw, and
which is, however, at present almost others. Besides the common quail (Tetrao
settled. Partly the comparison with the coturnix, cot. dactylisonans), in those parts
kindred dialects, partly the circumstance another large species is found, which the
that selav is, in Psalm lxxiii. 27, called Arabians call 2070, and, in the system of
“a winged bird,” have assisted in clear- Linneeus, bears the name Tetrao (Israeli-
ing up this subject. The latter desig- tarum) Alchata. It abounds in Arabia
nation would by no means apply to Petra, Judza, and the former territories
locusts, which Ludolph, Patrick, and of Edom and Moab, where it is, especially
others, believe to be meant by 80/00. Nor in May and June, the season of our event,
is the “ flying-fish” (‘Trigla Israelitarum, found in enormous numbers. It is of the
Ehrenberg) more adapted to our text; size of a turtle-dove; has a short, curved,
they can hardly cover the whole camp; yellow bill, marked with a white spot at
they do not move far from the coast ;) the end; ash-grey neck and head; red-
nor can they serve as an ordinary food, dish body and back; cuneiform tail; and
but are only applied to certain medical feathered legs ; and must, therefore, pro-
preparations. Now, in Arabic, the same perly, be ranged among the grouse family.
word signifies 0/6077; and so Josephus calls The Septuagint renders selav by “ quail-
‘the bird here mentioned; he alludes to the king” (roi de cailles, or, properly, mother
event of our text in the following manner of quails, that is, large quail), and which
(Antiq. 111.1. 5( : “A little later, a vast is said to lead the migrations of the quails
number of quails, which is a bird more (Plin., Nat. Hist. x. 33). Thus it is in-
plentiful in this Arabian Gulf than any- terpreted by Philo, and others also. A\l-
where else, came flying over the sea; though this bird belongs, according to
and, wearied with their Jaborious flight, accurate observations, to another family,
and coming nearer to the earth than that of the * Rallus,” it is so similar to
other birds, they fell down upon the the quail, that it rather confirms this
Hebrews. And they caught them and acceptation. The opinion of Targum
satisfied their hunger with them, convinced Jonathan, who understood by selav
that God had supplied them with this pheasants, requires 10 refutation. —
food.” Both ancient and modern geogra- And covered the camp. According to
phers agree about the abundance of quails Numb. xi. 31, the quails (like the locusts,
in those regions. Sosays Diodorus Siculus: x.13) are “brought by a wind from the
* The inhabitants (of Arabia Petrea) pre- sea,” and they are scattered over the ‫ג‬ea
‫וו‬
a

pared long nets, spread them near the coast camp, “a day’s journey on this side, and
for many stadia, and caught thus a great a day’s journey on the other side, and
number of quails, which come hither in two cubits high upon the face of the
large troops from the sea.” Similarly, earth.” In Psa. lxxvili. 26, 27, the same

4.
 220 EXODUS XVI.
in the evening the quails came up, and covered
the camp:
and in the morning the dew lay round about
the ‘camp.
14. And when the dew which lay had risen,
behold, there
was upon the face of the desert “something small
, pealed,
as small as the hoar-frost on the earth, 15. And when
the children of Israel saw %z, they said one
to another,
>What zs that? For they knew not what it was. And
Moses said to them, This zs the bread whic
h the Lord
hath given you for food.—16. This js the thing which
1 Engl. Vers.—Host. * A small round thing, as small, ete,
3 It is manna.
event is thus described: “He [God] 15. About the nature, and
caused an east-wind to blow in the heaven: the dif-
ferent sorts of the manna, see
and by His power He brought in the on yer, 4.
The Israelites, seeing the ground
south-wind. He raised flesh upon them
covered
With it, exclaim: man-hu, which
as dust, and feathered fowls like the sand words,
if they are combined with the expla
nation
of the sea.” And Buffon (Hist. Nat. iii. 1) immediately following: “ for
observes, with regard hereto, “ We see, they did
not know what it was,” evidently
even, that the Creator of the Universe signify:
“What is that?” Thus trans
employed this means (the wind), as that late the
Septuagint, the Syriac Version,
most in conformity with the general laws and the
Vulgate. Josephus (Antiq. IIL. i. 16)
established by Himself, for sending vast writes: “ Now the Hebrews call
numbers of quails to the Israelites in the this food
manna, for the word man, is,
in our lan-
desert. ‘This south-east wind blows, in- guage, a question, What is this?
deed, in Egypt, in Ethiopia, on the coasts ” - And
the substance preserved the
of the Red name by
Sea, and, in a word, in all which it was first introduced; and
those regions where the quails abound.” already in ver. 33, an omer
However, the miraculous character of this of manna
is mentioned (see also yer.
event must be sought, both in the un- 35). Web-
ster (Dictionary, s. v.) compares
usual abundance of those birds, and in Manna
with the similar Arabic word,
theirarrival just at the time when the He- pro-
visions for a journey, and with
brew camp was nearly despairing, and the
Irish mann, which signifies wheat
when such an event was, naturally, the , bread,
or food; but he defends the
least to be expected.— Now, in the morn- render-
ing of the English Version:
ing was around the camp “a layer of > it is
manna,” which would make this
dew,” that is, the dew had already fallen whole
verse singularly contradictory;
in the morning, and covered the ground, for the
Hebrews could not call it by a
44. And when that layer of dew which certain
name, if “they knew not what
covered the earth had risen and evapo- it was.”
Evidently to obviat such
rated, the thin white manna, which had objection,
Faber explains: “The Israelites
fallen almost simultaneously with the asked,
‘Is this manna?’ for they
dew was seen upon the ground (Numb, knew the
name, without having ever
xi. 9). According to Rashi, and others, seen the
object itself.’ ‘But it is clear, that
first dew had fallen, then manna over the
this is no successful attempt to
dew, and then dew again over the manna, bring the
different parts of our verse into
so that the manna was enclosed between harmony
with each other. It is neither gram
two layers of dew, as in a capsule, mati-
cally nor logically unforced. The same
We need scarcely remark, that the text
must be said of another interpretation
offers no hint to such conception.
adopted by several commentators, that
 EXODUS XVI. 221

the Lord hath commanded, Gather of it every man accord-

ing to his eating, an omer for every head, according to the
number of your persons; take every man for those who
are in his tent. 17. And the children of Israel did so,
and gathered; *those who gathered more, and those who
gathered less. 18. And when they did mete 7] with an
omer, he who gathered much had nothing over, and he
who gathered little had no lack; they gathered every man
according to his eating. 19. And Moses said, Let no man
4 Engl. Vers.—Some more, some less.

the Israelites believed the food, which lay 6th. The kab (2 Kings vi. 25), according
spread before them, to be identical with to the Rabbins, the sixth part of the seah,
the natural manna, which was known to or four xeste : therefore the homer is the
them, and that, therefore, Moses, correct- greatest, the log, the smallest measure, and
ing their mistake, informed them, in the their relation to those which lie between
following words, that it was heavenly them 18 as follows: 1 homer is equal to 10
food. . baths or ephahs, 30 seahs, 60 hins, 100
16. Every individual was to gather one omers, 180 kabs, 720 logs. Now, as a log
omer. The measures in use among the contains as much as six eggs, the ephah
ancient Hebrews, for dry goods, were: (or bath) contains 6x 72=432 eggs, and
Ist. the homer, containing ten baths. The therefore is an omer equal to 43! eggs
bath (which is, however, only used for (or about four pints, English); see on
liquids), is, according to Josephus, equal ver. 36. It can be gathered, from
to seventy-two zeste, that is, one Attic several passages of the Mishnah and the
metretes; and this holds, according to Talmud, that the measures were, in later
Bockh, 1993°95 Parisian cubic inches. times, enlarged, although their proportion
But, according to the Rabbins, one 9 to each other remained unaltered.
is equal to six hen’s eggs of middle size, 18. The miraculous and heayen-sent
probably not the shells, but only the food showed itself wonderful in all its
contents of the eggs. Now, a log is the relations. Everybody gathered the manna
seyenty-second part of a bath, for a bath after his abilities or his judgment, and
contains six fins, and a hin, twelve when he returned to his tent, and
logs, therefore the bath holds 1014°39 measured what he had gathered, he who
Parisian cubic inches; which amount had little, found yet that he had for every
agrees better with the different passages member of his family not less than an
of the Bible than the larger one stated omer, and he who brought home much,
above: 2nd. The Lethech, which is, ac- saw that he had not gathered more than
cording to the Septuagint, and the Vul- one omer for every individual of his
gate, half a homer: 3rd. The ephah, the house; or, whether they had individually
tenth part of the homer, and is, there- gathered much or little, yet when they
fore, the same measure as the bath is for came home, put together, and then shared
liquids : 4th. The seah, according to the what they had gathered, they found, that
Septuagint and the Rabbins, the third part there was for every one not more, and
of the ephah: 5th. The omer, which is, not less than an omer.
as appears from the 36th verse of our 19. In order to remind the Israelites
chapter, the tenth part of the ephah, daily anew of the unremitting providence
wherefore it is frequently called a tenth of God, they should leave nothing of
deal (Levit, xiv. 10; Numb. xv, 4): and, their manna till the following morning,

wwe,
 222 EXODUS XVI.
leave of it till the morning. 20. Notwithstanding they
hearkened not to Moses; but some of them left of it
until
the morning, and it 'became putrid with worms, and
smelled offensively: and Moses was angry with them.
21. And they gathered it every morning, every man
according to his eating; and when the sun grew hot, it
melted. 22. And it came to pass, that on the sixth day
they gathered double bread, two omers for one man : and
all the chiefs of the congregation came and told 2 to
Moses. 23. And he said to them, This 05 that which the
Lord hath said, To-morrow is *a day of rest, a holy rest
to the Lord: bake that which you will bake to-day, and
seethe that which you will seethe; and that which remaineth
1 Engl. Vers.—Bred worms. 5 The rest of the holy Sabbath unto.
or what was left destroy, firmly relying him of the fact, and to enquire, how they
that God would provide them every day should act after such a remarkable oc-
with their necessary sustenance. currence, upon which Moses answered:
21. That both the tree-manna, and the “ Bake that, which you will bake,” ete.
air-manna melt, or at least curdle when (ver. 23); and especially to ascertain,
the sun shines upon it, is confirmed by all whether that manna, which they would
travellers (see on ver. 4). leave to the following morning, would
22. The sense of this verse is easily remain eatable, to which Moses replied:
discernible from the context: God had “and that which remaineth over lay up
already, at the first announcement of the for you to be kept until the morning.” —
manna, in ver. 5, communicated to Moses Rashi is of opinion, that Moses had for-
that the Israelites, when preparing, that gotten to acquaint the Israelites of the
is, measuring the quantity brought home, laws concerning the Sabbath, which is,
would find, that they had gathered double however, by no means probable; and
the usual quantity. It is to be supposed Ebn Ezra believes, with as little plausi-
that Moses informed the people of this bility, that Moses had simply commanded
circumstance, although our text does not them to gather on the sixth day double
relate it, and there are numerous in- portions, without, however, assigning any
stances, that God gave commands to reason for this injuncti — Accordi
on.ng
Moses, without their communication to to tradition, the manna for the Sabbath
the people being mentioned; and this was, in smell and taste, superior to that
supposition isin our case confirmed by gathered on the other days.—The “ chiefs
the first part of the following verse, from of the congregation” are probably the
which the acquaintance of the Israelites same, who are in xii.21; xvii, 5, called
with the precepts concerning the Sabbath the elders.
is clearly obvious: “That is that, which 23. We find here already a short
the Lord hath said, To-morrow is a day allusion to the institution of Sabbath,
of rest, holy rest to the Lord.”—Now which is, next to the Passover,
that prediction was, indeed, found realized the
second great national sign of covenant,
on the sixth day; they saw that they between God and Israel. Before this
had gathered a double measure of manna; period, the Israelites did probably not
>>"

and, therefore, the representatives of the observe this day as a time of rest
congregation went to Moses to inform and
recreation. But the oceasion on which {

2
\g
"4
+
 EXODUS XVI. 223

over lay up for you to be kept until the morning.

24. And they laid it up till the morning, as Moses com-
manded: and it did not smell offensively, nor was there
any worm therein. 25. And Moses said, Eat that to-day;
for to-day 7s a Sabbath to the Lord: to-day you will not
find it in the field. 26. Six days you shall gather it; but
on the seventh day, which is the Sabbath, in it there shall
y 5 be none.—27. And it came to pass, that there went out
some of the people on the seventh day to gather, and they
found none. 28. And the Lord said to Moses, How long
do you refuse to keep my commandments and my laws?
29. See, that the Lord hath given you the Sabbath;
therefore He giveth you on the sixth day the bread of

it is here introduced is admirably calcu- rebuke here expressed by God does not
lated to disclose the internal end of the apply to him personally.
Sabbath, which is the perfect harmoniz- 29. God shows in a most obvious
ing and reconciling of the material and manner His wish to see the Sabbath
spiritual life of man. Now, the minds consecrated, by His sending double food
of the Israelites were in the desert of Sin, on the sixth day.—Abide you every man
entirely engrossed by cares and thoughts in his place, that is, do not go out with
for physical subsistence. The mentioning the intention to gather manna; this literal
of the Sabbath, was, therefore, intended meaning has already been adopted by
to call their exclusive attention away from Rashi. But rabbinical tradition has,
earth, and to direct it, for a day at least, from these words, deduced the prohibi-
,
to heaven, lest the people, absorbed in tion, that no Israelite shall go farther
4
ts — external pursuits, forget the true task of than 2000 yards, that is 6 stadia, or
4
‎‫ו‬

.
their lives, and in prosecuting the means 750 Roman paces, from the place of his
lose the aim. (See our remarks on xx. abode (“the Sabbath-way,” Acts 1. 12);
‘=

8--11(.---* That which you are accus- for that was the distance of the holy
tomed to bake and to seethe every day, tabernacle from the remotest part of the
namely, one omer, that you shall bake Hebrew camp.—Although the law about
and seethe to-day also; but the remaining the Sabbath-way is not distinctly stated
omer preserve till to-morrow,” explains in the legislation, it is certainly in ac-
Ebn Ezra, perhaps too literally urging cordance with the spirit and character
the words of the command. Nor is the of the Sabbath. Travelling interrupts
interpretation of Onkelos and Rashi more the rest both of the men and the
plausible: “bake and seethe both omers beasts, and was therefore to be avoided.
together for to-day and to-morrow”; for From the same reasons unnecessary mili-
if so, it would not be in any way remark- tary marches were interdicted on Sabbath
able or miraculous, that the manna did, (see on xx. 8—11). However, prome-
on Sabbath, not go over into putrefaction nading for the sake of recreation, and,
ver. 24). even distant, visits to prophets or other
26. Here the law of Sabbath concern- public teachers and houses of divine
ing the manna is generalized. worship, seem not to have been forbidden;
28. Moses is addressed instead, and in and even riding was, for the latter pur-
the name of the whole people; and the pose, not unusual (see 2 Kings iy. 23).

‫וי‬

-
 224 EXODUS XVI.
two days; abide you every man in his place, let no man go
out of his place on the seventh day. 30. So the people
rested on the seventh day. 81. And the house of Israel
called the name thereof Manna: and it was like coriander
seed, white; and the taste of it was like ‘cake made with
honey.—32. And Moses said, This zs the thing which the
Lord commandeth: Fill an omer of it to be kept for your
generations; that they may see the bread which I have
1 Engl. Vers.—W afers.

30. The people followed the divine sition, that the manna, when falling from
injunction concerning the Sabbath, and the air, tasted like coriander, but, when
nobody went out to seek manna. ground and cooked, like oil. However,
31. The manna is compared with coriander and oil are both poetical figures
coriander seed. Thé coriandrum sativum for a soft agreeable substance. According
is frequently found in Egypt, Persia and to the Rabbins, the manna contained in-
India, has a round, tall stalk, the lower gredients of every delicious food, and had
leaves are simply feathered, and toothed; a different taste for the children, the
the upper ones are smaller, doubly fea- youths, the men, and the aged, to every
thered, and pointed; it bears umbelliferous one according to his individual liking.
white or reddish flowers, from which
32—34. An omer of the manna was
arise globular greyish-coloured, spicy, to be preserved, that the future genera-
hollow seed-corns, the surface marked tions might be reminded with what mi-
with fine striae; they are in Egypt raculous food God supported the Israel-
exclusively employed as a spice in ites in the desert—a proof that, according
meat and other food. It is, at present, to the narrative of the sacred text, not
also much cultivated in the south of the usual manna which falls every year,
Europe, and in this country, as its seeds and which was known to everybody, is
are used by confectioners and druggists, here understood, That omer was like-
and its 168708 are employed as an in- wise intended or calculated to recall, in
gredient for different kinds 01 times of disbelief and misery, to the me-
As, therefore, the coriander is yellowish, mory ofthe Israelites,God’s providence and
Rashi explains our words thus: “The love, by exhibiting the unsubstantial food
manna was, with regard to the globular with which He satisfied so many millions
form, similar to the seeds of coriander, through so protracted a period. — This
which has besides, a white colour.” And vessel with manna was to be placed before
similarly Kimchi: “The manna was white, God, or before the Testimony, which two
and consisted of grains like those of expressions must, therefore, be identical;
coriander-seed.” But these explanations for “Testimony” stands here instead
are against the construction of the Hebrew of the “ Ark of the Covenant,” which
words. In Num. .‫או‬‎ 7, the colour is de- contained the two stone tablets upon
scribed as that of bdellium, which is which the ten commandments were en-
“whitish, resinous, and pellucid, nearly graved. The vessel with the manna,
the colour of frankincense; when broken occupied thus a most significant place in
it appears the colour of wax.”—lIts taste the holy tabernacle. It is self-evident,
was like honey-cake, or, according to Num. from this circumstance, that this com-
xi. 8, it resembled that of “ an oiled cake;” mand, or at least its execution (ver. 34),
which two designations Ebn Ezra, Rash- cannot fall into the time of our chapter,
bam, and others, reconcile by the suppo- namely, the second month after the exode,
 EXODUS ‎‫א‬ 225

given you in the wilderness, when I brought you forth

from the land of Egypt. 33. And Moses said to Aaron,
Take a vessel, and put an omer full of manna therein, and
lay it up before the Lord, to be kept for your generations.
34. As the Lord commanded Moses, so Aaron laid it up
before the testimony, to be kept. 35. And the children
of Israel did eat manna forty years, until they came to
*the land which they were to inhabit; they did eat the
2 Engl. Vers.—A land inhabited.

but considerably later, after the legisla- exode (ver.1), and ceased immediately
tion, and the construction and erection after the first Passover which the Israel-
of the tabernacle. But the historian in- ites celebrated in the west of the Jordan
tended to combine, in these verses, all (Josh. v.12).—The Septuagint, Vulgate,
notices relating to the manna, and, from the English Version, and many modern com-
same consideration, the next verse (ver. 35) mentators, translate the following words
contains even the fact. that the Israelites thus: “until they came to a land inhabited.”
were provided with manna during forty This is at variance both with history—
years, till they came to the borders of the for the Israelites passed, long before their
promised land. Instances of a similar entrance into Canaan, through many in-
anticipation occur both in the Pentateuch habited countries, for instance, those of
and the historical books of the Old Sihon and Og—and with the succeeding
Testament. According to Joshua v. words, which are explanatory of that state-
10—12, the manna ceased after the ment: “until they came to the borders
transit of the Israelites over the Jordan, of the land of Canaan” (to Gilgal).
after the death of Moses, who could, 36. Now an omer is the tenth part of
therefore, have made that statement an ephah. 'The Septuagint translates:
only by divine inspiration .(as Adbar- “The omer was the tenth part of three
banel observes), especially as Moses measures” (that is, seahs, -(‫ךַמ‬‎ Thus also
knew, according to Numb. xiv. 33, that Onkelos and Rashi: The omer was the
the Israelites would eat the manna for third part of three seahs. Rashi con-
forty years. According to others, this tinues, One seah is equal to 6 kabs,
remark has been inserted by Joshua, one kab is equal to 4 logs, and one
or by Moses, immediately before his de- log is equal to 6 eggs, so that, again,
mise. Hengstenberg explains, that our an omer is equal to 431 eggs (for, if a log
verse simply relates that the Israelites is equal to 6 eggs, a kab is equal to 24,
were provided with manna till they came and a seah is equal to 144; therefore,
to the inhabited districts in the east of three seahs are equal to 432, and the tenth
the Jordan, without leading the narrative part, or an omer, is equal to 431(. See note
beyond the time of Moses; they eat on ver. 16. The Septuagint usually ren-
manna till that period, which does not ders ephah by the Egyptian word ozphi
exclude their enjoying the same heavenly or otphei, that is, measure; and hin it
food even after that time. <A similar diffi- translates with ein or in, which is the
culty and difference of opinion prevails in Egyptian name for sextarius. Ephah
Deut. xxxiv. 5. et seg. where the death of and hin seem therefore to have been
Moses himself is reported.—Forty years are originally Egyptian measures. The molten
given as a round sum, although the manna sea of Solomon (1 Kings vii. 23—-26) con-
lasted about one month less; for it com- tained two thousand baths; and if we
menced in the second month after the compare the dimensions of this vessel

%
 226 EXODUS XVL., XVII.
manna until they came to the borders of the land of
Canaan. 36. Now an omer zs the tenth part of an
ephah.
(which was ten cubits in diameter, five clear statement was very desirable. And,
cubits high, and in circumference thirty in general, accuracy in detail, especially
cubits), and if we take the cubit at fifteen of measures, which is a characteristic of
inches, the “ sea” contained, according to almost all ancient writers, cannot possibly
Saalschiitz (Mos. R. i. p. 194—199), be taken as an argument against the au-
1,325,358 cubic inches; and each bath or thenticity of a passage.—Michelis, Kanne,
ephah was, therefore, 6623 cubic inches and Hengstenberg, are of opinion that
(or about 10} quarts), and the omer about omer is no name of a measure, but
one quart. We shall, in due place, exa- a kind of vessel or jar, which everybody
mine this computation, — Omer, pro- carried with him, and which might there-
perly sheaf, was, probably, the measure fore be used as a measure. But, granted
which was filled by the grains of one even, that every Israelite was provided
sheaf. But, as sheaves are of uncertain with such a utensil, it is difficult to sup-
size, it is impossible to base any conjec- pose, that they were all of precisely the
ture upon that derivation. The Mosaic same size, and therefore fit to serve as a
law supposes the case that sheaves might measure. Neither the analogy of the simi-
be overlooked, and left in the field; for lar Arabic word, which Micheelis urges, nor
they were considerably smaller than they the circumstance that the Pentateuch very
are in our countries, the corn being cut frequently uses * tenth deal of an ephah,”
merely with the sickle.—Some critics have instead of omer (Hengstenberg), is con-
found, in the accuracy with which our clusive. Notwithstanding the existence
text describes the quantity of the omer, of the crown, as a current English coin,
a proof, that this verse cannot have been it is, in the common intercourse, less
written in the time of Moses, whenall those used than its value, five shillings.—The
measures were so universally known. But history of the manna has given rise to
laws are necessarily more explicit than a numerous, often very ingenious, typical
simple narrative; and, in order to secure and allegorical explanations. Compare,
uniformity and stability for the future, a however, note on ver. 4, p. 216, 217.

CHAPTER XVII.
SummMAry.—From Sin (Wadi esh-Sheikh) the Israelites journey on in a southern
direction, till they come to Rephidim, in the vicinity of Horeb (see on ver. 1).
Oppressed by want of water, the Israeltites mumur against Moses, again re-
proaching him, to have led them rashly from their safe abodes in Egypt. But
God quiets their discontent by miraculously producing abundant supplies of
water from a rock in Horeb.—In Rephidim the Israelites are, for the first time,
inimically encountered by any of the heathen nations; they are attacked by the
Amalekites. Joshua is appointed by Moses as general; Moses himself, accom-
panied by Aaron and Hur, stand during the battle, visible to all, on a hill near
Horeb, and after a hot combat, which protracted itself till sunset, the Amalekites
were defeated.— Moses is charged by God, to write the history of this memorable
event into his book, which was then already commenced. Moses erects, in
commemoration, an altar, which he calls, * God is my banner!” The extirpation
of Amalek from among the nations of the earth is decreed in the council |
of God.
 EXODUS XVII. 227

ND all the congregation of the children of Israel

journeyed from the wilderness of Sin, after their
journeys, according to the commandment of the Lord,
and encamped in Rephidim: and there was no water
for the people to drink. 2. And the people quarrelled
with Moses, and said, Give us water, that we may drink.
And Moses said to them, Why do you quarrel with me?
6 1. The Israelites break up from Sin Jor the people to drink. The great
which we haye found identical with scarcity of water in the peninsula
Wadi esh-Sheikh (see on xvi. 1); and of Sinai is universally known: “In a
from here they proceed on the command space of 315 miles,” says Harmar, “ over
of God always nearer to their first part of this wilderness, Mr. Irwin found
‫ו‬
great aim, the Sinai, and arrive at Doph- only four springs of water. In another
“kab, then at Alush (Num. xxxiil. 12, space of 115 miles he found only four
13), and lastly at Rephidim. The two springs, at one of which the water was
first stations are here omitted from the brackish, and at the other unwholesome.”
same principle, which we have already See xy. 22, 23.
pointed out in our note on xvi.l; and 2. And the people quarrelled with
the text pauses at Rephidim, where the Moses, and said, Give us water. All the
people “ tried God” once more (ver. 2).— great and various wonders, which the
From the whole context (compare xviii. 5), Lord had hitherto wrought against
especially from ver. 6, where the “rock their adversaries and for their own sub- _
in Horeb” is mentioned, Rephidim cannot sistence, had yet little served to strengthen
lie far from the group of the Horeb their reliance in the love, and their belief
mountains. The more accurate situation in the omnipotence of God, and at every
cannot be fixed with certainty. Perhaps new privation, or every approaching
it is the plain of Szueir, which is open and danger, they murmured with obstinacy
‫ו‬
coyered with low hills, and which extends and refractoriness against Moses, who
‫א‬ between the Wadi esh-Sheikh and the as they now knew, was but the instru-
Horeb in a southerly direction. But the ment and messenger of God. But
Wadi Feiran it cannot possibly be, as God’s long-suffering and love in the face
Kutscheit and others believe, as that of this disbelief and contumacy, proved
valley lies at too great a distance north- inexhaustible. On this occasion also the
west of Horeb (see on xvi. 1).—Kitto Israelites had, at a momentary want of
infers, from the statement of Makrizi: water, impetuously demanded the satis-
“that Feiran was one of the towns of the faction of that want, exclaiming: “we
Amalekites,” that Rephidim is the Wadi will try the Lord, and see whether He is
Feiran. But according to ver. 8, the really among us or not” (ver. 7). But
Amalekites proceed to Rephidim to fight this was a direct and immediate tempta-
against Israel (see on ver. 8).— According tion of God, for which Moses reproved
to others it is the deep, dark, rocky valley them with the words: “ Wherefore do
El-Ledsha, between the Horeb and the you try the Lord”? (ver. 2). To lead
Mount St. Catherine, and in the west of such a people into the land of promise,
the former (see p. 47); but this would, on and to give them a pure and sublime,
the other hand, be so near the mountain but still to them comprehensible religion
of legislation, that another day’s journey and legislation, was a work, which human
into the ‘‘desert of Sinai,” would have power alone would have been incapable
been superfluous or impossible (see on to execute.
xix. 1, 2).— And there was no water 3. As the Israelites reproached Moses
Q 2
 228 EXODUS XVII.

Wherefore do you try the Lord? 38. And the people

thirsted there for water; and the people murmured against
Moses, and said, Wherefore 7s this that thou hast brought
us up out of Egypt to kill us and our children and our
cattle with thirst? 4. And Moses cried to the Lord,
saying, What shall I do to this people? 1There is but
little wanting, and they will stone me. 5. And the Lord
! Engl. Vers.—They be almost ready to stone me.

in xvi. 3, when famine menaced, that he 6. This verse narrates a new wonder,
had torn them from their Egyptian tran- how Moses, before the eyes of the elders,
quillity and comfort, so also here, when and by the assistance of God, struck
the horrors of thirst threatened them. water from a rock on Horeb, so that the
So deeply were their souls degraded, that whole people of Israel and all their flocks
they did not feel the ignominious servi- and herds had sufficient to drink. Ourtext
tude in Egypt, and even longingly re- admits no doubt concerning the miracle
membered .the “onions and_ garlick,” itself, and the manner in which it was
which they did eat there freely. effected; but tradition, mostly embellished
4. Moses cried to God: What shall by Christian monks and Mohammedan
I do to this people? there is but pilgrims, has appropriated to itself this
little wanting, and they will stone me. subject to adorn and to hand down even its
Thus the Sept. and Vulgate; that is, their minutest details, with no word alluded to
dissatisfaction has reached such a degree, in the holy record, to the pious believers;
that they will almost kill me in their ex- and even enlightened travellers have suf-
citement. Rashi takes these words less fered themselves to be blinded by such
appropriately in their proper sense: “if intentional or pious fictions. Thus re-
I wait but a little, they will stone me.” ports Shaw, that, after having descended,
%. God said to Moses: Go on before with considerable difficulty, on the
the people. Some, as Abarbanel, refer western side of Mount Sinai, he arrived
these words to the preceding verse: thou in the plain of Rephidim [see, however,
art afraid the people might stone thee; on ver. 1]. Here he saw that ancient
now, stand before it, and thou wilt see relic, the rock Meriba, which he believes
that it will not touch thee. But more has remained to his time without the
correctly that phrase finds its explanation least change. He describes it as a square
in the following verse: Go thou first alone granite rock, each side about six yards
to Horeb, whilst the people shall still long, which lies moveable and loose in the
remain in Rephidim.—Moses shall take midst of the valley; it appears formerly
some of the elders with him, according to to have been a piece or cliff of Mount
Rashi and others, “ that they might see and Sinai, from which a great number of such
bear witness, that through him the water huge rocks hang over the plain. The
came from the rock, lest anybody say, water which streamed from it has hol-
that already from ancient times fountains lowed out a canal, about two inches deep
existed there.”— According to Nachman- and twenty wide, which is entirely
ides, the staff of Moses is here designedly covered with a kind of crust. Besides
described as that with which the Nile was some spots overgrown with moss, which
smitten (vii. 20; viii. 5, etc.), not as that is still preserved by the dew, a number of
which was converted into a serpent, or in holes are visible, some of which are four
any similar manner, because in both cases or five inches deep, and one or two in
a miracle was to be effected with the diameter, and Shaw considers them as
water. clear and convincing traces that they
 EXODUS XVII. 229

said to Moses, Go on before the people, and take with thee

of the elders of Israel; and thy staff, wherewith thou
smotest the river, take in thy hand, and go. 6. Behold,
I will stand before thee there upon the rock in Horeb;
and thou shalt smite the rock, and there shall come water
out of it, that the people may drink. And Moses did so
in the sight of the elders of Israel. 7. And he called the
name of the place Massah, and Meribah, because of the
were, formerly, as many fountains, and the cumstances, render the matter suspected
effects of a great and extraordinary in my eyes, almost against my will.”
miracle. Similar accounts are given by Similar opinions of Bushing, Breuning,
Pococke (Description of the Orient, i, Belon, and others, see in Rosenmiiller’s
| p. 215), who remarks, among other cir- Orient, ii. pp. 48—50. We have only
' cumstances, that the rock has, on each introduced these remarks to prove how
side, twelve apertures, some of which fluctuating and precarious the traditions
have the appearance of lions’ mouths. are, which the mere desire of multiplying
Instead of every other opinion or judg- the wonders has invented, and which find
ment, we subjoin the following intelligent no basis or justification in the holy text.
observation of Mosheim (Preface to the —The knowledge of that miracle has
German translation of Pococke’s Orient, reached other nations also, although in a
p. xvi): “ We know the monks of Mount disfigured form; thus relates Tacitus
Sinai long since as men of no such sensi- (Hist. v. 3): “But nothing distressed
tive conscience as to shrink from invent- them so much as the want of water. And
ing wonders, and deceiving the travellers they were already all lying, throughout
by fictitious monuments of the old and true the whole camp, almost ready to expire,
miracles. It is not at all impossible, when a herd of wild asses, returning from
that those good people, in order to allure pasture, approached a rock, shaded with
a greater number of pilgrims, and to en- a grove. Moses followed them, conjec-
rich their convent, have hewn all those turing that he would find a fertile soil,
holes into the rock. And who knows and opened large springs of water.”—
whether the European divines have not, Nachmanides connects the beginning
in the time of the crusades, improved that of our verse with the end of the pre-
master-piece? We could collect a pretty ceding one, in the following manner:
numerous list of such pious impositions “Go, and proceed so long till thou
devised and executed during the period perceivest me stand before thee on a
of the crusades. However, I will not decide rock.” As regards the sense, a similar
in this matter. The green moss round connection certainly exists between both
the holes, and on that part of the rock verses.—QOn the geographical position of
over which the water has passed, seems Horeb and Sinai, and the abundance of
to support the opinion of those who con- fountains and pastures there, see pp. 46,
sider these apertures as eternal witnesses 47.—The words: “ Behold, I will stand
of the divine miracle; but the lion-like before thee there upon the rock in
shape of some of these holes, which Po- Horeb,” are thus explained by Ebn Ezra:
cocke has observed, the order in which “My strength and my power are in
they stand, the number of the openings, Horeb;” in which again a tendency to
which is the same on both sides, and a figurative or rational interpretation is
which coincides with the number of the visible.
tribes of Israel, the exactly identical size 9. The name of the place where
of the holes, these, and several other cir- our occurrence took place was called
 230 EXODUS XVII.
quarrelling of the children of Israel, and because they
tried the Lord, saying, Is the Lord among us, or not?
8. hen came Amalek, and fought with Israel in Rephidim.
J. And Moses said to Joshua, Choose out for us men, and
go out, fight with Amalek: to-morrow I will stand on the
Massah (trial), because the Israelites had listia, Egypt, Edom, and the desert of
there tried God (see on ver. 2), and Mount Sinai, although a part of them
Meribah (quarrel), because they mur- inhabited the mountains of Ephraim
mured against Moses, that he had led them (Judges y. 14), According to Arabian
from Egypt. writers, as Abulfeda, the Amalekites were
₪. Then came Amalek, and fought with a very ancient indigenous people of Ara-
Israel in Rephidim. With this event bia, which is said to have lived there
begins a new epoch in the historical exist- prior to the Ishmaelites, and even to the
ence of the people of Israel. ‘Till then Joktanites. They assert also, that the
God had, as it were, Himself combatted Canaanites emigrated from Arabia to
for Israel, whilst they observed a quiet Palestine, and call them Amalekites.
passive attitude (see xiv. 14). But now, These accounts have a doubtful historical
in their struggle with Amalek, the He- value, and they do not justify us in con-
brews were, for the first time, to oppose sidering the Canaanites and the Amalek-
the enemy with their own power and ites as two nations of the same tribe or
valour, and, though lovingly supported stock.—The historical relations between
by divine assistance, to conquer by hu- Amalek and Israel are easily traceable.
man means. The circumstance, that the After the Amalekites had been defeated
Amalekites were the first who assumed a in this first contact with the Hebrews at
hostile position against the Israelites in Rephidim, they conquered, later, the
their wanderings, caused a deadly inde- wandering Israelites at the southern fron-
lible hatred between both nations, which tier of Canaan (Numbers xiv. 43, et seq.).
was, on the part of the latter, the more This called forth such animosity, that a
intense and burning, as they had even perfect and eternal extirpation of the hate-
not yet touched the proper territory of ful tribe was severely commanded by the
the Amalekites, who marched to Re- legislator (Deut. xxv. 17--19(. In the
phidim to attack the Israelites, without period of the Judges, hordes of the Ama-
cause or necessity, just as, at all times, lekites joined the enemies of the Israelites
wild and warlike tribes of the desert (1 Sam. xiv. 48, etc). Saul and David de-
fall upon and plunder the peaceful feated them several times (1 Sam, xiy.48;
caravans. It appears further, from XV. ; XXVii. 8; Xxx.1, et seqg.; 2 Sam.viii.12);
Deut. xxv. 17, 18, that they insidiously and their last remains were destroyed by
attacked the rear of the Hebrew army the Simeonites, under Hezekiah (1 Chron.
when it was exhausted and weary. The iv.43). From this time they are no more
Amalekites are, according to Gen. xxxvi. mentioned in the Biblical history.
12, 16, of Idumzxan origin, descending 9. Moses orders Joshua to choose
from Amalek, grandson of Esau. If we men for the combat against the Ama-
combine the different statements of the lekites. J oshua, who became after-
Old Testament concerning them, we find wards so important in the history of
that their abodes were in the south of Israel, is here mentioned for the first
Palestine, in Arabia Petrea, in the neigh- time. He was the son of N un, from the
bourhood of the Philistines, of the Mount tribe of Ephraim, and his name was
Seir and the town Shur (Pelusium); originally Hoshea, which was changed into
therefore the principal part of the Ama- Jehoshua or Joshua, when Moses sent him
lekites seems to have lived between Phi- with Caleb to explore Canaan (Numb, xiii.
 EXODUS XVII. 231

top of the hill with the staff of God in my hand. 10. So

Joshua did as Moses had: said to him, ‘to fight with
Amalek: and Moses, Aaron, and Hur went up to the top
of the hill. 11. And it came to pass, when Moses held up
1 Engl. Vers.—And fought.

16). Buthe is, by anticipation, called by he looketh upon it, shall live. Can a
the latter name already in our passage; in serpent cause or prevent healing? But
Xxiv.13; xxxiii. 11, etc. In all undertak- if the Israelites regarded the heaven and
ings he distinguished himself so much by were obedient to the precepts of their
courage and intelligence, that Moses chose God, they were healed; if not, they
him for his nearest and most familiar perished.”—This interpretation, although
servant and companion; and, before his it approaches the spirit of our narrative,
death, appointed him as the chief general is yet too general to apply to this event.
of the Israelites (Exod. xxiv. 13; ‫אאא‬‎ For during the combat, piety or impiety
17; Numb. xi. 28; xiv.6). He and Caleb were out of the question; and further,
were the only persons who, although the text does not state that the Israelites
above twenty years at the departure from looked sometimes up to the hand of
Egypt, reached the Holy Land, As he Moses and sometimes not; but that
attained the age of one hundred and ten Moses now raised and now lowered it.
years, and lived forty years in the desert, Further, the staff of Moses would be of no
and twenty-five years in Canaan, he was, meaning in that interpretation. The
at the time of the war with Amalek, same must be objected to the explanation
forty-five years old. Joshua was to fight of Targum Jonathan and Jerusalem,
with his chosen warriors against Amalek, that when Moses raised his hands to
whilst Moses stood, during the combat, pray for the Israelites, they were vic-
with his staff in his hand, “on the top torious. Many interpreters have, there-
of the hill,” not exactly on Mount Sinai, fore, proposed the explanation, that
as Ebn Ezra adds. Moses raised his staff like a banner,
10. Moses proceeded there, accompa- and when the Israelites saw this banner,
nied by Aaron and Hur. ‘The latter is, they were courageous and victorious; if
according tothe Talmud, the son of Miriam they did not see it, they were despond-
and Caleb (and grandfather of Bezaleel, ing and fled; and therefore the place was
Xxxi. 2), but, according to Josephus, the called, “The Lord is my banner” (ver.
husband of Miriam. 15). Thus, “to raise the hand” would
.‫ בד‬The sense of this verse is obscure,‫‏‬ be identical with “to show and display
and has already much engaged the an-‫‏‬ the standard.” Joshua and Caleb, they
cient interpreters, who attributed to ita‫‏‬ continue, accompanied Moses, to bring
symbolical meaning. ‘Thus we read in‫‏‬ his military commands to the army. Now,
the Talmud: “Can really the hands of‫‏‬ when Moses let the staff sink, the Israel-
Moses cause victory, if they are raised;‫‏‬ ites thought that he wished them to de-
or defeat, if they are let down? But‫‏‬ sist from the combat, and they became
Holy Writ teaches us here, that, when‫‏‬ thus more languid in their exertions.—
the Israelites looked up to heaven,‫‏‬ This explanation recommends itself from
and humbled themselves before their‫‏‬ more than one side; and if a plain and
heavenly Father, they were victorious;‫‏‬ natural interpretation is admissible in a
if not, they were defeated. This 8‫‏‬ passage, which seems to be designedly
similar to the precept in Numbers xxi.‫‏‬ mysterious, it is no doubt the most
:8 ‘Make thee a fiery serpent, and‫‏‬ acceptable. But questionable 18 6
set it upon a pole: and it shall come to‫‏‬ opinion of those who suppose that this
pass, that every one that is bitten, when‫‏‬ whole account has been composed after a
 ‫ו‬ ‫יעשי‬ ‫שי זי וו‬

232 EXODUS XVII.

his hand, that Israel prevailed: and when he let down his
hand, Amalek prevailed. 12. But Moses’ hands were
heavy; and they took a stone, and put 7 under him, and
he sat thereon; and Aaron and Hur supported his hands,
the one on the one side, and the other on the other 8106 ;
and his hands were steady until the setting of the sun.
13. And Joshua discomfited Amalek and his people with

picture, in which Moses was represented of the Lord; but it is now lost, like many
as general with his hand raised to other books, as for instance, the Book of
heaven. the Righteous.” But if we compare our
.‫ בפ‬And Moses’ hands were heavy;‫‏‬ verse with similar notices in other pas-
they became naturally tired after‫‏‬ sages of the Pentateuch, it is clear al-
having been held up for any length‫‏‬ most to certainty, that here the “ Book of
of time. Aaron and Hur support his‫‏‬ Moses” is understood. We find in Exod.
hands, one at each side; and they assist‫‏‬ xxiv. 4, 7, that Moses, after having com-
alternately that hand of Moses, with‫‏‬ municated the laws to the Israelites, wrote
which he happened to raise the staff.—‫‏‬ all the words of the Lord inthe Book of
And his hands were steady, that is, he‫‏‬ the Covenant, which he read to the whole
could lift them up without feeling fatigue.‫‏‬ people (see note on that passage), A
Rashi explains: “his hands were stretched‫‏‬ similar command is given to Moses by
out in confidence and belief, and with a‫‏‬ God in Exod, xxxiv.27. According to
devout and earnest prayer;” Rashbam:‫‏‬ Num. xxxiii. 1, 2, Moses wrote down all
“his hands were firm for all times;’’ both‫‏‬ the journeys of the Israelites on the in-
against the context, which Ebn Ezra has‫‏‬ junction of the Lord, Compare also Num.
indubitably explained correctly: “his‫‏‬ XXXvi.13; Deut. xxviii. 61. It is, there-
hands stood firm.”‫‏‬ fore, probable, that Moses committed to
13. Amalek and his people, stands in- writing all the occurrences and laws, as
stead of “the people of the Amalekites”’; they happened and were revealed to him,
for the king cannot be understood by and that he thus gradually finished the
Amalek, since the monarchs of the Ama- four first books of the Pentateuch. Later,
lekites are called with a common name the Deuteronomy, or the repetition of the
Agag, like those of the Egyptians, Law, was added, in which, indeed, the
Pharaoh, ete. Compare Num. .‫אאוט‬‎ 7; precept concerning the extirpation of
1 Sam. xv. 8, 20, 32. Amalek is repeated with great em-
14. God commands Moses to record the phasis (xxv-17—19); as the execution
victory gained over Amalek, which was of this decree was several centuries later,
the first and therefore pre-eminently most commanded to Saul in 1 Sam. xy. 2, 3
interesting event in the military history (see on ver. 8). It is, therefore, very doubt-
of Israel, for an eternal memorial in the ful to suppose with Ebn Ezra, that this
book by no means in a book, as the section was written down in the fortieth
English version renders. The definite year of the wanderings of Israel, which
article, which is implied in the He- conjecture would lead us to very confused
brew word, shows clearly that here a book ideas concerning the composition of the
known to Moses is alluded to. This Pentateuch. But it is still less admissi-
was already observed by Ebn Ezra, who ble to assume with Vater and others who
further remarks: ** And this is the book deny the universal acquaintance with
of the Law, or any other book, which the art of writing in the time of Moses,
they had, perhaps the Book of the Wars that writing always denotes in the Pen-
 EXODUS XVII. 233

the edge of the sword. 14, And the Lord said to Moses,
Write this for a memorial in 'the book, and rehearse 7 in
the ears of Joshua; for I will utterly blot out the remem-
brance of Amalek from under heaven. 15. And Moses
built an altar, and called the name of it, "7116 Lord is
my banner.” 16. For he said, *Because the hand was
! Engl. Vers.—A_ book. 2 Jenovan Nissi.
3 The Lord hath sworn that the Lord will have, etc.

tateuch engraving in stone. We do not to which the explanation given in ver. 11

see what those critics gain by such con- would also be adapted. (Compare Numb.
jecture, as engraving in stone presup- xxi. 9; Psa. 1x. 6; Isa. v.26). By this ap-
poses quite as much the use of the art of pellation of the altar, the whole honour of
writing (see note on y.6).—-The com- the victory is ascribed to God alone, and
bat with Amalek was especially to be it is, at the same time, clearly shown to
enjoined to Joshua, because God knew the murmuring people, that God is really
that he would have to fight with the among them (ver. 7).
kings of Canaan, or as he _ was 16. The first part of this verse, which
destined to lead the Israelites into the has experienced very various explana-
Holy Land, he should enforce upon them tions, contains, indubitably, a reason and
the duty to repay him what he had done argument, why Moses called the altar
to them; but especially, no doubt, be- “God is my banner.” Now, many inter-
cause Moses had then already selected preters, as Micheelis, Gesenius, and others,
Joshua as his successor (see note on ver.9). have endeavoured to establish that
— The emphatical expression, “I will causal-nexus by translating: * The
utterly efface the remembrance of Amalek altar was called, God is my banner, be-
from under heaven,” is thus accounted for cause the hand (of Moses) was at the
by Ebn Ezra: “He had provoked the banner of Gode(the miraculous staff).”
wrath of the Lord; for whilst the princes Compare Gen. xvi.13. But this expla-
of Edom, the Moabites, and Philistines nation is not only questionable on account
were overwhelmed with fear on account of of the arbitrary alteration of the Hebrew
the signs He had done in Egypt and at text, but also on account of the ob-
the Red Sea; this Amalek came, notwith- scure logical connection which this change
standing, to combat against Israel and would yield with the succeeding words:
had no fear of God.” “war of the Lord against Amalek, from,
15. Moses built there an altar, and generation to generation.” ‘The ancient
called it “the Lord is my banner.” Thus expositors, as Targum Onkelos, Ebn Ezra,
translate Mendelssohn and others. Some Rashi, Rashbam, and others, have there-
leave the words untranslated, as Luther, fore explained our words as an oath, which
and the English Version (JrHovau Nissi). is the most clearly thus expressed by
The Septuagint renders, “ my refuge.” Onkelos:, “ This is proclaimed with an
Onkelos paraphrases: “he prayed be- oath, and it has been issued from the face
fore God, who had done miracles for of the Omnipotent, whose majesty is on
him;” so also Rashi: “God has done the throne of glory, that war be waged
us here a miracle.” But Vissi is here against the children of Amalek, to extir-
evidently the banner, round which the pate them in future time.” (See also
troops rally, and which indicates to them Ebn Ezra and Rashi. Similarly, English
whither they have to turn in combat; so Version, Lengerke, and others). Thus
that God is considered as the centre of explains also Bishop Patrick, that the
the army of Israel, an appropriate idea, expression, “to lay the hand on the
 234 EXODUS XVIL., XYIII.
against the throne of God; therefore the Lord will have
war with Amalek from generation to generation.
throne,”’ points to a custom which was, that thus, also, the connection between
in some countries, connected with solemn this and the preceding verse would not
oaths, as in other countries the hand was, be clear. It is, therefore, preferable to
on such occasions, put on the altar. In explain: for the hand (of Amalek) was
this custom, the phrase originated, “ to on the throne of God, that is, the people
put the hand on the altar,” instead of of Israel, which God had selected for
“to swear”; and, therefore, says Juvenal Himself as His throne or particular abode
(xiii. 89), of those impious people who feel on earth (see on xix. 5,6; 1 Chron. xxix.
no compunctions of conscience in com- 23); and the connection would be thus:
mitting perjury: “they touch the altars God is my banner, and He will eternally
without fear.” In this sense, God charged fight against Amalek, who has wickedly
His people here to exterminate the Ama- raised his hand against His people-—A bout
lekites. But, against such explanation, the connection of our passage with 1 Sam.
we must object, that it would require the xv., see Hengstenberg, Authent. ii. p. 309—
first words of our verse to be, “for the 313.
hand of God was upon His throne;” and

CHAPTER XVIII.
Sommary.—When Jethro learnt the miraculous deliverance of Israel, and the promi-
nent part which Moses, his son-in-law, had taken on all occasions, he proceeded
to him to Mount Horeb, in the vicinity of which Israel encamped, and brought to
him his wife Zipporah, and his two sons, Gershom and Eliezer, whom he had sent.
back to Midian, when on his way to Egypt. Moses received Jethro cheerfully,
who, on his part, showed also sincere sympathy for the extraordinary events
in
favour of Israel. When he saw, the next day, the great burden of judicial labours
which rested upon Moses alone, he advised him to divide the people numerically
into sections of ten, fifty, a hundred, and a thousand persons, and to
appoint over
every section a subordinate judge, who should decide all minor disputes,
whilst ‫ו‬‎
only the more important differences, which could not be settled by them,
should
be brought before Moses as the supreme court of appeal (see on
ver. 21). Moses
readily accepted the proposal, and put it into immediate execution.

WV HEN Jethro, the priest of Midian, Moses’ father-

in-law, heard of all that God had done for
Moses, and for Israel His people, that the Lord had
1. Some ancient interpreters, as Ebn were killed, whilst nothing has been
Ezra (on ver. 13) and Rashbam, whom related about the building of a new altar.
several modern critics, as Ranke, have 2. The words in ver. 20: “and thou shalt
followed, are of opinion, that the narra- illustrate to them the ordinances and
tion concerning Jethro, which is here in- laws,” point to the time after the legis-
serted, does not stand in its proper place, lation. 3. That Moses encamps, accord-
and that the arrival of Jethro took ing to ver. 5, by “‘the mountain of God.”
place only in the second year after the 4. That according to Num. x. 30, Jethro
legislation, or after the erection of the returned to his home (ver. 27), only when
tabernacle. As reasons, Ebn Ezra men- the Israelites departed from Horeb; and
tions: 1. That according to ver. 12, “a 5. That the new arrangement of Jethro
burnt-offering and eucharistic sacrifices” explained in our chapter, took place not
 “EXODUS XVIII. 235

brought Israel out of Egypt: 2. Then Jethro, Moses’

father-in-law, took Zipporah, Moses’ wife, after he had
sent her back, 3. And her two sons; of whom the name
of the one was Gershom; for he said, I have been an alien
in a strange land: 4. And the name of the other was

earlier than in the time of that departure. his arrival; for to explain it with
—And that sagacious commentator ex- Rashi: “on the day after that on which
plains this irregularity in the narrative Moses came the second time from the
by the supposition, that after the hostili- mountain,” is absolutely against the con-
ties of Amalek, the benevolence and nection of the text.—Numerous disputes
kindness of Jethro was to be mentioned, must have necessarily arisen among so
whilst others (as Rashbam) account for it large a host as the Israelites then were;
by the opinion, that the divine laws, nobody was more appropriate to decide
given at Sinai (chap. xix. to Num. x) all those questions than Moses, who en-
should not be interrupted by human joyed the greatest authority; and he
institutions recommended by Jethro, exercised the judicial functions according
(which reason is also adopted by Ranke). to his own judgment and discretion, even
—But if Jethro really arrived only after before he had been furnished with a code
the legislation, nothing prevented the of laws by divine revelation—The de-
sacred writer from mentioning his arrival parture of Jethro is added in ver. 27
after Numbers x. The words in ver. 20, only in order to complete here the account
may simply refer to the Sabbath and concerning Jethro entirely (compare xvi.
other general precepts, and similar ex- 35), and is repeated in Num. x. 29—382,
pressions are already used in xv. 25. in its due place. And justly remarks
That the “mountain of God” is men- Philippson, that if we suppose, that
tioned cannot appear surprising, as Moses Jethro returned to Midian already before
was, even according to xvii. 6, on mount the legislation, as is reported in ver. 27,
Horeb. ‘There is, therefore, no reason to he could have stayed with Moses but a
doubt, that Jethro arrived already now, few days, which would scarcely have
during the second month after the exodus. sufficed for the organization of his new
And this is even necessary, if we consider, institutions, and which would hardly have
that while Moses communicates to Jethro been in accordance with the character of
the rescue from various dangers, and all an Oriental visit in the desert.—But the
the miracles (ver. 8), the greatest and mention of sacrifices (ver. 12) can, even
most remarkable wonder, the revelation before the legislation, not appear strange,
and legislation, is not mentioned by the re- as they were customary already from the
motest allusion, which would be perfectly times of Abraham, and were in use among
improbable if that revelation had already all ancient nations (see note on ver. 12).
taken place.—It is further unnecessary, — About Jethro and his different names
to recur, with Philippson, Herxheimer, see note on ii. 18; about “priest of
and others, to the conjecture, that Midian,” on ii. 16.
although Jethro arrived already now, 2—5. About Zipporah, the wife of
he proposed and organized his institutions Moses, see note on ii. 21; about her
much later, after the legislation, after return to Midian, to her father Jethro,
having convinced himself, by longer ob- after Moses had taken her and _ his
servation, of the requirements and wants children, Gershom and Eliezer, with him
of the people. For the words, “on the into Egypt, see note on iv. 20; and
following day,” in ver. 13, compel us about the names of the children, on ii. 22.
to suppose the schemes of Jethro to Ebn Ezra observes, on this occasion, that
have been devised the very day after the etymological derivations of Biblical
 236 EXODUS ‫אטזנזז‬‎
Eliezer; for the God of my father, said he, was my help,
and delivered me from the sword of Pharaoh: 5. And
Jethro, Moses’ father-in-law, went with his sons and his
wife to Moses in the desert, where he encamped at the
mountain of God: 6. And he 'sent word to Moses, I thy
father-in-law Jethro come to thee, and thy wife, and her
two sons with her.—7. And Moses went out to meet his
father-in-law, and bowed down, and kissed him; and they
asked each other of their welfare; and they went into the
tent. 8. And Moses told his father-in-law all that the Lord
had done to Pharaoh and to the Egyptians for Israel’s
sake, and all the trouble that had come upon them by the
way, and *from which the Lord had delivered them.
9. And Jethro rejoiced for all the goodness which the
Lord had done to Israel, whom He had delivered out of
1 Enol. Vers.—Said. 2 How.

names do not always strictly harmonize the agents of God, and the instruments of
with the grammatical rules or the roots redemption, and, as such, the most ex-
of the radical words, and proves this posed to danger, are placed in juxta- |
position by various instances. Modern position to the people of Israel— Out of
critics have laid too much stress on remarks the hand of the Egyptians, and out of the
like this.—As Rephidim lies in the imme- hand of Pharaoh ; first, the generic noun
diate vicinity of Horeb, and perhaps be- (the Egyptians), and then the principal
longs even to the valleys of that chain of individual of this genus: “out of the
mountains, Moses might already be con- hand of the Egyptians, and especially out
sidered encamping at “the mountain of of the hand of Pharaoh,” as in Isa. i. 1,
God.” But the opinion of the Midrash “on Judah, and especially on Jerusalem.”
that Jethro knew, that Moses would go .‫ רצ‬Now I know that the Lord is‫‏‬
to Horeb with the Israelites (iii. 12), greater than all gods (compare xy. 11,‫‏‬
because God had promised him this as and note on vi.7).— Yea, by the very‫‏‬
“a sign,” is untenable, because Moses thing that they acted wickedly against them.‫‏‬
had entirely concealed from Jethro the Numerous are the interpretations which‫‏‬
real motive of his return to Egypt (iv. 18). have been proposed on these difficult words,‫‏‬
6. And he (Jethro) sent word to Moses, and for which we refer to our larger‫‏‬
through a messenger. The latter is often edition, But the best clue for their ex-‫‏‬
identified with him who sends him, and planation offers the parallel passage in‫‏‬
in whose name and commission he Neh. ix. 10, where we read: “Thou didst‫‏‬
comes; see vii. 17. wonders against the Egyptians; for thou‫‏‬
2. On the words: “ And Moses went knewest that they [the Egyptians] acted‫‏‬
out to meet his father-in-law,” Ebn wickedly against them [the Israelites];”‫‏‬
Ezra remarks, very characteristically; and the sense is: even in that very cir-‫‏‬
“because of Jethro’s honour and wis- cumstance, that the Egyptians acted‫‏‬
dom; but he did not go to meet his wife tyrannically against the Israelites, God
and children, for it is not customary for a showed His greatness; the wickedness of
man of rank and authority to do this.” the Egyptians became, in the hand of
10. Delivered you; Moses and Aaron, God, an instrument to display His omni-
 EXODUS XVIII. 237

the hand of the Egyptians. 10. And Jethro said, Blessed

be the Lord, who hath delivered you out of the hand of
the Egyptians, and out of the hand of Pharaoh; who hath
delivered the people from under the hand of the Egyptians.
11. Now I know that the Lord 48 greater than all the
gods: *yea, by the very thing, that they acted wickedly
against them. 12. And Jethro, Moses’ father-in-law, took
a burnt offering and eucharistic sacrifices for God: and
Aaron came, and all the elders of Israel, to eat with Moses’
father-in-law before God.—138. And it came to pass on
the following morning, that Moses sat to judge the people:
and the people stood by Moses from the morning to the
evening. 14. And when Moses’ father-in-law saw all that
he did to the people, he said, What zs this thing that thou
doest to the people? Why sittest thou thyself alone, and
5 Engl. Vers.—For in the thing wherein they dealt proudly he was above them.

potent power. See note on xiv. 4: “and in the course of this commentary in their
I will be honoured through Pharaoh, and due places. Although Jethro was a hea-
through all his host, that the Egyptians then priest, he seemed now to have been
may know that I am the Lord.” Similar, induced, by the manifest omnipotence of
but, in our opinion, not sufficiently clear the God of Israel, to acknowledge and to
and simple, is the explanation of Philipp- adore Him; and as it was to Him that he
son: “just then, when they (the Egyp- offered sacrifices, the Israelites could,
tians and their gods) acted wickedly consistently, take part in the meal con-
against the Israelites, they prevailed no- nected with them. It was not neces-
thing against God, but He subdued them.” sary to mention here Moses expressly, as
42. Out of gratitude to God, and of the meeting took place in his tent. Such
joy at the miraculous deliverance of sacrificial feasts were, on joyful occasions,
Israel, Jethro offered a burnt-offering and celebrated, not only by the Israelites, but
eucharistic sacrifices to God; and Moses by almost all nations of antiquity, and
and Aaron, and all the elders of Israel, the Homeric poems are replete with in-
participated in the feast prepared on this stances, and detailed and interesting
occasion, so that it took place, as it were, descriptions of such meals.
before God. We remark here, but briefly, 13. And it came to pass on the following
that the burnt-offering was entirely morning, that is, the day after the arrival
burnt to the Lord, whilst the eucharistic of Jethro, who, therefore, proposed at this
offering was, with the exception of cer- early period his new judicial organization
tain pieces of fat, which were burnt on (see on ver. 1).
the altar, and, the breast and right leg, 14. The stress, in Jethro’s question,
which belonged to the priest, consumed, lies in the circumstance, that Moses
on the same or the following day, in a con- judges, single-handed, the whole people,
vivial repast, by the Israelite, his family, not, as Rashi and others believe, in the
and the guests whom heinvited,and among sitting of Moses, whilst he humiliates and
whom the Levites and the poor were never deyrades the people by letting them stand
forgotten, The accurate details con- before him; which opinion has already
cerning the sacrifices, will be explained been rejected by Ebn Ezra,
 ‫‏‬s ‫ו‬

‘ - |
‫ו‬

238 EXODUS XVIII.

all the people stand by thee from morning to the evening? |
15. And Moses said to his father-in-law, 'The people come __
to me to enquire of God: 16. When they have a matter,
)
1
'

they come to me; and I judge between one and another,

and I make them know the statutes of God, and His laws.
17. And Moses’ father-in-law said to him, the thing that
thou doest 7s not good. 18. Thou wilt surely wear away,
both thou, and this people that 28 with thee: for this thing
28 too heavy for thee; thou art not able to perform it
' Engl. Vers.—Because the people.

15, 16. The Hebrew conjunction “be- 21. That the Israelites were perfectly
cause” often merely introduces an indirect unorganized in a judicial as well as in
speech, and is, therefore, not to be trans- every other respect, is evident from the
lated in English.— To enquire of God, is a most cursory consideration of their con-
juridical phrase: to consult the judges, who dition in the Egyptian bondage (compare
are themselves ealled gods (Elohim) in the li. 11, et seg.).. The elders had a certain
Pentateuch (see note on xxi.6); and the natural authority among them, as is
adoption of Jethro’s institutions, by which usually the case among predominantly
many other Israelites were also appointed pastoral nations and tribes, and we have
as judicial functionaries (see on ver. 21), had more than one opportunity in the
shows sufficiently, that Moses, as judge, history of the deliverance of Israel to
is here not considered as the special point out the sphere of action of the
“mouth of God,” or His inspired instru- elders as representatives of the people,
ment. We cannot, therefore, find, in the in their position to Moses and Pharaoh.
answer of Moses: “ The people come to But a greater internal unity of the people
me to enquire of God”’ (that is, to hear was naturally prevented by the jealous
my juridical decision), any direct insinu- control and the invidious suspicion, with
ation that Moses could not well choose which they were treated by the Egyptian
other judges besides himself, since the monarchs. The genius of Moses, whose
people came to enquire of God. Itis, how- mildness and humility rendered him,
ever, true, that in verse 16 a distinction in the eyes of the people, both an object
seems to be made between judicial sen- of admiration and affection, was the ac-
tences and general religious and moral in- cidental centre, round which the Hebrew
junctions, which Moses makes to them hosts gathered in the days of their re-
according to the character of their demption, and the universal confidence
disputes. which his abilities and his virtues inspired,
19, 20. Be thou for the people, “in replaced, in that critical and exceptional
the face of God,” or instead of God; time, the want of a well-balanced political
that is, when their wisdom does not system. But although the same patriotic
suffice, and the other judges now to zeal of Moses remained unabated eyen
be appointed are unable to decide, thou after the exode, it was unavoidable, that
shalt act as the judge, who 18 instructed by his strength should not, in some degree,
God Himself, thou shalt answer them, and succumb under the weight of his various
at the same time teach them wisdom avocations; and although the confidence
and morality, or fix laws, in order not of the people in their leader remained, on
to be required to be consulted in every the whole, unshaken, the administration of
single case. Compare notes on iy. 6, and justice especially, if exercised by one in-
vii. 1, 2. dividual, must necessarily have taken a

|
 EXODUS XVIII. 239

thyself alone. 19. Hearken now to my voice; I will give

thee counsel, and God may be with thee: Be thou for the
people instead of God, that thou mayest bring the causes
to God: 20. And thou shalt teach them the ordinances
and laws, and shalt show them the way wherein they must
walk, and the work that they must do. 21. Moreover,
thou shalt select out of all the people able men, such as
fear God, men of truth, hating unjust gain; and place such
over them, to be rulers of thousands, rulers of hundreds,

very slow and tiresome course, calculated have counted 600,000 men, there were
to injure the interests, and to try the pa- not less than 60,000 judges over ten;
tience of the people (ver. 18). Jethro, 12,000 over fifty; 6,000 over a hundred,
therefore, who was himself, as the spiritual and 600 over a thousand, or an aggregate
head of a numerous tribe, well acquainted sum of 78,600 judges, which number was
with public affairs and popular adminis- certainly unavailable for general deli-
tration, proposed the division of the berations. Therefore Moses saw, later,
people into numerical classes, in sections of the necessity of surrounding himself witha
ten, fifty, a hundred, and a thousand, most senate (Synedrium) of seventy elders,
likely coinciding with the natural genea- who assisted him in all difficult matters
logical division into tribes, families and and critical circumstances with their
houses, and to appoint a judge over each of adyice, and that authority which they
these divisions (compare Deut. i. 13, 15). enjoyed with the people, and who were
It is probable, that a certain sub-ordination at the same time intended “to temper,
existed between these different sections, by this admixture of ‫הכתב‬‎ 1
so that an appeal was permitted from the element, the appearance of a monarchy,
judge over ten to the judge over fifty, which the sole legislation of Moses might
and from this tothe [ udge over a hundred, have assumed” (Michaelis, Mos. R. i. 50).
and that, therefore, a cause which had —We need scarcely remark, that the
not been decided to the satisfaction of organization proposed by Jethro was only
both parties by the judge over a thousand, in force during the time of the wander-
was brought before Moses himself (ver. ings of Israel in the desert; since the
19). By this arrangement, Moses was merely numerical division must naturally
naturally freed from a vast number of have become ineffectual, as soon as the
petty affairs, and he was now able to Hebrews had settled in towns (Deut. xvi.
direct his attention chiefly to the. general 18). Hengstenberg asserts, that these ar-
religious, moral, and material improve- rangements were, on the contrary, chiefly
ment of the people. This new organiza- intended for the future Hebrew state in
tion permitted, besides, an easier control Palestine; but he feels himself, that such
oyer the whole people, nor could it have a complicated organization would have
been entirely without profit for military been impracticable, and proposes therefore
purposes (Num. xxxi. 14).—But, however the conjecture, that the numbers 1000,
great the advantages might have been, 100, 50 and 10, are not to be taken
which Jethro’s proposal offered, it is literally, but that they signify tribes, and
obvious, that it verged to the opposite large or small families, consisting of about
extreme; now the great number of judges that amount of souls. But although
must have proved an essential encum- thousand is sometimes used 1 the
brance; for, if we suppose the people to sense of tribe, it would be difficult to
 240 EXODUS XVIII.
rulers of fifties, and rulers of tens: 22. And let them
judge the people at all times: and it shall be, that every
great matter they shall bring to thee, but every small
matter they shall judge: so ‘make it easier for
thyself, that they may bear the burden with thee.
23. If thou wilt do this thing, and God command thee
so, then thou wilt be able to endure, and all this people
will also go to their place in peace.—24. So Moses
hearkened to the voice of his father-in-law, and did all
that he had said. 25. And Moses chose able men out of
all Israel, and made them heads over the people, rulers of
thousands, rulers of hundreds, rulers of fifties, and rulers
of tens. 26. And they judged the people at all times: the
difficult causes they brought to Moses, but every small mat-
ter they judged themselves. —27. And Moses let his father-
in-law depart; and he went his way into his own land.
1 Engl. Vers.—Shall it be easier.

prove that hundred, or fifty, or ten, are astonishment of Ebn Ezra, that Moses
applied synonymously with family.—It should have been able to find among the
is supposed, and with probability, that degencrated Israelites, who showed them-
Alfred the Great, who was well versed selves now, and almost always during the
in the Bible, based his own Saxon con- wanderings in the desert, pusillanimous
stitution of sheriffs in counties, etc., on and refractory, 78,600 men of so dis-
the example of the Mosaic division (com- tinguished and exalted qualities.
pare Bacon, on Engl. Government, 1. 70). 23. And if God commands thee to do
An exactly similar system obtained. in this. For Moses was first to obtain the
the kingdom of Peru (Heriot’s Canada, sanction of God for Jethro’s proposals,
p. 565).— It will not be found contra- Vater explains, against the context:
dictory, that the appointment of the “then thou wilt receive the commands of
judges is in our passage placed before the God.” By these new arrangements
arrival of the Israelites in the plains of Moses will be able to bear the weight of
Mount Sinai, whereas it isin Deut. i.9—17, occupations, and the people will, with
related immediately before the departure cheerfulness and satisfaction, return home
from Horeb. For the passage in Deut. from the tribunals, as they would find
comprises the whole time of the wander- an easy and expeditious jurisdiction.
ings in its full extent.— Able men, originally 25. The Samaritan text has, instead
men of vigour, manliness, and activity. of this verse, with slight alterations, all
Rashi: “opulent men, who have no oc- that which Deut. ix. 1--18 contains on
casion to flatter and judge after favour”; this subject; that must, however, be con-
Ebn Ezra: * individuals who have strength sidered as a spurious gloss intended to
to bear the burden, and fear God, but not amplify our text.
men.’— Not quite unfounded is the 27. See note on ver. 1, at the end.
 EXODUS XIX. 241

CHAPTER XIX.
Summary.—On the first day of the third month, the Israelites arrive in the desert of
Sinai, and encamp in the valleys before the mountain. Moses is charged by God
to propose to the Israelites the question, whether they will accept His precepts,
and keep the covenant which He intended to make with them; for then they
would be His chosen and holy people. The Israelites promise obedience and
willingness. In order to enhance the authority of Moses in the eyes of the
people, and to make them fully believe in his divine mission, God speaks to him
from the top of the mountain, in the presence of the whole nation; and He com-
mands, that the Israelites, even the priests, should sanctify themselves two days,
' and, on the third, keep themselves ready for the divine revelation, during which ,
they were forbidden to approach the mountain, which was fenced for this purpose.
God appears under thunder and lightning, clouds and fire, to the trembling
people. After Moses had, once more, on the command of God, warned the
people, he ascended the mountain, accompanied by Aaron; and the Lord pro-
claimed the decalogue.

| )(* the third 'new-moon after the children of Israel

were gone forth out of the land of Egypt,
the same day came they znto the wilderness of Sinai.
1 Engl. Vers.—Month.

1, 2. From Rephidim, which, although term), and sometimes on Sinai (the indi-
its exact identity is now doubtful, cer- vidual peak). Further, the Sinai, being
tainly lies in the vicinity of Horeb, and the higher mountain of the two, could
between this mountain and Wadi esh- best be seen from all parts, and in the
Sheikh, the Israelites marched towards different valleys; and, lastly, Moham-
their great immediate aim, the desert of medan tradition calls the Sinai “the
Sinai, where they encamped “in the face mountain of Moses.” The objection
_ of, or before the mountain” (ver. 2), or, ‘‘ be- which has often been raised against this
neath it” (ver.17). We remind the reader, locality, that it offered no great plain for
here, from our description of the peninsula the extensive camp of the Hebrew hosts,
of Sinai, only of the fact, that probably is already removed by that which we
the whole group of mountains which have observed. For the Israelites en-
607018 this region, was called “ Mount camped, Ist, only “in the desert”; 2nd,
Horeb ” (see xvii. 6; xviii. 5), whilst the “before the mountain,” so that they
southern and higher peak bore the name could see it; and this was possible from
of Sinai (p. 47). The Hebrew nation, the numerous small valleys which sur-
therefore, coming from the north, en- round the group of the Horeb. It is
camped in the plains which surround even much more appropriate to suppose,
Mount Sinai, and so that they had the that the people encamped, distributed
mountain before them, and could see from after tribes and families, and in single
all parts the thunders and lightnings groups, throughout the valleys, than that
which raged around its head. Both an they were all pressed together near one
accurate comparison of the respective part of the mountain, where the great
passages of the holy books, and probabili- crowd of the people might have been at-
ty and tradition, oblige us to consider tended with the most dangerous conse-
that southern mountain Sinai as that on quences (ver. 21). Robinson arrived, by
which the revelation was proclaimed. careful examination, at the conviction,
Thus only it can be accounted for, that the that here was space enough to satisfy all
divine manifestation is sometimes said to the requisitions of the scripture narrative,
have taken place on Horeb (the general so far as it relates to the assembling of
R
 242 EXODUS XIX.
2. Namely, they journeyed from Rephidim and came
to the desert of Sinai, and encamped in the wilder-
the congregation to receive the law (Bib- into the mountains, near the modern
lical Researches, i. 141). And yet did town Tur, or Tor; and that Dophkah,
Robinson only know the plain Er-Rahah, Alush, and Rephidim, must be trans-
at the north-east extremity of Horeb. ferred to other localities;” all this is un-
But, since his time, the existence of the necessary, for the Wadi Sebaiyeh is, in
plain Wadi Sebaiyeh, at the southern base fact, nothing but the continuation of
of Sinai, has been fully established, not Wadi esh-Sheikh, with which it is con-
only by Laborde, but also by the Ameri- nected by the Wadi er-Rahah. Thus,
can traveller, M. K. Kellog, who has all circumstances speak for the authen-
attentively examined the surrounding ticity of our text, and of tradition.
localities of Mount Sinai. That valley In opposition hereto, however, the opi-
forms, with the Wadi er-Rahah, and the nion has most frequently been advocated,
Wadi Sheikh, one continuous plain, for that the revelation took place on Mount
about twelve miles northwards. It is, on Serbal, which is surrounded by wide
the east, bounded by mountains with plains, suitable for a camp of the Israel-
long sloping bases, and covered with wild ites. Mount Serbal lies in a north-west-
thyme and other herbs. ‘The width of erly direction from the group of Sinai,
the plain immediately in front of Sinai, from which it is separated by Wadi Osmet.
is about 1,600 feet, but, further south, Namely, from Wadi Taibe, which lies a
the width is much increased, so that, on few hours south of Wadi Gharendel,
an average, the plain may be considered on the coast of the Gulf of Suez, the
as being nearly one-third of a mile wide, mountain-chains run farther eastward
and its length, in view of Mount Sinai, into the interior of the peninsula, so that
between five and six miles.” It thus from there a long, gradually-widening,
furnished ample tenting-ground for the arid plain is formed, which extends to
hosts of Israel, The general silence of the southern point of the peninsula, the
eastern travellers, with regard to this Ras Mohammed. In this direction fol-
southern plain, Wadi Sebaiyeh, may be low, after the Wadi Taibe, successively,
traced to the circumstance that,-on pass- the Wadis Nasseb, Mokatteb, Feiran, and
ing from Mount St. Catharine, eastward Nadie, in the south of which rises Mount
beyond the valley El-Ledsha, high gra- Serbal. We will not urge here the cir-
nite spurs, generally surrounded by deep cumstance, that it would be very difficult
and rugged gorges and ravines, or water- to identify the journeys of the Israelites
courses, separate Wadi Sebaiyeh from from Marah and Elim down to Mount
Sinai; and from no part of the narrow Serbal, if this were the next aim of their
path which lies between those spurs and marches, as we have tried to prove at the
the mountain, and which is usually taken single stations; we will only endeayour
by the travellers, is the southern plain to refute the arguments which, for in-
visible. But, although Dr. Robinson was stance, Kitto (Pict. Bible, i. p.189) has
not aware of this valley, his observations advanced in its favour. He adduces, Ist,
do by no means compel us “to throw The height of Mount Serbal, which made
aside all our faith in tradition,” with it most eligible for the divine legislation.
which they stand in full harmony; nor is But the Serbal is not the highest moun-
it necessary to suppose, with others (as tain of the peninsula; we have already
Kitto, Scripture Lands, p. 67), that the observed (p. 63), that it is the Mount
Israelites, to reach that valley, “must St. Catharine, to the west of Horeb and
have continued their march much further Sinai: 2nd. The abundance of valleys
down the coast than on the other suppo- round the Serbal; which point we haye
sition, and turned, at a bolder angle, up already answered in the foregoing re-
 EXODUS XIX. 243

-- ness; and there Israel encamped before the mountain.

8. And Moses went up to God, and the Lord called to
marks: 3rd. The passages, Deut. xxxiii.2: month was later called Sivan (Esth. viii. 9).
“The Lord came from Sinai, and rose up See note on xii. 2.
from Seir to them; He shone forth from 2. According to Jewish tradition, Moses
Mount Paran,....from His right hand ascended the mountain on the second
came a fiery law for them,” and 118088. day of Sivan (ver. 3); on the third, he
iii. 3: “The Lord came from Teman, and received the answer of the people (ver.
the Holy One from Mount Paran.” ‘This 7); on the fourth, he ascended the moun-
1 Mount Paran is, by Kitto, considered tain for the second time (ver. 8); then
identical with Mount Feiran (see supra). followed the days of preparation, on
Eyen if we acknowledge this hypothesis, the fourth and fifth; and, on the sixth,
we must observe, that, if Paran is so the revelation of the decalogue took
literally taken as a mountain in the vici- place. The three days before the sixth of
nity of Sinai, we must suppose the same Sivan are called “ the three days of sepa-
ef the region of Seir, which, however, ration.” See vers. 12, 14, 23. Compare
extends from the Dead Sea to the Ela- also note on xxiii. 16. At Mount Sinai the
nitic Gulf, and lies very considerably Israelites stayed almost a whole year,
north of Feiran. The same must be said from the first day of the third month in
of Teman, a country in the east of Idu- the first year of their wanderings, to the
mza. Further, the part where the reve- twentieth of the second month in the
lation took place is frequently called second year (Numb. x. 11); and received
Horeb, which scarcely applies to Mount here, during this period, the legislation
Serbal, much less to Feiran and Seir. in almost all its details. This is, perhaps,
4
The preposition from in the passages above the only part of the peninsula which,
quoted, shows merely the direction from abounding in fountains and green pas-
some part: God came, as it were, from tures, permitted so long a sojourn to the
the north, from the Holy Land, His usual numerous people and their many herds,
3—6. Already from the beginning of
7
|a
| abode, to Mount Sinai, in order to reveal
‫ו‬
|
Himself there in glory to Moses. He his mission Moses had fostered the great
(a
further adduces as proof, 4th. Tradition, idea, to bestow upon the Israelites not
‎‫ ו‬0
,
which mentions the Serbal as the moun- only liberty but truth;—not only to lead
tain of legislation. How uncertain such them from the inauspicious soil of Egypt,
traditions are, and how ready the Be- but to train them to useful and vigorous
douins show themselves to give to any citizens of the promised land (see iii, 12).
locality every desired significance, has Little would their liberty have availed
been acknowledged by all travellers (see them, had they, in the obstinacy of their
supra, on xiv. 1—3, p. 180). But, in this hearts, and the darkness of their minds,
instance, even tradition speaks for Mount undertaken a planless march in the un-
Sinai, where “the convent of Mount known solitudes of the desert. Moses,
Sinai” was founded already in the sixth therefore, led them now, under divine
century of the vulgar era (527); and un- direction, into a district, in which they
_ doubtedly the emperor Justinian followed, could, secluded from all toils and strug-
in its establishment, the tradition then gles of human pursuits, and only a few
| prevailing. It is, therefore, indisputable, times disturbed from their rest by trans-
= that not the Serbal, but the Sinai, is the itory hostile attacks, receive in collected
mountain of revelation. tranquillity the laws of their legislator.
‎‫ב‬. On the third new moon after the This was thus most properly a time of
_ departure of the Israelites from Egypt, instruction and education, during which
they arrived just on that first day of the their thoughts were exclusively engaged
month in the desert of Sinai.—The third with this one grand object. But Moses,
R 2
 ‫הו‬ ‫בו‬
4 0
/ .
- "4 = ‫א‬
- . '

244 EXODUS XIX.

him out of the mountain, saying, Thus shalt thou say to
the house of Jacob, and tell the children of Israel:
4, You have seen what I did to Egypt, and how I bore
you on eagles’ wings, and brought you to myself. 5, Now,
on the point of carrying the great and diffi- beautiful and deep poetical phrase, “ borne
cult work into execution, is anew re- them on eagles’ wings and brought them
minded of the improbability, that a people, to Himself.” The strength and majesty
which seemed sunk in the meanest mate- of the eagle, the rapidity of his flight,
rialism, and which thought liberty itself and his power to shield his young from
too dearly bought by a few short priva- the attacks of other birds, and by his
tions, should possess a degree of self- high soaring to protect them even from the
denial and spiritualism, such as was arrows of the hunter, render him an
requisite for the understanding of the eminently appropriate image of com-
purest religious doctrines. Therefore he parison for the omnipotence of God,
proposes to them once more, in the name with which He had rescued Israel from
of God, the question, whether, in grateful all dangers, the calamity of hunger and
reminiscence of His loving protection, thirst, and the attack of the enemies.
they were determined to obey His com- But by tenderness for his young also is
mandments, and to preserve the covenant the eagle distinguished. The same image, in
which He now intended to renew with which the care of God for Israel is com-
them on a still more sacred basis (vers. pared with the strength and tenderness
8--6(. Only after the people had solemnly of the eagle, is more carried out in Deut.
and unanimously promised this (ver. 8), Xxxli.ll: “As an eagle stirreth up her
follow the direct preparations for the nest, fluttereth over her young, spreadeth
revelation of God and the promulgation her wings, taketh them, beareth them on
of the law (ver. 10, et seq.). her wings: So the Lord alone did lead
3. And Moses went up to God, that is, them,” etc.—Rabbinical interpreters urge
on the mountain of God, as the Sept. the word on, and explain: whilst all other
even translates. Abarbanel takes these birds carry their young between their
words spiritually: Moses occupied his feet through the air, because they fear
mind with the holiest ideas of God, but the attack of stronger and higher flying
without leaving his tent. However in- birds, the eagle bears them on his wings,
genious such symbolical interpretations as he has not to fear any other bird, but
may be, the clear context of this and only the arrows of men, and prefers
many other passages does not permit us rather to be pierced himself, than to
to abandon the simple and literal accep- witness the death of his young; “thus
tation. the Egyptians threw swords and spears,
4. God spoke to Moses from the but the pillar of cloud kept them off."—
mountain, that is, according to ver. 20, The words: “and I brought you to
from the top of it, in solemn words and myself,” are taken too externally by those
poetical parallelism; and this sublime who explain them: I brought you to my
form of the divine address is intended mountain, the Horeb. They stand in
to place in a more expressive light the close relation with the beginning of this
importance and _ significance of the verse, and form the strongest confirmation
question. God reminds the Israelites of our foregoing remark. The Israelites
appropriately first of the special provi- had, on the one side by the Egyptian
dence, with which He had hitherto treated servitude, on the other, by the Egyptian
them, as they had seen themselves how idolatry, with which they had contami- |
He had delivered them from the op- nated themselves, swerved far from God,
pression of the Egyptians, and, with a His purity and sanctity, in a word, from .
 EXODUS XIX. 245

therefore, if you will obey my voice indeed, and keep my

covenant, then you shall be a peculiar treasure to me above
all nations: for all the earth zs mine: 6. And you shall
be to me a kingdom of priests and a holy nation. These
truth and genuine faith; now God, in to His service, who, therefore, are to Him
graciously granting them His revelation particularly dear on account of their piety
and His pure doctrines, brings them again and holiness, and whom He favours with
back to Himself; He intends to make His special protection. Not individual
them “a kingdom of priests and a privileged members of the people, but ~
holy nation.” And in this sense trans- the whole community shall stand in the
lates Onkelos: “and I brought you to nearest and closest connection with God,
my service,” and still more distinctly ex- and be participant of His inspirations.
plains Rashbam: “that I may be your The Israelites should be among the other
God.” Now the Lord commands the nations, what the priests are in one nation;
‘sraelites to listen to His voice; and this they were selected to propagate the doc-
is explained by the following words, that trine of God, and thus to become the
they shall keep His covenant, which He teachers and prophets of the nations,
makes with them anew by the legisla- The priests form, in many respects, the
tion, and by which their old relation as medium between God and the people;
covenanters of God was to be enlarged they “ bring the people to God” (ver. 4);
and strengthened. and thus it was the grand vocation of
5. Then you shall be a peculiar treasure Israel to be the medium between the
to me. Thus the people of Israel are called nations of the earth and God, to bring
in several other passages also, as Deut. all the nations to God, and thus ulti-
Vil. 6; xiv. 2; xxvi, 18. Israel was, mately to form one whole with the rest
then, intended to. be the selected treasure of the world, to cease to be a chosen
of God among all nations (Levit. xx. people, because they had made the truth
26; Ps. exxxv. 4), although the whole of God a common property of mankind,
world belongs to Him ; as He, therefore, is The resigning of its peculiar glory was
the Lord of all, the often repeated, the signal of the perfect triumph of
absurd remark, that in the Pentateuch Israel. The words of our text describe,
God is represented merely as the parti- therefore, the notion of the * government
cular deity of Israel, and as it were but as of God,” or theocracy, as the Hebrew
a national God, is sufficiently refuted. state is usually called: God is the su-
We have already had other opportunities preme invisible king, whom all citizens
to expose that fallacy (see note to vi. 7). serve as priests, but so that an earthly
6. The Israelites shall be to God a king, as His human representative, is
kingdom of priests and a holy nation. thereby not excluded (see Judg. viii. 23;
16 is unnecessary to seek with some 1 Sam. viii. 7). The word theocracy is
interpreters, in these words exactly first used by Josephus, who remarks:
the intimation, that as in Egypt and “Some legislators have permitted their
some other eastern countries the priests governments to be under monarchies,
formed the favoured, and often the go- others put them under oligarchies,
verning caste, thus the Israelites should, and others under a republican form;
Mi,
as it were, have a part in the go- but our legislator had no regard to any
yernment of God with a peculiar privilege. of these forms, but he ordained our
The phrase: “ you shall be to me a holy government to be what, by a strained
nation, expresses mercly, that God wished expression, may be termed a theocracy,
to consider all Israelites as His priests, by ascribing the authority and the power
that is, as the religious officers consecrated to God, and by persuading all the people
 -

246 EXODUS XIX.

are the words which thou shalt speak to the children of
Israel. 7. And Moses came and called for the elders of
to have a regard to Him.” From these had no authority to introduce a new law,
words the character and the signification or to reform an old one, except in so far
of a theocracy are clearly discernible; as their moral influence swayed the people.
where God rules as a king, every subject The prophets were the messengers of God
is, as it were, a priest, and every civil to preserve the pure monotheism and the
action assumes the sanctity of a religious genuine theocracy.— God is the only
function; idolatry becomes ‫ה‬‎ 6 legislator; the Lawis the eternal unalter-
against His sovereignty (crimen majes- able guide of the people, the supreme
tatis), and was, therefore, punished with will, the centre of the whole political
death (Deut. xvii. 2); and from the same existence; it is the revelation of God,
principle blasphemy, false prophecy, pro-' through which He reigns; the Law is,
fanation of the Sabbath, and witchcraft, therefore, the only standard of the
were persecuted with the same extreme theocracy, It was only in exceptional
punishment; and even disrespect against cases, that the will of God interfered
elders, judges and parents, who were directly in the affairs of the nation
considered, in certain respects, as the through lots or through the Urim and
representatives of God, was severely Thummim (see notes to the various laws,
punished; in fact, every law, however chap, Xxx—xxiii.). | But Israel is holy
unimportant in appearance, assumes the only in so far, and because it stands
dignity of a precept commanded by the under the immediate influence of God;
eternal King; and its transgression is a the people itself has no majesty except
violation of His sovereignty. Further, that which reflects upon it by the holiness
the whole land belongs to God; the of God; the dignity of the community
people are but its tenants; nobody has, rises, the more it approaches God; it 18 2‫י‬9‫ע‬
therefore, the right of transferring his destroyed by idolatry and disbelief. A =

landed property to ethers; it returns in crime against the majesty of the people, as
the jubilee to its former owner, or to his such, is therefore unknown to the Mosaic
heirs. Again, the Israelites are the sub- law; it becomes punishable only when its
jects of God; they are His servants for purport and tendency is directed against
ever; slavery was, therefore, excluded; God Himself, and thus assumes the
the servant went out free in the seventh character of high treason. And because
year; and if he declined to accept the all Israelites are subjects of the same
liberty, he was branded with a mark of eternal and perfect King, they are all
ignominy, because be refused the imme- equal in dignity, in rights and duties; eny
a
‫ו‬ey‫‏‬

diate sovereignty of God. <A _ direct there is no difference of classes, of ranks,

.

consequence of the theocratical govern- or castes; all citizens enjoy unlimited

ment was, the 08106 of prophecy. The liberty and scope for the development of
prophets are inspired by God; they are their spiritual nature; no barrier excludes
His mouth; their dicta are the words of the poorest to rise, by the power of the
God; and disobedience to the prophets mind, to the highest authority, even that
is a breach of the allegiance due to God. of a prophet; for a degradation of one
But the prophets had no legislative power, class would have annihilated the holiness
nor had they any regular or clearly of the people as an undivided community.
defined political influence; it was their But that liberty could never degenerate
task merely to exhort the people to into anarchy or disorder, as long as the
remain faithful to the law of God, and to nature of their common Monarch, whose
keep aloof from every idolatrous abomi- infinite holiness they were ordered to
nation. ‘This was their duty; in all other imitate, remained clear before their in-
respects they were merely advisers; they ternal eye; pride and ambition were
 rhe ON
2 ‫ל‬‎

EXODUS XIX. 247

the people, and laid before them all these words which the
Lord had commanded him. 8. And all the people an-
naturally checked by the thought, how influence. How different was all this in
unspeakably remote even the highest the Egyptian caste of priests!—As God
human perfection must inevitably be from reminds here (in ver. 4) the people,
that eternal model; and the consciousness through Moses, that they have seen
to be destined as a holy people, far from themselves all miracles, and that they
fostering a feeling of vanity or haughti- could, therefore, not doubt of a special
ness, was eminently calculated to sow providence exercised in their favour,
daily the seeds of lowliness and humble we insert the following excellent pas-
contrition.—The Israelites were not the sage from Stollberg’s History of Religion
only people who had a theocratical form (ii. p. 58): * If Minos, the legislator of the
of government; the Egyptian kings also Cretans, pretended to have every nine years
pretended to rule in the name and as communions with Jupiter in a cavern; if
the representatives of the gods, and so Lycurgus, the legislator of the Lacedzemo-
‘eyen at present the monarchs of Persia nians, raised his influence by an oracle of
and Thibet. But these theocracies had, Apollo; and Numa, Rome’s second king,
and have, no influence on the position supported his authority by a feigned
and character of the people; the monarchs intercourse with the nymph Egeria, who
assumed their presumptuous titles, only he said instructed him in a grotto near
to raise themselves and to degrade their her fountain; if Zamolxis, the lawgiyer
nations; the heathen theocracies were, of the Getae, ascribed his wisdom to
therefore, but other names for the most Vesta; and Odin carried constantly with
absolute despotism, and the sources of him the embalmed head of Mimer, to
the grossest abuse and the darkest super- whom he imputed oracular inspirations;
stition, whilst the Hebrew theocracy had if Manko-Kapak spread the belief, that
an immediate, ennobling influence upon he descended from the sun, in order to
the citizens, whom it elevated into the enlighten Peru’s people; and Mohammed
rank of priests, and who enjoyed all the listened to the wisdom, which his dove
same political and religious privileges; whispered into his ear, as Sertorius, in
it consisted merely in the one elevating Lusitania, followed the secret suggestions
idea, that God, invisible, omniscient, and of his hind; all these extraordinary men
eternal, hovered over the people; that understood well, that a certain divine
the king was but the first servant of the authority was required, to diffuse new
Lord; and that both the people and the systems and new ideas among whole
king had to render account for all their nations, and to make them act in ac-
deeds before His supreme tribunal. The cordance therewith. What those men
Hebrew theocracy was thus also widely effected very imperfectly by more or less >
different from a hierarchy, or government gross illusions, was executed by God,
of priests, who had, constitutionally, no whom the whole of nature obeys, in a
political power whatever (see note on manifest and awful manner, by per-
ver. 22); the tribe of Levi furnished petually continued wonders, witnessed by
merely the priests, not the Judges and a whole nation.”—lIt is here, perhaps, the
kings, not even necessarily the prophets; place also for briefly enumerating and
it was not in the exclusive possession of characterizing the different names of
the knowledge of the law, and could Israel as a people, and in its relation to
therefore not acquire any dangerous God. 1. Israel is the son of God, because
spiritual ascendance; it was, on the other they acknowledge Him as the father of
hand, the only tribe which obtained no mankind, and the Author of the uni-
landed property, and it was thus deprived verse (Exod. iv. 23; Jer. iii. 19; Deut.
of the chief means of gaining material xxxiii. 6. Mal. ii. 10, etc.). 2. Israel is
 yan
|

248 EXODUS XIX.

swered together, and said, All that the Lord hath spoken
we will do. And Moses returned the words of the people
to the Lord. 9. And the Lord said to Moses, Behold, I
come to thee in a thick cloud, that the people may hear
when I speak with thee, and believe in thee for ever.
And Moses told the words of the people to the Lord.—
10. And the Lord said to Moses, Go to the people, and
sanctify them to-day and to-morrow, and let them wash
their clothes: 11. And be ready for the third day: for
His firstborn son, because they were His with a poetical simile, the turtle-dove of
earliest worshippers (Exod. iv. 22; see God (Ps. Ixxiy. 19), whereas, on the other
our note there), or, with a similar meta- hand, the pagans, are called the wicked(Ps.
phor, the first-fruits of His increase (Jer. ix.6,18; x.4, 11, etc.). 12. The humble,
ii. 3). 3. It is the people of God, because meek, and lowly, who modestly submit tothe
116 is their king and ruler (Num. xvii. 6); divine precepts (Ps. ix. 10, 11, 13, ete.), in
or 4. His inheritance, which belongs to opposition to the heathens, who are called
Him for ever (Deut. iv. 20; Ps. xxxiii. the rebellious, because they revolt against
12, etc.), for He has acquired them as God’s will (Ps. lxviii. 19; compare Ps. ii. 1,
His property by manifold acts of love, 2,etc.). But 13. the most developed and,
especially by the Egyptian redemption perhaps, one of the most beautiful alle-
(see on .‫או‬‎ 18(. 5. His peculiar people gories concerning the relation between
or treasure, which He has singled out God and Israel, is that of the sacred
among all nations to propagate His matrimonial alliance. God is the husband
truth (xix. 5, ete.), and therefore Israel, or the father; the people is the wife or
the warrior of God; 6. The people the mother; the individual citizens, the
par excellence, since they are, as the children; the whole,of Israel, the house
reverers of His will, the most glorious or family of God (Hos. viii. 1, ete.);
nation on earth (Deut. xxxiii. 29; 2 Sam. and therefore idolatry is, from another
vii. 23); a great people (Deut. iv. 6, 7,8). point of view, nothing less than adultery,
7. The Israelites are in the same sense, and every idol a strange god (compare
the chosen ones, whom God shields with Isa, 1.91; Jer. il. 2, 25; 1/5, Hoss 7
particular care and His special providence Ps. xliv. 21, etc., etc.).—All these appel-
(Isa. lxv. 9; Ps.cv.6); or 8. His flock, lations are convincing proofs of the pure
which He pastures and protects (Jer. spirituality with which God is conceived
xiii, 17; xxiii. 1), and God Himself is and represented throughout the whole
the shepherd (Ps. Ixxx. 2, etc.). 9. They Old Testament; and if we find a distinet
are the holy people, because God their and self-conscious opposition between
king is holy (Lev. xi. 44; xx. 7, 8, etc.); Israel and the other nations, this ex-
or a kingdom of priests (see on ver. 6). presses nothing more than an undeniable
10. The wise people, because the law of historical truth, and is neither the dictate
the Lord enlightens the mind (Deut. iv. of pride, nor of national exclusiveness
5—8), as, on the contrary, the idolators (see note on Yi. 7).
are denominated foolish or blinded (Ps, z—9. Moses now proposes, through
xiv. 1; lxxiv. 6, etc.). 11. The pious or the elders, the question, to the people,
righteous people, because they know the whether they were willing to conclude
precepts of God, which ennoble the soul the renewed covenant with God under
(Ps. xiv. 5; Num. xxiii. 10, etc.), and the condition of a perfect obedience to
therefore Jeshurun, the pious nation; or His commands, and they answered unas
 EXODUS XIX. 249

on the third day the Lord will come down before the eyes
of all the people upon Mount Sinai. 12. And thou shalt
set bounds to the people round about, saying, Take heed
to yourselves, that you go not up into the mountain, or
touch the border of it: whosoever toucheth the mountain
shall surely be put to death: 13. There shall not a hand
touch *him, but he shall surely be stoned, or shot through;
whether zt be beast or man, it shall not live. When the,
‫ ו‬Engl. Vers.—It.‫‏‬

nimously with a hearty affirmative (com- cation (ver. 10), and by abstaining from
pare xxiv. 3). The people are permitted all sensual and earthly enjoyments (ver.
free choice, either to accept or to refuse 15). And in order to fill the minds of
{the new covenant; the obligation is made the people with a still deeper impression
perfectly mutual; and so Israel submits, of the sanctity of the revelation, they are,
with voluntary consent, to the rule of under penalty of death, forbidden, either
God, and to His laws; their liberty and to ascend the mountain, or to approach
free agency is thus secured and respected, it (ver. 12; compare xxxiv. 3); for God
and, however severe some of the laws intended, as a spirit, to reveal Himself to
might be, however decided the govern- their spirits only. The whole succeeding
ment of God might, in some instances, description of the fiery appearance of
> appear, they cannot complain of tyran- God, in lightning and thunder, and
" nical arbitrariness; they have declared, clouds, and the smoke of Sinai, and the
consciously and deliberately, that they terrible sound of the trumpet, is so ma-
agree with the conditions proposed to jestically sublime and grand, that it could
them. It is, therefore, the most un- only issue from a mind which, over-
happy mistake, if some writers, even men whelmed by the omnipotence, and
*with historical and philosophical impar- grandeur, and majesty of God, exhausts
tiality, have spoken of the “ theocratical the whole scanty store of human lan-
despotism of the Mosaic law.”— Moses guage to utter but a faint expression of
returns the reply of the people to the the agitated sentiments of ‫םגנפ‬‎ 6
Lord, who descends to him in a cloud, sanctification took place among the He-
before the eyes of the people, that all brews always before a great and solemn
might henceforth firmly believe in the act (compare Gen. xxxv. 2; Josh. iii. 5),
mission and holiness of Moses (ver. 9; in order thus to enhance the internal
compare Deut. xiii. 2, et seg.); and here elevation by the external purity; but
he communicated to God the answer of this virtue of purity is generally raised,
the people; so that the repetition of the among the Orientals, to the importance of
same words, in ver.9 does not indicate a a religious duty (see note oniii. 5). The
double answer.—God spoke to Moses in a two days of preparation are, according to
thick cloud, “ whilst the cloud sent forth tradition, the fourth and fifth of Sivan
thunder and lightning, the signs of divine (see supra, on vers. 1, 2), whilst, on the
presence.” following day, the sixth of the same
10, 11. As God intends now to ap- month, the revelation took place (ver.
‎‫ ו‬pear to the people in all His glory, in 11).— * God will descend,” that is, He
order to grant the light of truth to the will manifest His presence to the people
chosen people, they must prepare them- by thunder, lightning and fire.
selves for this most solemn act of their 13. So severely was a profane ap-
history, by internal and external sanctifi- proach to the mountain interdicted
 3
/

250 EXODUS XIX.

trumpet ‘soundeth, they shall go forward to the mountain.
—14. And Moses went down from the mountain to the
people, and sanctified the people; and they washed their
clothes. 15. And he said to the people, Be ready for the
third day; do not approach a woman.—16. And it came
to pass on the third day, in the morning, that there were
thunders and lightnings, and a heavy cloud upon the
mountain, and the voice of the trumpet exceedingly
strong; so that all who were in the camp trembled.
17. And Moses brought forth the people out of the camp
towards God; and they placed themselves at the nether
part of the mountain. 18. And Mount Sinai was
1 Engl. Vers.—Soundeth long.

during the divine appearance, that those took place amidst the blowing of the
who transgressed this command, and thus trumpet (ver. 19), our text cannot pos-
forfeited their lives, were not even allowed sibly intimate, that the people, as soon
to be touched; but, from afar, they were as they heard the sound of the horn,
to be killed with stones, or pierced with should ascend the mountain, which
arrows; to kill them on the spot would would be a most strange contradiction,
have compelled the people to follow them and which fact is, indeed, nowhere hinted
to the sacred locality; for the Sinai was at in the following narrative. We must,
now considered as the dwelling-place of rather, suppose, that the words:> they
God, the Most Holy, and only the most shall go to the mountain,” are identical
distinguished of the community were with the circumstance related in ver. 17,
permitted to approach it on the command namely, that Moses, when the Schofar
of God; and in order to make Moses sounded loud, led the Israelites from the
again known and reyered as the true camp “to the foot of the mountain” (see
servant of God, he was now alone al- also Deut. iv. 11), of course beyond the
lowed to ascend to that habitation of the boundary which Moses had fixed (ver.
divine presence. — When the trumpet 12),
soundeth, they shall go forward to the 14. Moses sanctified the people, that
mountain. We have, in the larger edi- is, he impressed upon them the sanctity
tion, proved from the Hebrew text, that and sublimity of the approaching reyela-
this is the only possible translation of this tion, and thus hallowed their minds,
passage; and remark here only, that 15. Among almost all ancient nations,
the personal pronoun they cannot, as abstinence from conjugal intercourse be-
Ebn Ezra, and others, believe, refer to fore the performance of certain holy
Moses, Aaron, Nadab, Abihu, and the duties was a religious command. This
seventy elders (xxiv. 1), as Nadab, is reported by Herodotus concerning the
Abihu, and the elders, are not even Babylonians, Arabians, and the Egyp-
alluded to in the preceding narrative of tians. The same was the practice among 6%
--

our chapter; it must, rather, be referred the Greeks and the Romans, and is still
to the people, mentioned in ver. 12, now among the Mohammedans, when they
However, as the people were expressly, visit the holy places of Mecca.
and under penalty of death, forbidden 16. We refrain from analyzing the
even to approach or touch the mountain single features, and the progress of the
during the appearance of God, which yet signs under which God’s majesty revealed
 EXODUS XIX. 251

entirely in smoke, because the Lord descended upon it in

fire: and the smoke thereof ascended as the smoke of a
furnace, and the whole mountain quaked greatly. 19. And
when the voice of the trumpet sounded louder and louder
very much, Moses spoke, and God answered him by a
voice. 20. And the Lord came down upon Mount Sinai,
on the top of the mountain: and the Lord called Moses
up to the top of the mountain; and Moses went up.
21. And the Lord said to Moses, Go down, ?warn the
people, lest they break through to the Lord to see, and
many of them perish. 22. And let the priests also, who
come near the Lord, sanctify themselves, lest the Lord
2 Engl. Vers.—Charge.

itself to the overwhelmed people in that day that the Lord spoke to you in Horeb
solitary wilderness, convinced that the out of the midst of the fire. Ver. 33:
simple, yet most vigorous and impressive, Did ever people hear the voice of God
description of the holy text cannot fail to speaking out of the midst of the fire, as
produce a powerful effect upon the mind thou hast heard, and live?” (see ver. 36).
of the susceptible reader (see on ver. 10). 19. See note on ver. 13.
We need, therefore, scarcely point out 18. And Mount Sinai was entirely in
the absurdity of the opinion, that Moses smoke. Those dense clouds from which
availed himself of an earthquake, with thunders broke forth had the appearance
volcanic eruptions, to force laws upon of smoke.
the terrified people, in the name of the 19. Bya voice; that 18, Moses spoke
deity. The “trembling of the mountain ” to God (ver. 21—24), and God answered
(ver. 18) is sufficiently accounted for by with a voice loud enough to surpass the
the vehement thunder, and is a usual sound of the trumpet ;not “in thunder,” as
image of the mighty appearance of God some explain,
(Ps. xviii. 8, etc). As the only illustra- 2@. We need scarcely remark, that all
tion, we quote here the parallel passage expressions here used with reference to
from Deut. iv. where several points, here God, and all actions ascribed to Him,
but briefly alluded to, are more distinctly are only employed by the inspired
developed. Ver. 11: “And you ap- writer to make himself understood by
proached, and stood under the mountain; man, and to convey, by external notices,
and the mountain burned with fire to the a faint idea of the spiritual and super-
very heart of heaven, with darkness, natural workings of the Eternal,
clouds, and thick clouds. Ver. 12: And 22. Difficult is here the introduction
the Lord spoke to you out of the midst of the priests, as only in xxviii. 1, the
of the fire: you heard the voice of the sons of Aaron are appointed to priest-
words, but saw no similitude; you heard ly functions. ‘Therefore, many Jewish
only a voice. Ver.13: And He declared interpreters, as Ebn Ezra, Rashi, Rash-
to you His covenant, which He com- bam, and others, have taken the priests
manded you to perform, ten command- here, as the first-born, who are, according
ments; and He wrote them upon two to xiii. 2, particularly holy, and conse-
tables of stone. Ver. 15: Take you crated to God, and in whose place, only
therefore, good heed to yourselves; for later, the Levites were chosen as_ the
you saw no manner of similitude on the peculiar priestly tribe (Numb. viii. 14).
 ‫יט‬
. /
,
‫‏‬el . %1 ‫מש‬

252 EXODUS XIX., XX.

break forth upon them. 23. And Moses said to the Lord,
The people cannot come up to Mount Sinai, for Thou hast
warned us, saying, Set bounds about the mountain, and
sanctify it. 24, And the Lord said to him, Go, descend,
and come up again, thou and Aaron with thee: but let
not the priests and the people break through to come up
to the Lord, lest He break forth upon them. 25. 0
Moses went down to the people, and spoke to them.
But, in xxiv. 5., young men are also selves from the mountain, was considered
mentioned, charged to perform sacrifices, so important, that Moses was commanded
and they exercised, therefore, sacerdotal to warn them, once more, not to ap-
functions, whether they were from the proach it during the divine manifestation,
family of Aaron or not. Worthy of con- beyond the fixed boundary, if they
sideration is the opinion of Vater, that, wished to escape a certain death.
as no doubt the prohibition not to ap- 25. From ver. 24, it appears that, after
proach the mountain was in power for Moses had exhorted the people once more,
the whole time of the legislation, it in- he ascended the mountain with Aaron, and
cluded the priests here also, as they were remained there whilst God proclaimed
appointed during that time (xxviii. 1. et the Ten Commandments; then he re-
seq.). The priests are then commanded, turned to the people, who asked him
like the people, to keep themselves holy, henceforth to speak to them himself, for 1
that is, not to come near the mountain of they feared the awfulness of the divine |
God, “lest the Lord break forth upon visions (xx. 16; Deut. vy. 20--24); upon 1
them,” that is, as Targ. Onkelos trans- which Moses ascended the mountain 9|
lates, “lest He kill them.” In this again (ver. 18), and received the further 4
verse, as in ver. 24, the priests are, in all ordinances (xx. 18; Deut. vy. 28); but 1
respects, subjected to the same regula- the people remained, during this time, i
tions as the people, and enjoy no prefer- _ quietly in their tents (Deut. v.27). When 4
ence whatever over the latter. Philo then Moses returned from the mountain, PI

already deduces, from this circumstance, he communicated the laws to the people
the perfect equality of all men before (xxiv. 3), after, however, having received
God, which principle he finds particularly the command from God, to appear again
in every injunction of the decalogue. with Aaron, his two eldest sons, and the
Moses and Aaron alone are the special seventy elders of Israel (xxiv. 1). Thus,
servants of the deity, and the mediators all parts of the sacred narrative stand in
between Him and His people. harmony and logical connection (see also ‫וא‬
Stee
‫ו‬
‫גל‬
24. The reverential and modest dis- on xxiv. 1).
tance at which the people should keepthem-

CHAPTER XX.
SummMAry.—The Ten Commandments are proclaimed by God. The people terrified
by the fearful majesty of the divine presence, wishes in future to receive the
precepts of God through the mediation of Moses. He explains to them the
reason, why God had this time manifested Himself in such glory and splendour.
Then Moses ascends the mountain again, and receives from God the individual
laws, which constitute the “ Book of the Covenant” (see on xxi. 1—11).
THE TEN COMMANDMENTS. Ver. 1—14.
GENERAL Remarks,
Tue first fourteen verses contain the primary basis of revelation and the fundamental
laws of the whole Mosaic legislation, They have, therefore, become the starting-point
 THE TEN COMMANDMENTS. Joa

of all religious systems and of all true civilization, and from their promulgation only
dates the diffusion of a genuine monotheism, a purely internal morality and a sound
enlightenment. They form a decisive epoch in the history of the human race, and
are, therefore, perhaps the greatest and most important event in universal history.
In a simple and condensed, yet extremely emphatical form, equally impressive for
every degree and manner of intellectual culture, a complete system of duties is
comprised, which man owes to his Creator and his fellow-men; and so comprehensive
is the purport of these words, that already from the earliest times the whole sum of
the divine precepts has been considered to be included in them asin an embryo, so that
all the other laws are only to be regarded as the development or detailed elaboration
of these words, wherefore they are by Hebrew tradition justly called the “ fundamentals
of the faith,” or the “pillars of the Law and its roots.” It may even be asserted, that
the ritual observances are nothing but a visible embodiment of the general truths here
pronounced, and that the civil and political institutions coincide, in their meaning and
essence, with the moral axioms here enjoined.—However, the attempts really to
deduce from these doctrines all the various precepts and prohibitions of the Penta-
| teuch, must naturally lead to very forced and artificial results, as the subordination
of the individual laws under the fundamental precepts is frequently very difficult;
the latter are only intended to indicate the spirit in which the legislation is conceived,
and the intellectual direction, which it would take in its future development. They
are, then, to be considered as the basis of the theocracy; and we shall, therefore, be
obliged to examine the Ten Commandments under a twofold point of view; Ist. In
what manner they affect the supremacy of God; and 2nd. How far they concern the
existence and safety of the political community.
As a system they might briefly be thus delineated. Naturally and simply our
duties are divided into those towards God, those towards our fellow-men, and those
towards ourselves; but the latter are necessarily excluded from a system of laws,
intended only to enforce the first general conditions of theocratical and political life.
Now, the basis and foundation of theocracy is the unconditional belief in the
existence of God, with the utter exclusion of every other deity; for God is the
invisible king of the country. (First Commandment),—But an uncivilized nation
may hardly be able to conceive and to worship God as a pure spzrit; and may, there-
fore, easily incline to represent to itself some corporeal form of God, by which,
however, His innermost nature would be destroyed. It was, therefore, necessary
severely to prohibit every visible image of God. (Second Commandment).—Not less
would the profanation of His name gradually produce indifference to His attributes
and derogation of His holy essence; and therefore the sanctity of His name was
strictly to be enjoined. (Third Commandment).—For the practical inurement to these
difficult doctrines, incessant instruction and edification were required; and this could
only be effectually obtained on a day of perfect rest. (Fourth Commandment).—Thus
is, in fact, the First Commandment the only and principal precept of the worship of
God, while the three following injunctions are but auxiliary measures to secure and
to strengthen its observance.—Here the first tablet might have concluded; but pre-
cisely in the midst between the divine and human duties, stand the filial obligations;
for the parents share, in many respects, the divine authority (see infra). Therefore
is the Fifth Commandment very properly the centre of all the others; for upwards
it is the point of departure for the divine, and downwards for the human duties.
But our offences against our fellow-men consist—Ist, in a violation by deed;
2nd, by word;~or 3rd, by thought. Now the deed may be directed a)
against the person, or b) against the property of the neighbour. Therefore the
Sixth Commandment prohibits murder, and the Eighth, theft. Between person and
property, and constituting a higher holy possession, stands the wedded wife, and
therefore the Seventh Commandment interdicts adultery. Further, the violation by
 254 THE TEN COMMANDMENTS;
word is treated in the Ninth Commandment, which denounces the
false witness; and
by thought, in the Tenth, the coveting of the property
of others—and thus the
whole system of the social duties is perfectly completed
; and the conscientious
observance of the decalogue sufficed, therefore, to secure the permanency of the
spiritual and civil common-wealth.—We might discover in
the precepts of the first
tablets the same trichotomy of deed, word, and thought, although
in a reversed order;
namely, the First and Second Commandments enjoin obviously
the divine veneration
with the heart, the Third with the word and the Fourth with the deed; and so the
decalogue begins with the heart and ends with the heart;
for this is the only source
of our actions and our thoughts; as, on the other hand, all our actions and all our
thoughts redound to the heart and stamp it with their impress,—
there is an eternal
reciprocality between our feeling, thinking and acting.
As the decalogue contains only the outlines of the legislation, and,
according to
Rabbinical explanation, even those laws only, the transgression
of which was punished
with death, it will be sufficient, in the following remarks, merely
to point out the
general character of these precepts with regard to the two considerat
ions above men-
tioned, reserving the more detailed expositions for future occasions
(see the laws about
murder, on Xxi.12—14; adultery, on xxii. 15,16; theft, on
xxi, 37; legal witnesses,
on xxiii. 1—8),
The contents of the first fourteen verses of our chapter are, in several
passages of
the Pentateuch, designated the “ten words” (xxxiv.28; Deut.
iv.13; x. 4), and have,
therefore, been called by Philo, Josephus, and others,
Decalogue ) 4666(\009(
But nowhere is a clue given as to the division of
those verses into the “ten
words.” Therefore, a variety of opinions prevailed on this
subject from early times;
they may, however, now be reduced to the following three views:
1. According to
the Talmud, Targum Jonathan, Ebn Ezra, Maimonides, Peter Martyr, and others,
ver. 2 contains the first commandment; vers. 3—6, the second; ver.7, the third;
vers. 8—11, the fourth; ver. 12, the fifth; ver. 13, the sixth,
seventh, eighth and ninth;
and ver. 14, the tenth. But, against this division militates the circumstance, that,
polytheism and image-worship are two distinct subjects,
and cannot be combined in one
precept. 2. Others do not admit that ver.2 isa commandment,
as it simply asserts,
that God, who now reveals Himself, has released the Israelites from
Egypt; they con-
sider, therefore, this verse merely as an introduction, and believe
yer. 3. to be the first
commandment; vers. 4—-6, the second; and then, farther, as specified above. Thus
Origen, Jerome, Pseudo-Ambrose, and the Reformed
Churches (Calvin, Pseudo-
Athanasius, etc., etc.), except the Lutheran. But ver. 2 evidently belongs to the
decalogue; and we shall, in its due place, prove that the
simple form of an assertion,
in which it is worded, cannot exclude it therefrom. 3. Luther, Pfeiffer, and others,
take vers. 2—6 together as one commandment; but, in order to gain the number ten,
they divide ver. 14 into two commandments: a. Thou shalt not
covet the house of thy
neighbour; &, the remaining words of the verse. This is also
the Masoretic division
in Exodus. But it is unquestionable, that ver. 14 forms one commandment, as the
house of the neighbour belongs quite as much to the individual
enumeration of the
forbidden objects, as his wife, his servant, or his cattle. Therefore
, the opinion of
those deserves scarcely to be mentioned, who, with regard to
Deuteronomy vy. 18, take
the words: “ thou shalt not covet the wife of thy neighbour,”
as the ninth command-
ment, and the other words of the verse as the tenth precept.
So Augustin, Bede,
and Peter Lombard. If we carefully examine the contents of these verses, we
arrive at the conclusion, that the division of Origen is
the most suitable and most
logical; but, with the necessary modification, that the
second and third verses form the
first commandment. This division is already adopted by Josephus (Antiq. IIL. y. 5),
who writes: “The first commandment teaches us, that there is but
one God, and that
we ought to worship Him only; the second commands us not to make
the image of
 THE TEN COMMANDMENTS. 255

any living thing to worship it.” The objection, which Ebn Ezra and others after him
have raised against the separation of the third and fourth verse, namely, that poly-
theism and worship of images are identical, does not appear tenable; for it is
not impossible for a people to believe in one omnipotent God, and yet to make
images of Him.
These “ten words” were, after the testimony of the Pentateuch itself, written on
two stone tablets, which were called “the two tablets of the covenant” (Deut. iv. 13;
iv. 9,11), and which were preserved in the “ ark of the covenant ” (Deut. x.8), as the
decalogue itself was called “the words of the covenant” (Deut. ix. 13; compare
xxviii. 69). How many commandments stood on either of the tablets is again
uncertain. Both Origen and Augustin commence the second table with verse 12; so
that, according to Origen, the first tablet contains four commandments, and the
second, six; according to Augustin, the first three, the second, seven. But more
probable is the ancient division of Josephus and Philo, who place five commandments
on either tablet, so that the second begins with verse 13. And, as both sides were
written upon (xxxii. 15), Josephus asserts, that two anda half were contained on each
side; which is, however, problematical, as we cannot well suppose that the words:
“Thou shalt not steal,” forming the eighth commandment, were separated. Thus the
first tablet comprises our duties towards God; the second, our obligations towards our
fellow-men; but so that the fifth commandment—the veneration of the parents—
forms the transition between both tablets, since the parents are, for the children on
the one hand, inferior to the Deity, on the other hand, more sacred than all the other
human beings; they are, as it were, the earthly representatives of God; they instruct
the children in the fear of God and in virtue, like a heavenly prophet.
It is worthy of being remarked, that only in the two first commandments God is
introduced in the first person, whilst, in the two following verses He is mentioned in
the third person. Rabbinical expounders assign, as a reason for this circumstance,
that the people were, after the two first commandments, unable to bear the fearful-
ness of the divine majesty and voice, and that, therefore, Moses communicated to
them, later, the following words which he had heard alone. But the holy text states,
distinctly, that God revealed to the Israelites, without mediator, the Ten Com-
mandments, amidst fire and thunder (vers. 1, 19; Deut, iv. 13,14). And Ebn Ezra
justly remarks, that God speaks, in many passages, of Himself, in the third person
(compare xix. 21), and that transitions from the first person into the third are not
unfrequent.
It is known that the decalogue, in its repetition in Deuteronomy (v. 6—18), con-
tains, from the third commandment, several more or less important deviations, a sub-
ject which is not without peculiar difficulties, but the full elucidation of which is more
in its proper place in the quoted section of Deuteronomy. Here we remark only, that
a careful consideration.of the matter leads to the following conclusions: 1st. The
difference of the words in both decalogues is perfectly unessential, as they cause, in
no instance, a difference of the sense: 2nd, the wording in Exodus is the original
one, as it was revealed to Moses, and engraved on the tablets of the covenant: 3rd,
the Book of Deuteronomy contains only a brief historical sketch of events, already
related before with more elaborate detail; and the general sense only, not the exact
words of the previous narrative must be expected: thus we can easily account for the
difference of the decalogue in Deuteronomy, which, in fact, refers twice to the former
yersion in Exodus (“as the Lord thy God hath commanded thee,” vers. 12 and 16).
As we stand here at the entrance of the whole legislation, we deem it expedient to
premise the following remarks of the great Ebn Ezra, as they concisely embody the
principles which have guided us in the exposition of the Mosaic laws: “ Know that all
commandments can be considered under one of the following two points of view. ‘The
first class comprises such laws as are by God implanted in the heart of every
 >

256 EXODUS XX.

man of sound judgment; they are very numerous, and in the decalogue it is only the
precept concerning the Sabbath which is not suggested by reason alone. Therefore, all
intelligent persons, of all nations, admit and practise those laws; and it is impossible
to increase or to diminish them; even Abraham had already, besides others, observed
them. And God has given the Law to men of intelligence only, and those who have no
intelligence have no Law. The second class contains the precepts, which are obscure
to us, and the reasons of which are not explained in the Law. Far, far be from us
the
thought, that there can exist a single law in opposition to reason; but if a precept
seems to us irreconcilable with our understanding, we must, nevertheless, faithfully
observe it; it is, however, our duty, not to accept it blindly, but to search in the
writings of the sages after its reason, whether it is, perhaps, to be understood in a
figurative sense; and if we find there no satisfactory information, we must reflect and
study ourselves to find an explanation; but if we can, in spite of our anxious researches,
not find any clue, then only let us drop the matter, and acknowledge that we do not
understand it.”

NDGod spoke all these words, saying, 2. I am the

Lord thy God, who have brought thee out of
the land of Egypt, out of the house of bondage. 3. Thou
FIRST TABLE.
Tue First ComMANDMENT.—THE ExIsTENCE AND Unity or Gop (Vers. 2,
8).
The disobedience of the people of Israel answers, in a somewhat mystical manner,
had already, in the few trials which they that in the accelerated redemption of
had suffered, displayed itself on more than Israel from Egypt, which would, after
one occasion. If it was, therefore, in- the constellation of the stars, have taken
tended to procure for the laws of Moses place much later, the love of God for His
the least access to the minds of the people manifested itself most distinctly;
people, it was of primary importance to but remarks, also, that the ways by
counteract, and, if possible, to eradicate which men acquire knowledge, are very
their disbelief. To effect this great end, different according to the degree of their
the words were proclaimed: “I am the intellectual faculties, and that, therefore,
Lord thy God, who have brought thee Israel, which was then only in the infancy
out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of its spiritual development, would hardly
of bondage.” This was an event which have understood, with equal clearness, so
they all had experienced and witnessed, abstract a notion as that of the Lord of
in which they all had obviously seen the Universe, whereas, that of the De-
God’s power, wisdom and _ providence, liverer from Egypt, must have been
and which had powerfully manifested to intelligible and palpable to all. Be-
them His omnipotence and His justice. sides, the release from Egypt obliged
In this respect, that verse constitutes, as Israel to accept the whole Law, whilst the
it were, the historical basis of the legisla- creation would have pointed only to a
tion, the positive foundation on which the religion of nature, incumbent upon all
great edifice of the legislative system of men. Further, the Mosaic legislation re-
Moses was erected. Ancient Jewish phi- quired a sound fundamental principle,
losophers already have raised the ques- calculated tq pervade it, and to combine
tion, why God did not rather designate all its parts by a bond of unity; and that
Himself here by the majestic title of principle is only and exclusively the ex-
Creator of Heaven and Earth, This query istence of one eternal almighty God, who
was, for instance, addressed by Rabbi protects Israel — and therefore again
Jehudah Halevi, the celebrated author of must the legislation begin with our
the book Cusari, to Ebn Ezra, who words. But as the doctrine of mono-
 EXODUS XX. 257

shalt have no other gods besides me.—4. Thou shalt not

make to thee any graven image, or any likeness of any
theism is a spiritual and moral axiom, omnipotence ought to lead the Israelite
innate in the heart of man, and insepa- to worship Him, but also the duty of
rable from human nature—which is, in gratitude which they owe to Him as their
fact, the case with all the Ten Command- rescuer and patron. Less unforced appears
ments, with the only exception, perhaps, the inference of Salvador and others, that
of the fourth (see supra)—it was not by alluding to the redemption “ from the
necessary to express it in the form of a house of slaves” the idea of personal
command; the people were, at the be- Jreedom is here proclaimed as the supreme’
ginning of the legislation, merely once political principle (see note on xix. 6).—
more, with emphasis, reminded of that It follows, as a simple and natural con-
doctrine, in order to be the better en- sequence of the worship of the God of
abled to follow the law-giver in his Israel, who was even to the patriarchs,
further injunctions. In a similar manner already known as Creator of Heaven and
the simple affirmation of our verse has Earth, who fills the universe with His
already been explained by Nachmanides, glory, that besides Him no other deity
in that celebrated dissertation which he can exist, that, therefore, all beings
held in the year 1263, before the king which are adored by other nations are
James of Arragon, in Saragossa, against nonentities. ‘Thus the second and third
Fra Paolo. Besides, it is nowhere inti- verse are closely connected. The Israelites
mated that this first revelation contained are warned not to follow the perverse
just precepts and prohibitions; they are custom of the heathens, who wor-
not called in the FPentateuch com- shipped, besides their principal deity,
mands, but simply words, or truths; and the gods of other nations also, in order
truths are as essential as commands, as to propitiate these also for themselves,
they are the sources of our duties. Fur- This prohibition not to serve any deity
ther, it is extremely easy to convert an besides God, is in different passages,
assertion into a command, and in our directed against Sabzism, or worship of
verse the precept is naturally implied: celestial orbs (Deut. iv. 19); the Mas-
“Believe, with an unshaken assurance, hith stones (Lev. xxv. 1); the gods of
in the existence and providence of the the heathen nations (Exod. xxiii, 24, etc);
God, who has led thee out of the land their very names were not to be men- %

of servitude.” But every doubt disappears tioned (Exod. xxiii. 13); their altars,
if we take the third verse also to the first sacred groves and statues in Palestine
commandment, as has been demonstrated were to be destroyed and burnt (Exod.
above. Thus, the decalogue contains xxiii. 24; xxxiy. 13, etc.); the precious
really ten commandments, not nine, as metals of which the idols were made are
has been asserted even by some modern cursed, and, therefore, not to be taken as
interpreters.—As everything in this com- a possession (Deut. vil. 25,26); the seven
pendium of revelation is significant, so nations of Canaan, who might seduce the
at the very beginning, the use of the Israelites to idolatry, were to be extir-
holiest and sublimest name of the deity pated (Deut. vii. 1); no alliance, no in-
(Jehovah), which had been communicated termarriage with them was to be suffered,
and explained to the people through since they do everything which is an
Moses (see note on vi. 2), of that God abomination to the Lord, and even burn
who had, by the redemption from Egypt, their sons and daughters in honour of
verified Himself as the Unchangeable their gods (Exod. xxxiv. 15, 16; Deut.
and Eternal. The tenor of the second verse xii, 29—81, etc.).— And as ver. 3 is a
may, further, as some believe, involve the command in its form, so is ver. 2, in
idea, that not only His grandeur and its contents. Thus, the third verse adds
5
. ‎‫"יע‬ ‫שידיי‬ ‫ רו‬a i

258 EXODUS XX.

thing that is in heaven above, or that 2s in the earth
beneath, or that 78 in the water under the earth: 5. Thou

to the idea an exceedingly important and with all thy might” (Deut. vi. 5%
notion: the unity of God. The worship of for that love shall not be divided, but
nature, and every other kind of idolatry, concentrated into one powerful and
necessarily divide the power and per- kindling focus. It follows naturally from
fection of the deity in many parts, as the theocratical character of the deca-
each of the heathen gods has only one calogue, that the violation of this com-
limited sphere of action allotted to him, mandment, the worship of any other
deity besides the God of Israel, is a
.

and the afflicted heart of the sufferer

turned doubtingly now to this deity, now crime to be punished with death (see
to another, uncertain “‘ whence the help on xxii, 19; compare Deut. xvii. 2—7).
should come for him.” But as the God The same rigorous punishment falls ever
of Israel excludes all other deities besides upon those who try to persuade others,
Himself, who is omnipotent and omni- be they even their nearest relatives, to for-
scient; He fills alone the human mind, sake the God of Israel (Deut. xiii. 7—12);
and moves it with unlimited love and and a Hebrew city which has openly
adoration; ‘and thus already the first com- professed to serve other gods, is entirely
mand involves the highest and greatest of to be burnt, both its inhabitants, and its
all principles of our duties towards God: property (Deut. xiii. 13—18), which law
> And thou shalt love the Lord thy God has, however, been mitigated by Rabbi-
with all thy heart, and with all thy soul, nical interpretation.

Smconp CoMMANDMENT.—INTERDICTION OF ImaceEes AND IDOLS.

INCORPOREALITY OF Gop. VERS. 4—6.

Not only should the God of the image of the Danites, although it was
intended for the worship of the God of
redemption from Egypt, and He only
be believed, His adoration should also Israel, and the two golden calves of
be perfectly spiritual, for He is a spirit Jeroboam, were against the injunction
of our commandment, and affected the
Himself; every corporeality should be
banished, because He also is incorporeal, very groundwork of the Mosaic law
not to be represented with the external (Judges xviii. 30, compared with xvii. 13;
senses, but to be conceived with the soul 1 Kings xii. 28). The Israelites were,
and felt with the heart. The Israelites then, forbidden to make any image.
had during the revelation only heard a But not only such a gross idol (<idwAor,
voice, but seen no figure (see note on Sept.) was forbidden, but also every
xix. 6), lest they be tempted to impute figure or form, which the mind shapes
to Him material qualities. Even images to itself easily and freely. That word
of the Eternal must soon lead to erro- is the most clearly interpreted by Mai-
neous notions about His attributes, and monides (Moreh Neb. i. 3): * The word
thus, by a natural concatenation, to ‘likeness’ is used in three different
It denotes, namely, 1. The
idolatrous worship; and therefore the manners.
external, visible, objective quality or
second commandment prohibits every
representation of any object whatever shape of a thing (compare Deut. iv. 15,
for religious purposes most severely; and 16). 2. The form or image of a thing,
the subsequent history of Israel teaches which the human imagination keeps alive, |
us, that even the worship of the golden
after the object itself has been withdrawn |]
intended as a from the senses (compare Job iy. 13); ]
calf, although it was
punished with and 3. The characteristic quality of a
symbol of God, was
and conceived
the most fearful chastisement (see .‫אאא‬‎ thing, as it is understood
26—29).—From the same reason, the by the mind; and in this signification it
 EXODUS XX. 259

shalt not bow down to them, nor 'be induced to serve

1 Engl. Vers.—Serve them.

is used with respect to God also (Num. processions, and by similar means. For
xii.8).” We must take the latter ex- searching in the earth and in the water,
pression here in the second sense as a which two elements are given by God
conception of the imagination. — The to man for his use and advantage, after
text then specifies the objects, the re- the most fearful animals, they found
presentation of which for idolatrous among the land-animals nothing more
purposes is interdicted; but they are savage than the lion, and among the
contained still more distinctly in the aquatic animals nothing more fierce than
following verses (Deut. iv. 15—19): “Take the crocodile; and both these animals
therefore good heed to yourselves; for you they honour and worship, But they
saw no manner of similitude on the day have also deified many other animals, as
that the Lord spoke to you in Horeb the dogs, cats, and wolves; and among
out of the midst of the fire: Lest you cor- the birds, the ibises and the hawk” (see
rupt yourselves, and make to yourselves supplementary note to ii. 10, and note to
a graven image, the similitude of any viii. 22).
figure, the likeness of male or female; It may perhaps be admitted, that the
the likeness of any beast that is on the prohibition expressed in our verse has
earth, the likeness of any winged fowl exercised a retarding influence upon the
that flieth in the air; the likeness of progress and development of the plastic
anything that creepeth on the ground, the arts among the Hebrews, as a similar
likeness of any fish that is in the waters interdiction of the Koran has produced a /
beneath the earth: And lest thou lift up similar effect among the Arab tribes: for
1.
thine eyes to heaven, and when thou seest plastic art, in its beginnings, generally ;
%1
the sun, and the moon, and the stars, stands in the service of religion, and
+
even all the host of heaven, shouldst be advances by the stimulus it affords. But "4
driven to worship them, and serve them, it is an incomprehensible mistake, if it is ‫| צ‬
whom the Lord thy God hath divided to believed that the plastic arts in general,
all nations under the whole heaven.” All sculpture and painting, are forbidden in
0
the different manners of idolatry here our text. Josephus relates that the Jews
enumerated, were really and extensively would not even suffer the image of the
practised in the land, which the Israelites emperor which was represented on the
had just quitted, and the religious per- eagles of the soldiers, and that a temple of
versities of which they had adopted; and the Tetrarch Herodes in Tiberius was, by
Philo observes in this respect (Decal. xvi): decree of the Sanhedrin, burnt down, merely
“The Egyptians, besides falling down to because it was ornamented with figures 08 _
statues and images, have also introduced animals, Such a barbarous and irrational
irrational animals, to the honours due to law could not possibly emanate from a
| the gods, such as bulls, and rams, and legislator, who commanded and erected
goats, inventing some prodigious fiction a holy tent, furnished with all the adorn-
with regardto each of them; and as to these ments of art and beauty, who even ordered
particular animals they have indeed some two cherubim to be placed in the Holy
| reason for what they do, for they are the of Holies(xxv. 18—20; compare xxv. 34;
| most domestic and most useful to life.... xxyl. 82; Num. xxi. 8,9). In the first
‘But as it is, they go beyond these animals temple as well as in the second, was an
and select the most fierce and untameable abundance of plastic works, which nobody
|of all wild animals, honouring lions and has found at variance with the spirit
| crocodiles, and of reptiles the poisonous of Mosaism. We mention further, the
| asp, with temples, and sacred precincts, “serpent of brass” which Moses erected
and sacrifices, and assemblies, and solemn (Num, xxi.9); the golden figures which
2
 . 6
a
‎‫ו‬ , at

260 EXODUS XX.

them: for I the Lord thy God am a 'zealous God, visiting
1 Engl. Vers.—Jealous.

the Philistines offered for the holy taber- belongs to the obscurest and most difficult
nacle (1 Sam. vi. 17); the “molten sea” of the Mosaic theology: “ God visits the
in the court of the Solomonic temple, iniquity of the fathers upon the children
which rested on twelve cast oxen (1 Kings to the third and fourth generation, to those
vii.25); the throne of Solomon, borne who hate Him, and shows mercy to thou-
and surrounded by fourteen magnificent sands, to those who love Him and keep His
lions (1 Kings,x. 20). <A limited and commandments.” It appears to be in
short-sighted interpretation of the letter opposition to the divine love and justice,
of the holy text has, in other passages that the children should innocently suffer
also, led to the most perverse and almost for the crimes of their fathers; and this
ridiculous results. For the purpose of principle, if really contained
in our words,
religious worship, no images were to be would be a great defect in the system of
made; more than this does our text not the Mosaic ethics. But already the
forbid. The Talmud, although it forbids directly opposite declarations in other
representations of human images and of passages of the Old Testament ought to
celestial orbs, if they are liable to be re- warn us to be circumspect in the ex-
garded as idols, allows expressly images of position of our text. In Deut. .‫אאוט‬‎ 16
animals, etc., as ornaments.—The water is we read literally: ‘ The fathers shall not
described as “under the earth,” because be put to death for the children, neither
the beds of the rivers and seas lie lower shall the children be put to death for the
than the coasts and shores.—In the shorter fathers: every man shall be put to death
catechism both of the Lutherans and of for his own sin”; and with a verbal remi-
the Roman Catholics, the fourth verse niscence from this passage we read in
is omitted; and it has been asserted that 2 Kings xiv. 5,6: “ And it came to pass,
the latter did so from obvious dogmatical as soon as the kingdom was confirmed in
motives. his hand [of Amaziah], that he slew his
Since idolatry would infect the very servants, who had slain the king his
root of the new doctrines, and thus under- father. But the children of the murderers
mine the whole stem of the Mosaic legis- he slew not: according to that which is
lation; and since it is, by a necessary written in the book of the law of Moses,
connection, the beginning of the mental, wherein the Lord commanded, saying,
religious, and political decline of the The fathers shall not be put to death for
country (see Lev. xviii. 28; Deut. iv. the children,” etc. Comp. Ex. xxxii. 33. It
25—81); it is forbidden with an in- is, then, manifest, that our passage must
tensity applied in no other passage of have a similar sense, which, in fact, offers
the Pentateuch, and with reference to no itself unforcedly, if we only refer the
other law. Not only is one of the awful words “to those who hate me” to the
curses pronounced from Mount Ebal children, not to the fathers: God visits
directed against him who secretly wor- the sin of the fathers upon the children,
ships any image, an abomination to the if the latter also trespass His precepts;
Lord (Deut. xxvii. 15); it is only with and quite analogously herewith God
regard to idolatry that God calls Him- blesses the virtuous descendants of the
self a zealous God, who suffers no other pious: and in this sense Targum Onkelos
deities besides Himself; and Maimonides already adds here the words: “if the
observes, that God is only with respect to children continue to sin like their fathers;” —
an idolator called enemy, adversary, and thus also the Talmud. Indeed, if the
antagonist. And in order to deter with children see the pernicious conse-
still greater force from the abomination quences of a sin in their father, and
of idolatry, a principle is added, which yet persevere in it, they suffer justly a
 EXODUS XX. 261

the iniquity of the fathers upon the children to the third

and fourth generation, to those who hate me; 6. And
50070 punishment, thonifthey had gone bodily, but also the spiritual heirs of
astray by a transitory personal aberration. their ancestors, as is obvious from vers.
With this interpretation, the whole Bible 19, 30, 31.— Still more solemnly than
stands in perfect harmony. In Gen. Jeremiah rises Ezekiel against that pre-
xviii. 25, Abraham says: “ That be far posterous maxim, and devotes to this
from Thee to do after this manner, subject an elaborate polemical discussion
to slay the righteous with the wicked; in the eighteenth chapter of his prophe-
and that the righteous should be as the cies; and the result is in vers. 20 to 24,
wicked, that be far from Thee: Shall thus condensed: * The soul that sinneth,
not the judge of all the earth do right?” it shall die. ‘The son shall not bear the
Not the mere external relationship with iniquity of the father, nor shall the father
sinners causes destruction, but the internal bear the iniquity of the son: the righteous-
affinity with them in evil. In Levit. xxvi. ness of the righteous shall be upon him,
39, 40, God says: “And they who are and the wickedness of the wicked shall
left of you shall pine away for their be upon him. But if the wicked will
iniquity in your enemies’ lands, and also for turn from his sins, which he hath com-
the iniquity of their fathers with them they mitted, and keep all my statutes, and do
shall pine away. If they will confess their that which is lawful and right, he shall
iniquity and the iniquity of their fathers,” surely live, he shall not die. Have I any
etc. Then, only if the wickedness of pleasure at all that the wicked should die?
the children unites itself with that of the saith the Lord God: and not, that he
fathers, the former suffer punishment. shall return from his ways, and live?”
In the same manner the piety of the Here is, beyond every misconception, the
fathers alone cannot bring blessings upon double principle pronounced: 1. that
the children, unless these walk also in every one receives the reward of his
the good paths of their ancestors. The deeds; and 2. that every sinner, even
righteousness of Abraham, Isaac, and the children of the impious, if they
Jacob could not shield the Israelites abandon the bad ways of their fathers,
from difficult trials and great misery.— are received by God in love and mercy.—
Jeremiah xxxi. 29, 30, exclaims: ‘In The history of Achan in Joshua vii.
those days they shall say no more, The cannot be taken into consideration here,
fathers have eaten sour grapes and the as 1518 an extraordinary case of martial
children’s teeth are set on edge, but they law, which can prove nothing for the
shall say: Every one shall die for his usual custom of the people. Martial
own iniquity; every man that eateth sour law is in modern times and countries also
grapes, his teeth shall be set on edge.” very different from the civil law, both in
The prophet combats here the same-error, spirit and in practice.—In 2 Sam. xii. 14,
into which many interpreters of our pas- not the son of Bathsheba is punished,
sage have fallen, and expects the time, but David; and the extirpation of the
when all would abandon this dangerous house of Jeroboam (1 Kings xiii. 34;
absurdity, which perverts the divine xiv. 10, 17) takes place, because his
equity into a blind vengeance. From descendants also were idolators. — Re-
this it is clear, that the same prophet, markable is the observation of Plutarch
in xxxii. 18: “Thou showest loving- which nearly coincides with the doctrine
kindness to thousands, and recompensest here developed: “Ifa wicked father begets a
the iniquity of the fathers into the bosom virtuous son—as sometimes sickly parents
of their children after them,” speaks only have healthy children—God remits to
of such descendants, who imitate the sin such a son the punishment which was
of their fathers, who are not only the destined to the race, because he has now
 ‫ו‬ ‫יי‬ ee‫‏‬ 0 ‫ד‬ ‫יי‬

‫שש‬ | ‫א‬ %% 45
. . - 4 ₪ -%-

262 EXODUS XX. ‫ו‬‎

showing mercy to thousands, to those who love me, and
keep my commandments. 7. Thou shalt not take the
as it were, passed over from the family of principle of natural consequences is espe-
vice to that of virtue. But if the soul cially obvious in the history of whole
retains the (internal) resemblance with nations, where civic and domestic
the corrupted family, then he must cer- virtues secure and strengthen the state
tainly take upon Himself the punishment for many generations, whilst moral depra-
of vice also like an inherited debt.” vation necessarily accelerates its downfall.
Thus is the principle which our text In Gen. xv. 16, it is clearly stated, that
involves, already from this side, as we Canaan could not be conquered earlier
believe, perfectly justified; but hereto than in the fourth generation from Abra-
accedes, that in Exod. xxxiv. 7, and ham; because then only the measure of
Num. xiv. 18, it is enumerated among the sin of its inhabitants was full; whence
the divine attributes of love: “The Lord, it follows distinctly: 1. that the annihi-
the Lord God, merciful and gracious, lation of the Canaanites was merited on
long-suffering and abundant in goodness account of their wickedness; and 2. that the
and truth, keeping mercy for thousands, natural consequence of that immorality
forgiving iniquity and transgression, but was the unavoidable ultimate decay of
who will by ho means clear the guilty, their political existence. Godis the judge
visiting the iniquities of the fathers upon of the whole world; and His justice watches
the children, and upon the children’s chil- over all nations. — Lastly, Maimonides
dren to the third and fourth generation.” observes, in the passage above referred
But it would indeed be no mercy on the to, that the expression: “ He visits the
part of God, to destroy the guiltless children iniquity of the father upon the children,”
for the iniquities of the fathers; and here applies only to the crime of idolatry and
offers itself spontaneously the explanation, to none else; and thus the operation of
that the expression “ He will not clear the that principle is practically limited to a
guilty” signifies: he does not root out, so that very narrow sphere, and to a sin which,
the sense would be: God does not clear off in fact, outweighs all the rest in in-
the sin at once, but settles it gradually fatuation, and, especially in a theocratical
within three or four generations; lest the state, deserves the severest castigation.—
individual, crushed by the weight of the The death of the children of the unhappy
punishments, perish. And this is, indeed, Naboth proves as little a contrary practice
an act of divine mercy!—But the sons to among the Israelites as the exceptional
the third or fourth generation can the case of Achan above referred to. The
more bear a part of the guilt, as the deed against the innocent Naboth himself
blessing of thousands, that is, innumer- was an atrocious murder committed by
able generations is promised to them, so the idolatrous and impious Jezebel; her
that this circumstance also is a testimony sanguinary measures are severely re-
of the love of God. So far from the proved, and a fearful death ended prema-~
truth is the opinion of those, who find turely her nefarious career (1 Ki. xxi. 7;
in our commandment a proof, that the 2 Ki. ix. 26). About the rigorous punish-
God of the Old Testament is a God of ment threatened for the least approach to
revenge!—Further is the distinction not idolatry, see on xxii. 17. To sum up the
to be overlooked between the natural arguments in support of the doctrine of
consequences of many excesses, as prodi- our text, we repeat: 1. It applies only
gality, debauchery, or disreputable con- to such children, as follow the sins of
duct of any kind, which are necessarily their fathers. 2. It is intended as a
entailed upon the unhappy children, and merciful act of gradual, almost imper-
the moral’ responsibility, which falls ex- ceptible punishment during several gene-
clusively upon the sinful parents, That rations, 3, It is clear in itself as to the
 .
.
4
A”

EXODUS XX. 263

name of the Lord thy God 'for falsehood; for the Lord
' Engl. Vers.—In vain.

natural consequences of many immoral and authentic instances of such usage;

actions; and 4. It applies only to the thus says Cicero: “ Herein lies the
crime of idolatry. cruelty, that the children, who have com-
We shall now briefly state and examine mitted nothing, must bear the punish-
the other principal opinions advanced on ment. But that is a custom both an-
this subject. Grotius says: * Godthreatens, cient and common to all nations,” and
in the Mosaic law, to visit the impiety of he adds, as its reason, “ that the love to
the fathers upon the descendants: but He their children might make the parents
has right and dominion both over our more anxious for the interests of the
property and our lives.” But, by such state.” Thevenot (Trav. vi. p. 577) writes,
remarks, our doctrine is not illustrated, concerning the pearl-fisheries of Persia:
but still more veiled; and thus would > All pearls, which weigh half a medical
happiness and misery, life and death, be or more, belong to the king, and the
‘torn from every connection with the fisher who brings them receives a rich
human actions. (Compare the similar present. But if a fisher embezzles pearls,
reason, advanced by others, on ili. 22),— and sells them into other countries, the
Michaelis believes, that the punishment, king, if he is informed of it, punishes
alluded to in our text, is the leprosy, which with death the whole family and the
generally propagates itself to the third and relatives of the fisher, men and women,
fourth generation. But it would not only even to the seventh degree.” Plato, Alex-
have been strange to threaten such natural ander the Great, and Seneca, strongly
extension of a bodily evil as a peculiar denounce this barbarous custom, which,
divine punishment, but that disease is a however, had taken too deep root in an-
calamity by which the children of the cient states. But after the arguments
good, and the virtuous children of the above adduced, which prove that the
wicked, are equally visited. ‘The same “visiting of the sin of the fathers upon
writer remarks, in his commentary on the children” is a mercy of God, who
our passage, that here temporal evils only wishes to rescue even the fathers from
are alluded to: “In this manner the entire destruction, in order, no doubt, to
children, on whom God visits the sin of leave them an opportunity of repenting,
the fathers, suffer no wrong, and yet do we cannot, in the remotest sense, think of
the fathers feel pangs. For temporal an annihilation both of ancestors and
bliss or woe are not always dispensed by descendants. — The foregoing remarks
Providence according to merit; and if imply, further, a sufficient refutation of
the children fear God, the evil inflicted Warburton’s opinion, that the principle
upon them will be to them a means of of the punishment of the children for the
moral correction; but, if they follow their transgressions of the fathers had but
wicked father, it befalls them as a well- temporarily been laid down in the Pen-
merited punishment.” But temporal evils, tateuch, for the uncivilized people, as a
as disease, pain, and misfortune, are, at surrogate for the doctrine of immortality;
least after the notions of the ancients, that it was later repealed by Jere-
chastisements, since the reward also con- miah (xxxi. 29—383) and Ezekiel (xviiii.);
sists mostly of temporal blessings, long and that this maxim, although cruel and
life, a good and numerous progeny, and severe in itself, was yet, in that case, not
the like-—According to Rosenmiiller, our unjust, since it had been willingly ac-
maxim has its origin in the practice of knowledged by the people as a condition
Oriental princes, who often order the of the covenant. But how can we sup-
extermination of the whole family of the pose that a prophet should have attempted
aggressor. Itis true, that we have many to abolish or to amend a moral law of
 /

264 EXODUS ‎‫אא‬.

will not hold him guiltless who taketh His name 'for
falsehood.
1 Engl. Vers.—In vain.
Moses, or that Moses should have given jealous ; the passion of jealousy can never
an ethic doctrine merely as a temporary be attributed to God, before whom all
substitute, since he proclaimed his laws other deities are nothings. But those
as eternal and unchangeable? (Deut. iv. who believe that zealousness is a quality
2; xili.1; etc.). We must, however, add, unworthy of the God of Love, we refer
that, in the judicial practice of the He- to Hengstenberg’s remarks (Authenticity
brews, the children were often made bond- of the Pent. ii. .‫כ‬‎ 454--156(, where
servants for the debts of their parents, as it is proved, that, without energetic zeal,
was the case among the Greeks and even His loye would be questionable,
Romans. See, especially, 2 Kings iv. 1; and that the New Testament shares, in
compare Isa, 1.1; Nehem.y.5. But we this respect, entirely the notions of the
find no provision of this kind in the Mo- Mosaic records (for instance, Hebr, xii.
saic law, with the spirit of which that hard- 29; compare the observations of Calvin,
hearted custom is in direct opposition. Inst, ii. 8, 13).
We must translate zealous God, not

THIRD COMMANDMENT.—AGAINST PERJURY. Hotness oF Gop. VER. 7.

After the existence of God, and His justly left to God Himself, who searches
adoration as a Spirit, has been enforced the hearts—so dreadful a sin, which
in the two first commandments, fullow springs up in the corrupt soul of the cri-
now appropriately His holiness and subli- minal, cannot be persecuted by human
mity, which forbid to defile His name by judges: and the same practice prevailed
abusing it for an untruth. And, in a long time among the Romans. In the
fact, a false oath, sworn by the name of further progress of the legislation, two
God, virtually amounts to atheism; and kinds of perjury are specified; namely,
he who violates the third commandment, the false oath of a witness taken before
overthrows at the same time the first. a tribunal; and the untrue declaration in
From this point of view, it is accountable lieu of an oath, by which it is sought to
why the Rabbins attach such paramount embezzle property found or received (Ley.
importance to this commandment, that v.1; vi. 2, et seg.). For either of those
they assert, that the whole world trem- two transgressions, expiation by guilt-
bled when it was proclaimed. Even our offerings is required ; in the latter case,
text points to the extraordinary sacredness accompanied by an increased restitution
of this precept, by adding the warning, of the embezzled property (see notes on
that “the Lord will not hold him guilt- xxii. 6—12; and xxiii. 4). It was, further,
less who taketh His name for falsehood.” considered as a violation of the sacredness
This 18 evidently expressed with emphasis of the oath, if an adjuration was publicly
(by way of litotes), and means: * that God proclaimed by the authorities, in cases
will persecute perjury with fearful punish- when the perpetrator of a crime had re-
ment”; it implies also, as Philo observes, mained undiscovered, or could not be
that although men do not see the punish- legally convicted ; and if then the guilty,
ment of the false oath, and although its or those who were able to furnish any
infliction is often long delayed, God never
‫>)דר‬
information on the matter, did not come
withholds it. And the chastisement for forward with a full confession (sce Ley.
the heinous crime of perjury, which does v.1; Prov. xxix.24; compare 1 Sam. xiy.
not only destroy the divine, but also the 24; Mal.ii2). An oath uttered rashly
human right, which undermines the foun- or heedlessly, if sincerely repented with
dations of society, and indicates a total self-consciousness, was atoned by a guilt-
deadening of conscience and morality, is offering (Ley.v.4). We find in the He-
 EXODUS XX. 965
8. Remember the Sabbath day, to keep it holy. 9. Six
days shalt thou labour, and do all thy work: 10. But
brew text, therefore, two different words regard to the veneration of our parents,
for oath, namely, 1, the simple oath, and the punishment only with respect to
either voluntary or administered; and idolatry and abusing the name of God to
2, the adjuration, with added impreca- falsehood. And many think, that he
tions or curses; and this latter kind is who takes the name of God in vain, does
therefore designated by the compound not commit a very great sin; but I shall
term, oath of adjuration (Num. v. 21; show them that it is more serious than
compare Deut. xxix. 11, 13, 18—12). all the other prohibitions which follow.
But the “ oath” also may be joined with For murder and adultery, although they
an imprecation (for instance, Josh. ii. 12 are most obnoxious crimes, cannot be
et seq.), whence it is explicable that both committed at any time, for fear prevents
expressions are sometimes used synonym- it; but he who has once accustomed him-
ously (Gen. xxiv. 3,9; comp. with ver. 41). self to use superfluous oaths, swears, in
In the Rabbinical right, the precepts one day, to an infinite amount, and that
concerning the oath have been enlarged habit at last becomes so familiar to him,
to a complete system; but we may here that he scarccly knows that he swears; and
remark, that it distinguishes likewise if you reproachfully ask him, why he swore
chiefly the four kinds of oath to which we just now, he will swear that he has not
have alluded; namely: 1. the heedless sworn; so great is the power of the habit;
oath; 2. the unnecessary, superfluous, or and, at last, almost his every assertion
vain oath; 3. the oath of witness; and will be preceded by an oath.......
And
4. the oath in cases of entrusted or found even if there were, in Israel, but that one
property. [ sin, it would suffice to protract the dis-
But as the 006010206 contains only persion, and to add infliction to our
the fundamental laws, it is more appro- inflictions."—A_ striking instance of the
priate to understand here the perjurious conscientiousness with which oaths were
swearing, nor would the menace of so kept, even in the early history of Israel,
severe a punishment agree with a merely is recorded in Josh. ix. 15—20.—We need
unnecessary oath; and our verse contains, scarcely remark, that all other ancient
therefore, what is more distinctly ex- nations also looked at perjury with hor-
pressed in Levit. xix. 12: “you shall not ror and abomination, and that the curse
swear by my name falsely.”—-We subjoin, of the deity rested on the head of the
for the further elucidation of our command- miserable perjurer. Even so far back
ment, the following exposition of Ebn as the time of Hesiod (between 700
Ezra: :* 16 18 the law to this day (the twelfth and 800 sB.c.), Eris, or Contention,
century) in Egypt, if a man swears by was called the god of oaths; and Poly-
the head of the king, and does not keep bius states, that among the ancients
his oath, he must die, although he might the use of judicial oaths was rare; but,
offer his own weight in gold as aransom, as perfidy grew, oaths increased. The
because he has insulted the king publicly. Egyptians considered perjury as the
If this is the case with a mortal king, blackest crime, which was invariably
whose beginning is vain, and whose end punished with death, since it implied both
is vain, and whose government is vain: a contempt for the gods, and a violation
how many many thousand times more is of that faith which is the only tie and
man bound to guard his tongue, lest it guarantee for the welfare of society, The
lead him to guilt and to desecration of Persians refused to swear, but gave their
the name of God....... And we must hand as a plight of troth. The Scythians
observe, that we find, in the decalogue, told Alexander the Great: “ We swear
the reward expressly stated only with only by keeping our word.” “ Hercules,”
 »

266 EXODUS XX.

the seventh day 78 the Sabbath of the Lord thy God: in zt
says Plutarch, “was so devout, that he not stand in contradiction); and in ac-
never took an oath.” Clinias held adju- cordance herewith oaths-were denounced
ration in perfect abhorrence, and the very by Justin, Ireneus, Basil, Chrysostom,
Greek word, “ Epiorkos,” signifying per- and Augustine. How deeply this anti-
jury, means, literally, the frequent habit pathy to swearing was rooted in the minds
of oath-taking. ‘This reluctance to swear of the Orientals is shown by the exactly
at all, even just and judicial oaths, pre- similar proverb of the Arabs: “ Never
vailed among the Jews also; the Talmud swear, but let thy words be Yes, or No,”
recommends a simple Yes, Yes, or, No, And, indeed, oath-taking seems to imply,
No, instead of every oath; and the in its principle and origin, that other
New Testament expresses this idea simple assertions are less sacred or bind-
with peculiar emphasis: “Swear not at ing, and thus indirectly to exercise an
all — neither by the heaven, for it is injurious influence upon the moral and
God’s throne, nor by the earth, for it is religious notions of the people. But
His footstool, but let your communica- swearing by idols or false gods involves
tion be Yea, yea, and Nay, nay: for their recognition as governing powers,
whatsoever is more than these cometh of and is, therefore, tantamount to the crime
evil” (Matt. .‫צץ‬‎ 34—37; James vy. 12, with of idolatry (Jer. v.5; Amos viii. 14,etc.).
which injunctions Matt. xxvi. 63, 64 does

FourtH COMMANDMENT.—THE SABBATH. VERS. 8—11.

It was not sufficient to establish the tirely consecrated to the Lord. This
existence, the unity, and the holiness of admirable and sublime institution, if
God in the abstract; the concrete forma- carried out in the spirit in which it was
tion and strengthening of these notions conceived by the lawgiver, secures for
in life were the more indispensable ever to the soul the triumph over the
among the Israelites, as they were first physical being, and gains, for the ideal
to be trained to religion and virtue by aspirations, the victory over all worldly
practice and custom. However willing vanities; it concludes, therefore, most
their minds, carried away by the appropriately, the circle of the duties
grandeur of the events, and of the mi- towards God, which cease, thereby, to be
racles, might have been, to follow the a merely speculative system of theology,
principles of revelation, they were yet to be overthrown and superseded by an-
not sufficiently prepared or developed to other ingenious display of words and
comprehend them, and, therefore, to ad- ideas, but become a perpetual and prac-
here to them faithfully for any duration tical guide of internal morality and
of time. It was, therefore, an arrange- virtue, strengthened into a second nature
ment of the highest wisdom periodically by custom and practice. Now, that the
to set apart a day, hallowed already since Sabbath may, in truth, perform its
the creation, for purely spiritual occupa- mission of elevating the soul to God, and
tion, and to endow it, for this purpose, of inducing to the study of His precepts,
with all attributes of a superior sanctity. it is to be devoted to absolute physical
Thus was the Sabbath intended to be- rest, shared by the whole people with the
come the great educator of the people; strangers, and, to complete the picture of
it was destined to imprint practically in tranquillity, even with the animals. Thus
the hearts of the people the theoretical the manifold ends were secured, that the
ideas of Mosaism; it was, after the toil- double nature of man, the spiritual and
some materialism of the work-days, to physical, always remained in harmonious
animate them with a sound ‘spiritual- equilibrium, that the soul of the afflicted
ism; it did not belong to the external, forgot, at least temporarily, its cares and
but to the inner man; it was to be en- torments, and that even the body, —
 -
|
4
Ss 4 % ‫ו‬ aa‫‏‬

0 ‎‫ פסעססאם‬XxX.
thou shalt not do any work, neither thou, nor thy son, nor
strengthened by rest, was invigorated for ceremonial rite, the Pesach has at least a
the continuance of its labours. historical basis, and is connected with
As, therefore, this precept, if scrupu- the great ideas of independence and
lously adhered to, was intended and political unity, whilst the Sabbath has a
> - 0810018600 to ennoble and to beatify man perfectly internal and spiritual tendency.
in all his relations, that of the mind, the Further, the three consecutive signs be-
soul and the body, it is but natural, that come relatively more and more _intelli-
both Moses and the prophets and the gible to the human understanding; the
Rabbins, attach to it a paramount im- circumcision is obscure for us, and hidden /
portance. In the Pentateuch (Exod. in its human origin, and its true end; the
xxxi. 16, 17) the Sabbath is called an character of the Pesach is, at least in
eternal sign or covenant with God, some respects, explicable; but the Sab-
and in this sense the observance of the bath “ has an existence in the mind itself,
- Sabbath is called “ an acknowledgment and owes its birth to the wants and to
of the deity,” and its violation “a the capacities of our moral nature.’
a disavowal of the divine omnipotence Lastly, circumcision is a rite performed
> 88 manifested in the creation.” Nehe- once during the life-time of the Israeiite;
_miah (ix. 14) mentions the Sabbath the Pesach, annually; and the Sabbath,
alone, of all laws which Moses gave to weekly ;whilst the other sacraments, as
the Israelites; and the Talmud expressly sacrifices, were practised daily. The
observes: ‘ the Sabbath is, in importance, Sabbath is further distinguished from the
equal to the whole law;” “ he who dese- two other signs, in this respect, that the
erates the Sabbath openly is like him who foreign slave also, who serves a Hebrew
transgresses the whole law,” whilst “ its master, enjoys all its privileges of rest
strict observance suffices to procure for- and recreation, whilst circumcision is per-
giveness even for idolatry ;” and Maimon- fectly optional on the part of the servant,
- 1068 concludes his dissertation on Sab- and the participation in the Pesach de-
bath with the words: “he who breaks pends on the performance of circumcision
_ the Sabbath openly is like the worship- (see note on xii. 19),
per of the stars, and both are like The decalogue in Deuteronomy (vy. 15)
|) heathens in every respect.” In order,
.-
assigns another reason for instituting the
_ therefore, to invest the Sabbath with the Sabbath, namely, because God led the
highest possible sanction and holiness, it Israelites from servitude into liberty, and
is instituted as a remembrance of the granted them rest after the labours of a
rest of God, after He had finished, in six severe bondage. But this does not alter the
days, the work of creation; and this essence and character of Sabbath. Almost
imitation of the divine repose seems every commandment has a double basis,
- especially, as Philo observes, to be con- a natural and a spiritual one. But the
- sidered as the covenant of Israel with Sabbath received its full significance only
- God. ‘Thus had Israel received three by the exode from Egypt, which formed
signs of covenant: circumcision, the a transition from labour to rest; the
1Pesach, and the Sabbath, in which that Sabbath is, therefore, intended to fill our
remarkable progress is visible, that cir- hearts with that sense of repose and
cumceision is the individual and personal liberty, which must have pervaded the
sign; the Pesach, the national or speci- minds of the Israelites in those memorable
fically Hebrew sign; and Sabbath, the days. But the fact, that the creation is
universal sign, which includes the whole mentioned as the cause of the Sabbath,
= human race—whence it has alone, as the proves unquestionably, that it is com-
highest, found a place among the funda- manded to all nations of the earth, not to
= mental doctrines of the decalogue. Fur- Israel alone; and it is, at the same time,
ther, the circumcision is essentially a aconyincing argument, that the Saturday,
/
I
 268 EXODUS XX.
thy daughter, thy man-servant, nor thy maid-servant,
the traditional day among the Jews, is punishment, as was the case with the
the authentic Sabbath; on which point violation of the two other signs, but with
Luther (Works, iii. p. 643) remarks: the death of lapidation by the earthly
> Although the Sabbath has been abo- judges (xxxi. 14, 15; xxxv. 2; Num. xv.
> 118160 by the Christians, it is yet neces- 35, 36); and this severity originated, per-
sary to keep one especial day in the week; haps, in the idea, that those must be
nature also requires both man and beast useless, and even dangerous members of
to abstain from labour, and to rest one society, who, despising the authority of
day of the week. But he, who wishes God, do not cultivate with due care, their
to make a divine commandment of the immortal part, but lose themselves in
Sabbath, as an institution ordained by sordid pursuits of worldly welfare. Those
God, must keep the Saturday, and not who violated the laws of Sabbath from
the Sunday; for the Saturday has been ignorance or mistake, were obliged to
commanded to the Jews, and not the bring a sin-offering. But further, the Sab-
Sunday.” We abide by this decision of bath is no isolated institution; it is the
the great reformer, and do not deem it foundation of the whole system of the
expedient here to renew a dispute which Mosaic festivals; it is the germ of all
has engaged many able pens and has other sacred days; it includes, as an
produced many laborious works; those embryo, the whole cycle of the Sabbath
who are accustomed to take large views month, the Sabbath year, and the jubilee;
of religious questions, without precon- therefore he who disregards the Sabbath
ceptions and without dialectic niceties, destroys the days of God as a totality,
cannot for a moment hesitate which and deserves thus the more justly the
course to adopt and which opinion to severest chastisement (see notes on xxiii.
follow. It suffices to know that the New 10—12).
Testament is most distinct in acknow- Our commandment prohibits every
ledging the sanctity of the Sabbath such lubour on Sabbath, without specifying the
as it was enjoined by Moses and the occupations included in that interdiction,
prophets, and merely insisting upon its but leaving it to the sound judgment of
celebration in its spirit, without, however, the people to distinguish, which labour
rescinding any of the Sabbatical laws of would be at variance with the spirit of the
‘the divine legislator (Matt. v. 17, 18; law, which aims at physical recreation and
Xxiii, 23—26; xii. 1—5, 10—12; Luke, spiritual elevation, and here also applies
xiii. 15; John, v. 9, etc.), whereas the the beautiful principle of Ebn Ezra,
passages in which the abrogation of the quoted above (p. 256): ‘‘ God has given
Sabbath, or its transfer to the following the Law to men of intelligence only, and
day has been found, are so obscure that those who have no intelligence have no
they allow merély ‘inferential proofs Law.” The Pentateuch, however, men-
without containing direct or conclusive tions the following kinds of labour as
dicta (Col. 11.16; Acts xv.28; xx. 6, 7; unlawful on Sabbath: 1. The manna
1 Corinth, xvi. 1, 2; Rom. xiv. 5; Gal. should not be gathered; for that was
iv. 10; the expression “ Lords’ day,” the food for the physical man; and yet
occurs only once in Rey.i. 10; and even not the care for the external wants, but
its original meaning—kKvpiaki} nyspa— the beneficial influence on the ennoble-
is doubtful). ment of the soul, was the chief purpose
As, therefore, he who desecrated the of the Sabbath. The meals for the
Sabbath intentionally and publicly, and Sabbath were, therefore, to be prepared
after due warning had been given him, previously on the sixth day (see note on
appears to deny or to disdain God as xvi. 23). About the Sabbath-way, see
Creator, he was for such profanation note on xvi. 29. 2. No fire should be —
not visited with a merely heavenly lighted in the houses (xxxy. 3), per-
 EXODUS ‎‫אא‬ 269
nor thy beast, nor thy stranger who zs within thy gates.
>

haps in order to prevent the prepara- arms, and gave themselves up without
tion of meals (Exod. xvi. 23); but cer- resistance to be massacred by the ene-
tainly still more to render the labour of mies; for even according to the se-
the mechanics impossible. This appears verest Rabbinical principles, the use of
with sufficient clearness from the con- arms was permitted, since danger to life
nection in which that prohibition is in- was threatened. Therefore, later judicious
troduced; but both the one and the other and pious generals (as Mathias and
would have been material occupations. Jonathan) have thus modified that prac-
8. No wood should be gathered (Num, tice, that they exercised on Sabbath
xy. 33—36); for this also was the con- the defensive, but refrained from the
sequence of worldly anxiety, which might offensive. There is, indeed, reason to
be delayed to the following day. Buying believe, that the Israelites did, before
and selling were, of course, as strictly the exile, not scruple to do military
forbidden as carrying burdens (Nehem. service, and to fight on Sabbath in times
‎‫א‬. 32; xiii. 15—19; Jerem., xvii. 21, 22); of danger, since disadvantages, which
=
agricultural labour was interdicted even a contrary practice would necessarily
in the times of ploughing and of reaping have entailed upon the Israelites in their . ‫ב‬
. ‫יבל‬
4>:

(Exod. xxxiv. 21). As, thus, the legis- perpetual wars, are nowhere mentioned e
O
24
‫בכ‬‎
‫כ‬
‫בכ‬
"1
.
ee
|e
‫ג‬‎
Le.-.

lator has left a wide scope to individual throughout the whole of the Old Testa-
opinion on the nature of Sabbatical ment.
labour, tradition,in order to prevent arbi-| As the Hebrews counted the day from
trariness in so important a point, has tried evening to evening, Sabbath commenced
to fillout this void by a detailed definition on Friday at sunset, and closed at the
of the notion of work, and has minutely same time on Saturday. Even Friday
specified the labours which are allowed, already had partly a sacred character, “—
and which are forbidden on Sabbath. and it is in the New Testament called
The Talmud distinguishes thirty-nine day of preparation (Matth. xxvii. 62, et
chief labours, comprising all those occu- seq). But as the sun disappears earlier
pations which were necessary for the in the valleys than in the mountains, com-
construction of the holy tabernacle, and mencement and end of the Sabbath were
subdivides each of them again into different according to the geographical
different species. But in cases of illness, position of the places. Josephus mentions,
and in any, even the remotest, danger, a that by a law of the Emperor Augustus,
deviation from the rigorous precepts of the ninth hour was fixed as the com-
the Sabbath is permitted; and in general, mencement of the Sabbath. In 86
were the principles followed: * "716 Sab- Jewish towns beginning and conclusion
bath is delivered into your hand, not of the Sabbath were, in later times,
you into the hand of the Sabbath” announced by blowing the tuba. ee
ea
oe

(compare Mark ii. 27,28; Matth. xii. 8), The Sabbath was celebrated: 1. by
and, “the least danger of life invalidates offering double the number of daily
the Sabbath.”—Further, all the services of sacrifices, by which it should become
the priests and Levites, even those which manifest, that the Sabbath 18 distin-
> require much physical labour, were per- guished above all other days, as the “ day
mitted on Sabbath. The circumcision of days”; that whilst the other days
also may be performed on Sabbath: belong to man, the Sabbath is devoted
additional proofs, that the spiritual to God (Num. xxviii.9). 2. In the Holy
elevation of the Israelites was the of the temple the twelve fresh shew-breads
only end of the institution of Sabbath. and the incense belonging thereto were
— It was certainly a misconception of placed on the table (Ley. xxiv. 5, 8).
this divine behest, if Jewish armies 3. The division of the priests, destined
abstained on Sabbath from the use of for the weekly service, commenced their
 ;
/

270 EXODUS XX.

11. For i six days the Lord made heaven and earth, the
functions (2 Kings xi.7,9). 4. Perfect watches and rules, and is a perfect spirit
rest from all physical work was one of the at all times; to approach Him is, there- |
fundamental injunctions: for God rested, fore the end of the Sabbath; mental
although He created the world merely and moral indifference would remove
by His will, how much more is rest us from Him; and the Sabbath, instead
necessary for man, “whose labour is of being the greatest blessing of man-
nothing but toil and vexation.” The kind, would be its greatest curse.—But
expression, that God rested, is no an- 6. it was also a day of recreation, of joy,
thropomorphism ; it does not imply the and of convivial meetings.
notion of recreation after exhausting As far as it was in any way feasible,
labours; it signifies merely the comple- the Israelites celebrated the Sabbath
tion of the works of creation; the return everywhere, and under whatever domi-
of God to His perfect spirituality, to His nion, except, perhaps, under the tyranny -
unchangeable and eternal providence. of Antiochus Epiphanes. ‘ Amidst peril
5. This day was especially consecrated and sorrow, amidst persecution and death,
to devout occupation with holy thoughts. the day of rest was celebrated. In Spain
In earlier periods the people visited the and Portugal, where a public profession
prophets to listen to their instructions of Judaism was punished by exile or
and exhortations (2 Kings iv. 23). It death, the Sabbath was still observed.
was a day of holy assembly; the reli- In the secrecy of apartmentsso dexter-
gious service was, especially in later ously contrived, that they were ignored
times, most solemn, and in the syna- to the household at large, the Sabbath
gogues the Law was read to the con- lamps were lighted, the festive table pre-
gregation. Even light, thoughtless, every- pared, wives and mothers, husbands and
day conversations were avoided on Sab- fathers, gray-haired men and rosy chil-
bath. It was intended to induce the Is- dren, assembled in the secluded chamber,
raelite to reflect on the state of his soul and and Sabbath hymns were lowly chaunted,
on the nature of his conduct, and thus to be and Sabbath prayers were offered up to
a day of self-examination, of true repent- God, with loud-beating hearts, but whis-
ance, and internal reformation. For the pered voices.” And to this observance
Sabbath is holy, and the rest of the Sab- of the Sabbath especially does the Jewish
bathis a sanctification; it shall fill the pious nation owe the gratifying and auspicious
man with a part of the holiness of the fact, that ignorance never spread among
Creator; and therefore the Sabbath is them so far as among many other nations
significantly connected with the number and sects, that every Israelite was, in
seven, which represents holiness and divine consequence of the instructions offered to
perfection (see note on xxxiii. 1O—12). him in the Sabbath discourses, enlight-
The more incomprehensible is the opinion ened on the principles of his faith, and
of those who place the whole weight of that, just in the middle ages, when every-
the Sabbath in the mere negative element where the deepest darkness of ignorance
of refraining from labour, without allow- and superstition prevailed, immortal —
ing that that great institution implies philosophers and poets flourished in
another positive element, which consti- Israel.
tutes its real and more internal character. And thy stranger. By the strangers
Freedora from all occupation, both physi- who should also rest, and whom the Is-
cal and mental and moral is indolence, raelite is not allowed to employ on that
and thoughtlessness, and apathy, which day, we must here understand the second
cannot possibly, and on any account, pro- class of those whom we have mentioned
duce that sanctification, which is the ulte- in our note on xii. 19, namely, the
rior aim of all human aspirations. The “strangers of the gate;” the others, the
rest of God is our prototype; but God “strangers of justice,” are, as a matter of
 EXODUS XX. 971
sea, and all that zs in them, and rested on the seventh day;
course, included in all the privileges and nature of that day was before familiar to
duties of the Sabbath. But the beasts even the people. Of still less weight is the
are ordered to participate in the rest of argument, that we nowhere find a clear
the seventh day, in accordance with the and full law concerning the Sabbath, and
humane spirit which pervades the Mosaic that, therefore, the Israelites must have
law in this respect also, and, further, been perfectly acquainted with it; for,
because with the beasts, necessarily men, we believe, that our commandment states
servants or masters, are obliged to labour the law of Sabbath with perfect distinct-
(see note on xxiii. 12). It 18 an in- ness, and renders its character and ten- |
genious interpretation of the Talmudists, dency quite intelligible. The reason
> to understand the expression: God blessed that God rested after the sixth day of
the Sabbath, so that this day is not in- creation, is intended merely to point to
eluded in the divine curse pronounced the sacred and momentous character of
on the work-days, in Gen. iii. 17—19, the Sabbath, but it does not justify the
,and that, therefore, by the Sabbath, the conclusion that it was instituted already
) paradisiacal blessing is partly restored. immediately after the creation. The
_ Besides, they find in that phrase the in- Sabbath may have its primary origin in
timation, that the rest, on Sabbath, is the creation, and might exist, since then,
never injurious to temporal prosperity, for already in the possibility; but it is clear,
God granted, on that account, an in- that, practically, it could only be intro-
creased blessing on the six preceding duced after the Israelites had become a
days, as He gave to the Israelites a nation, independent, autonomous, and
double quantity of manna on the sixth free from Egyptian servitude. ‘The com-
day of the week. mencing words of our commandment:
We need scarcely go beyond the Pen- > Remember the Sabbath-day,” can as
tateuch itself to be convinced that the little be adduced as a proof of its ante-
Sabbath is a purely Mosaic institution. mosaic origin, since they mean only: be
In Deut. v. 15, it is brought into con- always mindful to celebrate that day;
nection with the departure from Egypt; and, therefore, in Deut. v. 12, the words
in Exod. xvi. 23, it is mentioned with “keep the Sabbath-day,” are used syno-
reference to an event which took place nymously with those here employed.
only after the exode, and which is, in Many ancient writers state distinctly,
fact, the first occasion on which it is clearly that the Sabbath dates from the time of
introduced. We know that it has been Moses, for instance, Justin Martyr, Ire-
asserted that the manner in which the neus, and Tertullian.
Sabbath is mentioned in the sixteenth It has been asserted, that the Sabbath
chapter, shows that it was, at that time, of the Hebrews has been imitated from
already familiar to the Israelites. But it other Oriental nations, as the Egyptians,
is easy to prove that that chapter justifies Chaldeans or Indians, and it has been
just the contrary conclusion; for, when traced directly to the worship of Chronos-
the Hebrews gathered, on the sixth day, Saturn, from whom, as is well known,
double the usual quantity, they could the Romans also called the seventh day
not account for it, and enquired, through dies Saturni. The Egyptians, likewise,
the elders, of Moses, what that strange who were acquainted with the weekly
incident signified (ver. 22); and Moses cycles of seven days, are said to have
answered most explicitly, that the follow- commenced the week with the ‘‘ day of
ing day is a day of rest, or the Sabbath Chronos.” As another proof of the ado-
(vers. 23, 25, 26); but, notwithstanding all ration of Saturn among the Hebrews, the
this, some of them went out to gather the passage in Amos y. 26, has often been
manna (ver. 27), which would be scarcely adduced: * You carried the tent of your
explicable on the supposition that the king, and the image of your idols, the star
272 EXODUS .‫אא‬‎

wherefore the Lord blessed the Sabbath day, and hal-

of your god, whom you have made to and nations, but not so very easy for
yourse ves”; and thishas, by many, been the human mind, which is gain-seeking,
falsely understood as Saturn. However, and absorbed in the turmoil of the
all those analogies are erroneous; for world” (Ewald, Antiq. p. 107). The
185, although the seventh day of the same critic calls the Sabbath “the
week was called, by the Romans, des greatest and most productive idea of
Saturni, it was considered as an un- Mosaism;” and Baehr remarks, that we
lucky day, which is in perfect antagonism find, in the whole ancient world, as little
with the Hebrew Sabbath, and the planet a parallel institution of the Sabbath as of
Saturn itself is called “the nocuous Mosaism itself.
star;” the Arabians designate Saturn as Heathen nations had, however, a
the “great misfortune”; the Chaldeans knowledge of the Hebrew Sabbath, but
worshipped him in a black temple, and the curious character of the accounts
in black garments; among the metals, which they give of it is well calculated to
the lead was devoted to him: 2nd, cause our astonishment. ‘Tacitus (Hist.
among the Egyptians, the day of Saturn v. 4) writes: “On the seventh day, it is
was the first, not the seventh day of the reported, they resolved to celebrate rest,
week: 38rd, from the passage of Dion because that day brought them rest from
Cassius above referred to, it does not their toils; later they devoted the seventh
even appear that the old Egyptians year also to laziness, since they had tasted
designated the days after the planets; the sweetness of indolence. Others al-
but there is certainly no trace of such lege, that this is an honour rendered to
appellation among the Hebrews, Syrians, Saturn [see supra], either because they
and most of the Arabic tribes: 4th, Sup- received the elements of their religion
posing, even, that the prophet Amos indig- from the Idaeans [Cretans], who, we are
nantly reproached the Israelites, that they informed, were expelled from that country
had served the idol Saturn in the desert, with Saturn, and were the founders of
it does by no means follow, that Moses the nation; or else, because, among the
sanctioned his worship by instituting the seven planets by which men are governed,
Sabbath as a day consecrated to Saturn. the star of Saturn moves in the highest
Thus we are perfectly justified in con- orbit, and exercises the greatest influ-
sidering the Sabbath as an originally ence, and because most of the heavenly
Mosaic ordinance; and even if, as is not bodies complete their effects and their
impossible, similar institutions are found course by the number seven”!! (see
among other ancient nations also, the Introduction, § 8. viii). Plutarch, on the
profound spiritual and religious character other hand, believes, that the Sabbath
with which the Sabbath is invested, is, is celebrated in honour of Bacchus,
undoubtedly, peculiar to the Hebrew because this deity is also called Sab-
legislator. ‘* What Moses created out of bas, and was, on festive occasions,
the last day of the week, was something invoked with Sabot. Justinius (xxxvi. 2)
quite new, which had never before existed observes: “On the march to the old
among any nation, or in any religion. Syrian father-land, Moses encamped at
The last day was to be devoted to rest: Mount Sinai. When he, at last, after
all the usual labours of man were to be a fast of seven days in the desert of
interrupted, and a universal stillness Arabia, arrived there with his people,
should prevail. Then man should resign completely exhausted, he appointed the
every gain and enjoyment after which he seventh day, called Sabbath, in the lan-
aspires in his ordinary toils and pursuits: guage of the people, for all eternity as a
this is the sacrifice of self-denial which he fast-day (!), because that day had con-
has to offer, a sacrifice widely different cluded their hunger and their wan-
from all the offerings of other times derings.” In this account the origin and
 EXODUS XX. 2738

lowed it.—12. Honour thy father and thy mother, that

the nature of the Sabbath are stated with earthly activity; but who now, this is our
equal inaccuracy, for fasting, which consolation, enjoys, in better worlds as a
would have been in opposition to the blessed spirit, the glorious rest of an ever-
cheerful character of the day, was ex- lasting Sabbath: “We are all conscious
pressly forbidden (see supra; compare of the mind’s affinity to the Supreme
Introduction, § iii. 9). And yet is the Being, we are sensible of its unfathomable
same error found in Suetonius (Life of thoughts, its lofty aspirations, and its
Augustus, Ixxvi); Persius (v. 184), and bright-winged hopes; but yet the spi-
Petronius (Fragm. p. 883, Ed. Burmanni). ritual life which embodies these hopes
But the most ludicrous statement is that and thoughts is not the one we habitually ”
of Apion, which is too curious to be lead. Beside and around us is the world,
omitted here; he says (Josephus contra with its labours and its cares, its pomps
Apion, ii. 2): “When the Jews had and its vanities; before us is virtue, is
travelled a six days’ journey, they had duty, is eternity; the Sabbath is a bridge
buboes in their groins: on this account it thrown across life’s troubled waters, over
—
was that they rested on the seventh day, which we may pass to reach the opposite
haying arrived safely in that country shore—a link between earth and heaven,
which is now called Judea; then they .... For as the earthly Sabbath calls
preserved the language of the Egyptians, upon the worldly being to give place to
and called that day the Sabbath, for that the spiritual one, to lay aside for awhile
malady of buboes was named Sabatosis by the cares and labours of earth, to put on
the Egyptians.” Impudence and igno- the repose and holiness of heaven, so is it
rance vie here for the palm. but a type of the eternal day, when the
We will not leave this subject without freed spirit, if it be true to itself and to
citing, as a deeply-felt tribute of respect God, shall put on for ever its robe of im-
and veneration, a few remarks from the mortal holiness and joy.”—-(Mrs. Horatio
gifted pen of an individual, who has Montefiore, A few Words to the Jews, pp.
devoted all energies to the moral and 102, 184; a work which breathes
social amelioration of our toiling, care- throughout the purest and loftiest ideal-
worn fellow-men, who was, alas! too ism).
early called away from the sphere of

Firta CoMMANDMENT. VENERATION OF PARENTS. VER. 12.

After the system of the duties towards Sabbath and the veneration of the parents
God has been laid down in the three are placed together—and both are consi-
first commandments, and after its prac- dered as the first criteria and the first
tical execution has been secured by an conditions of the internal resemblance of
eternal and solemn institution, in the man to God. Namely, as we have demon-
fourth, the commandment of filial love strated, that without the Sabbath all the
and obligation towards parents, fol- other duties towards God would have re-
lows with admirable wisdom, as a transi- mained but anempty,aerial, and speculative
tion to the duties towards our fellow-men. theory,and that by that institution only they
For the illustration of this precept nothing were raised to a reality and a truth; thus
seems more adapted than the following the conscientious observance of the filial
passage in Lev. xix, 2, 3: “Speak to all duties forms the foundation of all our
the congregation of the children of Israel, obligations towards our fellow-men, For
and say to them, You shall be holy; for I the family is the basis of society; and the
the Lord your God am holy. You shall parents are the centre of the family. The
fear every man his mother, and his father, disorganization of family-life in a state is
and keep my Sabbaths. I am the Lord the surest and most melancholy symptom
your God.” Here the sanctification of the of its decay; the disobedient son will be
4%
274 EXODUS XX.
thy days may be long in the land which the Lord thy
afaithless husband, as he will undoubtedly his neighbour one acre, gives him a hun-
prove an unpatriotic citizen, an untrust- dred. It is of the highest importance to
worthy friend, and an undutiful man. understand, that long life is promised to us
The very wording of our commandment as a symbol or pledge of the divine grace,
proves that it has a political back-ground; but that God may bestow it upon us often
it promises long life in the land, in which in an infinitely higher degree in a future
the Israelites were to form a nation; do- world.” Thus our promise is also far
mestic virtues are a guarantee for social from establishing that principle of ex-
and civil excellence; both are branches ternal or earthly felicity which has often
of the same stem; both flourish and both been found in it, to the derogation of
decay together. And Ebn Ezra was so this commandment.
clearly conscious of this truth, that he If filial love were nothing but a duty
explains these ‘words thus: “If Israel of gratitude towards the parents as the
keeps this commandment it will not greatest benefactors of our infancy and
be exiled from the promised land.” If, youth, it would necessarily be boundless
therefore, the promise of long life for and eternal, and its violation would
filial piety does not always appear to be deserve the severest punishment; for in-
personally verified, it is certainly always gratitude to earthly benefactors is always
realized in a social sense; the trespasses accompanied with indifference to the
of the individual redound on the state as divine blessings; and the Jewish sages
a whole; they accelerate its political justly remark: “ How should he, who
decline; and as the Mosaic law always forgets the benefits of his human, visible
addresses the whole people as a unity; friends, gratefully remember the gifts of
as the duties of the individual are in- God, whom he does not see with his ex-
variably conceived in their bearings on the ternal senses.” And from this point of
entire community: so we find here both view, ingratitude was, even among the
relations internally interwoven; the per- Persians, punished with death, be-
sonal and civil duties concentrate in the cause it inevitably degenerates into
same point; the one are the emanations impiety. Thus it cannot surprise us, that
of the others, And thus it is improper in the Mosaic legislation, 11181 refractori-
pedantically to urge the literal meaning ness, disrespect by deed or language, and
of that promise. But even with respect even disobedience, of such children, who
hereto we must keep in mind, that not in spite of the paternal admonitions, would
every thing is discord which appears 0 not desist from certain notorious vices,
to the superficial observer; that many a were capitally punished: they are not
premature death may be merited, although only superfluous, but dangerous members
we see no obyious guilt; that there exists of society; neither the authority of God,
an internal and necessary connection nor the rights of men are sacred from their
between our deeds and our fates; that the audacity and degeneracy.
heart of man can never divest itself from But it is not merely gratitude, which
this conviction without destroying its the children owe to their parents; the
very life-blood; and if all this does not relation between parents and children is
suffice to restore, in our eyes, the harmony no conventional one; the children have
between conduct and destiny, we are no right to consider it dissolyed or relaxed,
referred to another existence, in which if they believe that they have not ex-
full compensation will be made, and in perienced from their parents a sufficient
which the adjustment will 06 amount of affection and of benefits; even
“If God takes an obedient son,” remarks the parents themselves have no power to
Calvin, “ early from this life, He remains, modify it by dispensing with the respect
nevertheless, as truly faithful to His pro- due to them by their children. The latter
mise, as if a person who has promised to are not the equals of the parents; they
 EXODUS XX. 275

God giveth thee.—13. Thou shalt not 'murder.—Thou

! Engl. Vers.—Kill.
are subordinated to them by birth, divine middle between the godly and the human
right and reason; the parents are the duties, is logically appropriate.
visible representatives of God; the dii In order to secure a more conscien-
terrestres; they are the middle link tious observance of this duty, the reward
between the children and God as Creator; is added: a long life in the promised
they are not only their nourishers, but land.—We are no admirers of artificial
also their first and most efficient instruc- or mystical explanations; but it may be
tors; not physically only, but morally safely admitted, that filial disobedience ,
also, they give them existence and vigour: does not only indicate, in the organiza-
the relation between parents and children tion of the individual, a moral and mental
is, therefore, holy, religious, godly, not of anomaly, but also a physical disorder,
a purely human character; itis a profana- which renders a long and _ happy life
tion, to weigh and measure filial affec- almost impossible. And further, “ expe-
tion and devotion after the degree of rience teaches ‫א‬‎ frequently,” observes
jenjoyed benefits; it must be unlimited Philippson, “ that in this sphere especially
and eternal like our love to the Creator. a visible Nemesis persecutes the fate of
And therefore our text does not speak of man, so that the children generally recom-
mere gratitude towards the parents, but pense to their parents that which these
of honoring, or in other passages, of have done to their own parents.” The
fearing them (Lev. xix. 3); the former reward corresponds exactly with the com-
expression alludes to the internal, to the mand; God promises for the dutiful vene-
mind’s connection between parents and ration of the parents a prolongation of
children; the latter to the unconditional that life which the latter have given to
subordination of the one under the will of the children; and these are constantly
the other; for the same words (honor reminded of their Father in heaven, on
and fear) are applied with reference to whom they are dependent besides their
God also (see Ps. .‫סא‬‎ 1). The Rabbinical earthly parents.
> 88208 say expressly: “The awe of the It is well known, that the heathen na-
parents must be upon thee like the awe tions also considered this duty as a holy
of God”; they place, in fact, the duties debt, which it was incumbent upon every
towards the parents in many respects man most scrupulously to pay. With
—

‎‫ מס‬the same principles as those to- regard to the Greeks and Romans, this
wards God. Therefore this com- requires scarcely any further exposition.
mandment contains, like the four pre- About the Chinese, says Du Halde:
ceding ones, the words: “the Lord thy “ Nothing can be compared to the reve-
God,” and which are obviously intended rence which is shown by the children to
to remind us, that here divine duties their parents; they speak little, and never
are enjoined; whereas those words do sit down in their presence. They have
not occur in the five last command- the custom, on certain days, as, for in-
ments. God Himself cannot be called by stance, on the first day of the year, the
a name more endearing, more affecting birth-day, and on some other occasions,
and sacred than that of Father (compare to honour them by kneeling down before
p- 248); and both father and mother are them, and touching the ground several
used, beyond their literal meaning, for all times with their foreheads. Even after
individuals who guard others with loving the death of their parents they preserve
care and faithful solicitude (compare Gen. their filial devotion, and they render to
xly.8; Judges .(7.‫צ‬‎ Thus both the em- them the same homage as if they were
bodiment of this precept in the decalogue still living.”—“ In Persia a son never sits
is justified, and the place which it occu- in the presence of his father, or his mo-
pies in this momentous code, in the exact ther; even the king’s son always stands
tT 2
 26 EXODUS .‫אא‬‎
shalt not commit adultery.—Thou shalt not steal.— Thou
before him, and is regarded only as the mud, especially, abounds in admonitions,
first of his servants.” Morier’s Travels, touching narratives, and examples of this
p. 134. The same notions prevailed kind; it calls our precept the most im-
among the ancient Egyptians. It was portant of all human duties, places it at
considered unbecoming for a child to sit the head of those laws for the observance
down in the presence of his father, with- of which we enjoy a double reward, on
out his permission; still more so to smoke earth and in heaven, and makes the value
before him. The mummies of the pa- of the nine other commandments depend
rents were considered as their most on the manner in which this precept is ful-
valuable and most sacred property, and filled; but it includes the teachers also, as
were regarded as the safest pledges for the spiritual parents, in the same yenera-
debts; their memory was cherished and tion. Beautiful precepts are also con-
revered for successive generations, and tained in the book Sirach, especially in
their tombs were maintained with the the third chapter, where we read: “The
most scrupulous care. Parricide, per- Lord has raised the father over the child-
haps the most unnatural of all crimes, ren, and has appointed the judgment of
Was punished with unusual severity. The the mother over the sons..... .116 who
criminal was lacerated with sharpened honours his father, will rejoice at his
reeds, thrown on thorns, and burnt to children, and be heard on the day when
death; but if a father murdered his child, he prays...... The blessing of the fathers
the corpse of the deceased was fastened supports the houses of the children; but
round the neck of the former, in which the curse of the mother destroys them to
position he was obliged to remain for the ground...... Child, take care of thy
three whole days and nights, under the father in his old age, and do not grieve
control of a public guard. him as long as he lives. If he decreases
The later books of the Old Testament in understanding, be indulgent, and do
are replete with injunctions regarding not despise him on account of thy full
this commandment; the Proverbs repeat, vigour. 13: Like a blasphemer is he who
incessantly, such exhortations; and the forsakes his father, and cursed by the
beautiful tale concerning the Rechabites, Lord is he who gives pain to his mother.”
in Jeremiah xxxv, is universally known; The attentive reader will easily discover,
but they are equally 867676 in threatening that these words of Sirach merely de-
punishments to those who violate their velop the internal idea of the fifth com-
filial duties; so, for instance, Proy. xxx. mandment, and that they unfold that
17: “The eye that mocketh at the father, which is here enclosed as in an embryo,
and disdains to obey the mother, the —About the punishment fixed for the
ravens of the valley shall pick it out, and violation of filial duties, see note on
the young eagles shall eat it.” ‘The Tal- XK a5, Aes

SECOND TABLE.
‎‫ זזדאוס‬COMMANDMENT.—AGAINST MurRDER. Ver. 13.
The external form of the laws of the neighbour,” are four times repeated.
second table, differs, in several remark- Further, the first table contains, at each
able points from the form of the first precept, some explanatory addition; the
table. As the five first commandments second proiounces, briefly and emphati-
treat of our duties towards God, we find, cally, the mere laws, without a word of
in each of them, that relation hinted at elucidation. The reason is obvious, Our
by the words “the Lord thy God” (see relation to God is obseure and hidden,
supra, p. 275), whereas, in the five last and requires, therefore, some illustration;
commandments, which refer to our duties but our position towards our fellow-men
towards our fellow-men, the words “thy is familiar to us, for, 81206 we can, as
 - EXODUS .‫אא‬‎ 27

shalt not bear false witness against thy neighbour.—

men, feel the wrongs which others do to righteousness; for he who is accustomed
us, we have an unerring guide how we to see in every fellow-man, however
ought to act towards others. About the humble, a sacred being, a representative
connection of this commandment with of God, will faithfully and cheerfully
the whole decalogue, see p. 253. —The perform all duties which he owes to him;
Septuagint, the English Version, and all acts of daily intercourse will assume
others, divide the following three com- the character of a religious purity, they
mandments into three different verses will be priestly functions. Thus the first
(18, 14, 15), and, in some manuscripts, commandment of the second table points
the commandment against adultery pre- to the very centre and kernel of thé
cedes that against murder, and, in this whole table: and, as the love of our
order, these precepts are enumerated by neighbour comes from God, so it leads
Philo. But both the version in Deutero- back to Him; for that continued and un-
nomy, and the Samaritan codex, agree interrupted service ennobles the mind,
with the arrangement in Exodus, which, leads to humility and submission, pre-
as we have shown, is admirable for its vents a proud presumption and tyrannical
logical clearness.— Attempts have been treatment of the fellow-man, connects all
made by the Talmudists, to bring the actions with a higher idea, and kindles,
laws of the first tablet into correspondence incessantly, the flame of belief; and so
and harmony with those of the second, so the unity of both tables is established.
that every divine precept is parallel with a The question about suicide is as little
kindred human duty. Although we do treated, in the Mosaic law, as those of
not find the results of these endeavours parricide and child-murder; but the
always unforced and simple, yet, with Jewish exegesis finds it interdicted in Gen.
respect to murder, the Pentateuch itself ix.5, in the words: “ but your blood [that
seems to invite to such comparison; for, is, your own blood, which you shed your-
in Gen. ix. 6, the prohibition of that selves] I will demand from your souls
crime is introduced, with the addition: [that is, in after life].” Perhaps Moses
“for in the image of God made He man,” considered it superfluous to enact a law
so that a murder committed against a against a crime which he believed to be
human being seems like an assault upon so unnatural that it would not easily be
the divine majesty itself, that is, a nega- committed. In fact, it was but rarely
tion of the first commandment; and the perpetrated among the Israelites; for
unspeakable horror which the legislator in the whole Old Testament, only three
everywhere expresses for murder, and cases of this kind are mentioned, Saul,
which he evidently strives to implant in Ahithophel, and Zimri; whilst in the later
the hearts of the Israelites also, seems, unfortunate period of the Roman war
indeed, to originate in a similar consi- they increased to a most fearful extent.
deration. If blood covered the soil, the The reason assigned by Michvelis, that
land is considered defiled and polluted; Moses would,. by a direct prohibition,
it cried to heaven, and its voice is not have made the unconscious crime a con-
silenced before the crime is expiated by scious and, therefore, more punishable
the death of the perpetrator. If blood sin, without thereby in any way prevent-
remains unrevenged, it is threatened, that ing it, is untenable; as, by that argu-
the land which witnesses such abomina- ment, almost the whole criminal legisla-
tion would “vomit out” its inhabitants. tion could be represented as injurious.
From such severe principles resulted na- However, suicide is indubitably against
turally, a high and sublime notion of the the spirit of Mosaism, and this has been
dignity of man, of the sacredness of beautifully developed by Josephus (Bell.
numan life—and this is, again, the source Jud. 111. viii. 5). After having adduced
of all social virtues, the germ of all the general philosophical and rational
 278 EXODUS ‎‫אא‬.
14. Thou shalt not covet thy neighbour’s house; thou
arguments against that crime, especially hates such acts, and the crime is punished
that we see in Nature, which we must by our most wise legislator. Accord-
take as our guide, no animal destroy ingly, our laws determine, that the bodies
itself spontaneously, and that—which re- of such as kill themselves should be ex-
mark is particularly directed against the posed without burial till sun-set [see,
stoies—it requires much more fortitude however, infra], although it is lawful to
to bear the miseries of misfortune than bury our enemies sooner. The laws of
cowardly to escape them by a momentary other nations also enjoin, that such men’s
pain, he treats this question from a theo- hands, with which they waged war against
logical point of view in the following themselves, be cut off when they are dead,
manner: “And do you not think, that believing that, as the body is alien from
God is very indignant when a man the soul, so is the hand alien from the
wantonly wastes that which He has be- body. It behoves us, therefore, to reason
stowed on him? for from Him it is that justly, and not to add to the human
we have received our being, and we ought calamities impiety towards our Creator.”
to leave it to His disposal to take that being The instances of suicide mentioned in the
away from us. The bodies of all men Old Testament (1 Sam. xxxi.4; 2 Sam,
are, indeed, mortal, and are created out Xvi. 23; 1 Kings xvi. 18) prove, of course,
of corruptible matter; but the soul is ever nothing for their lawfulness. But it
immortal, and is a portion of the Deity, appears, from the history of Ahithophel
which inhabits our bodies; besides, if any (2 Sam. xvii. 23, et seg.), that self-mur-
one destroys or abuses a deposit which he derers did not forfeit the right of disposal
has received from a mere man, he is es- of their property, and that they even were
teemed a wicked and perfidious person; but not excluded from the usual privileges of
if any one expels from his body this divine burial. Compare the philosophical argu-
deposit, can we imagine that He, who is ments against suicide of Leibnitz, Mon-
thereby affronted, does not know it? tesquieu, J.J. Rousseau, and others, in
Moreover, our law justly ordains, that Genoude’s Commentary, p. 294.
slaves, who run away from their masters, The notion of murder has been con-
shall be punished, though the masters siderably enlarged by Jewish tradition;
from_ whom they escaped may have been the Talmud contains, among others, the
cruel to them. And shall we endeavour following dicta: “ Who robs his neigh-
to run away from God, who is the best of bour of the least trifle is like a person
all masters, and not think ourselves highly who takes away his life”’—“He who
guilty of impiety? Do you not know, makes the face of his fellow-man become
that those who depart out of this life pale for shame is like an individual who
according to the law of nature, and pay sheds blood.” He who makes his fel-
that debt, which was reccived from God, low-creature sin commits a greater crime
when He that lent it us is pleased to than the murderer.” Ebn Ezra also
require it back, enjoy eternal fame? that enumerates several similar cases which
their houses and their posterity are sure, morally amount to murder. However,
that their souls are pure and obedient, although all these ideas are, implicite,
and obtain a most holy place in heaven included in our commandment, the pre-
whence, in the revolution of ages, ceding remarks will have sufficed to show,
they are again sent into pure bodies; that we can here think of the actual
whilst the souls of those who have acted murder only, that is, the intentional kill-
madly against themselves are received in ing of a man; for the justifiable and
the darkest place in Hades, and while excusable homicide, (Numb. xxxy. 15;
God, who is their father, punishes those Deut. iv. 42, ete.), were not capitally
offenders in their posterity? [Comp., how- punished. We have treatedo thelaws
ever, p. 260 et seg.[, From this reason, God about murder fully in our notes on xxi.
12—14, to which we refer.
 EXODUS ‎‫אא‬. 279

shalt not covet thy neighbour’s wife, nor his man-servant,

SeventuH COMMANDMENT. AGAINST ADULTERY. SACREDNESS OF MATRIMONY.
‎‫אמ‬. 13.
After the commandment concerning the Old Testament. Job exclaims (xxxi,
the persons of the neighbours, follows 1l, 12): “It [adultery] is a heinous
organically the precept concerning indi- crime; yea, it is an iniquity to be punished
viduals who are, in certain respects, by the judges. For it is a fire that con-
identical with the persons of the fellow- sumeth to destruction, and uproots all
men themselves, and yet, in other my increase.” ‘The Rabbins also de-
regards, form a property; thus 0 nounce with almost implacable severity
commandment against murder is logically the nefariousness 01 adultery: “God looks
succeeded by that against adultery. Or we upon every sin with long-sufferance,
may view the connection thus: the sixth except on unchastity;” and they are
commandment protects the life; the seventh inexhaustible in precepts and advice, how
secures the rights of her who prolongs and effectually to ward off the bad propensi-
continues it through the progeny, and ties, and especially the sinful imagina-
| who is “the mother of 1116" (Gen. iii, 20). tions.
The notion of matrimony has, in the Old This rigour will be the less surprising,
Testament, from the very commencement, if we consider, that the existence of the
been conceived in admirable purity and families, and consequently the safety of
perfection. Already the wife of Adam is the whole social structure is most imme-
called “a help at his side,” that is, a diately endangered by the violation of
companion through life, with whom he this commandment; and it is this social
coalesces to one being (Gen. ii. 18, 24). importance especially, which is embodied
Matrimony is frequently denominated “a in our law, since the purely moral prohi-
covenant of God” (Prov. ii. 17, etc.; bition is contained in the tenth command-
compare Zend Avesta, Jescht Zade xxxi). ment: “Thou shalt not covet the wife of
The prophet Malachi calls the wife a thy neighbour.” Thus, in our precept
helpmate and friend; and conjugal faith- the fatal effects upon society, in the last
lessness, treachery, which brings down commandment, the corruption of the
the anger and constant displeasure of heart as the source of the impiousness of
God; even divorce is described as hateful adultery is pre-eminently regarded. Er-
in His eyes (ii. 14—16); and in the roneous is, therefore, Ebn Ezra’s opinion,
Proverbs a virtuous wife is called the who believes, that our precept includes
“crown of her husband” (xii.4); and a every unchaste conduct and desire, and
wise helpmate, “the gift of God,” whilst who quotes from Saadiah a sixfold gra-
houses and wealth are but the inheritance dation of that sin; Rashi already observes
from the fathers (xix. 14; compare v. 15— correctly, that it treats only of real
19; Ps. xxviii. 3). adultery with the wedded wife of another;
As, therefore, the relation between the as this crime is morally and politically
conjugal couple was considered as an the most baneful. The decalogue con-
absolutely internal and sacred one, it tains merely the general prohibitions;
follows, that its violation by either party which the later legislation develops and
was regarded a punishable crime, and enlarges in the same spirit. (Compare
thus the severity is explicable, with which about unchastity, note on xxii. 15, 16).
the Mosaic law denounces such trans- It requires scarcely any proof to show
gressions; for the adulterer was pun- the honorable position which the women
ished with death (Lev. xx. 10; Deut. xxii. occupied in Hebrew society. From the
22); unchastity of a betrothed was very creation of the woman, who is a part
threatened with the death of both offend- of man himself, and for whose sake he
ing parties (Deut. xxii. 23). The same “shall leave his father and his mother, so
severity is observable in the other books of that both be one flesh,” down to the glo-
 ‫ו‬ ₪

280 EXODUS ‎‫אא‬.

nor his maid-servant, nor his ox, nor his ass, nor anything
that 28 thy neighbour’s.
rious picture of the virtuous wife in the Gershon ben Judah, in the year 1020, at
last chapter of the Proverbs, the whole the synod of Worms. The case seems, in
Bible breathes the highest regard for fact, to have been very analogous to that
female excellence, and assigns to the of the Egyptians. For, on the one hand,
weaker sex that sound and noble rank observes Herodotus (ii, 92), that’ every
which forms the just medium between Egyptian married but one wife; whilst
its Oriental degradation and the exagee- on the other hand, Diod. (i. 80), remarks,
rated gallantry of the romantic epochs. that the priests took but one wife, the
We need only to mention the wives of the others as many as they liked. Monogamy
patriarchs, the names of Miriam, Deborah, seems, then, to have been the rule,
the wife of Manoah, Hannah, Michal, polygamy the exception. The history \of
Abigail, the queen Maachah (1 Kings the patriarchs is, in this respect, very
xv. 13), the Shunamite, and the prophet- instructive. Abraham resigns every hope
ess Huldah, the pious women who regu- of posterity, rather than taking another
larly served in the holy tabernacle, the wife besides Sarah (Gen. xy. 2), who
daughters of Shiloh dancing in the vine- urges him to take Hagar. And Jacob
yards, the women who proclaim the intended, originally, to marry Rachel |
triumph and glory of David over Goliath, only; the fraud of Laban induced him
and the most tender descriptions of the to take her sister besides; the maid-
Song of Songs; and it will readily occur servants were then brought to him by
to all minds, what degree of liberty, of his wives. The word “concubine”
respect, of education, and of influence the is nowhere mentioned in the Mosaic
Hebrew women enjoyed. The history of code; in fact, it does not occur in the
the creation (“she shall be called woman four last books of the Pentateuch; and
because she was taken out of man”), ap- Moses seems to have disapproved of
pears even to imply the highest and most such intercourse with women who occu-
ideal form of matrimonial life, monogamy, pied an intermediate position between
which seems only not to have been ex- wife and servant (see note on xxi. 7—11).
pressly enforced from the same regard for Even the New Testament does not, by a
deep-rooted national feelings, which Moses general law, abolish polygamy; it orders
wisely respected in many other instances. only that the bishop should be one wife’s
Several Mosaic laws seem, indeed, to be husband (1 Tim. iii.2); just as mono-
based on monogamy (Deut. xxv. 5); and gamy seems to have been prescribed to the
as marriage was considered as a religious Hebrew priests (Ley. xxi. 14). The very
duty to every one, polygamy was eo ipso name of the woman in Hebrew, compared
excluded; for the opinion, that in the East with her designations in Greek and
more females are born than males, is not Latin, proves the high position of the
borne out by fact. Other laws are evidently female sex among the Israelites: in the’
calculated to render polygamy very incon- holy tongue it signifies a part and a part-
venient, if not often impossible (compare ner of man, perfectly equal to him in dig-
especially Deut. xxiii. 1; Lev. xv. 18; nity (Gen. ii, 23); she bore his name
xxi. 10), Monogamy seems, therefore, (Isa. iv. 1); whilst the Greek and Roman
even in the times before the exile, to appellations indicate merely a sexual
have been the rule, except with rich and relation to the man. The bitter in-
noble individuals; it is the basis of many vectives of Solomon against women
poetical descriptions (Prov. xxxi.; Ps, originated in his unnatural and
anti-
cxxvill.); later, it became almost general Mosaic excess, which precluded him from
(Tob. 1. 11; Sir. xxvi. 1, etc.), till it was studying and admiring the excellen-
at last commanded by a law of Rabbi cies of the sex in one attached and loving
r[

EXODUS ‎‫אא‬. 281

15. And all the people witnessed the thunderings, and

the lightnings, and the sound of the trumpet, and the
wife.—The same cultivated principles home; the contrary custom was a symptom
with regard to the estimation of the of the decay of public morals (2 Mace.
woman, have been expressed and enjoined ili, 19). Respect and veneration for the
by the Talmud. We quote some Rab- mother and the father are always enforced
binical adages: “ A man who loses his with equal emphasis (verse 12; xxi. 15,
first wife feels grief as if the temple had 17; Lev. xix. 3, etc; where she iseven men-
been destroyed in his days.” * The gene- tioned before the father, etc). The rights
rations are only saved on account of the of both sexes are, almost in every respect,
piety of the virtuous women,” ‘“ He who equal; for Mosaism degrades no person to
lives without a wife lives without joy.” a thing, as was the case with the Roman
“The very altar sheds tears for him who slaves; nor does it deliver up any indi-
divorces his first wife.” ‘ An honourable vidual to the arbitrariness of a superior,
man honours his wife; a despicable man as was the fate of the Roman wives and
despises her.” We find in the Rabbinical
=> children, who stood entirely under the
writings no sentences like that of the Ara- power of their husbands and parents; as
bians: * The shame of the woman is ever- we shall prove in its due place. The
lasting;” or of the scholastic ages: “ Mulier punishments for the crimes of unchastity
Satanze opus;” or of the French: * Celui were also nearly identical, in both sexes,
que Dieu veut aider, sa femme lui est which is another weighty argument for
enlevée;” or, “ A qui perd sa femme et un the dignity attributed to the other sex.
denier, c’est grand dommage pour le de- And yet was their personal liberty by far
nier.” The Israelites never knew the not so restricted as among other Oriental
demoralizing custom of the Greeks to nations (except the Egyptians, where the
lend away their wives; they neither re- position of the woman was rather ano-
quired from‘them that divine worship, by malous); they took, unveiled, part in
prostration and prayer, which the Persians the domestic occupations (Gen. xii. 14);
demanded; nor did they ever adopt the bar- they were visible to strangers (Gen. xx.
barous madness of the Indians, who burn 2); they lived, in Palestine, together with
the surviving widows. Eventhelatest Jew- the men, not separated in immoral and
ish writings have invariably and faithfully voluptuous harems (Exod. xxi. 22; 1 Sam.
preserved that purity in the notions con- ix. 11, etc.); they appeared even in all
cerning women, which pervades the pages public processions and festivities, actively
of the inspired authors. Butthe Hebrew and honourably co-operating with dances
women deserved that respect, and main- and music (Exod. xv. 20; 1 Sam. xviii.
tained their dignity by the severity of 6,7; Psa. lxviii. 26); their praise was the
their morals, and by their exemplary sweetest reward, the strongest encourage-
activity; even princesses assisted in all ment of the hero;~and often they were
domestic duties (compare 2 Sam. xiii. 8; themselves the envied price of distin-
1 Sam. ii. 19; Prov. xxxi. 10, et seg.). In guished valour (Josh. xy. 15, et seq.;
the more flourishing epochs of the history 1 Sam. xviii. 20).
of Israel, the women kept virtuously at

Eiegntu CoMMANDMENT. AGAINST THEFT. VERSE 13.

A state in which the property of the cial order, in general, is deranged; and
citizens is unsafe and, by impunity of the very existence of the commonwealth
the offenders, exposed to incessant at- becomes precarious and liable to chaotic
tacks, cannot prosper or flourish; the anarchy. As violation of the right of
sound development of its national re- property is, therefore, a social crime, it
sources is checked and crippled; the so- was, necessarily, interdicted in the deca-

EEE
EEE
 / 4

282 EXODUS XX.

mountain smoking: and when the people saw 7, they
shrunk back and stood afar off. 16. And they said to
logue, which contains the fundamental with equal certainty, that our command-
laws of the political structure. But an ment treats of the real and actual theft, of
encroachment upon foreign property is, the undeniable attack against the pro-
at the same time, a crime against a perty of others. Although, therefore, the
fellow-man personally; for every pro- observation of Rabbinical interpreters,
perty is, or represents, the fruit and pro- that he who deceives his neighbour in
duce of human industry, integrity, or measure or weight, or in business in
intelligence, strengthened and guided by general, is included in this command;
the divine blessing; it is, therefore, sa- as ulso he who, like Absalom, steals the
cred; and its violation is an act of arbi- hearts or good affections of others, is
trary tyranny—of unscrupulous aggres- perfectly in harmony with the spirit of
sion against the right of the neighbour; our interdiction: yet all these shades and
and, therefore, the commandment against subdivisions are not directly implied in
theft stands on the second table; and suc- it. See our further remarks, especially
ceeds, logically, the prohibitions against about the efficient and just punishment
the destruction of life, and the defilement of theft in the notes on xxi. 37 to xxii. 3.
of matrimony. But it follows hence,

NintH CoMMANDMENT. AGAINST FALseE WITNESS. VERSE 13.

If the three preceding commandments great detriment of the state; it may often
are directed against wrongs inflicted upon necessarily include or occasion a false
our neighbour by the deed, the ninth oath; the calumniator may also become
forbids encroachments upon his interests a perjurer; the third and the ninth com-
by the word, either in private life by false- mandments may be violated at the same
hood, calumny, insult, defamation and time; and thus the false witness is as
envious detraction, or before public tri- degraded in a moral point of view as he
bunals by false witness. Even common is perilous in a political respect; thus we
slander and false reports are repeatedly can understand why this command was
forbidden: “You shall not deal falsely embodied in the decalogue; and thus we
nor lie one to another” (Lev. xix. 11); may appreciate the horror with which
“thou shalt not raise a false report” Jonathan, in his paraphrase, exclaims,
(Exod. xxiii.1); and the infamy, which at the end of this commandment: “ by a
falls upon the head of the calumniator, false witness the clouds withhold their
is perfectly just, since calumny renders rain, the dew falls no more, and a famine
the private intercourse between man and spreads over the world;” and the Pro-
man almost impossible, creates enmities, verbs are replete with protestations and
sows discord, provokes hatred among admonitions against that crime: “ A man
friends, and may, in fact, embitter life in that beareth false witness against his
all its various relations, But every lie is, neighbour is a hammer, and a sword,
irrespective of its baneful consequences, and a sharp arrow.” ‘The Mosaic code
a base crime, an offence against the noble- also contains a deterring and energetic
ness of our soul, because it is treason law against that depravity: “If a false
against truth. But still more fearful in witness rise up against any man to testify
its destructive effects is the false witness ; against him that which is wrong.,., then
it undermines, almost literally, the pillars shall you do to him as he had thought to
of social order, by falsifying the ways of have done to his brother: so shalt thou
justice; it may remove the useful and put the evil away from among you”
virtuous citizen from the community, and (Deut. xix. 16—20). Thus are crime and
protect: and raise the criminal, to the punishment weighed in this law with a
 EXODUS ‎‫אא‬. 283

Moses, Speak thou with us, and we will readily hear; but
let not God speak with us, lest we die. 17. And Moses
just balance. In order to prevent, as As this commandment is obviously of the
much as possible, the pernicious conse- highest practical and moral importance,
quences of that crime, it was ordained, the Jewish tradition has most carefully
that in no law-suit one witness should worked it out in all directions, especially
suffice; two or three were required to with regard to witnesses, their deposi-
confirm an assertion, which was then tions, and their punishment. Compare
conscientiously and scrupulously exa- note on ‫אא‬‎
mined by the judge (ibid. vers. 15, 18) --

TentH COoMMANDMENT.—AGAINST Covetous DrEsirEs.—VER. 14.

However excellent and indispensable the decalogue is raised from the number
the four preceding commandments are, of human legislations to the rank of 8
they would alone be more properly divine code, at the same time furnishing
adapted to a police and criminal code, the clear indisputable proof, that Mosa-
which contains such laws only which are ism also is a deeply internal religion and
amenable to judicial punishment, and theology, which is not contented with
treats only of such offences as assume a good works alone, but as strongly urges
visible shape. But the decalogue passes upon us purity and nobleness of thought;
beyond this merely external point of view; which idea is, in fact, most frequently
its aim is not only to educate citizens of an repeated in the Old Testament (for in-
earthly state, but members of the empire stance, Psa. xv. 2; 11.19; etc., etce.). It
of heaven; not only to form loyal and has been asked, how the heart can be
useful, but virtuous and good men; it forbidden to covet anything, as the de-
was, therefore, necessary to bring before sire for some object involuntarily rises in
its tribunal not only deeds, but also inten- the bosom, beyond the control or power
tions. And this is the purport of the of man. But not the mere thought
tenth commandment. . Hereby only the which desires something is interdicted by
decalogue receives its completion and “thou shalt not covet,” but that stage of
perfection; by thus stopping the source the wish in which it is enhanced to a de- ‫שו‬
‫שו‬D‫קכו‬B‫‏"גר‬.a-

of vice and training honest men, it re- sire for the possession of the object, which
moves vice itself, and, whilst only intent man may prevent by self-control and
upon correcting the morals of the citizens, careful attention to the impulses of his
secures the external existence of the state. heart. And thus the prohibition of un-
For, from the will spring the actions, and lawful desires concludes the decalogue,
the wicked deed is preceded by the wicked because it is the origin and sum of all
thought; nobody acts wickedly who has the others; because it leads to the highest
not before felt wickedly. And, on the of all virtues, self-denial; and because it
other hand, not every body is virtuous destroys, as it were, the root of sin; “it
before God who is so before men; not comprises the utmost spirituality of the
every body is innocent who cannot be Law;” and, as Ebn Ezra remarks, “ the
_ accused by an earthly judge; not every precepts of the heart are the most
heart is pure that does not proceed to an essential and most important of all.”—
impure deed; the mind may be filled The principal objects which men usually
with sinful imaginations, even if the hand covet are here individually enumerated,
is free from crime. But before God, who in order to point out with greater em-
penetrates into the heart and searches phasis the unlawfulness of covetous de-
the reins, purity of the soul is the prin- sires, whether they be directed upon
cipal requirement; and by enjoining that great and important possessions, or upon
internal purity with particular emphasis, less dear and valuable objects. ---
284 2 EXODUS XX.
said to the people, Fear not; for God is come to prove
you, and that His fear may be before your faces, that you
may not sin. 18. And the people stood afar off, and
Moses drew near to the thick darkness where God was.

according to some interpreters, this verse severe; and this is a new ¢tria/; and, 2nd,
is divided into two commandments, we that they might bear His fear the deeper
have observed in page 254; but we have in their hearts, and thus be the more
tried to prove, that this separation of the effectually protected against sin and un-
parts, which necessarily belong together, lawful desires. So, then, this divine
is perfectly objectionable. The Sama- manifestation was not intended as a terror,
ritan codex has here considerable alter- but as a new act of love, calculated to
ations, consisting especially in additions promote the true virtue of the people.
taken from the parallel narrative in The Israelites have, with trembling, wit-
Deuteronomy. nessed the majesty of God; they cannot
15, 16. After having finished the de- bear it; fear overpowers them; but this
calogue, the inspired writer continues the fear was intended by the Almighty; it
historical account. First, he describes was designed as a preventive against
the overwhelming impression which the disobedience, and its next result was the
divine appearance, “under thunder and sincere and earnest promise to obey all
flames, and the sound of trumpets, and commands of God, which might be con-
the smoking mountain” produced upon veyed to them through Moses—to fear
the astounded people. Now only had God, is, here, identical with to love Him.
they become perfectly conscious of the This 18 the connection of these verses
omnipotence of God; now only they felt (compare note on xix. 3—6). The
their own littleness and sinfulness com- Samaritan codex has here, again, con- Li—
we
2
Ee

pared with God’s grandeur and holiness; siderable additions, taken from Deutero- eT!
94/0

they tremble, recede, ask never to behold nomy; it mentions, especially, the return
God’s awfulness any more, and desire of the Israelites to their tents (v. 27),
that Moses should henceforth be their which is, certainly, very probable, but
mediator between themselves and God. needs not, necessarily, to be related in
Thus the divine revelation had worked our text, as all accessory circumstances
that additional effect, that the authority and events are not always minutely in-
of Moses was now unshaken, and that troduced in the holy books (see note on
the people, at last, firmly believed in him XVi. 22).
(see xix. 9). 18. And the people stood afar off. The
uz. As the people, according to the text returns to ver. 15, in which the
common belief of antiquity (see on iii. 6), immediate effect is described which the
deemed the appearance of God fatal to revelation had produced on the people;
the life of man, Moses calms and assures and the assurance and firmness of Moses
them by pointing out two motives by which is placed in conscious opposition to
God was actuated in His personal procla- their trembling and fear. Moses seems,
mation of the decalogue: lst, To try the indeed, to have now conquered his diffi-
Israelites, that is, in order to give, by this dence and hesitation so completely, that
solemn promulgation, additional strength he, not much later, ventured even the bold
to their belief, to banish every doubt from wish, that he might be allowed to see the
their minds, and thus to cause a more con- whole glory of God (xxxiii 18). Where
scientious observance of the command- God was ; Onkelos renders: “ where the
ments, so that the punishment for their glory of God was.”
violation becomes now necessarily more
 oop -ODUS 6
THE BOOK OF THE COVENANT.
CHAPTERS XX. 19 ro XXIII 33.
ry.—After an introductory remark on the appearance of God (xx. 19), follows:
1. A repeated prohibition against making idols (xx. 20).
2. The command that the altars shall be of earth, wood, or unhewn stones, and
- without steps; with which precept God joins the promise that He would bless
with His presence His pious servants in every place where they might men-
tion His name (xx. 21—23).—Then follows:
> The right of persons, of free men and of slaves, in all its relations, by intentional —
or accidental injury (xxi, 1—32); namely: /
3. The laws about slaves (xxi. 1—11); viz.: |
a) about those who simply sell themselves to a master for the purpose of
serving him, whether they be married or not (xxi. 1--6(; and
6) about such girls whom the fathers sell with the view, and in the hope,
that the masters would either themselves take them to wives, or
marry them to their sons (xxi. 7—11).
4. The laws about murder (xxi. 12—14); viz.:
a) about premeditated murder (xxi. 12,14); and
5) about unintentional homicide (xxi. 13).
5. Violation of the reverence due to parents (xxi. 15, 17).
6. About plagium, or man-stealing (xxi. 16).
_ 7. General personal injury done to a free man (xxi. 18, 19),
8. To a slave (xxi. 20, 21).
- 9. To a part of the person of a free man (xxi. 22—25).
10. Of a slave (xxi. 26, 27).
11. Injury caused by a beast (xxi. 283—32); viz.:
a) if the injured person is a free man (xxi. 28—31).
b) if he is a slave (xxi. 82).
IL The right of PROPERTY (xxi. 33—xxii. 14); namely:
12. If it is endangered by neglect of others (xxi. 33, 34).
&- 0 - 18. If one person’s animal is injured by that of another (xxi. 35, 36).
14, Laws about theft (xxi. 37—xxii. 3).
- - 15. About depasturing foreign fields or vineyards (xxii. 4).
16. About damages caused by fire on fields (xxii. 5).
4
17. About property committed for safe-keeping (xxii. 6 -12).
18. About property borrowed from another (xxii. 18, 14).
,/

. General MoRAL LAws, which, however, are deeply connected with the civil
organization of the state (xxii, 15—xxiii. 19).
19. About unchastity (xxii. 15, 16).
20. Law against witchcraft (xxii. 17).
21. Against coition with beasts (xxii. 18).
> 99. Repetition of the law against polytheism (xxii. 19).
23. Laws concerning the poor, the strangers, widows, and orphans (xxii, 20—23, |
and xxiii. 9).
24. About loans and interests .(11.94‫)אא‬‎ =
_ 25. About the right of pledges (xxii. 25, 26).
26. Against disrespect towards God and the authorities (xxii. 27).
__-27. About the offering of the first-fruits (xxii, 28, 29; xxiii. 19, first part).
28. About unlawful meat (xxii. 30).
29. About judicial justice (xxiii. 1—3, and 6—8).
30. About found property (xxiii. 4).
81. Humanity towards animals (xxiii. 5).
- 0 89. About the Sabbath and the Sabbath year (xxiii. 10--19(.
$83. Prohibition against mentioning the name of idols (xxiii. 13).
 286 | EXODUS XX.
34. The three principal festivals (xxiii. 14--18(.
a) The Passover (xxiii, 15),
6) The Feast of Weeks (xxiii. 16).
6( The Feast of Tabernacles (xxiii. 16(
35. Supplementary law about the Paschal sacrifice (xxiii. 18).
36. The law about the “kid and the milk of its mother” (xxiii.
19, second part).
After the conclusion of these laws follows the exhortat
ion of God, to adhere to
them strictly and faithfully, especially to avoid idolatry, and even
to destroy the
idols wherever they would find them; and, further, the injunctio
n, not to enter
into any association with heathen nations; then would God send
His messenger
before the Israelites; terror will seize the enemies; the promised
land will, in
due time, come into their possession; they will enjoy health,
longevity, and fruit-
fulness, and extend their. country to the Mediterranean Sea in
the west, and to
the Euphrates in the east (ver. 20—33, see note zbid.),
PrEFAToRY Remarxs.—After the basis of every further
legislation had been laid
down in the decalogue, and strengthened by some suppleme
ntary laws, the holy text
proceeds systematically to the other rights (see on xxi. 1),
which, either applicable
to the nomadic wanderings through the desert, or, especiall
y, to the organized
state of the Hebrews in the promised land, comprise social and
individual, religious
and political, criminal and civil, divine and human statutes. It
is a beautiful scrip-
tural metaphor which describes the union between God and
Israel under the sacred
image of a matrimonial alliance; God has chosen Israel as His
eternal helpmate and
friend; Israel has accepted the charge to assist God in
spreading on the earth the
empire of heaven, and the truth of His law; and the time
between the exodus and the >
conclusion of the covenant on Mount Sinai, may be characte
rized as the period of the
betrothal of God and Israel, their joyful love and faithfuln
ess (compare ii. 2; Eze.
xvi. 8; xx. 5; Hos. ix. 10; xi. 1; xiii. 5; Am. 11.
10, 660.0 see note on xix. 6). The
time has now arrived to strengthen this holy union
by stipulations and laws, and to
secure its original character by a mutual agreement.
But, in order not to oppress the
people, at the commencement, with a superabundance
of laws and precepts, the wise
legislator has, in the following four chapters (xxi—xxi
yv), premised a summary and
compendious survey, and then, slowly and gradually
, erected the edifice of the legisla-
tion on a steadily widening basis, In this small
compass tne nucleus of the civil order
is included, and such brief outline alone, was, by its systemati
cal limitation,fit to be
submitted to the people for adoption and sanction,
The “Book of the Covenant,”
therefore, which Moses read to the people, with
solemn sacrifices, and the contents
of which they unanimously promised to
fulfil in its whole extent (xxiv. 4, 7),
comprises only these sections of the Pentateu
ch, namely, the decalogue, and the
laws contained in the following four chapters.
They are the Law in a small epitome;
and the following sections of the Pentateuch
develop the brief sketch here drawn in its
parts and details. The systematic and logical arrangement of
stantly be pointed out in the following notes.
these laws will con-

19. And the Lord said to Moses, thus thou

shalt say
to the children of Israel, You have seen
that I have
1. Acarnst Iponatry. Vurs. 19, 20,
In the decalogue, only the funda-
rests, the second commandment, which
mental laws were proclaimed; the speci-
| naturally involves the first, is here
fication was reserved to the future care of once
|more impressively enjoined, namely, to
the legislator. But, in order still more
to have, or to worship, no other gods
fortify the basis on which the decalogue be-
sides the God of Israel, nor to represent
 EXODUS ‎‫אא‬. 287
spoken to you from heaven. 20. You shall not make
with me gods of silver, neither shall you make to you gods
of gold.
21. An altar of earth thou shalt make to me, and shalt
sacrifice thereon thy burnt-offerings, and thy thank-offer-
ings, thy sheep, and thy oxen: in all places where I 'shall
let my name be mentioned, I will come to thee, and I will
bless thee. 22. And if thou wilt make me an altar of
stone, thou shalt not build it of hewn stone: for if thou
' Engl. Vers.—Record my name.

them in any way by gold or silver images, majesty of God is appropriately founded
for the pure, spiritual monotheism, formed upon the fact, that the Israelites had here
| the corner-stone of the whole religious
_ witnessed His glory with their own
structure of Mosaism. It is not impro- senses, and, although they had heard a
=‫ו‬

bable, that the prohibition in the decalogue voice, they had not perceived a figure.
refers especially to painting and sculpture, In such invisible grandeur only can the
whilst our precept is directed against the true God of heaven appear; but all the
molten or cast images. This exclusive mute idols are vanity.
‫בב‬‎
PEER
0 2. ABouT THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE ALTARS. VER. 21—23.
In order to remove every occasion not be hewn, and in general no iron
and every temptation to relapse into the should be applied upon them, but they
worship of images, a law was at the should be piled up in their natural state
very beginning given, which can, in this without the application of the plastic
connection, find its rational explanation arts, although these were not altogether
only with reference to that idea. The excluded from the sanctuaries (see note
Hebrews were, like all ancient nations, on ver.4—6).—This peculiar prohibition
‘accustomed to sacrifices from the patri- might further have its reason in the
archal times; we find sacrifices of Abra- circumstance, that the unhewn stone, such
ham, Isaac and Jacob; sacrifices were as it comes from the hands of nature, is
the pretext used by Moses to induce most pure, undefiled by human touch and
Pharaoh to permit the departure of the work, and therefore the most appropriate >
Hebrews; and Jethro had but just at his for the sanctity of the altar; and, in fact,
arrival offered sacrifices (xviii. 12). Now, the raw stone is the most akin to earth,
the altars, which were erected for this which was to be the ordinary material for
purpose, were in the heathen rites gene- the altar. The application of iron is in
rally very pompous, elaborated with all our text called a pollution of the altar,
embellishments which sculptural art could because the violent preparation of the
command: “They were adorned with material with such instruments appears
sculpture, and some were covered with like an irreverential disregard of the
the works of the most celebrated artists of holiness of the intended altar; perhaps
antiquity.” As therefore such ostentatious also, as Ebn Ezra believes, because the
altars might easily lead to a development of refuse matter of the hewn altar might
the plastic arts, likely to tempt to the manu- be used for unworthy purposes. —
facture of idols, it is here commanded to The Rabbins explain ingeniously: iron
use altars of earth ; and if later in the holy abridges life, the altar prolongs it;
land and in settled abodes, altars of stone iron causes destruction and misery, the
should be preferred, these stones shall altar produces reconciliation between God
 288 EXODUS ‎‫אא‬.
lift up thy zron tool upon it, thou hast polluted it.
23. Neither shalt thou go up by steps to my altar, that
thy nakedness be not uncovered thereon.
and man; and therefore the use of iron that no steps should lead to the altar,
cannot be allowed in making an altar. And even the breeches of the priests,
— An “altar of earth” is one which which as we shall later show did not,
is formed from green turfs, and is, as like our trowsers, cover the feet entirely,
such, most adapted and most convenient made this command not superfluous.
for a wandering nation. Among 6 But it has been believed, that the
Romans also we find such altars fre- height of the altar, which was gene-
quently alluded to, and they were, even rally three cubits (xxvii. 1), made a
in later periods, used on festive occa- certain arrangement necessary to facili-
sions, and, according to ‘Tertullian, tate its ascent. The Biblical text makes
this kind of altar was that in general no allusion to such device; and the tenor
use.— From the preceding deduction it of our verse leads us rather to believe,
is clear, that the opinion of Clericus that the officiating priest stood on the
concerning the “altars of earth” is not ground whilst performing the ceremonies.
probable: “ As God wished that all the Everything depends on the length of the
Israelites should assemble at one place cubit, which we shall examine in the re-
to offer their sacrifices, He did not per- marks on the twenty-fifth chapter. Dif-
mit, that on any other place altars of ferent was the case with the altar of the
a more durable material or of a more Solomonic temple, which was ten cubits
elegant workmanship should be erected, high (2 Chron, iv.9). However, it ap-
fearful lest they allure the mass, who are pears from Talmudical explanations, that
always attracted by external splendour.” the real altar was indeed but three cubits
—To mention the name of God is identical high (compare also Ezek. xli, 22); but it
with worshipping Him; for the latter is rested on a base of six cubits, and its
almost inseparable from the former. See horns rose one cubit high. Now, in order
1 Chron. xvi. 4.—Only if these precepts to reach the altar itself, not steps were
concerning the nature and construction of used, in accordance with the precepts of
the altars are executed, God promises to our verse, but a kind of sloping bridge.—
be near His faithful servants with His aid Among the Romans also wasa similar law,
and His blessing, a sufficient proof what that the flamen dialis should not ascend
importance is attached to the natural more than three steps of the altar, unless
simplicity and purity of divine service. they were Greek ones, which were enclosed
23. As the external nature of the from all sides.— The Rabbins take this
altar is here described, the Lawgiver opportunity to deduce the following beau- it
‫השש‬‎
><
adds another precept with regard to the tiful principle: * those stones, which have
same subject, in order to secure 8 no consciousness to feel the contempt
holinesss from another side also. As shown them, are by a command of God
those, who performed the sacerdotal not to be insulted, since they are of
functions, before the introduction of the some use; how much more must we take
proper clerical robes (xxviii. 42), wore care not to offend any one of our fellow-
the usual loose Oriental garments (see creatures, wha is sensible of a degrading
on xii, 11) without trowsers, it was treatment, and who bears the image of
ordered, from considerations of decency, our Creator.”
 ~ \

EXODUS 1 289

CHAPTER XXI.
ATO W these are the
judgments which thou shalt
3 N lay before them.2. ‘When thou ’acquirest a
Hebrew servant, six years he shall serve; and in the
1 Engl. Vers.—If. 2 Buy.

I. THE RIGHT OF PERSONS.

3. LAws ABOUT SLAVES. ‫]אא‬. 11—1.
The very first of the civil laws, that hereditary property of the master, whieh
about slavery, exhibits that spirit of passed over to his descendants (Ley.
moderation and humanity, which is the xxy. 46), they were yet in the Mosaic
chief characteristic of the whole legisla- code protected by various important pri-
tion; and its very position is significant. vileges; namely, 1. if they had escaped
| In the first commandment the Israelites from their masters, they could not be
' had been conspicuously reminded of their delivered up to them by the inhabitants
redemption from slavery; and therefore of the place where they happened to seek
the first civil law was devoted to the refuge: “he shall dwell with thee, even
regulation of the condition of the slaves. among you, in that place, which he might
God had raised the whole nation to free choose in one of thy gates, where he liketh
citizens; and, therefore, its every inember it best: thou shalt not oppress him” (Deut.
was destined virtually to enjoy liberty; Xxill. 16), Quite different was the case
God was the theocratical Lord of the among the Romans: “ A runaway slave
contemplated Hebrew state, therefore (fugitivus) could not lawfully be received
the Israelites should serve Aim only, or harboured, to conceal him was furtum.
but no earthly master. Permanent ser- The master was entitled to pursue him
vitude would have been a revolt against wherever he pleased; and it was the duty
the divine sovereignty: “they are my of all authorities to give him aid in recover-
servants, says the Lord, whom I have ing the slave.” The master was severely
released from the land of Egypt; they punished — according to the Rabbins
shall not be sold in the manner of eternal with death—if he so chastised his slave,
slayes” (Ley. xxv. 42).—Thus was per- that he died on the spot (ver. 20); he
sonal liberty the supreme principle of forfeited even the slave, if he deprived
civil right; and this one idea suffices to him of one of the principal members of
comprehend and to appreciate the noble the body, as an eye or tooth (vers, 26,27).
tendency of Mosaism and to distinguish Thus the slaves were effectually protected
this legislation from all other political against arbitrariness on the part of their
systems of antiquity. masters; which advantage they were far
In a state, which was entirely based from enjoying among other ancient na-
on agriculture and husbandry, slaves tions, especially the Romans. ‘* The
were an indispensable requisite, and both offences of slaves were punished with
strangers and Israelites were employed severity and frequently with the utmost
in such services. barbarity, One of the mildest punish-
a. Strangers might come into the hand ments was the removal from the familia
of Hebrew masters: 1. by war, since urbana to the rustica, where they were
the captives of war, both males and obliged to work in fetters. They were
females, who were not killed, were made frequently beaten with sticks, or scourged
slaves; 2.in peace by purchase; and 3. the with the whip, but these were such every-
children of such slaves were the property of day punishments, that many slaves ceased
the master, if they were born in his house. almost to care for them.—Slayes were
—Although such foreign slaves were the also punished by being hung up by
U
 290 EXODUS XXI.

seventh he shall go out free for nothing. 3. If he came

in by himself, he shall go out by himself; if he was mar-
their hands with weights suspended to shekels (Ley. xxvii. 3, e¢ seq.). The
their feet.” —A little more protected lowest price of a Jewish slave was one
were the slaves in the Athenian law; hundred and twenty drachmas. 2. If a
for a person who struck or maltreated a father sold his daughter to an Israelitish
slave was liable to an action, nor could master (vers. 7—11). 3. If a convicted
a slave be put to death without legal thief was unable to pay the legal com-
sentence. However, he was not believed pensation for his theft (xxii. 2,3), in
upon his oath, and his evidence in which case, however, he could only be
courts of justice was always taken with sold to an Israelite, and for a period not ex-
torture. 3. The Hebrew slave partici- ceeding six years. If the jubilee took
pated in the usual rest of the Sabbath place within this time, he was then al-
(Exod. xx. 10; Deut. v. 14, where it is ready released. 4. The children of a
expressly added: ‘ that thy man-servant man-servant and a maid-seryant, whom
and thy maid-servant may rest as well the former had married in the house of
as thou”). 4. He was admitted to the the master (verse 4). Sometimes deb-
enjoyments of Passover, Pentecost, and tors or their children may have been
the Feast of Tabernacles (Deut. xii. 18; addicted, de facto, as slaves to the
xvi. 11, 14). 5. He could be circum- creditors (2 Kings iv. 1); but this was
cised after the manner of the Hebrews, evidently against the intention of the
and was then permitted to share the Mosaic law, which contains no provision.
paschal-lamb with the family in which he on this point (see note to xx. 4—6, p. 262).
lived (Gen. xvii. 12, 13; Exod, xii. 44). Now the treatment and the rights of
Besides, Michaelis conjectures, no doubt these Hebrew servants were not regulated
justly, that from the humane law in after mere feelings of philanthropy; but
Deut. xxv. 4: “Thou shalt not muzzle they received, in conformity with the
the ox when he treadeth out the corn,” theocratical principle already referred to,
it follows, a (fortiori, that the ser- a firmer and more permanent political
yants and hirelings of every kind, who basis. The Hebrew servant was not con-
were employed at the harvest or the sidered as a thing, not as a property for
gathering of fruits, were allowed to eat ever lost to the interests of the commu-
thereof according to their pleasure; it nity. There exists in Hebrew no word
would, indeed, be a Tantalus-like torture, for slave in the sense of an individual
to let the labourer starve in the midst of who is considered merely as an instru-
surrounding superfluity. The hardened ment; the Hebrew word means merely /a-
sinner and miser is thus described by Job: bourer; and the most privileged favour-
“Hungry labourers carry his sheaves, ites of God are called “ servants of God,”
within the walls of his workhouses they so Moses and the prophets, and the people
make oil, they tread the wine-press and of Israel itself (Isaiah xliv.2; Jer.xxx. 10,
suffer thirst” (Job xxiv. 10, 11).—So was etc.). Even whilst a servant he did not lose
then even the foreign slave treated with his rights as a citizen of the state, and his
humane consideration in the Mosaic civil privileges were only suspended, not
law. cancelled. or the law ordains: * When
6) But Hebrews also might fall into thou acquirest a Hebrew servant, six
slavery, by the following contingencies: years he shall serve; and in the seventh
1, If they sold themselves in consequence he shall go out free for nothing ” (ver. 2);
of poverty (Levit. xxv. 39; Deut. xv, 12), or in Deut. xv. 12: “ And if thy brother,
As the legal price of a slave, thirty a Hebrew man, or a Hebrew woman, be
silver shekels are mentioned (xxi. 32), sold to thee, and serve thee six years,
whilst a free Israelite was valued at fifty then in the seventh year thou shalt let
 EXODUS XXI. 291

ried, then his wife shall go out with him. 4. If his

master giveth him a wife, and she beareth him sons or
him go free from thee;” to which is 47—55). The duty to release a slave
added, in Ley. xxv. 41: ‘“ And then shall who serves in the house of a Hebrew
he depart from thee, both he and his master is not enjoined, because the former
children with him, and shall return to was, in this case, sure of humane treat-
his own family, and to the possession of ment, which could not be expected from
his fathers shall he return.” As, there- a heathen master.
fore, the servitude of a Hebrew was, in From these deductions, two disputed
every case, only temporary, he must be points in connection with the legislation
considered rather as a hireling, than as concerning slaves, find their easy solution:
a slave; and thus the holy text, indeed, Ist, whether, by the expression Hebrew
calls him: “And if thy brother that seryant (ver. 2), an Jsraelitish servant,
dwelleth by thee becomes poor, and sells is to be understood, or, generally, one of
himself to thee, thou shalt not compel the descendants of Eber, or of one of the
him to serve as a bond-servant: but as trans-Euphratic tribes, that is, Ishmael-
₪ hired servant and as a sojourner he 1008, Ammonites, Moabites, Midianites,
shall be with thee” (Lev. xxv. 39, 40); etc. But, undoubtedly, Jsraelitish ser-
and it needs, after these remarks, scarcely vants are meant; fora. the Israelites only
be mentioned, that he was allowed to have been delivered from Egyptian cap-
acquire property for himself, independent tivity (Levit. xxv. 53; Deut. xv. 15);
of the control of his master, and that ₪. they only could be called the ser-
he could redeem himself with it, even vants of God (zbid.) in a time when all
before the lapse of the six years (Lev. other nations were sunk in the abomina-
xxy. 40). Not so among the Romans, tions of idolatry; 6. Jeremiah .‫)אאאנו‬‎ 9),
who considered it as a rule of the jus alluding to the release of the slaves, ex-
gentium, that a slave could have no pro- plains, distinctly, the phrase “ Hebrew
perty, for all his acquisitions belonged to servant” by ‘ Jewish servant,” as also,
his master (Gaius, 1. 52). From all this according to Rashi, the words * thy
1-
follows, as a natural consequence, the brother,” in Levit. xv. 39, 46, and Deut.
obligation to treat the Hebrew servant xy. 12, refers to Israelites; compare
with the leniency and consideration due to Jonah i. 9; 0. according to Levit. xxv.
a fellow-citizen, who is sure to be re-in- 44, the Israelites are permitted to take
stated into all his civil rights: “Thou slaves for life from the nations around
shalt not rule over him with rigour, but them; but these are mostly descendants
shalt fear thy God” (Ley. xxv. 43). The of Eber or Abraham, as the Ishmaelites,
legislator has even provided for the case, Midianites, Edomites, etc. Therefore
that a rich non-Israelitish stranger or these nations cannot, in our passage, be
sojourner buys a poor Hebrew as his included in the name of Hebrews ‘(com-
slave; in such emergencies the duty de- pare Ebn Ezra, on ver.2). The weak
volves upon the relatives of the latter to arguments in favour of the contrary
redeem him even with the greatest per- opinion, have been dropped by Micheelis
sonal sacrifices: “let him not be ruled himself, who had formerly adhered to it
over with rigour in thy sight.” But, if (loc. cit. p. 274). 2nd, In our passage,
he has no relatives capable of redeeming and in Deut. xv. 12, the time of service
him, he shall at least in the year of is fixed at six years, whilst in Levit. xxv.
jubilee go out free with his children: 40, it is extended to the year of jubilee.
“For to me the children of Israel are This is easily to be reconciled, by the
servants; they are my servants whom I explanation, that the Hebrew servant
brought forth out of the land of Egypt; becomes, in all cases, free, in the year of
I am the Lord your God” (Ley. xxv. jubilee, even if this should happen to take
u 2
292 EXODUS XXI.

daughters; the wife and her children shall be her master’s,

and he shall go out by himself. 5. But if the servant
place before the lapse of the six years of being illegitimate wives, according to
service. For the seventh year, of which the Mosaic law, do not accompany them
Moses speaks as the year of the regular into the condition of freedom.
release of Hebrew slaves, is not the Sab- But the cases were not impossible, that
bath-year, but, according to Maimonides, a slave, after a service of six years, es-
the seventh after the commencement of tranged from all his former connections,
their servitude; so that the Sabbath-year and incapable of maintaining his inde-
had no influence upon the condition and pendence, preferred to remain with his
relations of the slaves. Thus remarks master, dear to him, perhaps, by custom,
Josephus, quite generally, that the He- affection and gratitude. He might, be-
brew slaves became free after seven years; sides, have married a Canaanitish maid-
and, in Genesis already (xxix), the period servant of his master, and, as she and her
of seven years is adopted as the ordinary children remained always in the house of
extent of the service of a slave. the master (ver. 4), love to his family in-
But the mildness towards the Hebrew duced him, perhaps, to prefer servitude to
servant was not limited to the period of his liberty. Such feelings are natural, and,
service only, but extended to the very from the ordinary point of view, well
moment of his release; he was not to be justifiable. But such practice would, in
dismissed empty: “Thou shalt furnish two essential points, have been in direct
him liberally out of thy flock, and out of opposition with the leading principle of
thy floor, and out of thy wine-press: of the Mosaic theocracy. It would, firstly,
that wherewith the Lord thy God hath in the lapse of time, have produced a
blessed thee thou shalt give to him.” large multitude of dependent slaves of
This is commanded as a duty of grati- Israelitish descent, and, instead of a com-
tude to God, who mercifully released munity of free citizens, with equal rights,
the Israelites from Egyptian bondage, the state would, in a few centuries, have
and who did not let them leave it been divided into a governing and a
“empty,” but loaded with rich and serving part, to its own deep degradation. |
precious presents (Deut. xv. 15; Exod. Thus were, in Attica, according to the
iii. 21,22). And the gratuitous release census made when Demetrius Phalereus
of the Hebrew slave is enjoined to the was archon (B.c, 309), 21,000 free citi-
Israelites with the most emphatical, soul- zens, and not less than 400,000 slaves,
stirring words: “for the Lord thy God (although many of the latter might have
will bless thee in all that thou 00086" been of foreign origin, and the numbers
(Deut. xv. 18). If the servant came into may be in some degree corrupted). But
the house of his master as a single, un- it would, secondly, soon have destroyed
married man, he goes out alone; if he the supreme sovereignty of God as the
was married, his wife shares with him only Lord of all Israelites, and would
the right of liberty (ver.3). But, “if his have reduced a numerous class of born
master giveth him a wife, and she beareth Hebrews into a state of submission which
him sons or daughters; the wife and her could not but disturb the pure and im-
children shall be her master’s, and he mediate relation between God and His
shall go out by himself” (ver. 4). How- people; and, further, intermarriages with
ever, as, according to Deut. xv. 12, 17, heathens were not to be encouraged; the
the maid-servant entirely participates in theocratical legislator could not respect a
all the rights and duties of a man- tie which was calculated to operate inju-
servant, it is probable that our text riously on the religious ideas of the slave.
speaks of Canaanitish women, whom the Those servants, therefore, who, after
master gives to the servants, and who, six years of service, disdained the liberty,
 EXODUS 1. 293

will firmly say, I love my master, my wife, and my chil-

dren; I will not go out free: 6. Then his master shall
and thus preferred the sovereignty of before the magistrates, and stated the
men to that of God, were ordered to be grounds of the mtended manumission.
brought before the judges; and, as a The lictor of the magistrates laid a rod
lasting ignominy, their ear was to be per- (fetusca) on the head of the slave, ac-
forated with an awl at the door or its companied with certain formal words, in
posts, and then they remained the slaves which he declared that he was a free man
of their masters for all their lives (see on ex jure Quiritium. The master, in the
ver. 6). Certainly, the practice of per- meantime, held the slave, and, after he
forating the ears of slaves was a custom had pronounced the words: ‘hune homi-
in use among many nations of antiquity. nem liberum volo,’ he turned him round,
Thus, a freedman says, in Juvenal (Sat. and let him go (emisit e manu), whence
i, 103): the general term of the act of manu-
mission” (Smith, Dict. of Antiq. p. 730).
“ And I, in spite
‎‫ כ‬-12
- . A law follows concerning maid-
‘Of your great lordships’ will, maintain
servants, which, compared with Deut. xy.
my right:
17, offers, at first glance, a peculiar diffi-
Though bern a slave, though my torn ears
culty; but it disappears at a closer ex-
are bored,
amination. According to that passage
*Tis not the birth, ’tis money makes the
in Deuteronomy, the maid-servant is to
lord.”—(Dryden’s Translation).
obtain her liberty like the man-servant,
However, the same was done to child- in the seventh year, and, if she declines
ren, who were, by their parents, conse- it, she is to be marked with the same
crated to the service ofa deity. Further, sign of servitude as the latter; whereas,
even now, many Orientals perforate their according to our passage, “she shall not
ears. in order to wear ear-rings. But, with go out as the men-servants do,” quite
these ornaments much superstition was different regulations are enjoined con-
formerly connected; they served as amu- cerning her release. But the recon-
lets, which, sacred to the gods, were ciliation is simply this. In general, the
believed to keep off from the ears all evil laws about man-servants are, in their
enchantments. It is, therefore, not impos- whole extent, applicable to maid-servants
sible, that the legislator, by branding the also. But there was a peculiar class of
perforated ear as a disgrace, wished to the latter, whom the father sold to a
prevent such superstition, and, in the master, in order to serve him as a con-
course of time, abolish it, in which en- sort of second rank. Now, if the master
deayour he seems, indeed, in this indirect granted her these connubial rights, or if
manner, to have succeeded. As parallel he gave her to his son in the same qua-
customs, we mention, that the Roman lity, she remained for ever in his house,
slaves were manumitted in three different without becoming free after six years;
modes: Ist, by vindicta (see infra); 2nd, for, in the former case, she enjoys the
by census, that is, if the slave, at the rights of a wife, in the second, those of a
lustral census, gave in his property at the daughter; and her position is in no
bidding of his master; and, 3rd, by ¢esta- manner to be compared with that of
ment of his master. As the Mosaic law ordinary maid-servants. The only dif-
prescribes a certain ceremony if a servant ferences between such alliances and legal
is destined to perpetual slavery, so a marriages, are, perhaps, that they are
certain form was followed in the most concluded without the usual presents
common manner of manumission, that and dissolved without a letter of divorce.
per vindictam; and it is described as fol- The offspring of both have equal rights, with
lows: “The master brought his slave regard to their position in the family and
 1
294 EXODUS XXL 4
3

bring him to the judges, and shall bring him to the door,
or to the door-post; and his master shall bore his ear
through with an awl; and he shall serve him for ever. ‫שע‬
%‫ו‬7

to inheritance (Comp. Deut. xxi. 10—14), see Kiddushin, fol. 14; where a differ-
But, if neither the master, nor one of his ence is established in the treatment of
sons, performed to her the promised duties, those who have sold themselves and those
he had not the right to sell her to another who are sold by the judges.
master, “since he had dealt deceitfully 3. The man of a wife, namely, of Hebrew
with her,” and she goes out free imme- descent.— Then his wife shall go out with
diately, without being bound to wait to him ; from which words the Ta)mud (Kid-
the seventh year. We can, therefore, not dush., 22) infers the humane injunction: “he
approve of the opinion of Micheelis, Jahn, who buys a Hebrew servant is bound to
Rosenmiiller, Hivernick, and others, that support his wife and children also.” It
Moses himself had later altered the law, seems probable, from the context of these
and placed the maid-servants in every verses, that such servants are here alluded
respect on an equal footing with the to, who have sold themselves with their
man-servants. But their rights are, in wives, since it appears unjust, that the
fact, identical ;the Pentateuch is in per- wife shall suffer servitude for the debts,
fect harmony with itself; for our text and, perhaps, for the theft of her hus-
does not speak of common maid-servants, band,
but of quite a different kind of females, 4&. If his master giveth him a wife,
Nor does our text treat, as the Rabbins namely, one of Canaanitish origin; for
believe, of young girls who have not yet the Israelitish maid-servant went out free =
attained the age of puberty. Not the in the seventh year. The clause, that
remotest allusion confirms such conception. such wives shall remain in the house of
That polygamy, after the universal cus- the master together with their offspring,
tom of the East, was not interdicted by is not mentioned in the parallel passage,
Moses, although he did not favour it, is Deut. xv. 12—18.
well known (see note on xx. 13). G. To the judges; and so almost all inter-
1. Judgments, statutes, or laws, after preters; for the judges pronounce the
which judgment is to be pronounced; sentence in the name of the deity. That
therefore is this word naturally applied the Israelites, like the Egyptians, honoured
to such ordinances only as admit of a dif- the judges like gods, as Micheelis believes,
ferent opinion, for instance, concerning and called them, therefore, Elohim; of such
the right of slaves, strangers, etc., but not a notion we have no trace whatever. Abar-
the Ten Commandments, which, as prin- banel, and after him Rosenmiiller, Gese-
ciples of morality, are incontrovertible, nius, and others believe, that the judges
and equally acknowledged by all men. are sometimes called Elohim, because the
Anselm Bayley defines, therefore, that word courts of justice were in holy places, where
correctly, as “moral laws or duties of God was enthroned (comp. Deut. xix.17),
society, arising from custom and mutual which opinion is, essentially, little differ-
convenience.” ent from the reason above assigned; for
2. According to Ebn Ezra, the speci- certainly the judges are, in some respects,
fied legislation begins with the laws con- the mouth of the deity. On the other
cerning the slaves, because there is no hand, the judges did not always fulfil
bitterer lot, than to stand in the power their functions in sacred places, at least
and under the will of a fellow-man. (See, not when performing such ceremonies as
however, supra, p.289).—Jn the seventh perforating the ear of the servant; for
year, after the commencement of the ser- the usage was that the judges sat at the
vitude, not in the Sabbath year— About gates of the town, or other free places
the Rabbinical acceptation of these laws, open to public access, “ It was a general
— 4

EXODUS XXI. 295

7. And when a man selleth his daughter to be a maid-

servant, she shall not go out as the men-servants do.
8. If she pleaseth not her master, who hath betrothed her
custom in the East,” remarks Dr. Paxton of the master, who has no obligation
(Illustrations of Scripture, 11. p. 455), ** to to releasethem. Where the text intends a
brand their slaves in the forehead, as service to the jubilee it employs clear
being the most exposed, and sometimes and appropriate terms to express it;
in other parts of the body. The common for instance, in Leviticus xxv.40. From
way of stigmatizing was by burning the this passage, it is further evident that,
member with a red-hot iron, marked with service to the jubilee was not considered
certain letters, till a fair impression was ignominious; the degradation of the ser-
made, and then pouring ink into the vant began only if he did not claim his
furrows, that the inscription might be liberty even after that epoch.— According
more conspicuous. Slaves were often to the Talmudists, the doorposts were
| branded with marks or letters, as a pun- selected for that act, because, marked as
ishment for their offences; but the most they were with the blood of the paschal-
common design of these marks was to lamb, they were the first witnesses of the
distinguish them if they should desert divine redemption and sovereignty; and
their masters.”—For ever is simply ex- the ear was to be perforated, because it
plained by Rashbam: “all the days of had heard: “You are my servants, and
his life,” asin 1 Sam, i.22. Compare ibid. not the servants of servants, and yet do
vers. 11, 28. This is, certainly, the most not obey” (see, however, supra). After
obvious interpretation. But, according the analogy of xxix. 20 they further
to the Rabbins, it signifies only to the assert, that the right ear received that
year of jubilee, when even the voluntary degrading mark, However, the doorposts
servant is to be restored to liberty; and might have been chosen in order to
Ebn Ezra remarks, in support of this opi- denote the permanent relation to the
nion: ‘ For ever means merely a long time house of the master; and the ear was
(as in the above passage from Samuel); perforated as a symbolical sign of the
and none of all Israelitish periods of time obedience which the servant promises to
is longer than the jubilee, and the return his master for all future time (compare
to liberty is, for the slave, like the renewal Psa. xl. 7). The act of perforation was
of the world” (see note on xii. 14). It performed publicly and before the judges,
must be allowed that this opinion stands in order to prevent, as Michaelis cor-
in harmony with the principal idea, that rectly remarks, masters from pretending,
in the year of jubilee all relations of contrary to truth, that their servants had
persons and property assumed their ori- promised to serve them during their lives;
ginal condition (see Lev, xxv. 41), and and, further, lest a master extort, by
that the slave might thus come into threats, such promise from the servant
possession of his ancestral property. But during the years of his servitude.
he has forfeited this right of a free citizen 0. About the law of vers. 7—11 see
by spontaneously submitting to the yoke supra.
of slavery. And the same reasons which s. If the master dislikes the maid-
induced the slave to remain in the house servant * whom he has betrothed to him-
of his master in the seventh year of his self” he shall let her be redeemed; for he
service, operated with still greater force had bought her from her father only un-
in the year of jubilee. The expression der the condition, and with the promise,
“to serve for ever” is in Ley. xxv. 46, to live with her in conjugal intercourse.
used of non-Israelitish servants, who But he was not permitted to sell her to
shall be inherited by the children and a stranger, since he has dealt deceitfully
are, indisputably, a permanent property with her; for by refusing to her the rights
296 EXODUS XXL
to himself, then shall he let her be redeemed: to sell her
to 'strange people he shall have no power, since he hath
dealt deceitfully with her. 9. And if he hath betrothed
her to his son, he shall do to her after the manner of thd
ee

1 Engl. Vers.—A strange nation.

of a wife of second rank, he treacherously cases; namely, if the master does not
breaks the promise given to her father. betroth her to himself, nor gives her to
Maimonides, Abarbanel, and, after them his son, nor lets her be redeemed. But
several others, explain thus: “ The father it is by far preferable to understand, with
shall not have the right to sell his daughter Abafbanel and others, the three things
to a foreign nation.” But this interpreta- mentioned immediately before. Those
tion is not only grammatically question- three cases are, in our text, by no means
able, but the subject to “he shall have distinguished clearly enough to offer
no power” can only be that of the whole themselves as readily to the mind of the
sentence, and that is the master, not the reader as the three conditions of “ food,
Sather, who is not mentioned in the whole raiment, and conjugal right.” Moreover,
verse. the third case would be singularly in-
9. And tf he hath betrothed her to his distinct: she goes out free, if the master
son, ete. In the East, where under the does not let her be redeemed;
— when?
influence of the burning climate the how long after the beginning of her
young men attain their puberty often servitude? and how far are his exertions
earlier than the circumstanees permit for her redemption legally required?
them to form matrimonial alliances, it These are the laws concerning servants;
is customary, that the parents, in order they deserve equal admiration on account
to obviate more dangerous excesses, give of their efficiency and of their humanity;
to their sons a maid-servant, whom the former manifests itself in its har-
they keep till their legal marriage, and mony with the fundamental principles of
who is then sent into a seraglio, whilst Mosaism: personal liberty and exclusive
her children remain in the paternal house subordination under God as the real
and are there educated. If the marriage Lord; the latter shows itself in the
proves barren, those children may even character of those laws, which are framed
inherit the property of their father. with constant attention to the interests of
The Mosaic rite is advantageously dis- the servants. However, these excellent
tinguished from these customs in one laws seem to have been but very imper-
very essential point, that the concubine fectly executed. For at the time of king
was even after the marriage of the son Zedekiah, the prophet Jeremiah ordered,
not heartlessly rejected, but was treated by the command of God, the tribes of
with every consideration like a daughter- Israel to let free the servants, in accord-
in-law. For she received even then— ance with the Mosaic statutes. In the
10. a. Her food; &. her apparel; and first impulse of enthusiasm they obeyed
c. conjugal cohabitation. She was, there- the command of the prophet; but after a
fore, in many respects, treated like a short time they compelled their former
wife. slaves to return to the old yoke. Then
.‫ בד‬If this was not done, if those three‫‏‬ the prophet complains, that their fathers
points were not granted to her, she be-‫‏‬ also had not heeded these laws, nor given
came eo ipso, free without redemption;‫‏‬ their heart to them; and thus they walked
for the master had violated the condition‫‏‬ but in the wicked ways of their ancestors;
of the purchase.— Most of the Jewish‫‏‬ and he adds one of the most rigorous
interpreters refer the words “these three‫‏‬ admonitions and menaces, foretelling the
things” quite generally to the preceding‫‏‬ complete extirpation of Judah. So im-
 A, ~~
0
4 .

EXODUS ‎‫ א‬1. 207

daughters. 10. If he taketh for him another wife, her

food, her raiment, and her conjugal right, shall he not
diminish. 11. And if he doth not these three to her, then
shall she go out free without money.—12. He that

portant did the prophet justly consider would fainly have abolished it altogether
these laws concerning the rights of ser- had the notions of his time and his people
vants (see Jer. xxxiv. 8—22).—In order allowed it. A wise conformation to exist-
to show the high dignity of these precepts ing feelings and popular preconceptions
in a still more striking manner, we ob- pervades the whole Mosaic legislation;
serve, how far remote even the wisest and and if the top of this tree reaches into
greatest philosophers and legislators of the serene heights of heaven, its roots are
pagan antiquity were from such humane hidden in the earth. This principle of
| notions. Aristotle defines a slave to be: accommodation to old forms is a tribute
' “a living working-tool and possession;” which the lawgiver paid to humanity;
the same distinguished philosopher goes but he infused a new spirit into those
even so far as to divide mankind into two old forms, and converted thus prejudices
different races: the free, and those who into truths, and abuses into blessings.
are slaves by nature, whilst Mosaism We shall, in the following law, have
establishes the natural equality of all as another very remarkable instance of that
the very first of its fundamental princi- principle-—Ewald finds, in the course of
ples. Other comparisons have been in- Hebrew history, a sort of subordinate
terspersed in the preceding remarks, Even persons, who stand in the midst between
foreign slaves were not unfrequently made slaves and free hirelings, and calls them
heirs of the property of their Hebrew clients, with a similar relation to their
masters who had no sons; (compare patrons as the Roman clients. But the
Gen. xv. 2,3; 1 Chron. ii. 34, 35; so instances and arguments, which he ad-
also Job. xxxi. 13, 14), and the Gibeon- duces, are not decisive; and what he calls
ites who were, for a flagrant fraud, made clients, seem only to be the chief or
hereditary servants of the sanctuary, superintending slaves in the houses of
seem to have enjoyed a considerable the rich. It may, lastly, be observed,
amount of regard (Josh. ix. 26, 27; com- that some critics (as Bertheau and others)
pare 2 Sam. xxi, 3, et seg.). It appears, have, in these precepts concerning slavery,
in fact, from a close examination of the as in several other instances, found ten dif-
Mosaic laws about slavery, that the legis- ferent laws (which are indeed discernible),
lator was deeply impressed with the num- and attach to this circumstance some im-
berless evils and degradations with which portance, ten being a significant number,
that condition is attended; and that he which recalls the sanctity of the decalogue.

4. Laws ‫געססע‬‎ MurpER. VERS. 12—14.

The laws about murder are here but legislative system concerning homicide,
briefly, though clearly and comprehen- in which manly severity is surprisingly
sively, treated; the following passages coupled with humanity, and principle
contain the more minute provisions: vers. with expediency. ‘Two leading ideas are
20, 21, 28, 29; Numb. xxxv, 9—34; easily discoverable: the perfect equality
Deut. xix. 1—14; Levit. xxiv. 17, 21; of all before the law, and a degree of
Deut. iv. 41—44; compare Deut. xxi, respect and reverence for human life,
1—9; xxvii. 24, 25; Josh. xx.; 2 Sam. which elevates this part of the legislation
xiv. <A careful comparison and combi- almost from criminal to moral laws.
nation of these passages wil exhibit a They solve the great problem of com-
 298 EXODUS XXL
smiteth a man, so that he dieth, shall be surely put to
death. 13. And if a man doth not pursue insidiously,
bining safety and order with the greatest Thou hast redeemed, and lay not inno-
possible consideration and justice; and, cent blood to Thy people of Israel’s
in order to. attain this aim, they are charge. And the blood shall be forgiven
either prudently based on _ prevailing them” (Deut. xxi. 1—9); and this is,
popular notions, or composed of new again, a symbolical, impressive ceremony,
institutions energetically introduced. to enjoin the sanctity of human life, even
Those laws are naturally divided into to the most untutored minds. ‘The legis-
two very different sections, namely: lator ordered even, that the flat roofs of
I. against premeditated murder: and, the houses, which are, in the East, much
II. against unintentional manslaughter, or used, both by day and by night, should
excusable homicide. be surrounded with a parapet or battle-
1. Murder, deliberate and prepense, ment, lest anybody fall down, and the
was, in every case, punished with death, proprietor bring blood over his house
and the same laws applied, in this re- (Deut. xxii. 8). To keep poison, was,
spect, to the Israelite and the foreigner according to the Rabbins, interdicted,
(Levit. xxiv. 22). To take redemption- and if it was found in any Israelite’s
money for such crime, as is the case house, he suffered death (Josephus,
among the Mohammedans, was not per- Antiq. IV. viii. 34). The deeper mo-
mitted; thus the rich murderer would tive of all these laws has already been
have obtained a dangerous prerogative pointed out in our explanation of the
over the poorer criminal, and the prin- sixth commandment; namely, because
ciple of equality would have been de- man is not only a living being, in whose
8070760. The murderer was cursed. blood is the soul, but is created in the
Even from the altar, which was, in an- image of God (Gen. ix. 6). But the in-
cient times, the usual asylum of crimi- tention of murder must be clear beyond any
nals, he could be taken and delivered doubt. If the criminal lay in ambush for
up to death (see on ver. 4). The land his victim, with a known malice in his
was considered desecrated and polluted heart; if he smote him with instruments,
as long as the blood of the murderer had Which manifestly show an intention of
not been shed, and the dwelling-place of murder, whether they are of iron, or
God seemed disgraced (see p. 277). So stone, or wood, he was considered a mur-
great was the horror against bloodshed, derer; but at least two or three (that is,
that even animals which had killed a several) witnesses were required to prove
person, were stoned, and their flesh was the deed legally. In Deut. xix. 11, five
prohibited ; the only end of such extra- conditions are specified, which, only when
ordinary precept was, to fill the people combined, constitute assassination: 1st,
with deeper aversion to every sanguinary hatred against the fellow-man: 2nd, lying
deed (see on ver. 28—32). If a corpse in wait for him: 3rd, the assault against
was found, and the murderer was un- him: 4th, smiting him with a mortal in-
known, and could by no effort be disco- strument or in a mortal manner: and,
vered, the elders of the nearest town 5th, actual death.
killed, at a perennial river, a calf, which 11. But, if no intention of homicide
had not yet borne a yoke, and, washing was obvious, and death ensued from
their hands in the stream, in the presence any uncontrollable cause, without the
of the Levites, the servants of God, pro- motives of hatred or malice, capital
nounced the following solemn words: punishment would, after the just concep-
“Our hands have not shed this blood, tion of the legislator, have been a crime,
neither have our eyes seen it. Be merci- it would be “guilt of blood;” for inno-
ful, O Lord, to Thy people Israel, whom cent blood would be shed (Deut. xix. 10).
 EXODUS ‎‫אא‬ 299

but God lets Aim fall into his hand; then I will appoint
thee a place whither he shall flee. 14. But if a man
But, on the other hand, impunity of be visited with the deserved punish-
such fatal heedlessness would have been ment. But prejudices, and deeply-rooted
highly impolitic; the personal safety traditional customs, cannot be eradicated
of the citizens required measures for de- by an abstract law. Such an attempt
terring even from carelessness. And would be the work of an enthusiast, not
here Moses devised an efficient expedient, of a judicious and sober judge of human
admirably in harmony with the circum- nature. Moses did not try to abolish that
stances, and the notions of his people. custom, but to make it innorious. He
Almost throughout the whole of antiquity, did not wish to exempt the real and in-
as still at present in the East, it devolved tentional murderer from the just resent-
on the nearest relative of a murdered ment of the surviving relative; he was
person, as a holy duty, to revenge his permitted to kill him wherever he found
| kinsman by the blood of his murderer, and him; and every magistrate was bound
| 16 was, therefore, called the “ avenger to assist him in his pursuit: but he
or redeemer of blood; he who neglected wished at least to protect the merely sus-
it was considered infamous. The Goel pected, and yet perhaps innocent, the
was, in fact, considered the legal heir of unintentional, and perhaps quite virtuous,
the rights and duties of his relative; he manslayer, from the indiscriminate rage
had to redeem the property sold by the of the excited relative. Therefore he
latter from poverty (Levit. xxv. 24, et ordered the appointment of six cities
seq.); he had to ransom his person, if he of refuge where such unfortunate persons
had fallen into slavery (vers. 48, 49); to might find an asylum. In order to
marry his widow, if he died without facilitate his flight, it was enjoined on
children; and he had the right to receive the authorities, as a duty, always to keep
the property stolen from his relative, and the roads leading to those towns in perfect
returned by the penitent thief after his repair, to which the traditional exegesis
death (Numb. v.8). Now, such custom adds many other similarly humane pre-
of avenge of blood, may have been neces- cepts. As the Goel might yet, in spite of
sary for the protection of life in the in- these precautions, kill him on his way to
fancy of unorganized states, when the one of the cities of refuge, it was of the
governments were too weak to prosecute highest importance that they were, as
the perpetrators, or to inspire that fear of much as possible, equally distributed
retaliation which alone deters the wicked. throughout the land, and that their dis-
But such custom is, in fact, barbarous in tance from each other was not too great.
its origin, and detestable and sanguinary And these considerations were scrupu-
in its effects. It has exterminated entire lously attended to. Moses himself had
families and tribes; it often destroys the ordered that three such cities be ap-
innocent, whom the Goel, in the heat of pointed immediately after their settle-
his rage, is not always able to distinguish ment in Canaan, and if the territory of
from the guilty; and it tempts to the the Israelites should extend, to set apart
most insidious, most abject, and most im- three more (Deut. xix. 2, 8, 9); and
moral plans of persecution, of which the Joshua executed this command after the
Arabic writers furnish us more than one partial conquest of the land (Josh. xx.
revolting instance. Fain would Moses 7,8). On both sides of the Jordan these
have abolished this whole system of cities were almost equally remote from
avenge of blood, which became perfectly each other, so that the greatest distance
unnecessary as soon as a well-regulated of one asylum to the next amounted to
state, with a powerful executive, was about twelve German miles, and the perse-
established, and the offender was sure to cuted manslayer could thus, at the utmost,
200 EXODUS XXI.
cometh ‘cunningly upon his neighbour, to slay him
' Engl. Vers.—Presumptuously.

not be more than six miles from a city of surround a new salutary one with bene-
refuge. For the towns in the east of the Jor- ficial limits.
dan were: Golan, in Bashan (32°52’N.L.), In his asylum, the fugitive remained
Ramoth, in Gilead (32° 25’), and Bezer till the death of the High-priest; for his
(31° 38’); those in the west: Kadesh, in exile could as little be abridged, as his
Galilee (33° 6’), Shechem (32° 18’), and flight remitted, by redemption-money
Hebron (31° 25’), (Num. xxxy. 32). Ina theocratical state,
But such asylums were intended to such an event is of the greatest moment;
harbour really innocent persons only, and the High-priest was the representative of.
to withdraw them from the revenge of the people; and, with a new head of the
the Goel; as, for instance, if a person cuts state, new legal relations took place; it was
sticks in a forest, and the iron of the axe the only natural epoch in the regular poli-
glides out from the handle, and acci- tical existence, in which an unintentional
dentally kills a man who happens to be murderer might be restored to liberty,
near (Deut. xix. 5). Therefore Moses unless it was intended to punish him for
ordered, further, that every fugitive his offence during his whole life. And
should, at the gates of the city of refuge, this would have been an unnecessary,
be received by the elders or judges, who perhaps an unjustifiable, severity. The
should hear and conscientiously consider unfortunate man, whom a divine decree
his case; and, if they found him innocent, made an innecent criminal, was suffi-
to assign him an abode in the city; but, ciently punished, if he forfeitedhis liberty
if they believed him to be an intentional for an indefinite period; if he was obliged
murderer, to deliver him up to the Goel to leave his property in strange hands,
for punishment (Deut. xix. 11--18; Josh. and to live in a foreign town and ina
xx.45). In difficult cases, he was sent back society unknown to him. But some
to the town where the deed wascommitted, severe punishment was necessary, if such
and where the charge against him could ominous heedlessness was effectually to
best be investigated; and, if he was found be prevented. And thus this measure of
guiltless, he was to be safely returned to the legislator also stands in the just and
the same city of refuge (Num. .‫אאאט‬‎ 25). wise medium. Ifthe Goel killed the perse-
Both Moses and Joshua selected, as asy- cuted after the demise of the High-priest,
lums, Levitical or priestly cities, obviously he was punished with death; but if the
not only on account of their analogy with manslayer left the city of refuge, and was
the Holy city, but also because the priests found and killed by the Goel, the latter
and Levites were the most intelligent had no guilt of blood (Num. xxxy. 26, 27).
portion of the nation, and the most According to some antiquaries, the death
thoroughly versed in the injunctions of of the High-priest was, perhaps, chosen as
the law; they were, therefore, best en- the epoch of release, because it was be-
abled to discern between appearance and lieved, that, by the first great expiatory
truth. Thus, in this salutary institution sacrifice. which the new High-priest
of the cities of refuge, the possible abuse offered (Exod. xxix.), such guilt was
was obviated, that they protected actual atoned ; and Maimonides believes that
criminals ; for this would have been a the national grief at the death of the
pollution of the land, a compassion which highest clerical officer was calculated to
would have endangered the safety of the produce a_ general reconciliation. —In
state (Deut. .(18--11.‫אוא‬‎ And we see Athens, justifiable homicide was pu-
the circumspect wisdom of the legislator, nished with exile of one year.
in one instance, make harmless an old Exceptional severity was used in the
dangerous institution, and in another, punishment of such men, who, although
 EXODUS 1. 01

with guile; thou shalt take him from my altar, that he

may die.—15. And he who smiteth his father or his
unintentionally, killed a woman with and the temple of Diana, at Ephesus,
child, because thus two human lives were where the right of asylum was, in the
destroyed, and such a carelessness de- course of time, more and more extended.
served to be punished as a crime (vers. We need scarcely to observe, how in-
22,23). On the other hand, a mitigation finitely wiser this discriminate legislation
of the law took place, if a master chas- of Moses concerning murder is, than
tised his slave so that the latter expired the vague precepts of Mohammed, which
under the strokes (ver. 20). The master equally involve the innocent and the
was certainly punished, but probably guilty (Koran ii.173): “O you faithful,
only with money. And this will be in cases of murder, the right of retalia-
found less objectionable, if it is con- tion is prescribed to you: a free man for
sidered: 1. That certainly the master a free man, a slave for a slave, and a
has never the intention to kill his servant, woman fora woman. But if the relative
since that would be to his own injury in pardons the murderer, the latter may yet
more than one respect. 2. That the be punished by a legal judgment and with
master is often compelled to punish re- equity. This mildness and compassion
fractory servants; and that it would be comes from your Lord. But he who,
impossible to keep discipline, with many after this, takes still revenge, may expect
slaves, if the master were not permitted severe punishment.” But the Koran (iy.
to use a certain severity, which, in some 94) has also the following law about un-
unhappy cases, might, against the mas- intentional murder: “A faithful must
ter’s will, lead to fatal consequences (see not kill another faithful, except if this
on vers. 20,21). It is further allowed by happen accidentally. But he who kills
Moses to defend oneself against the nightly a believer undesignedly shall, as an ex-
thief; and if the latter was killed in that piation, redeem a believer from captivity
defence, it was no crime of blood. But and pay a sum to the family of the mur-
if this happened in day-time it was a dered, except if they remit it to him. If
| crime, because the aid of the authorities the killed is of a people which lives in
might have been called in against the hostility with you, but was himself a
attacks of the thief (xxii.1,2). It is believer, the atonement is, to release a
obvious, from the laws hitherto specified, faithful from captivity. But, if the people
that, in cases of murder, not the autho- is in friendship with you, a ransom must
rities, civic or criminal, but the Goel, took be paid to the family, and a faithful
the initiative; that, therefore, the mur- redeemed from captivity. But he who is
derer, instead of escaping into one of the unable to pay this, shall fast instead during
cities of refuge, could flee from the coun- two successive months.” And in Sur.
try altogether, and thus avoid the punish- xvii.35: “If a person has been unjustly
ment. This is confirmed both by the killed, we have given his heir power to
analogy of other legislations, as those of persecute him; but he must not be more
the Greeks and Romans, and by examples cruel than necessary in killing him.”
from the history of the Israelites, for According to Chardin, the Persian judges
instance, that of 128710, Absalom, and delivered the murderer up to the Goel
Jeroboam. with the following words: * 1 hand over
Cities of refuge were not unknown to to you the murderer, in accordance with
Greek antiquity, especially for insol- our laws; revenge the blood which he
vent debtors, for slaves who fled from the has shed, but remember that God is just
cruelty of their masters, and even for and merciful.”
murderers. An especially celebrated city 12. This verse expresses the general
of refuge was Daphne, near Antiochia, principle, which was already pronounced
 -- . a /
/ 7

.
>

302 EXODUS XXI.

J

mother, shall surely be put to death.—16. And he who

stealeth a man, and selleth him, or if he be found in his
in Gen. ix. 6: “ Whoso sheddeth man’s of the Goel, leaves the land for some
blood, by man shall his blood be shed”; time, during which the relatives try to
but applies, of course, only to premeditated redeem the murder by a sum of money,
murder, that is, such homicide, as ori- a practice which was not unknown to
ginated in internal enmity, and was exe- the ancient Greeks. But it is evident,
cuted with consciousness, or a homicidium how much this differs from the well-
dolosum. Although the Mosaic code con- regulated and systematically balanced
tains no direct precepts concerning man- legislation of Moses on this subject, who
slaughter committed in the excitement did not permit an intentional murder to
of the moment, in passion, drunkenness, be redeemed bya degrading ransom, as
etc., it may be concluded, from analogy ignominious for the relatives of the mur-
that it was not treated with the severity derer as of the murdered; nor were the
of a premeditated murder, and shared rich encouraged, more boldly to risk san-
perhaps the same privileges as the justi- guinary deeds than the poor.
fiable homicide, which seems, indeed, to 14. The ordinary place of refuge open
be implied in Num. xxxy. 22: if one to the persecuted murderer, was the altar
person kills another ‘suddenly without of a sanctuary, the horns of which he
enmity.” According to an addition in touched (1 Kings 1. 50; ii. 28, et 860.(.
Targum Jonathan, the murderer is to This custom prevailed, to a great extent,
be killed with the sword; generally he among the Greeks and Romans, whose
understands the expression: “he shall be poets and historians frequently allude to it,
put to death,” to mean strangulation, a Among the Arabians also the avenging of
punishment still very prevalent in the blood ceased in holy places. This was
East. About lapidation, see on vers. 15, customary long before Mohammed’s time,
17; and about the different kinds of capi- in the whole neighbourhood round Mecca,
tal punishment in use among the Hebrews, especially in the holy month of assembly,
see Winer, Bibl. Dict. ii. p. 11. —But the unconditional regard for all
13. About unintentional homicide.— who sought refuge at the altar, might
But God let him fall into his hand, that is, lead to serious abuses, and an agreement
if it be done by God’s inserutable design, with unprincipled priests might have given
beyond human foresight or control; for permanent support to many punishable
everything, the cause and end of which crimes. Therefore Moses ordained, that
is unknown, is referred to God as the an intentional murderer —according to
immediate author, who pursues, in all the Rabbins even an officiating priest—
occurrences, His own sublime schemes, could be taken from the altar and led to
Thus is this conception of the Old Testa- death; and the Old Testament furnishes
ment far superior to the belief of the us a striking instance of the strict ad-
classical nations in a blind fate, to which herence to this law in the history of Joab,
even the Gods must’ bend.—According to who having insidiously killed Abner, was
the Rabbins, Moses already appointed on the command of Solomon killed at
even in the desert such places of refuge the very altar, whither he had fled for
for involuntary homicide, perhaps always refuge (1 Kings ii. 98--84(. But the
near the altar (ver. 14) or in the camp of unintentional manslayer found protee-
the Levites.—It is customary among the tion at the altar, till he could, without
Bedouins of the present time, that the danger from the Goel, undertake his
murderer, in order to avoid the revenge flight to the next city of refuge.
5. VIOLATION OF THE RESPECT DUE TO PARENTS, Vers. 15, 17.
In the next three verses punishment of cause no bloodshed, but are moral of-
death is threatened to three crimes, which fences of a flagrant character; for the
 EXODUS XXI. 303

hand, he shall surely be put to death.—17. And he who

curseth his father, or his mother, shall surely be put to
fifteenth verse treats of violence done to lated (Deut. xxi. 18—21), just as those
the parents, the sixteenth of mansteal- who cursed the name of God were stoned
ing, and the seventeenth of cursing the (Lev. xxiv. 10—16). About parricide,
parents. It is, therefore, clear that vers, Moses enacted as little a law as about
15 and 17, necessarily belong together, child-murder, or as Solon about the for-
and we are here spontaneously reminded mer crime, and perhaps from the same
of the remark of Josephus, quoted by reason, because he believed that nobody:
Rosenmiiller: “the laws were written down would commit it. Nor did Romulus,
by Moses sporadically, and as they were according to Plutarch, make any pro-
communicated to him by God” (Antiq. vision against that crime (compare p. 276).
IV. viii. 4). The Sept. places, indeed, However, if really such nefarious deed
ver. 17 before ver. 16.— We have in ever occurred among the Israelites, it
_the notes on the fifth commandment was not difficult to decide how to punish
pointed out the fact, that, according to it, since even the stroke and the contu-
the notions of Mosaism, the parents are macious word, were thought horrid of-
considered as the earthly representatives fences deserving death. The punishment
of divine holiness; and that, therefore, of lapidation was executed before the
the offences against the former are gates of the town; the witnesses, who had
punished with the same rigour as the given evidence before the judges against
transgressions against the latter. It is the disobedient son, threw the first stones;
thus natural, that not only the wicked then followed the whole people (Deut.
deed committed against parents (ver. 15), xy. 5—7). For there existed in the Hebrew
but also the impious word (ver. 17) was monarchy no regularly appointed execu-
punished with death; for violation of tioners; and as every offence was directed
filial duties is, from that point of view, against the state and against the public
commuted into a purely theocratical, that order, the whole people had an interest
is, a civil crime. Therefore, the chastise- in punishing it; the infliction of the
ment of disobedient children was not, as penalties of the law lost thus much of
was the case with the Romans, left to the its cold-hearted barbarity, and was digni-
parents; but the worldly judges enquired fied by a higher political and moral
into such offences, and, if children were element. The original manner of lapi-
found guilty of a rude misdemeanour (ac- dation was probably a tumultuous throw-
cording to the Talmud, of a stroke, which ing of stones by the mob, as appears
caused a wound), or of the utterance of from passages like Exod. xvii. 4; 2 Kings
imprecations, they were stoned or strangu- li, 31, etc.

6. 302001 KIDNAPPING. .‫פת‬‎ 4

“He who stealeth a man and selleth and equal rights, of which they can never be
him, or if he be found in his hand, he entirely divested (see on vers. 1—11). Now
shall surely be put to death.” The same it is natural, that he who steals an Israel-
law is repeated in Deuteronomy xxiv. 7; ite will, in the rarest cases, keep him as
from which passage it is evident, that it his slave or sell him to an Israelite, as
treats of kidnapping a Hebrew; as in our the injured person could, in the Holy
yerse also Targum Onkelos and Septua- Land, easily find means to inform the
gint add. And thus the severity of the authorities of his fate, and thus cause
punishment, death, without the pos- the punishment of his criminal master.
sibility of redemption, cannot appear The latter, therefore, generally sold the
surprising. For all Israelites are con- kidnapped individual to foreign mer-
sidered as free citizens with inalienable chants into distant lands, either to Egyp-
 = -— oe
—_ ‘=> 1
/ ‫לא‬‎

/ 22 2

4 EXODUS 1

death.—18. And if men strive together, and ‫ס‬6‫ת‬0‎

another with a stone, or with fzs fist, and he dieth not,
but is thrown upon his bed: 19. If he rise again, and
tians, who commanded the land-com- sure, to deter from such misdeeds, was,
merce to the south, or to Phcenicians, therefore, necessary. Besides, this slave-
who influenced the trade by sea to the trade was so lucrative, that a pecuniary
west; and opportunities of selling must fine would have been of no effect, as the
have easily offered themselves, as Pales- unprincipled kidnappers could, in the
tine was situated in the exact centre of rare cases of detection, easily bear the
the commerce of the East. But by such mulct from their considerable gains. The
sale, free Israelites became permanent energetic rigour of this law is, therefore,
slaves; they forfeited, with their liberty, perfectly wise, and it stands in favourable
their chief characteristic as Hebrews, and contrast to the gradual and fluctuating
were thus lost to the Hebrew community, legislation of the Romans on this subject.
the more so, as the exclusive intercourse In earlier times, the Lex Fabia ordained,
with pagans must necessarily defile the that if a person bought a freeman, or
purity of their faith, and gradually ac- libertinus, against his will, or if he per-
custom their thoughts to idolatry. For suaded another person’s male or female
this reason it was, in the Mosaic law, servant to run away from a master, or if
interdicted to sell even thieves into he concealed him, he was liable to the
foreign countries, because thereby souls penalties of the law. Here, two things
are, as it were, extirpated from Israel. are confounded which are clearly distin- =
Thus he who kidnapped Israelites and guished in the Mosaic code. Stealing a
sold them to other countries justly de- free man, and making him serve as a
served death, especially if we consider slave, can certainly not be brought into
the most melancholy and bitter lot to the same category with the far less culpable
which the slaves of heathen nations were offence of persuading a slave to escape
generally doomed. ‘The spiritual and from his master, or to protect him on his
physical murder was not too severely flight. The latter was, with laudable hu-
punished with death. And in this sense manity, even commanded by the Mosaic
Philo remarks, pathetically :“The kidnap- law as a duty, whilst the former, if his
per also is a thief, but of the most precious motive was because he wished to possess
treasure on earth. Everybody, therefore, the slave himself, is prohibited in the —
whose mind harbours a love for virtue, tenth commandment. “Both kinds of
must hate the kidnapper intensely and man-stealing,” says Michaelis, “ are very
implacably, for he does not blush, for the different; by the one, the master of the
sake of cursed gain, to impose the yoke slave loses only a property, which is -‫ץה‬‎ =
of servitude upon beings who, by birth, lued by money, and which can be re-
reason, and nature, are his perfect equals. imbursed; by the other, a free man lost
They sell them, for filthy lucre, to slave- something quite invaluable, his liberty,
mongers or to others; they make them and himself.” Further, the penalty of
serve strangers far from their native the Lex Fabia was merely pecuniary,
country, so that they cannot, even in which might, perhaps, have been sufficient
their dreams, hail the land of their an- in the first times of the republic, when
> 0080028, or enjoy, in the remotest degree, the opportunities for the slaye-trade were
any delightful hope.” yet rather limited. Later, the punish-
No doubt that crime was very exten- ment was converted into labour in the
sively committed from early times. mines, or crucifixion for the humiliores, 1
Joseph was, by his own brothers, sold to and confiscation of half their property for
foreign merchants, who again sold him to the honestiores, an invidious distinction,
a foreign master. A very severe mea- of which the Mosaic law is perfectly free,
 EXODUS ‎‫ א‬1. 305

walk abroad upon his staff, then shall he who smote

him be quit; but he shall pay for the loss of his time,
and shall cause him to be thoroughly healed.—20. And if
By a later Senatus consultum, the Fabian this law thus: if the stolen Israelite was,
law was renewed with more rigid clauses, before his being sold, found in the hand
in order to encourage the recovery of of the kidnapper; and they add, that both
runaway slaves. Among the Athenians, conditions were required to constitute the
kidnapping was always capitally punished. crime: the stolen person must have been
Or if he be found; for, as regards the seen in the house of the kidnapper, and
penalty, there can be little difference then have been sold to another, for then
whether a person, after having stolen a only is the offence perfectly clear; but
free Israelite, lets him serve as a slave to this distinction neither lies in the words
another, or uses him himself as such, of the text, nor in the spirit of the legis-
although, as we have observed above, the lation.
former was, no doubt, by far the more 4%. See on ver. 15.
| frequent case. Ancient expositors explain
7. GENERAL PERSONAL INJURY INFLICTED UPON A. FREEMAN. VERS. 18, 19.
The following laws (to ver. 36), treat The stroke was, according to our
text,
mostly of damages and injuries, not of inflicted with a stone, or the fist.—
Then
homicide, and the following verses pro- shall he who smote him be quit.
The
vide for the case, that a free man was Rabbins explain these words thus: “
then
injured in no chief member of the body. the offender shall be released from the
Namely, if a person beats, in a quarrel, prison in which he was incarcerated till
a free Israelite, or a stranger, so that the it was ascertained whether the conse-
latter are thrown on a sick-bed, but re- quences of the stroke would be fatal or
cover again so far as to be able to walk not.” ‘The delinquent must pay a two-
about by the aid of a staff, without fold fine: Ist. the value of the time
having lost any of the principal limbs, which the injured person lost; and 2nd,
he who had beaten them is free, from the whole expences of healing, or, ac-
severe punishment, but he must pay to cording to Josephus, “as much as he
the injured persons for the loss of their paid to the physicians,” to which the
time and must cause their cure from his Rabbins add: 38rd, for the pain: and 4th,
own means. Ifa chief member has been the disgrace. The Romans also had a
injured, the right of retaliation takes place similar law; but it ordains a compen-
(see note on vers. 24, 25, compare Levit. sation for all future losses also which
xxiv.19,20). Ifthe beaten freeman dies in might arise from disabling a member,
consequence of the wounds, however long for instance, if a hand, etc., was maimed,
time afterwards, the offender is treated whereas Moses prescribes only an in-
after the general laws about murder, that demnification for the time of the illness.
is, it is enquired whether the wounds On the other hand, the Roman law dis-
were inflicted designedly or accidentally. penses with a compensation for disfigure-
Impunity was naturally granted if an- ment, which the Mosaic code, according
other cause had co-operated to his death. to the Rabbins, enforces,
8. PersonaL INJURY INFLICTED UPON A SLAVE. VERS. 20, 21.
Chastisement of a servant could not take to suppose, that the Hebrew master
be forbidden; without that means of had complete and arbitrary rule over his
enforcing obedience, the keeping of ser- servants, that he had the power of life and
yants would, in fact, have been impossible death over them. It might be correct,
(see on ver. 12—14). But more than that other nations of antiquity considered
this Moses did not allow. It is a great mis- their slaves as their perfect property,
x
heel

306 | EXODUS XXI. 0

‫א‬

a man smiteth his man-servant or his maid-servant with a

rod, and he dieth under his hand, 'it shall surely be avenged.
' Engl, Vers.—He shall .... be punished,
especially the captives of war, whose to anybody, for he himself was the only
lives the victors spared, when they had person who suffered a damage; he lost in
the power to kill them as their enemies. the slave a very valuable property.
But quite different is the Mosaic law with But that mitigation of the law about
regard to the life of a slave. To the homicide naturally took place only with
Hebrews the principle does not apply: regard to foreign slaves; for the Israelitish
“among all nations we can uniformly servant was in all respects treated like
observe, that the masters were permitted the free man; since he was but a tem-
the full right over life and death of porary hireling, who after six years re-
their slaves”; they did not acknowledge turned to the original state of inde-
that unfeeling rule: “It is admitted that pendence; and a murder committed
servants cannot complain of any injury”; against him exposed the master to the
nor did they content themselves with usual persecution of the Goel. Besides,
the later vague enactment, that it should a foreign slave only can properly be
not be lawful, “to deal too rigorously called “ the money, that is, the permanent
with the slaves.” The life of the property, of the master”; for he only was
Hebrew slave was, in reality, shielded really bought (Ley. xxv. 44—46; com-
and considered sacred like that of a free pare Gen. xvii. 12, 13), and was, like all | =
man, with one almost indispensable modi- other property inherited by the descend- |
fication; namely, if the master chastised ants. The Egyptian law punished the
his servant with a stick, or any other murder of a free man and of a slave
light instrument of a similar nature, equally with death. Herewith the
it was to be supposed, that he intended Mosaic law essentially coincides; with
only to bring him back to obedience and this difference, that it judiciously dis-
discipline, but not to injure him severely. tinguishes between misadventure and
But if he carried this punishment, how- unfeeling barbarity on the part of a
ever lawful in itself, to such extent that master. In Egypt, besides, even a witness
the servant died under his hands, he was who did not prevent a murder, if it was
himself punished; but if he continued to in his power to do so, was considered
live one or two days more, the master guilty of capital punishment.
suffered no punishment: “for it is his From all this, it is evident, that an
money,” that is, the death of his servant accidental death of a foreign slave in
is, in itself, to him a sufficient loss.— consequence of just chastisement was not
From these principles follows naturally: punished capitally: for a) the phrase
1. If a person smote the servant of an- “it shall be avenged,” instead of the
other, the usual laws about such offences usual expression, “he shall be put to
came into power; and 2. If a master death,” denotes merely punishment in
smote his own servant with an instru- general; 6) the difference of the punish-
ment, which lets us suppose no mere ment between the case, that the servant
chastisement, as with a sword, an axe, a dies immediately, or one or two days
stone, or the like, he was treated like a later, could not be so very great; but
murderer, and enjoyed no privileges as capital punishment, in the first case,
a master: for the use of murderous arms would certainly be quite abnormal, if
against free men also was considered to the master is perfectly free in the
involve the intention of murder (Num. second: ‘‘because it is his money”; and
‎‫ואאא‬, 16--18(; and, 3. If the servant 6( the analogy of other eastern nations,
lived some days after the ill-treatment of especially of the Mohammedans, teaches =
his master, the latter had to pay no fine us that offences against slaves were
 EXODUS XXI. 307

21. But if he continue a day or two, *it shall not be

avenged, for he 7s his money.—22. If men strive, and
2 Engl. Vers.—He shall .... be punished.

not so severely punished. Moham- cause of his servant’s death, was capitally
med prescribes death only, “if a free punished. For that principle applies
man kills a free man, or a slave a evidently to felonious homicide only, as
slave,” but not if a free man killed a the following verse, which treats of justi-
slave, which is, however, according to fiable homicide, clearly shows. But it
the preceding exposition, so mitigated in is, in fact, difficult to comprehend the
the Mosaic right in favour of the servants, logic of those, who will, internally, admit
that the death must be a consequence of no difference between mere misdeed and
a just chastisement; if arbitrariness or felony ; as if the accidental manslayer is
malice is the cause of the servant’s death, likewise to be considered as a wicked and
it is considered as a felonious homicide. depraved being, to whom God sends such
| Therefore, the Talmudical interpretation accidents as a deserved punishment. If
that execution by the sword was the this were the case, why does the Mosaic
punishment for killing a slave, is doubt- law so anxiously provide for his safety
ful; it is rather probable, that in such in cities of refuge, and characterize his
cases the judge, after having carefully death as shedding innocent blood? Those
examined the cause, imposed upon the critics are obliged to take their models
master an adequate fine, which was cer- of legislation from Pittakus and— the
tainly not less than thirty silver shekels, Icelanders! Perfectly free from punish-
the average price of a slave. The general ment was the master only then, if the
principle laid down in ver. 12: “he who chastisement of the slave did not occasion
beats a man so that he dies, shall be put the loss of any principal member, which
to death,” cannot be adduced as a proof case is provided for in vers. 26 and 27.
that the master, who was the accidental

9. INJURING A MEMBER OF A FREE MAN. VER. 22—25.

The following law treats of corporal shalt give life for life, eye for eye,
injuries in a certain complicated case, tooth for tooth, hand for hand, foot for
and breathes also the character of foot, burning for burning, wound for
humane consideration for the weaker wound, stripe for stripe.” This precept,
party, and of respect for the personal which is here applied to an individual case
safety of the people. It may not be un- is in Ley. xxiv. 19, 20, thus generalized
frequent in the East, that women throw to a fundamental law: “If a man cause
themselves between their quarrelling hus- a blemish in his neighbour; as he hath
bands, or other men, in order to compose done, so shall it be done to him”
the strife by their entreaties, and even by (compare Judg. i. 7; 1 Sam. xy. 38).
their mere appearance, which is the more This law, which is known under the
likely among the Hebrews, if we consider name of right of retaliation, has been
the esteem and liberty which the women branded as barbarous, and has been
enjoyed (see p.279—281, and on ver. 22). more than once adduced as a trium-
Now if such a woman was with child, phant proof of the sanguinary character
and if one of the men, from heedlessness of Mosaism, especially as the New Testa-
or design, smote her thus that she ment (Matth. v. 38, 39) seems to dis-
aborted, he had, on complaint of her approve of it, and commands: “But I
husband, to pay a fine according to the say to you, That you resist not evil:
estimation of the judge. But if the but whosoever will smite thee on thy
woman suffered besides another bodily right cheek, turn to him the other also
injury, the legislator ordains: “thou (compare Jer. 111.27 ; Talmud, Sabb. 88 6).
x42

4
 308 ‎‫י‬ EXODUS XXL
hurt a woman with child, so that her fruit depart from —
her, and yet no mischief follow: he shall surely be

But for the unimpassioned, impartial historical development of this law: “The
and historical criticism of our law, the punishment for a disabled member was, 9
following points are to be considered :— according to the law of the Twelve Ta- i
1. Moses has not introduced that prin- | 0168, the retaliation: but for a broken
ciple of retaliation, but only tolerated it, bone, pecuniary fines were fixed, con-
from the same wise motive and with the | sidering the great poverty of the earlier
same profound knowledge of human Romans. But later the praetor permitted
nature, which induced him not to inter- those, who had suffered an injury, to
fere with polygamy, avenging of blood, value it, so that the judge condemned the
and many other old institutions, which, offender either to that sum, which they
2 as we can clearly infer, he would have had mentioned, or to a smaller fine, as
: gladly abrogated, had he not feared to he thought proper. But the penalty
meet, in such attempt, with insuperable fixed by the law of the Twelve Tables,
W resistance. The right of retaliation is the fell into disuse; and that which the
eeae
PYee
first, the most natural, and among all preetors proposed was acted upon in the
a primitive nations the most usual method, courts of justice. For, according to the
of punishing for personal attacks, and degree of the dignity and the standing
of deterring from them for the future; in life, the estimation of the injury
and it is, in fact, based on no other becomes greater or smaller.” This leads ©
) principle than that, from which the us spontaneously—
avenging of blood has sprung. It was 2. To another mitigating circumstance
an ancient Egyptian law, that scribes in our opinion on the Hebrew right of reta-
who kept false accounts, made erasures liation. Bodily injuries could undoubt-
from public documents, forged a signa- edly, by agreement with the sufferer, be
ture, or altered any agreement without redeemed with pecuniary compensation;
a _ the consent of the parties, were punished | anda literal retaliation of member against
with the loss of both their hands, on the member, did not take place, except in
>
principle, that the offending member that very rare case, that the offended
should suffer. Therefore, it is not only party was implacably revengeful. For —
| still generally resorted to in the East, whilst Moses expressly and<emphatically
but was applied among those nations of interdicted the redemption of a murder
antiquity which we still admire,in many by money (Num. xxxy. 31), he enjoins no
respects, as models of civilisation and similar precept with reference to injuries, —
refinement, the Greeks and Romans: which are certainly open to an amicable a
it was even retained by that legislator, arrangement conformable to old customs.
with whose name we are accustomed to ‘Thus the Twelve Tables also speak of 1
connect a high notion of humanity and the right of retaliation only in the case —
wisdom, Solon; but it was sanctioned by | that both parties come to no agree- q
him in a form which throws a brighter ment; and the passage above quoted —
and more favourable light on the leniency from the Institutiones shows, that the
of the Hebrew legislator. For he ordains: literal talio was soon entirely abolished,
“if a person strike out oneeye of another, instead of which, in all cases of personal |
ro he shall lose both his eyes.” Further, the injury, a pecuniary fine was substituted.
9 Roman Twelve Tables contain the follow- And this was indubitably the case in the
ing law: “if a person injures another’s juridical practice of the Hebrews also; so
member, there shall be retaliation, unless remarks Josephus (Antiq. IV. viii. 35):
both parties come to an agreement;” and =“ He who maims any one, let him undergo
in the Institutiones we read about the the like himself, and be deprived of the
 EXODUS ‎‫]אא‬. 9

punished, according as the woman’s husband will lay

upon him; and ‘he shall: bring 7 before the judges.
' Engl. Vers.—He shall pay as the judges determine.

same member of which he has deprived have done to me, so will I do to them’
the other, unless he who is maimed will (Judg. xv. 11); and yet did Samson not
accept of money instead of it; for the take (or intend to take) their wives and
law makes the sufferer the judge of the give them to others; but simply he took
value of what he has suffered, and permits revenge upon them [compare Lev. xxiv. 18:
him to estimate it, unless he will be more “he that killeth a beast shall pay for it;,
severe.” The Talmud distinctly states beast for beast” ].—Ben Suta: Then, if
it as a principle: “for the soul of a mur- the offender was poor, what shall be his
derer you shall not take redemption, but punishment? [if we substitute a fine? ].—
you may even take redemption for such Saadiah: If a blind man strikes out the
principal members which are not repro- eye of another, what shall be done to
duced”; and Maimonides asserts, after him? The poor man might become rich
the same authority, that a member was
——~ and then pay; but the blind man could,
not actually maimed for a member, but after your literal acceptation of the text,
that its value to the injured person was never suffer the deserved punishment.
estimated and paid by the offender. And we must accept it as a rule, that
. And thus was this law understood by we cannot thoroughly understand the
almost all Jewish interpreters, who sup- precepts of the Law, unless we adhere
ported their opinion by the remotest to the explanations given by our sages
tradition (with the only exception of the of blessed memory. For as we have
Sadducees and Karaites); and _high- received the written Law from our fore-
ly interesting is the discussion of fathers, so have we received the Oral
Saadiah with the Karaite Ben Suta, which Law from them; there is no difference
Ebn Ezra quotes, and which shows at between the one and the other in this
the same time, that even the wording of respect.”
the holy text admits unforcedly of such The reader finds in this passage also
interpretation:—“ Rabbi Saadiah said: an allusion to the difficulty, nay impossi-
We cannot interpret this verse literally; bility, to exercise the retaliation with
for if a person strikes the eye of another exact justice, since it is very precarious,
so that he loses the third part of his sight, in spite of the greatest carefulness, to
how is it possible to inflict upon him injure the member of another, only just as
exactly a similar wound, without addition much as he has himself injured his neigh-
or diminution, so that he shall not perhaps bour. Michaelis also has called attention
lose the entire use of his eye? And this to this point, and, besides, to the cir-
is still more difficult with a burning, or cumstance that the pain of one who is
wound, or stripe; for if they were in- previously informed, that an eye will be
flicted on a dangerous part, they may coolly torn out of him, is by far more
cause death; and this is absurd.—But acute and excruciating, than the sufferings’
Ben Suta rejoined: Is it not written in of one who loses it suddenly and unex-
another passage (Ley. xxiv. 20): ‘Ifa pectedly; for the former feels the agony
man cause a blemish in his neighbour; athousand times magnified in anticipation,
as he hath done so shall it be given to by his tormented imagination: therefore
him ?—Saadiah: The sense of this passage if equal justice, strictly and severely
is: so shall the punishment be imposed balanced, was the end of the legislator,
upon him.—Ben Suta: But we read plain- the literal exercise of the retaliation
ly: ‘ As he hath done, so it shall be done would be the least appropriate means Of
to him’ (Ib. ver. 19).—Saadiah: Behold, securing it. However, it must not he
Samson had said quite similarly: ‘as they overlooked, that the jus talionis was

i
 4

310 | EXODUS .1‫אא‬‎

23. But if any mischief follow, then thou shalt give life
for life, 24, Eye for eye, tooth for tooth, hand for hand,
intended at the same time as a punishment would it be just, in order to exercise the
for crimes and a warning for ill-disposed jus talionis, to deprive such a man of the ‫א‬
persons; and that, therefore, the offender only eye left to him? and would this ‫ג‬

justly suffers more pain than he, who punishment be commensurate with the
had been innocently mutilated. However, offence he has committed? Just as little
thus much is certain, that the redemption as if a painter’s right hand was cut off, Sa

by money, or its equivalent, was the with which he supports himself and his
usual Hebrew practice in cases of per- family, because he injured the hand of
sonal injury; and it is still so among a singer, who maintains himself by his
the Arabs, of which Burckhardt gives a voice. — If we compare the right of
clear instance, which is also quoted by compensation for corporal injuries after
‫כ‬
‫‏וו‬i

Kitto: “Bockhyt called Djolan a dog; the Hebrew and the Roman law, we
Djolan returned the insult by a blow do not find in the former the tyran-
upon Bockhyt’s arm; and Bockhyt nical distinction which the latter admits
wounds Djolan’s shoulder with a knife. between the limbs of a poor and a
The Kadi now reckons thus: -Bockhyt rich man, of a person of high and low
owes to Djolan, for the insulting ex- rank; all citizens are equal before the
pression, one sheep; for the wounding law, and the injuries of all are valued
him in the shoulder, three camels; Djolan after the same standard; the only dis-
owes to Bockhyt, for the blow on his tinction adopted in the Mosaic code is
arm, one camel; therefore remain due to that between free men and. servants; and
Djolan, one sheep and two camels,”— even the latter had no reason to be dis-
Even the Koran (v.49)permits redemption satisfied with the provisions introduced
by alms; and Lane (Modern Egypt i. 145) by Moses in those cases, of which our
thus describes the practice at present in text treats (see on vers, 26, 27).
use in Egypt: “The fine for a member 8. The law of retaliation evidently
that is single (as the nose) is the whole applies only to intentional mutilations,
price of blood, as for homicide; for a inflicted by lurking deceit, by insidious- |
member of which there are two, and not ness or treachery; this we are justified
more (as a hand) half the price of blood; to infer from the analogy of unintentional
for one of which there are ten (a finger homicide, which was only punished with
or toe), a tenth of the price of blood: ‎‫ ה‬temporary exile; accidental injuries
but the fine of a man for maiming or must, therefore, have been treated much
wounding a woman, is half of that for more leniently. The case to which our
the same injury to a man [the Mosaic text alludes forms an exception: if a
code makes no such difference between woman with child was, by the careless- _
the two sexes; if there is one, our text ness of quarrelling persons injured; be-
shows rather a consideration for the cause, as we have already observed in
weaker sex]: and that of a free person p.305, a severer punishment was necessary
for injuring a slave, varies according to in a case, in which, besides the health of
the value of the slave.” It is further the mother, the thriving, or even the
evident, that the blind and indiscriminate existence of the yet unborn offspring was
retaliation would in no manner be just, endangered )566 on yer, 23),
of which fact ancient commentators and These arguments will suffice to con-
philosophers already have pointed out vince the reader, that the Mosaic law
several examples; for instance, a one-eyed of retaliation, far from being cruel and
person has the misfortune to knock out, ferocious, as it has too often been decried,
in a passion, one eye of another, who is bears the same character of moderation
in the enjoyment of his two sound eyes, and regard for human life, which dis-
 EXODUS XXI. dll

foot for foot, 25. Burning for burning, wound for

wound, stripe for stripe.—26. And if a man smiteth the eye
tinguishes the Mosaic law in all its enact- not permit several things on account of
ments. It remains, therefore, only to the hardheartedness of the people, would
refute the objection, that Christ appears be extremely unwise.” —We will not enter
in the Sermon on the Mount to reject into the irrelevant attacks upon the Phari-
this law of “eye for eye.” With regard sees; but the chief point of this deduc-
to this difficulty, we prefer to quote the tion is simple, that here civil, not purely
words of Michaelis, who remarks (Mos. R. ethical laws are specified; the former are
vy. p. 60): “Christ does not blame the enjoined, in order to deter the bad; they
law of Moses: eye for eye, tooth for must, therefore, neither be too lenient,
tooth; since he does, in that whole pas- nor pre-suppose a state consisting entirely
sage, not speak of Moses, whom he of “regenerated” citizens; and, in fact,
neither interprets nor refutes, but of a our own Christian legislation could not
questionable moral preached by the dispense with similar principles; life is
Pharisees in the name of Moses. These punished with life, and intentional injuries
confounded, as they have done more than are visited with more than equivalent
once, civil right and morality ; and if in penalties. Not even the most sentimental
the doctrines of ethics the question was and romantic legislator has ever had
proposed: How far am I allowed to the fancy to pardon all criminals out of
pursue my revenge? they answered with Christian love. For, in reality, every
words, which Moses did by no means simple law in our penal codes is based on
address to the offender, but to the sufferer the jus talionis, with the limitation. that
or the judge: ‘eye for eye, tooth for tooth.’ bodily mutilation is converted into an
That Christ did not intend to contradict adequate pecuniary fine, or incarceration;
or blame the laws of Moses, but only the but the same modification has been uni-
Pharisees, is evident, if we compare him versally adopted by traditional Judaism.
with Moses. The Hebrew legislator ad- Quite different is the case with the
dresses the magistrate, or the offender, moral law, if neither the person nor the
who had inflicted personal injury upon property has been attacked, but insults
his fellow-man, and speaks thus: * Thou, and mortifications were inflicted; in such
criminal, hast deserved to give eye for cases a perfect pardon is a religious duty;
eye, tooth for tooth; and thou, judge, art and the Mosaic law expressly prescribes:
bound to condemn him to that punish- “Thou shalt not hate thy brother in thy
ment.’—But Christ manifestly addresses heart,” or “Thou shalt not avenge, nor
the offended person, and forbids him to bear any grudge; but thou shalt love thy
be vindictive: ‘You have heard, that it neighbour as thyself” (Lev. xix. 18, 19),
hath been said, An eye for an eye, anda to which principle we shall recur in due
tooth for a tooth. But I say to you, place. That the right of retaliation is
that you resist not evil; but whosoever just in principle and theory, is unques-
will smite thee on thy right cheek, turn tionable; for it is an exact retribution of
_ to him thy other also.’ How these last the offence committed; and the more im-
words are to be understood, and whether partial a legislation is, the more frequent-
I am, indeed, to hold up my other cheek, ly is that principle applied as the leading
if the one has been struck, does not con- idea. In Mosaism, it is distinctly pro-
cern me at present, for I cannot explain nounced as a general rule (Deut. xix.
here the Sermon on the Mount. But as 19, 20); it is the foundation of the laws
long as the people does not consist of concerning murder (Gen. ix. 6), theft,
citizens, who are entirely so as the Sermon false witness and corporal injury. But
on the Mount wishes them to be, civil we must repeat, that, with the exception of
laws, which, as Christ himself says, do murder, it was never carried out to the

- ‫שה‬
 EXODUS IR
. As / Fe 1 4 =e '

PA . oy 4

of his man-servant, or the eye of his maid-servant. 4 7 4 pce! ‫ו‬‎

th at 4
peris h;
he shall let him go free for his eye’s sake
.i
27. And if he smite out his ian-servant’s
tooth, o r his |
letter; prudence and moderation warned the husband upon the offender, or reduce
to insist upon a right, which, if executed it, if he deem it exorbitant.
with obstinate severity, would have been 238. According to the Talmud, and in
converted into a most inexcusable in- harmony with the preceding explana-
justice. tions, he who kills a woman ina quarrel
22. It appears, that women endeavoured shall only pay the value of life, since he
by their interference to reconcile the alter- did not intend homicide, . + -
,
cations of men, who had proceeded, or
=

24. Here some members are enumera-

threatened to proceed to violence; a prac- =
ted for the sake of illustration; but the
tice which, according to Kalbe (Descript. same principle, expressed in the text,
of the Cape of Good Hope, p. 405) is usual is
equally applicable to all other cases
among the Hottentots: “If a woman of
mutilation, A strict anti-climax from
steps between two contending men, they the more important to the less essenti
will give up their dissension for the al
members, which some have artificially
present, and wait for an opportunity to -
found in our verse, seems scarcely in-
resume their dispute in the absence of tended by the sacred author.
women. ‘They never do the least harm 25. According to Jewish tradition, the .
to a female, not even in the hottest offender has in all these cases to pay |
Struggle and fiercest rage.”—The con-- 1. the damage; 2. the loss of time; 3. the
cerned parties are ordered to appear before expences of the cure; 4. the disfigure-
the judge, that he might either confirm ment; and 5. the pain. See p, 305.
the amount of compensation imposed by

10. InguRING Tak MEMBER ‫סע‬‎ A SLAVE. Vers. 26, 27.

THE law about the mutilation of a slave, inflicted upon a free man. Here, in our
_ which comprises the servant of non-
verses, the pecuniary loss is the punish-
- Israelitish descent also, is conceived in a
ment of the master, for a slave is the
spirit more favourable to the servant than 4
property, which he loses by his cruelty
the master. The loss of any member, from (compare ver. 21); and so also is the —
the most essential and noblest, the eye, mutilation of a freeman punished with
down to the least indispensable, the tooth, a ‘
fine, except in unusual: cases of irreco
if that loss is a consequence of brutal treat- n-
cilable vindictiveness, And thus the milder
ment on the part of the master, causes the _
interpretation of the right of retuliation,
immediate manumission of the slave (see
as a pecuniary compensation, finds, from
on ver. 1--6. p. 289). It is unnecessary to |
this side also, a substantial confirmation
point out the very important and efficient - , —
The Rabbins apply this whole law exclu-
protection which this law secured to the _
sively to non-Israelitish slaves. The
subordinate persons. If the punishment
Hebrew slave, they say, was to be
might result in the loss of the servant, its treated —
entirely like the free Hebrew citizen
excess was necessarily checked; for every , and 1
received, therefore, quite the same
master naturally refrained from risking in-
demnifications as the latter af

so serious a consequence. (see on ver, |

The Rab- 25), but had no claim to immed
bins enumerate twenty-four iate re-
mem- lease, which he obtained after six
bers, the mutilation of which they say years,
according to the general
is included in our law. law about
This law is, slaves. However, the master was
in fact, perfectly analogous to the pre- scarcely
bound to pay the injured slave
ceding one concerning bodily injuries for > the.
loss of time,” which entirely
belonged
 =~
."-
,

EXODUS XXI. 313

maid-servant’s tooth; he shall let him go free for his

tooth’s sake.—28. If an ox goreth a man or a woman, that
they die; then the ox shall surely be stoned, and his flesh
to the master; nor was it necessary emperors often found it necessary to
to command him to cause the cure check the ill-treatment to which the
of the slave, as this was his own in- slaves were exposed from the masters.
terest. It is, therefore, all but certain, Thus Hadrian banished a matron for five
that our law treats of Hebrew as well as years because she acted cruelly against
of foreign slaves. Punishments were her maidservants from insignificant rea-’
sometimes indispensable; and against ex- sons, and it was felt that obedience of the
cesses in this respect our law secures to servants is more effectually secured by
the servant a sufficient guarantee.— It moderation and kindness than by unfeel-
appears that, in later times, the Roman ing severity.

11. INJURY CAUSED BY A BEAST. VERS, 28—832.

a. If the injured person is a free man (vers, 28—31).
b. If he is a slave (ver. 32).
Sucu injuries even as are caused by sword with which a murder had been
beasts, are considered and provided for committed, in Toulouse, was, accord-
by the circumspect legislator. As an in- ing to the sentence of the judges, hung
stance, a goring ox is chosen; but the up at the gallows, because the criminal
same law applies, probably, as the old could not be discovered. The Salic law
interpreters assert, to all other animals of the old Franks, and that of the Anglo-
also, and the Samaritan codex has, in Saxons, contained similar clauses. The
yer. 28, an addition to this effect. anxiety of the Hebrew legislator, to pre-
Now, in order to implant the horror vent bloodshed by a series of impressive
against murder, or any mutilation of the laws, seems, in fact, to have been re-
human body, by all possible means, such warded by the happiest results, since that
beasts as, in their wild instinct, caused crime generally appeared in a surprisingly
the loss of a human life, were put to limited extent among the Hebrews, whilst
death, and their flesh was interdicted for the legislators of other ancient nations
all uses. For no crime whatever against contented themselves with some unsys-
the godlike image should remain un- tematic attempts which could not pro-
punished, and every impression of the duce the desired effect.
senses was called to aid, to increase the It is natural, that the proprietor of the
internal aversion to such nefarious deeds, animal which had caused the mischief,
Legislative acts against, and punishment was free from other punishment besides
of, animals, were, besides, not unusual in the 1088 of the beast. The case 18, how-
antiquity. According to Plutarch, Solon ever, different, if the savage nature of the
ordained, “that a dog, which had bitten, animal was known, and the proprietor
should be handed out to the authorities had been duly warned; if some misfor-
fettered with shackles four ells long.” tune happened under such circumstances,
Demosthenes mentions a decree of Dracon, not only the beast was killed, but the
that not only men and animals, but even master also deserved death, as by his
lifeless things, with which a man had heedlessness human life had been sacri-
been killed, should be removed from the ficed. However, as death occasioned by
land; and Pausanias relates a process such accident could not be punished as
against the axe of the priest of Zeus severely as an intentional and deceitful
Polieus, because the priest himself had murder, redemption by money 18 per-
quitted the land. Michaelis remarks mitted, after a just and liberal valuation,
even, that so late as in the year 1540, the If a slave was thus killed, his master -6‫ע‬‎
314 EXODUS XXI.
shall not be eaten; but the owner of the ox shall be quit.
29. But if the ox were wont to push in time past, and it
hath been testified to his owner, and he hath not kept him
in, so that he killed a man or a woman; the ox shall be
stoned, and his owner also shall be put to death. 30. If
there be laid on him a redemption; then he shall give for
the ransom of his life whatsoever is laid upon him.
ceived the indemnification, which was, of the proprietor of the dangerous animal.
according to the average price, fixed at Son and daughter stand, therefore, in op-
thirty shekels (see on ver. 32). Thus we position to man and woman, in ver. 29.
see here also, an exact and just propor- 32. The free Israelite was usually
tion between guilt and punishment. valued at fifty silver shekels (Levit.
28. Philo explains: “It was not right xxvii. 3); the slave, according to our
to offer such animal as a sacrifice, or to passage, at thirty. The normal weight, ace
Ta
te
R
Sl
ER
eat it, because no man ought to use as his and, later, the normal coin, was the
food any part of a beast which has killed shekel. Much sagacity and ingenuity
a man.” The Rabbins go still farther, have been displayed to discover its
and prohibit even the remotest enjoyment weight and its value, and after many
or profit of the flesh of such animal. unsuccessful attempts, most of the He-
29. The proprietor of a beast which brew antiquaries have returned to the
was known as dangerous, was also to be statement of the Rabbins, that a holy
killed, because, as Josephus observes: shekel is equal in weight to 320 middle
“he was the cause of the death of the barley-grains. There are still some
person who was killed by his ox.” The genuine Jewish shekels preserved from
Talmud understands the punishment here the time after the exile, for before that
as death “by the hand of heaven.” period no money was, probably, coined
30. But the capital punishment could under public authority, although half-
be redeemed by money. This is, as Ebn shekels, and a fourth part of that coin
Ezra justly observes, not in opposition were known (Exod. xxx. 13; 1 Sam. ix.
with the principle enjoined in Numb. 8). In the year 173 or 174 of the Seleu-
‎‫ טאאא‬31, not to take redemption, for that cidic era, the Syrian government granted
law treats of insidious murderers, whilst to prince Simon the privilege of coining; =
in our case no murder is committed, but and he ordered whole, half, and quarter
homicide, caused by blameable heedless- shekels to be struck. The emblems were,
ness. The price was of course fixed by a manna- or sacrifice-vessel, and a bloom-
the judges. ing Aaron’s rod or a lily. The inscrip-
31. Son and daughter are here under- tions, in old Hebrew characters, contain
stood by Targum Onkelos and Jonathan, the value of the coin, the year, and the ©
to refer to Israelites, in opposition to the name of the prince. These shekels weigh,
Canaanitish slaves, of whom, as they be- according to Barthélemy, between 256
lieve, the following verse treats. But the and 2712 Parisian grains; and, if we |
Hebrew idiom is more favourable to the allow some addition for the wear and ©
acceptation of Rashi and others, that tear, we may put down the weight of the
those expressions apply to younger per- sacred shekel, with Boeckh, at 274 Pa-
sons of both sexes, who, as perhaps many risian grains, which is equivalent to the
might believe, ought to be better guarded Eginetic didrachmon; and the Septuagint
by their parents or relatives, and whose translates, in fact, shekel with that Greek
accident might be rather ascribed to their word, and this is, in silver, about 2s. 7d.
carelessness than to any fault on the part But it is generally assumed, after the
 1
,
i
‫ג‬ EXODUS 1. 315

31. Whether he hath gored a son, or gored a daughter,

according to this judgment shall it be done to him.
32. If the ox gore a man-servant or a maid-servant; he
shall give to their master thirty shekels of silver, and the
ox shall be stoned.—33. And if a man openeth a pit, or if
aman diggeth a pit, and doth not cover it, and an ox or an
ass fall therein ; 34. The owner of the pit shall pay for
Rabbins, that the ordinary shekel in lent to 822,000 Parisian grains, so that a
use in earlier periods, was only half of talent of silver is equal to about £400 ster-
the weight of the sacred shekel, or ling, and a talent of gold to about£ 4,000 to
of the shekel of “royal weight”; although £6,000. Therefore, the punishment fixed
the expressions used in the Old Testa- in our verse would be 72s. 6d. if we take
ment seem, literally, to imply little more here the sacred shekel to be meant, which
than a shekel regulated by royal decree,
——~<. sum will not be deemed inadequate, if we
and, as such, available for sacred pur- consider that, in ancient times, money
poses (see 2 Kings xii. 5, and Gen, xxiii. had fifteen or twenty times its present
16). Michaelis takes the proportion of value (according to others, even fifty
both shekels, as 3to5. Twenty gerahs times more). Josephus mentions as the
were one shekel; half a shekel wasabekah; price of a slave 120 drachmas, or 97s. 6d.;
100 shekels made probably a mina; and it is a matter of course, that, for superior
3,000 made a talent, which is equiva- slaves, it was considerably higher.
‫ תי‬THE RIGHT OF PROPERTY, XXI. 33—XXII. 14.‫‏‬
.12 Ir ir 13 ENDANGERED BY NEGLECT or Oruers. VERS. 33, 34.‫‏‬
After the right of persons has been neighbourhood are watered together: for
treated in all its possible relations, follow if they were left open, the water which
the laws about injury done to property, they contain would soon, by the sand
either indirectly by carelessness (ver. which the wind drives into it, be troubled,
33—36), or directly by theft or defrauda- if not entirely covered (see Gen. xxix. 2,3),
tion (ver. 37—-xxii. 14).— The first of and Josephus (Antiq. IV. viii. 37), re-
these laws treats of a case, in which a marks: “Let those who dig a well
person is but the very remote occasion or a pit, be careful to lay planks over
of aloss. Namely, if he opens a pit al- them, and so keep them shut up, not in
ready existing in public places or streets, order to hinder any person from d:awing
or digs a new one without covering it, water, but that there may be no Canger
he may become the cause of the death of falling into them from inadvertency.
of an animal, which falls into that pit. However, about the case, that a human
In this case, he shall pay to the proprietor being falls into such open pit, the legis-
the value of the animal; but the dead lator has made no provision; for a man
beast belongs to himself. This is un- may, by some precaution, avoid the
doubtedly a just law, which not only danger. That cases of such kind really
protects those who possess cattle against occurred is evident from several passages
a frequent source of damage; but which, (Ps. vii. 16; cxix. 85, etc.). But he ordains
as Ebn Ezra remarks, is calculated to that he, who omits to make a battlement
prevent animals from being sacrificed around the roof of his house, must accuse
bootlessly without serving the use and himself of guilt of blood, if a misfortune
convenience of man.—It is well-known, happens; and this offers an analogy,
that the Oriental cisterns are usually from which we may infer, that if a person
covered with a large stone, which is re- fell into an uncovered pit, the author of
moved, when the flocks of the whole the accident was deemed guilty, although
 ae

316 EXODUS GSalee > 7

1 ier ‫א‬‎

at, and give money to their owner, and the seat beastshall|
be his. —35. And if one man’s ox hate another’s, that he
die; then shall they sell the live ox, and divide the money
of it; and the dead ox also they shall divide. 36. Or if |
the Rabbinical right declares him inno- human lives might be risked by such
cent. But some severity was certainly carelessness.
necessary, if we consider, that many
18. Ir onE Man’s ANIMAL IS INJURED BY THAT OF ANOTHER. VERS, 35, 36.
From the loss, which a person causes carelessness.—But if it was known to the
to the property of another, the legislator master that the ox was goring, and if he
passes to the damage, which is done by had been warned (see ver. 29, which
one animal to another. If, for instance, words the Sept. here add again), he was
an ox kills the ox of another, the former bound to pay the full value of the dead
is sold, and the money divided between ox, which, besides, belonged to the in-
both proprietors, as is also done with the jured party. This is the Talmudical
killed ox. For here is no guilt on either interpretation of the words: * and the dead
part, but merely an accident. However shall be his.” The pronoun his is ambi- |
Rashi observes justly, that this law could guous; but from the severity of the punish-
be applied in the case only, if both oxen ment in ver. 29, with reference to an ox
were of nearly the same value; for else it known to be goring, we may conclude, =
might happen, that the master of the that the master must bear a greater loss =
goring animal gained a considerable ad- than merely the payment of the price of
vantage by the division of the much more the killed ox, for which indemnification —
valuable ox which was killed; and thus the latter wouldmeg: to him. |
it would encourage rather than check the
14. Laws aBout THEFT. VER. 37—XXII. 4
.=‫לק‬‎
“We shall in these ordinances also dis- sesses property, commits the offence Sean
5ee
nl: Jars
A7, cover the same legislative wisdom, with avarice, whilst he, who is destitute of the ,
which, in all instances, the proportion means of supporting himself, commits it 1
between offence and punishment has been from antipathy to honest activity. From |
balanced, and with which everywhere the this principle the two chief laws of Moses =
existing circumstances have been judi- with regard to theft are self-evident;
ciously regarded. The purely moral namely: 1. The thief shall restore the
prohibition is contained in the eighth theft doubly, if it is still found untouched |
and tenth commandments, and is re- in his hands (xxii.3); and 2. If he 2
peatedly enjoined (Ley. xix. 11); these unable to pay the fine, he shall be sold
verses specify the penal laws. Now it is into servitude to a Hebrew master, and
known, that there are especially two serve him till he can pay the fine
motives inducing to theft: 1. avarice, (ver. 2). By these arrangements th91
and 2. in cases of poverty, indolence and | avaricious will be effectually induced to
aversion to work, for the former case there contentment with his own lawful property, —
is no more appropriate punishment than whilst the lazy will be prompted to legi-
enhanced restitution of the stolen goods; timate and \spontaneous activity. But
and for the latter, none is more efficient the Mosaic code establishes further the
than forced and hard labour. And these following appropriate gradation: 3. Lf
are, indeed, the two kinds of punishment, the thief has, before his detection, appli
which Moses introduced for theft. He the theft to his own uses; for instance,
seems, besides, to have started from the he has killed stolen cattle, a still mor
point of view, that the thief, who pos- increased fine 18 imposed upon him,

Fe ‎‫ ו‬ee SP VS ee ee 2 ‎‫אפ‬ ae Se. oe

 EXODUS 1 317

it be known that the ox was wont to push in time past,

and his owner hath not kept him in; he shall surely pay
ox for ox; and the dead shall be his own.—37. If a man
stealeth an ox, or a sheep, and killeth it, or selleth it; he
because he has manifestly proved, that for He is omnipotent and all-wise.”—The
he did not, impelled perhaps by his better Solonic law, quoted by Demosthenes,
conscience, intend voluntarily to return the ordains: “If a thief steal in the night,
theft; and therefore he is obliged to pay, it 18 lawful to persecute, and thus to kill
instead of one ox, five, and instead of one or to wound him.” The Roman law of the
lamb, four. As the ox is of such paramount Twelve Tables permits also to kill a night-
importance to an agricultural people, ly thief, “if this is only testified by loud
who use horses but seldom for rural cries;” and analogous provisions contains
purposes, it was necessary to protect the the old German legislation.—The English
\
proprietors the more efficiently against law defines burglary similarly to the
such thefts, which might cause the entire Hebrew code: “To constitute the crime
ruin of their households, and therefore the act must be committed in the night,
the stealing of a lamb was only fined or when there is not daylight enough to
with the fourfold value, since the pro- discern a man’s face.”—About kidnapping
prietor simply loses the animal, but not see on xxi. 16.—About defraudation of
any working-power. ‘Too indistinct, and entrusted or found property, see on
without a well-defined principle, is the Xxiil, 4,
provision of the Roman law: ‘“ Those 3¢. Our text treats of theft of cattle,
who steal a pig, or a goat, or a Jamb, not only on account of its frequency
are not to be punished with the same seve- among nomadic and agricultural tribes,
rity as those who steal greater beasts.” but also on account of its most ruinous
4. If the thief breaks into the house at character; and, therefore, almost all
night, it is lawful to resist him, if neces- ancient legislations contain very careful
sary, with force; and if the master of and detailed clauses against that crime,
the house unfortunately kills him in the nor have modern codes of law over-
encounter, he is free from guilt of blood, looked this subject. Justinius (ii. 8) ob-
since the lawless delinquent executed his serves, with respect to the Scythians:
criminal design at a time, when it was “ No crime is considered more punishable
impossible to call in the aid of the au- among them than theft; for as they have
thorities against his violence. This reason their herds and flocks in their forests
the master can no longer plead, if the without any guard or protection, what
house-breaking is committed by day; in would be safe if it were allowed to steal”?
this case that resistance which causes the The fourfold restoration of stolen sheep is
death of the thief, is guilt of blood, for the also mentioned in 2 Sam. xii.6; but the
proprietor might have been able to ob- exclamation (Ibid. ver. 5): “The man who
tain assistance from the officers of justice. committed the crime is a man of death”!
Besides, it cannot be discerned in the does not permit us to suppose, that the
night, whether the offender intends only king had in certain cases the right, to
to commit theft, and not murder also, enhance the punishment for theft accord-
and therefore it was necessary, to permit ing to his individual will. That expres-
self-defence even on the risk of a deadly sion is merely an outburst of indignation
conflict (see on xxii. 2). The Koran against the moral corruption of the
(y. 42) prescribes about the same offence: offender, which, however, cannot influence
“Cut off the hands of a thief, to punish the strict and literal enforcement of the
him for the crime he has committed. penal laws. Nor are we justified to con-
This warning punishment is from God; clude with Michaelis, from Proy. yi.30,31,
 7 - os eo ..
oi

318 EXODUS XXI., XXII.

shall restore five oxen for an ox, and four sheep for a
sheep.
that in Solomon’s time a sevenfold in- a theft, which is found complete in the
stead of a fivefold restoration for cattle hands of the thief (xxii. 3): “he that has
was introduced. The expression “seven purloined gold and silver, let him pay
times” is often used in the Bible indefi- double.” Hence follows, that if the pro-
nitely as a round number (see note on perty was already sold, or in any other way
xxiii. 10, 12). Although our law speaks applied by the thief, a fourfold or fivefold
only of animals, it cannot be doubted, restoration was his punishment. But the
that the same provisions are equally ap- fines for stolen cattle were, perhaps, gene-
plicable to all other movables. Josephus rally more rigorous from the reasons
(Antig. IV. viii. 27), says with regard to above alluded to.

CHAPTER XXII.
ia ‘the thief be found breaking in, and be smitten
that he die, *there ts no guilt of blood upon him.
2. If the sun shone upon him, there is guilt of blood
upon him; he shall make full restitution; if he have
1 Engl. Vers.—A thief. 2 There shall no blood be shed for him.

‫ ד‬, “We must consider,” remarks Rosen-‫‏‬ four sheep instead of one sheep.—Then
miiller, “the facility of breaking through‫‏‬ he shall be sold for his theft. The Rab-
walls in the Orient, for the houses‫‏‬ bins, urging the last word, interpret,
seem in ancient times, as is the case at‫‏‬ that he shall only be sold for the theft,
present, to have consisted of clay laid be-‫‏‬ not for its multiplied restitution, and that
tween transverse beams. Compare Job‫‏‬ the value of the theft must amount to
iv. 19. Of the houses of the Persians‫‏‬ more than the price of the slave. How-
this is fully confirmed by Chardin (Voy.‫‏‬ ever this may be, he could only be sold
iv. p. 110, Ed. Langles.).’”— He, who‫‏‬ for a period not exceeding six years, and.
has killed the thief, is not considered‫‏‬ only toa Hebrew master; and Josephus
guilty of murder; he bears, morally, no‫‏‬ (Antiq. XVI. i. 1) writes thuson a con-
guilt of blood; much less is it admissible‫‏‬ trary measure of Herod: “ He enacted a
to avenge the blood of the thief.‫‏‬ law, no way like our original laws, and
2. Jewish tradition understands the which he enacted himself, to expose
words: “If the sun shone upon him,” housebreakers to be ejected out of his
to mean: If it is clear to you like the kingdom, which punishment was not only |
sun; namely, that the thief intended only grievous to be borne by the offenders,
to steal, not to murder also. But nearer but contained in it a dissolution of the
to the sense translates Onkelos: “if eyes customs of our forefathers; for this sla-
of witnesses fall upon it,” that is, if the very to foreigners and such as did not
house-breaking was attempted by day; live after the manner of Jews... . was
or, as Rashi explains, in the absence of an offence against our religious settle-
the master of the house, whilst strangers ment, rather than a punishment of the
happened to see and seize the offender. offenders.... This law seemed to be a
Compare Gen. xxxii. 32; Judges ix. 33; piece of insolence of Herod, when he did
2 Sam. xxiii. 4. About the reason of the not act as a king but as a tyrant.” After 1
difference between diurnal and nocturnal six years, the Israelitish servant must be
theft, see supra.—He shall make full resti- released, which could not be guaranteed
tution, namely, five oxen instead of one, and if he was sold toa foreign master,
a EXODUS XXII. 319

nothing, then he shall be sold for his theft. + the

theft be certainly found in his hand alive, whether it be
ox, or ass, or sheep; he shall restore double.—4. If a man
causeth a field or vineyard to be depastured, and driveth
in his beast, ‘so that 16 feedeth in another man’s field; the
best of his field, and the best of his vineyard, shall he
! Engl. Vers.—And shall feed.

3. Ebn Ezra remarks: “This verse and sound firmness, introduced increased —
comprises all kinds of cattle; and tradi- restitution. If the theft was not mani-
tion understood the law of fourfold and fest, that is, if the thief was not caught
fivefold restitution to refer to a stolen whilst he was engaged in carrying the
lamb or ox only.” However, the dif- stolen thing away to another place, the
| ference between this verse and xxi. 37, is, penalty was twofold restitution. The
rather, that here the theft is supposed still similar mitigation of the Mosaic code
to be in the hands of the thief, but there (ver. 3), is certainly more rational, since
already sold to others. The double resti- it is all but indifferent whether the theft
tution was also legally enacted in all is found in the hands of the thief on his
other cases of stolen property. way home, or in the house itself. A
Increased restitution was the punish- nightly thief might be killed if caught in
ment of theft in the old Greek legislation, the act, and he might also be killed in the
and according to the Roman Twelve daytime if he was caught in the act and
Tables, and is still customary among defended himself with any kind of weapon.
the Arabs. But in general the Roman law The first case coincides perfectly with the
offers the following points of comparison: words of the Mosaic law (ver. 1), whilst
The punishment for manifest theft by the the second is at least not against its
law of the Twelve Tables was capital; spirit, as, in all cases when it could fairly
a freeman who had committed theft was be supposed that murder and plunder
flogged and consigned to the injured were equally intended, self-defence, with-
person. Later, the penalty was changed out regard to the consequences, was per-
into fourfold restitution, both in the case mitted. But an invidious distinction is
of a slave and afreedman. Here we see again made in the Roman law with re-
only that difference from the Mosaic law, gard to the penalty of slaves: they were
that the latter did not vacillate, nor ex- whipped and thrown down a precipice, a
perimentally fix the unreasonable and law which is utterly at variance with the
disproportionate penalty of death for the genius of Mosaism.
offence of theft, but at once, with safe

15. AROUT DEPASTURING FOREIGN FIELDS OR VINEYARDS. VER. +.

If a person lets his cattle graze on the property of others than is necessary for
field of another, he must restore the the momentary satisfaction of his hunger
damage from the best part of his own or the gratification of his appetite; yet,
fields. Although the legislator (Deut. pasturing cattle on foreign fields is too
XXiii. 24, 25) permits the wanderer to eat obyious and too injurious an encroach-
grapes of a vineyard, and ears of a corn- ment upon the property of others, espe-
field after his heart’s desire, with that cially among a people the whole legis-
limitation only, in the first case, not to lation of which aimed at the promotion
gather grapes in a vessel, in the other not of agriculture, to encourage or to permit
to cut the ears with a sickle, because thus it in the remotest manner, and it was,
evidently more would be tuken from the therefore, necessary to deter the pro-

4 ‫א‬. -
 oe ‫‏‬eae ‫ו‬. ‫הקל‬ ‫ליכי‬ ‫‏‬eerP ‫יי‬ ‫רקוו‬
. 7 + A 1 ‫‏‬.

)
320 | EXODUS XXII.
restore.—5. Iffire breaketh out, and catcheth thorns,sothat _
the sheaves of corn, or the standing corn, or the field be
consumed thereby, he 'who caused the conflagration shall
surely make restitution.—6. If a man delivereth to his
neighbour money or vessels to keep, and it is stolen out
of the man’s house; if the thief be found, let him pay
double. 7. If the thief be not found, then the master of |

the house shall be brought to the judges, 570 swear that he

' Engl. Vers.—Kindled the fire. * To see whether he have not, ete.
|
| |
prietors of cattle from such infringements It seems further obvious, that the |
by an adequate penalty. The Samaritan pronouns in “his field” and “his vine-
codex, and the Septuagint, which here yard” refer to the master of the cattle,
literally follows the former, express that although some interpreters apply them
‎‫ו‬

punishment thus: “he shall pay from his to the master of the field. The second —
field according to its produce; and if his part of the verse, from “ and driveth,” is
cattle has depastured all the field of an- the explanation and illustration of the
other, he shall pay the best of his field, preceding words: if a man drives his
and the best of his vineyard;” and the cattle himself to the field or the vine-
Vulgate renders the last words of our yard of another, then he forfeits the
text thus: “ whatever he has best in his penalty of the law; from which seems
field or his vineyard he shall restore ac- to follow, that if the cattle goes on a
cording to the valuation of the loss.” It foreign field accidentally, and without
is self-understood, that the compensation their proprietor being aware of it, the
was always proportionate to the damage. latter is guiltless,
16. 223002 DAMAGES CAUSED By Fire on Fietps. Ver. 5.
Ir is customary in the East, before the desolation to all surrounding fields. Tra-
beginning of the rainy season in July and vellers relate fearful instances of such —
August, to set fire to the herbage which calamities; and it was therefore the im-
was left on the fields; and especially to perious duty of the legislator to prevent
the thorns and weeds; by which process such catastrophes by an energetic law,
the fertility of the soil for the following and to punish even carelessness with the —
year is materially enhanced. But as in same rigour as malignity; and in conside-
that time the fields are extremely dry and ration of the great importance of this sub- _
parched by the exceeding and continuous ject, the Talmud has given very minute
heat of the past summer months, it re- precepts how to deal with fire on fields,
quires the utmost circumspection and The same practice obtained among the
care to keep the flame in due bounds, Italian farmers, as Virgil mentions (Georg.
which, if the direction of the wind and 1.84, 85): “ Often, too, it has been of tse
the quality of the soil are not attentively to set fire to barren lands, and burn the
studied and regarded, would spread in light stubble in crackling flames.”
devastating fury, and irresistibly carry /

17. AsouT PROPERTY COMMITTED FOR SAFE-KEEPING. VERS. 6—12.

In the following verses, the laws con- by cunning or violence, wrested from the —
cerning the safe-keeping of the property depositary, he was not bound to make |
of another are specified; and in this restitution to the proprietor; but, if ani-
respect the distinction is established and mals, as oxen, asses, or sheep, were in-
adhered to, that if inanimate objects were, trusted to his care, he was responsible —

ee ‎‫ו‬
 EXODUS XXII. $21
hath not put his hand to his neighbour’s goods. 8. For all
manner of trespass, whether at be for ox, for ass, for sheep,
for raiment, or for anything lost, 'of which it is said that
it is his, the cause of both parties shall come before the
judges; and whom the judges will condemn, he shall pay
double to his neighbour. 9. If a man delivereth to his
neighbour an ass, or an ox, or a sheep, or any beast, to
keep; and it dieth, or is hurt, or taken away, no man ’
' Engl. Vers.—Which another challengeth to be his,

for theft (ver. 11), but not for such acci- trustee must come before the judge and
dents as the death of an animal, or its swear that he has not embezzled the pro-
abduction by robbers or laceration by a perty. Josephus (Antiq. IV. viii. 38),
wild beast. But if it is found that he treating of this law, lets the depositary go
had in any way intended to act fraudu- “before the seven judges,” as was cus-
tently to the proprietor, he was compelled tomary in his time.
to restore to him the two-fold value of ₪. For all manner of trespass, that is,
the deposit. All these disputes were in all cases when a person has embezzled
decided by the competent judge, by property committed to his care, but pre-
means of adjuration. This is the clear tends that it has been destroyed or
connection of our verses; and the laws robbed, in spite of his faithful vigilance.
which they contain bear likewise the —Of which it is said that it is this, or, if
character of prudence and justice. But property has been lost and recovered, and
the traditional Jewish exegesis finds, if the proprietor or a trustworthy witness
besides, in these clauses, the distinction, say, that those are the authentic objects,
that vers. 6—8 treat of a gratuitous then the dispute shall be brought before
guardian, whilst vers. 9—12 speak of a the judges. These concise words have
paid depositary. For the inanimate ob- been very differently interpreted. The
--
jects mentioned in vers. 6—8 require no Vulgate and Luther omit those words
particular attention on the part of the trus- entirely. Inthe English Version: * which
tee, who can therefore, not well claim re- another challengeth to be his,” the word
muneration, whilst the guarding of animals another is arbitrarily added.— Whom the
is inseparable from trouble and anxieties, Judges will condemn, he shall pay double to
and, therefore,deserves some com pensation. his neighbour, that is, either the deposi-
Nor was the depositary bound to make tary for the intended fraud, or the witness
restitution in the latter case, if animals for his false evidence, or the depositor
under his care were violently seized by for the false charge brought against his
wild beasts, or abducted in any other neighbour.
manner, which it was not in his power %. If the entrusted animal perishes
to repel or subdue. ‘This Rabbinical by accident, death, or fracture, or is
distinction, although not mentioned in violently abducted by robbers, without
our text, seems to be perfectly logical, witness, then,
and stands in full harmony with the 10. The depositary shall swear, that
spirit of these laws. his statement is truthful; the proprietor
6. If the inanimate property has been is bound to accept this oath, and the
stolen from the house of the depositary, former makes no _ restitution. The
the thief, if discovered and seized, must former was, in such cases, fully exempt-
pay its twofold value to the proprietor. ed from all responsibility, for it was
yz. If the thief is not found out, the not in his power to prevent the loss.
»
 ae 3 =

322 EXODUS XXII

seeing i: 10. Then shall an oath of the Lord be between
them both, that he hath not put his hand to [18 neigh-
bour’s goods, and the owner of it shall accept thereof, and
he shall not make restitution: 11. And if it be stolen
from him, he shall make restitution to the owner thereof.
12. If it be torn in pieces, then let him bring it for wit-
Some commentators believe, that, in such terpretation, we quote the following pas-
instances, the proprietor pays no wages sage from the laws of the Gentoos: “If
to the keeper; for, according to their the shepherd has led his cattle to a distant
opinion, our text speaks of a paid keeper, pasture, and an animal dies from any
see supra. But, if this were the case, it disease, in spite of all possible care on the
would be difficult to find any body willing part of the shepherd, he must bring to
to tend the flocks of another, as he is the proprietor the head, the tail, the fore-
made responsible for accidents beyond foot, or any other part of the body, as a
the control of man. convincing proof of the truth of his
11. But if an animal is stolen from the statement; in such case, he is freed from
depositary, he must restore it, as it may all responsibility; but if he neglects that
fairly be supposed that he was deficient precaution, he must restitute the Joss “(see
in the necessary care and vigilance, under Rosenm., Ofient. i. p. 148).—Faithful to
which condition alone he received his the principle, that the keeper is only
wages. answerable, if it was in his power to
uz. If the animal has been entirely avert the accident, the Talmud observes:
torn by a wild beast, the guardian shall, ‘animals killed by a fox or marten must
as a proof of his innocence, bring a part be paid for; animals torn by a wolf, a lion,
or member of it with him.— As an illustra- a bear, or serpent, need not be restored.”
tion of our verse according to the first in-
18. Asout Property BorRowED FROM ANOTHER. VERS. 13, 14.
In systematical order, the case is now is not guilty of any deceitful or malicious
treated, that a person has lent to another intention.
either an animal or 8 thing. If the pro- 13. The master might, for instance, as
prietor received no hire for it, and the Ebn Ezra observes, plead against the
animal died, or the object was destroyed borrower, that he imposed too heavy bur-
in the absence of the master, the borrower dens upon the animal, a.

must restore the loss: for the guarding of 14. If the ox is not borrowed, but
the borrowed thing devolved upon him; hired, the borrower receives no parti-
but if the master was present, the bor- cular favour from the proprietor, since
rower was not bound to pay for the loss, he pays for the use of the animal; and
since the former might have protected his he is therefore not responsible for ac-
property, and would no doubt have done cidents like those who are permitted its
80, if it had been practicable. But if the gratuitous use. Whether in cases when
6
+8
0-4
Cone
master received hire for the borrowed such hired animal was stolen, the bor-
animal or thing, the borrower had, in case rower was obliged to restore it or not, is
of any accident, no further obligations; not mentioned in our text; but the
“it comes for his hire;” for the master, question has been treated in the Talmud
who derives profit from his property, (Bab. 1162. 94), and has been differently
must also be prepared for a damage, answered: according to Rabbi Meir, the
whilst that property is used by others, borrower is like a gratuitous keeper, and
It is self-understood, that this last pro- is therefore not responsible; but in Rabbi
yision is applicable only if the borrower Jehudah’s opinion, he is like a paid guar-
 EXODUS 1 323
ness, and he shall not pay for that which is torn.—
13. And if a man borroweth aught of his neighbour, and it
is hurt, or die, the owner thereof being not with it, he shall
surely pay for it. 14. But if the owner thereof be with it,
he shall not pay for zt: if it be a hired thing, it came for
its hire.—15. And if a man enticeth a maid who is not
dian, and must therefore pay for the be more corresponding with the opinion |
loss. Considering the wording of ver. 11, of the legislator.
Rabbi Jehudah’s interpretation seems to

.‫ זז‬GENERAL MORAL LAWS. XXII. 15. ro XXIII. 19.‫‏‬

19. 2001 UncnaAstTiTy. VERS. 15, 16.
The extraordinary purity and the whilst, if the crime was committed in a
divinely moral character of the Mosaic town, such excuse cannot be pleaded.
legislation appears in no class of laws 4. If the seduced female was a servant,
more strongly and clearly, than in those the man was chastised, he had to bring a
about violation of chastity (compare the guilt-offering, and the priest must pray
seventh commandment, xx. 13). Here for expiation of his sin (Levit. xix. 20
the legislator seems to disavow every —22).
clemency, and with inexorable severity 5. If a man accuses his newly-married
to aim at the purest integrity of morals. wife of unchastity, the charge is investi-
1. If a person seduces a not betrothed gated by the judges in the presence of
free virgin by persuasion or violence, he her parents; if she is found innocent, the
must pay the customary marriage-price man must pay to her parents a hundred
(Mohar, see infra) as imposed by her father, shekels for his calumny, and is never per-
and take her to wife; nor is he allowed mitted to divorce her; but if she is found
during his whole life to divorce her. guilty: “then they shall bring out the
But if the father refuses him as his son- female to the door of her father’s house,
in-law, he must pay the usual fine for and the men of her city shall stone her
disgracing the virgin, which was, accord- with stones that she die; because she hath
ing to Deut. xxii. 28, 29, fifty shekels of wrought impiousness in Israel, to be un-
silver, chaste in her father’s house: so shalt thou
2. If she was betrothed or married to put away evil from Israel” (Deut. xxii.
another man, and was persuaded to the 13—21). About the impressive and im-
criminal conduct, both were publicly posing ceremonies in cases of suspected
stoned to death, “that the evil might be faithlessness of a wife, see Numb, v.
extirpated from among Israel.” A virgin 11--81, ceremonies which, undoubtedly,
legally betrothed was considered a lawful were a most efficient preventive of adul-
wife; and could therefore not be separated tery.
from her intended husband without a bill It is easy to discover the leading prin-
of divorce. ciples of these laws: Ist. To shield
3. If the seduction of a betrothed virgin, virgins from permanent ignominy and
or of another’s wife, was effected with disgrace in consequence of a momentary
violence, the man only suffered death. crime, by converting illicit intercourse
But violence was supposed in open fields, into the lawful and sacred tie of matri-
where the maiden or wife might have mony: 2nd. To deter virgins and young
cried for help, without her voice reaching men from unchastity; since the former
to inhabited places; so that she was in the could, without danger of death, marry no
predicament of one attacked by robbers, man except their seducers, after having
y 2
 vest
324 EXODUS ‎‫זנאא‬
betrothed, and lieth with her, he shall surely endow her to
be his wife. 16. If her father utterly refuse to give her
once lost their innocence; and the latter cepting those who shall afterwards
were compelled to wed the disgraced repent.” It is obvious, that both the
females, at the same time losing the liberty difficulty of obtaining four eye-witnesses
ever to dismiss them: and, 3rd. To ad- for the crime of adultery, and the seye-
monish betrothed or married women of rity of punishment in case of mistake on
their conjugal duties in the most impres- the part of the accuser, must almost ren-
sive manner, and thus to protect the der it impossible to call, in any instance,
sanctity of matrimony from profanation faithless wives to account. However, the
by the most rigorous penalties; and even spirit of those clauses is evidently in
punishment of death can, from these accordance with the Mosaic laws.—A few
exalted points of view, not appear ex- comparisons from the Greek and Roman
aggerated. Need we add, what excellent laws may be acceptable. Among the
fruits these wise and most moral laws Athenians, if a man caught another man
have produced in the Israelitish nation? in the act of criminal intercourse with his
since chastity and sacred reverence for wife, he might kill him with impunity.
the matrimonial duties are virtues which, There was no adultery unless a married
since the real observance of the Mosaic woman was concerned; but it was no
law, have always flourished amongst them adultery for a man to have connection
in a remarkable degree; and nowhere does with a married woman who prostituted
the utter inability of Tacitus to compre- herself, or who was engaged in selling
hend the spirit of the Hebrew laws appear anything in public places. The husband
in a more striking manner than in his might, if he pleased, take a sum of money
unguarded calumny with respect to the from the adulterer, by way of compensa-
precepts under discussion: “The He- tion, and detain him till he found
brews are a nation of unbridled lust, and sureties for the payment. If the act of
although they admit no intercourse with adultery was proved, the husband could
women from other nations, nothing is no longer cohabit with his wife, under
unlawful among themselves.” So much pain of losing his privileges as a citizen.
do national prejudice and religious fana- The adulteress was excluded from all
ticism blind the judgment of even great temples.—In the Roman law there was
and comprehensive minds. As a con- no adultery unless the female was mar-
trast to that remark of Tacitus, we call ried; the commerce with a widow or a
attention to the dictum of Bishop Gre- virgin was fornication, By the old law or
goire: “that a striking resemblance of custom, if the adulterer was caught in the
children to their parents, is oftener met fact, he was at the mercy of the injured
with amongst Jews than amongst other husband, who might also punish with
nations ” (Sic!). death his adulterous wife. Originally,
The Koran (iy. 19) provides: “If your the act of adultery might be punished by
wives commit adultery, and four wit- any person, as being a public offence. In
nesses from among you testify this, im- the time of Augustus, the Lex Julia was
prison her in your house till death enacted (B.c.17). By this law, if a hus-
-releases her or God shows her another band kept his, wife after an act of adultery
way of deliverance.” Further (xxiv. 4, was known to him, and let the adulterer
et seg.): * 1206 as to those who accuse free, he was guiltyof the offence 01 bawdry,
women of reputation (of fornication or A woman, convicted of adultery, was
adultery), and cannot produce four wit- mulcted in half her dowry, and the third
nesses, scourge them with eighty stripes, part of her property and banished to some
and receive not their testimony for ever, miserable island, such as Seriphos, for
for such are infamous prevaricators; ex- instance. The adulterer was mulected in
 EXODUS XXII. 325

to him, he shall pay money according to the dowry of

virgins.—17. A witch thou shalt not suffer to live.—
half his property, and banished in like negociate how many camels, sheep or
manner, but not to the same island as the horses the son-in-law is to give to the
woman. The adulterer and adulteress father for his daughter...... A man who
were subjected also to civil incapacities; marries, must, therefore, literally buy his
but this law did not inflict the punish- wife; and the parents who have the
ment of death on either party. But, by greatest number of daughters are the
a constitution of Constantine, the offence richest. They are the chicf wealth of a
in the adulterer was made capital. By family...... The qualities of the girl and
the legislation of Justinian the adulteress of the family, and the circumstances of
was put into a convent, after being first the suitor, are especially considered in
whipped. If her husband did not take the matter.’ The judicial marriage-
her out in two years, she was compelled price (Mohar) seems in general to have
| to assume the habit, and to spend the been fifty shekels. Since thus the
"rest of her life in the convent. The Ju- daughters form the most valuable property
lian law permitted the father to kill the of the parents, this law is here inserted
adulterer and adulteress in certain cases. immediately after the violation of pro-
The husband might kill persons of a ecer- perty; compare the sacred narratives
tain class, described in the law, whom he concerning Jacob and Laban; Shechem
caught in the act of adultery with his and Dinah; Dayid and Michal. How-
wife; but he could not kill his wife. If ever, according to Mosaism, the Mohar
the wife was divorced for adultery, the was not aprice of purchase, for not
husband was entitled to retain part of the father, but the bride received it to
the dowry. The attentive reader will enable her to enter with proper dignity
easily discover the differences between into the house of her future husband.
these gradually introduced, unconnected Besides the Mohar, the latter generally
laws, and the systematic provisions of gave presents to the parents (Gen.
the Mosaic code. According to the ‎‫וואאא‬. 12, xxiv. 53), in order to gain
Egyptian law, a woman who had com- their favour, and to show them respect
mitted adultery was sentenced to lose her and affection. The father could some-
nose (!), and the man was condemned to times dispense with the Mohar (Josh. xv.
receive a bastinado of one thousand 16; 1 Sam. xviii. 25); and, in some in-
blows (!). If the latter had used force stances, he even gave his daughter a rich
against a free woman, the punishment dowry (Josh. xv. 19; Judg. i. 15). Thus
was still more barbarous. we see even common Oriental customs
.5‫ ב‬He shall surely endow her to‫‏‬ ennobled in the Old Testament, in har-
be his wife. The manner ‫גמ‬‎ which mony with the more dignified position
matrimonial alliances are concluded of the women among the Israelites. And
in the East, is too well known to thus the later Jewish tradition has
require any comment; and the following stipulated the Mohar more in favour of
extract from Arvieuxr’s Manners of the the wife than of her parents, as, at the
Bedouin Arabs (p. 119), will suffice for death of her husband, or in the case of
the illustration of this verse: “If a young divorce, she received a certain sum (a
man finds a girl to his taste, he requests virgin two hundred Sus, a widow one
her father, through one of his relatives, to hundred).
permit his marriage with her. Now they
20. LAw AGAINST WITCHCRAFT. VER. 17.
A witch thou shalt not suffer to imposition, that those who practise it
live. As the magical art implies the are inspired and supported by certain
 326 EXODUS XXIL
18. Whoever lieth with a beast shall surely be put to
death.—19. He who sacrificeth to any god, save to the
demons and deities, it is, in fact, a negation “The seventeenth verse of the twenty-
of the unity of God, and, as a hidden second chapter of Exodus,” observes a
polytheism, deserves, quite logically after recent commentator, * was the war-cry
the theoretical principles of Mosaism, of the clergy against myriads of aged and
punishment of death (see note to xx. 2,3; defenceless women....So late as 1716, a
infra, ver.19). Hereto must be added, that woman and her daughter of nine years
the sorcerers, by their fraudulent arts, old were hanged at Huntingdon for rais-
easily prey upon the credulity of the people ing storms by witchcraft. These deplor-
and enrich themselves by illegitimate able statutes were not repealed till 1736...
means, even irrespective of the evil, that In Germany, not less than one hundred
the notions of the multitude are thereby thousand women and children are said to
necessarily disturbed and led astray from have suffered a cruel death under the
faith into superstition. Thus the mate- stupid and ferocious persecution of witches
rial and spiritual damage caused by sor- that disgraced the sixteenth century....
cery was sufficiently momentous to justify A sound lawyer like Sir Matthew Hale,
even capital punishment; for it is “an and an enlightened scholar like Sir Tho-
abomination to the Lord, for which He mas Brown, were both drawn into the
expelled the heathens before the Israel- same vortex of folly and cruelty.”
ites” (Deut. xviii. 10—12); and the legis- The sorcerers were, therefore, capitally
lator solemnly called down upon the head punished by Moses only because they
of those who give themselves up to such wished, as impostors, to make the people
pernicious arts their own blood, if, in believe in their futile arts, but not because
consequence of their aberrations, they suffer he himself ascribed to them any power or
the death of lapidation (Lev. xix.31; xx. any connection with idols; for if so, he
6).—This severity is further accountable by would tacitly have admitted their exist-
the great prevalence of this evil in the ence, and a certain degree of influence,
East; in Egypt and Babylon, the sor- which, however, he everywhere most em-
cerers or magicians belonged to the caste phatically denies; and the very names
of the priests (Exod. vii. 11; Dan. ii. 2); and designations of the idols describe
and, among the Israelites, kings even them as illusions and unreal phantoms,—
were addicted to such practices (2 Kings About the different kinds of sorcery in
xvii.17; Isa. .‫גג‬‎ 6 ; Mich. v.11). But, use among the idolatrous neighbours of
according to the 1108810 notions, it is the Israelites we shall speak in their
absolutely impossible to acknowledge proper places.— Witchcraft, whether prac-
sorcerers or witches, and those who pre- tised by men or women, was, of course,
tend to be such must be considered as equally criminal (Ley. xx. 27), but, in the
impious and nefarious impostors. Even opinion of the Talmud, Maimonides, and
the idea of a Satan, as an evil principle, others, women are more given to such
is foreign tu Mosaism, and has only been arts than men; and, lest ill-placed cle- —
borrowed in later periods from the Baby- mency towards the weaker sex destroy
lonian mythology. How much fanati- the efficiency of this law, the feminine
cism, madness, and bloodshed, might form is here used, in Hebrew, in pre-
have been avoided, if these simple and ference to the masculine. Sorcery was,
pure ideas of Mosaism had always been in the Athenian law, also punished with
kept in view! The history of the Chris- death, whilst the Romans originally con-
tian church would not have been disgraced sidered it criminal only if it had injured
by the fatal absurdities of witch-trials, the interests of others,

000 ‫בו‬
+
EXODUS XXII. 827

Lord only, he shall be extirpated.—20. And the stranger

thou shalt neither vex, nor oppress him: for you were
21. AcainsT CoITION wiTH BEASTS. VER. 18.
The law about pagan witchcraft leads against its hideousness: “ And the land
the legislator to the interdiction of un- is defiled: therefore I do visit the ini-
natural lasciviousness or coition with quity thereof upon it, and the land itself
beasts; which abomination prevailed also vomiteth out her inhabitants.... That the
among many Oriental nations, even. be- land vomit not you out also, when you
fore the times of Moses, so extensively, defile it, as it vomited out the nations,
that it formed, in some districts of Egypt, that were before you. For whosoever
for instance, the Mendesian, a part of will commit any of these abominations,
their idolatrous rites. Of all the aberra~ even the souls that commit them shall be
tions and monstrosities to which the phy- cut off from among their people” (Lev.
sical and moral nature of man may XvVill. 25—29). In this passage (ver. 22)
| degenerate, this is the most hideous and another kind of unnatural lust is for-
' heinous, and the morals of a state must bidden under penalty of death, carnal
indeed be rotten to the very core, where intercourse between men; which crime
‘such an abomination is permitted. Death indicated already, in Sodom and Go-
of the man and death of the beast is, morrah, the highest degree of immorality
therefore, the just punishment of this (Gen. xix. 5); and which leads certainly,
crime; and the legislator, impelled by a by the dissolution of the matrimonial
just horror against such atrocities, ad- ties, not less fatally to the inevitable ruin
dresses a most emphatic aud solemn of a community; of which fact the
warning to the nation, to refrain from Roman empire under the Cesars, offers
that vice, in which admonition he repre- the most obvious and most melancholy
sents even the earth as sympathetic instance.
99. REPETITION OF THE LAW AGAINST POLYTHEISM. VERS. 19.
It has been demonstrated above (on destroyed (Deut. xiii. 14, et seg.); and
xx. 2, 3), that the belief in the One God blasphemy, desecration of the Sabbath,
of Israel, the Creator of Heaven and sooth-saying and sorcery were to be
Earth, who has led the people out of punished with death (see note on xix. 6).
Egypt, is the innermost centre of Mosaism; —He who saerificeth to any God. “As
that God is the invisible sovereign of the the offering of sacrifices was the chief part
land; and that idol-worship would be of divine service, all the other branches
rebellion against the acknowledged Lord of unlawful worship were contained
of the nation; and hence it follows logi- therein” (Rosenmiiller).— Save to the Lord
cally, that such crime must be punished only. The Jewish expositors find in these
capitally, as it would bring the theocrati- words the prohibition, not to sacrifice, and
cal state into disorganization and decay: in any way to give adoration to angels or
it is not only a religious, but also a poli- other similar beings; but only and ex-
tical crime; it is high treason against state clusively to God, the Creator of the
and church. From the same principle Universe.
an idolatrous town was to be entirely
23. LAWS CONCERNING’ THE Poor, THE STRANGERS, WIDOWS AND ORPHANS,
Vers, 20—23, anp XXIII. 9.
The thread of the penal and civil laws magic charm of feeling and sentiment
is interrupted by a series of statutes, over a code, which usually contains little
which appeal only to the heart and to more than the abstract and dry right
humanity, with regard to which no of criminal cases. Moses will not only
penalty is fixed, and which spread a educate citizens, he will also train men,
 ji he at A AR ‫יו‬‎ ‫ו‬ ‫‏‬a
‫ו‬
‫רעי‬ ‫ץר‬ 2 ‫רה‬
‫ו‬
‫ו‬ 1 0 \ ‘ NX

328 EXODUS XXIL

strangers in the land of Egypt. 21. You shall not
afflict any widow or orphan. 22. If thou afflict them in
and whilst forming the morals of the seen the possibility of such cases so
latter, he prepares them, in a safe clearly, that he exclaims with emphasis:
although indirect way, for the fulfilment “The needy shall not cease from amidst
of their obligations as citizens. Political the land” (Deut. xv. 11). For such
and moral education have by Moses been emergencies two ways were left open:
concentrated into one focus; and by Either the poor man could sell himself to
basing patriotism upon virtue, he pro- an Israelite as a slave, which, according
motes the prosperity of the state, whilst to the notions of the people, was in no
he seems only intent upon advancing the way a degrading or a miserable lot, since,
rectitude of the individuals. Thus Moses as we have shown (on xxi. 1—11), not
has solved in his laws a problem, which only the greatest clemency was enjoined
has baffled the wisdom of all later legis- towards him as a brother and fellow-
lators, and which is still one of the most citizen, but he went out after a service
perplexing questions of our civil govern- of six years, and in the epoch of the
ment; namely, how indigenee and va- jubilee received back his old paternal
grancy might be obviated. The Mosaic fields, and thus was restored into all the
law knows no beggars; neither in the rights and privileges of a free citizen.
Pentateuch, nor in any other 200% of the So far the removal of the difficulty lay in
Old Testament, is the word mentioned, the hands of the poor themselves; and
and only in Ps. cix.10, it is alluded to this expedient must especially have been
as an extraordinary curse of God. In salutary in such cases, when his poverty
the New Testament they are sometimes was a consequence of indolence; for by
mentioned (St. Mark x. 46; St. Luke entering the house of a master as a
Xvill. 35, ete.); but then they are blind servant, he was not only a warning
or lame men, or other invalids, who sit example to others similarly disposed, but
in the neighbourhood of the temple, or he was almost compelled to accustom
before the doors of the wealthy. Beggary himself to habits of activity and in-
can, in fact, only prevail in a much more dustry. But there are innumerable cases,
advanced or artificial state of social order, when the poor might, by a timely loan,
when the property of the individuals is maintain his independent position and
very unequal, and the very poor deem it recover his former prosperity. An un-
the duty of the very rich to maintain expected, extraordinary misfortune might
them from their superfluity without their reduce to a temporary embarrassment an
own exertions. But in the Mosaic state honest and respected man who would
the landed property was distributed feel an excruciating humiliation in serving
among all the Israelites in equal por- as a slave. And in such contingencies
tions, which remained to every individual the wise and humane legislator makes it
as an inalienable right; whence it follows, an imperative duty of the rich, to lend
that there could neither be a class of men him a sum of money sufficient to free
helplessly poor, nor a privileged opulent him from his perplexity, and with such
nobility, which might become dangerous emphasis does he enjoin that command,
to liberty and equality; there were no that some antiquaries have, though un-
“‘latifundia,” which according to the justly, attributed to it the character of a
testimony of Pliny (xviii. 7) have ruined civil law, rather to be enforced by the
Italy and the provinces. authorities, than that of a moral precept:
But yet an Israelitish citizen might, “Tf there be among you a poor man of
with or without his fault, fall into one 0% thy brethren within any of thy
poverty, by bad crops, or indolence, or gates in thy land, which the Lord thy
prodigality; and the legislator has fore- God giveth thee, thou shalt not harden |
 EXODUS XXII. 329
any way, ‘indeed, if they cry to me, I will surely hear
1 Engl. Vers.—And they cry ‘at all unto me.

thy heart, nor shut thy hand from thy of the house of Israel are merciful kings”
voor brother. But thou shalt open thy (1 Kings xx. 31); and the Talmud pro-
nand wide to him, and shalt surely lend poses the general remark: “He who has
him sufficient for his need in that which no pity does not belong to the descendants
he wanteth. Beware that there be not a of Abraham.”
thought in thy wicked heart, saying, The As the strangers, the widows, and
seventh year, the year of release is at orphans generally, are in the same help- /
hand [forin the Sabbath-year debts could less condition as the poor, they are ex-
not be exacted]; and thy eye be evil pressly included in the same laws of
against thy poor brother, and thou givest benevolence and consideration. We pass
him nought; and he cry to the Lord by the merely ethical admonitions of pity
against thee, and it be sin to thee” (Deut. and charity towards these unfortunate
xy. 7—11). And in another passage classes of the population; admonitions,
further very sympathetic and feeling pre- which appeal to the feelings with the most
cepts are given with respect to such loans: affecting ardour, and repeatedly enjoined
“ When thou lendest thy brother anything, as they are, are almost in themselves
thou shalt not go into his house to fetch sufficient to secure for the oppressed the
his pledge. Thou shalt stand abroad, sympathy and assistance of the wealthy.
and the man to whom thou dost lend But Moses did not content himself with
shali bring out the pledge abroad to thee. vague exhortations; although he thought
And if the man be poor, thou shalt not highly of the excellence of human nature,
sleep with his pledge. In any case thou he yet did not wish to leave the fate of
shalt deliver him the pledge again when the unfortunate to the fluctuations of
the sun goeth down, that he may sleep in humours and chances; and therefore he
his own raiment, and bless thee”; but in gave positive laws in their favour, and
order clearly to stamp these laws with a 8000700 to them a regular and certain
purely moral character, the legislator con- competence; charity was withdrawn from
eludes:
--7
‘‘and it shall be righteousness the doubtful personal pleasure of the rich,
to thee before the Lord thy God” (Deut. and was by legal precepts placed upon a
xxiv. 10—13).—Thus judicious loans are solid basis; it was raised into a civil
in the Mosaic code justly preferred to duty; it could no more degrade and
mere alms, and if the Rabbinical law ap- humiliate the poor, since it was regulated
pears in one respect in a more favourable by the law; and poverty lost its bitterest
light than in another, it is especially in sting, as the poor could allay its miseries
the further development of the Mosaic by lawful and valid claims. For Moses
laws concerning charity, which eyery- ordained :—
where exhibit a beautiful, harmonious 1. The spontaneous produce of the
blending of sentiment and reason. Even fields, the orchards, and the vineyards,
‘Tacitus, who contorts almost all the other in every seventh year, when they
institutions of the Israelites, awards to were not cultivated, belonged to the
the latter at least the praise of un- poor as well as to the proprietors (Exod.
shaken brotherly love and ready charity xxiii, 4(. 2. In every harvest, the
(Hist. v. 5). Already, in the time of king borders of the fields were to be re-
Ahab, compassion and charity were, served and left to the poor and the
among the heathen nations, acknow- stranger; according to tradition, these
ledged as a distinguishing characteristic borders must, at least, be the sixtieth
of the Israelites; for the Syrians say to part of the field; and this law applied to
their monarch after a lost battle: “ Be- all sorts of corn, legumes, the vine, olive-,
hold now, we have heard that the kings nut-, and date trees, etc. No poor could
 ‫א‬
330 EXODUS XXII.
z
4
t
their cry; 28. And my wrath shall be kindled, and I 3
will kill you with the sword, and your wives shall be
be refused, and none was to be favoured and socially; a striking contrast to the
in this privilege (see Lev. xix.9). 3. The customs of the Egyptians, who considered
proprietor was not allowed to glean the it a perfect abomination to eat with
vineyard after the gathering (Deut. xxiv. strangers at the same table.
21), nor take up the grapes which fell These are the general laws, in which
off; all this also belonged to the poor and all helpless classes of the nation were
the stranger (Ley. xix.10). 4. “ When equally considered and regarded. It is
thou cuttest down thy harvest in thy evident, that, with these institutions, pau-
field, and hast forgotten a sheaf in the perism could not exist in the Mosaic
field, thou shalt not go again to fetch it: state; and the principle of equality which
it shall be for the stranger, for the father- pervades the whole character of legisla-
less, and for the widow: that the Lord tion, attempts, and in a great measure
thy God may bless thee in all the succeeds, to remove also the glaring un-
work of thy hands” (Deut. xxiv. 19). evenness between the wealthy and the
5. “ When thou beatest thy olive-tree, needy. But the individual kinds of poor
thou shalt not go over the boughs again: are, besides, singly and separately pro-
it shall be for the stranger, for the father- vided for by the humane legislator, as
less, and for the widow” (ibid. ver. 20); will be specified in the following verses.
and, as the legislator loves to introduce 20. “And the stranger thou shalt
historical allusions, he adds: “and thou neither vex nor oppress him: for you
shalt remember that thou wast a bond- were strangers in the land of Egypt.”
man in the land of Egypt: therefore I This reason for the duty of benevolence
command thee to do this thing” (ver. 22), towards the poor is, in another passage,
The school of misery through which pronounced still more distinctly: “And
Israel had passed in Egypt, shall, in thou shalt not oppress a stranger; for you
future happier times, be for them a school know the heart of the stranger, since you
of virtue and moral purification. 6. “At were strangers in the land of Egypt”
the end of three years thou shalt bring (xxiii.9); and this experience was cer-
forth all the tithe of thy increase the tainly, above all things, calculated to
same year, and shalt lay it up within thy teach the Israelites compassion for the
gates: and the Levite (because he hath strangers. Not only had they suffered
no part nor inheritance with thee), and the most ignominious oppression, but
the stranger, and the fatherless, and the witnessed the inveterate hatred which the
widow, who are within thy gates, shall Egyptians bear to all foreigners, and the
come and shall eat and be satisfied, that cruelties which they exhibited against
the Lord thy God may bless thee in all them. And, generally, the duty of hos-
the work of thy hand which thou doest” pitality, which was liberally practised in
(Deut. xiv. 28,29; and in Deut. xxvi. ancient times, as it still is at present in
12—15, a blessing is prescribed, which is the East, seems to have been scrupulously
to be pronounced on such cheering occa- exercised by the Hebrews. We have
sions). ‘These common meals, like those already alluded to the probable difference
celebrated on festivals (Deut. xvi. 11---14( between the, two kinds of strangers spe-
naturally brought the different classes of 01800 in the Mosaic law, the “stranger” =
the population into continual contact, and “ foreigner.” We need scarcely go
and gladdened certainly the heart of the further than compare Exodus xii. 29 with
distressed more than a cold distant gift, vers. 45 and 48, and it will be obvious
offered with the appearance of haughty that the strangers, by undergoing the act
superiority. Thus they could not but of circumcision as the sign of the cove-
exercise a salutary influence both morally nant, enter into the communityof the He-
,
:
1 EXODUS XXII. ool

widows, and your children orphans.—24. If thou lendest

money to any of my people that is poor by thee, thou
brew commonwealth; whilst the foreigners warmly does Moses enjoin the duties to-
have only taken their temporary abode wards strangers, that he expressly com-
in the boundaries of the Hebrew realm, mands: “ thou shalt love him like thyself”
and might quit it without being, by (Lev. xix.24); it appears almost, that he
any remaining connection, united with wished rather to encourage the admission
Mosaism. From this point of view, those of strangers into the Hebrew state than
passages are, we believe, easily and to prevent it; so that the reproach, that ,
unforcedly explained (see on xii. 19, 45). Moses gave blind and narrow-minded
The Talmud and the Rabbins call the laws, which excluded every contact with
former class of strangers generally strang- other nations, is one of those traditional
ers of justice or strangers of the cove- prejudices which disappear at a more
nant, and the latter strangers of the gate. comprehensive and thorough investiga-
Untenable 18 the difference which Michae- tion of the sacred writings. The reader
lis (Mos. R. ii. §138) establishes: “ Every will thus be able duly to appreciate the
body who does not possess landed property heedless aspersion of Tacitus (Hist. v. 5),
is a stranger; he who has no house of his “that the Hebrews bore enmity and
own is a foreigner.” The distinction is, hatred to all strangers.” Winer ob-
according to xii. 19,45, more of a reli- serves: ‘A perfect isolation of the He-
gious than of a civil character, and it can brew people was in no way the design
import little with respect to the admit- of the Mosaic law; for, in Solomon’s
tance to the paschal-lamb, whether a time, there lived 158,600 strangers
person possesses fields and houses or not. in Palestine (2 Chron. 11. 16).....and the
And as the stranger has, by circumcision, legal treatment of the stranger was more
adopted the covenant of Israel, he has, in humane among the Hebrews than in the
every respect, the same rights and duties earlier times among the Romans, and
as the native Israelite (Lev. xxiv. 22; even the Athenians.” Even Ezekiel (xlvii.
Num. xv. 14—16, 29). Both with regard 21—23) assigns, in the distribution of
to political and personal privileges, he en- the ideal land of Israel, to the stranger
| joys perfect equality with the descendants equal property and equal inheritance with
of Jacob. ‘This 18 the fundamental prin- the native Israelites; and Nehem. xiii. 8
> 0116, which renders it almost superfluous proves no expulsion of the stranger, but
to enumerate all the individual laws con- merely a segregation of the Ammonites
cerning the stranger: that they had in and Moabites (ver. 1(
the courts of justice equal rights with the For policy and historical reminiscences
Israelites; that, in cases of justifiable dictated some exceptions from the laws
homicide, they had the privilege of seek- concerning strangers: “ ‘The Ammonite
ing protection in the cities of refuge; and the Moabite shall not come into the
that they were bound to attend the read- congregation of the Lord, even to their
ing of the Law at the Feast of Taberna- tenth generation shall they not enter into
cles every seventh year; participated in the congregation of the Lord for ever”
the Pesach; were subjected to the same (Deut. xxiii. 4). The Edomites, who are
laws of incest and matrimony; had to so nearly akin to the Israelites, and the
observe the same precepts concerning Egyptians, in whose country the Hebrews
sacrifices and purifications; were obliged had dwelt so many centuries, could, in
to keep the Sabbath and the Day of the third generation, that is, the grand-
Atonement; to abstain from eating blood children of those who immigrated into
and forbidden meat; and, in a word, from Canaan, be admitted in the Hebrew com-
every thing which would be an abomination munity (vers. 9, 10); and the members of
‘in an Israelite. And so impressively and other heathen nations no doubt after a
 \
‫אא‬
332 EXODUS XXII
shalt not be to him 'like a creditor; *thou shalt not lay \
1 Engl. Vers.—As an usurer. 2 Neither shalt thou. |

proportionate period. This precept was dently longed for hopes of the Messianic
necessary, if the purity of the Mosaic predictions, once to see all the nations of
religion was really to be preserved; the the earth in a happy alliance with Israel
pagan strangers must first, by education (Isa. ii. 2, et seq.; xlii. 6; xlix. 6; lvi. 6, .
and habit, be inured to the notions and et seq. etc). Nevertheless, a missionary |
religious rites of the Hebrews, before they activity for the conversion of heathens
could, without danger, be received as was exercised only at a very late epoch of |
autonomous members of the state. Be- Jewish history, and was then, after a
sides, castrated persons and the off- short period, altogether and for ever
spring of public prostitutes were en- abandoned. The Rabbins have rather
tirely excluded, in order rigidly to deter hindered than facilitated the admission of
from unnatural abominations and cri- strangers into the Hebrew covenant; and
minal immorality. The milder the wise the Jews are, at present, perhaps, among
legislator is in securing to everybody his all confessions and sects, those who favour
human rights, the severer he is entitled proselytism the least.
to be in the punishment of violated divine It is self-evident, that all precepts con-
duties. Even confederacies with heathen cerning strangers apply only to the
nations were not unconditionally pro- “strangers of justice,” since the other
hibited; and Hebrew history teaches us, class, the “ strangers of the gate,” are |
for instance, that David had concluded only tolerated foreigners. These latter |
an alliance with the kings of Tyre and remain, according to the Talmudical
Hamath, and that Solomon stood in a expositions, essentially heathens; but,
similar relation at least with the former lest their example become injurious and
monarch, although his connection with dangerous to the religious purity of the
the queen of Sheba is less distinct. And Hebrew citizens, they were required
if the prophets yet warned against foreign strictly to adhere to the seven so-called
allies, they were actuated rather by po- laws of Noah, binding upon all men,
litical than religious motives; for they which interdicted blasphemy, idolatry,
considered it particularly imprudent to murder, incest as regards the forbidden
enter into leagues with such mighty states degrees of marriage, plunder, disobe-
as Egypt, Assyria or Babylon, whose far dience against the authorities of the
superior power must, as those wise and state, and the eating of flesh cut from a
inspired men foresaw, necessarily become living beast. The “strangers of the
fatal to the Israelitish commonwealth, gate” were naturally excluded from the
and, in fact, did become so in most cases; participation of the paschal-lamb, and of —
just as Frederick the Great considered it the holy bread (Exod. xii. 45; Levit,
dangerous to call in the aid of Russia xxii. 10), but they enjoyed the privileges
against Sweden, because, as that monarch of the cities of refuge (Numb. ‫אאאט‬‎ 15);
said prophetically enough, “we must they were entitled to relief if they were
never let loose the bear.” It is, therefore, poor (Levit. xxv. 35); interest on loans
an incontrovertible truth, that although the granted to them was forbidden, and it
people of Israel remained in opposition was likewise enjoined not to oppress them
to the heathen nations, they freely al- in any way (ver. 36); they were allowed
lowed the individuals to join the Hebrew to acquire property, and even to possess =
community as soon as they promised per- Hebrew servants (ver. 47); but they
fect obedience to the law; both in could also, like a foreign slave, be sold
theory and in practice they always to an Israelite as an hereditary property
adhered to this rule. It is, however, (ver. 45).
one of the most beautiful and most ar- The “ strangers of justice” entered into
 EXODUS XXIL. 303

upon him ‘interest. 25. If thou at all takest thy neigh-

1 Engl. Vers.—Usury.

the community of Hebrew citizens by extraordinary emphasis, and ₪ 6

the solemn ceremonies of circumcision, “measure for measure” is threatened.
baptism, and of a sacrifice. It is If we cast one glance more on the laws
self-understood, that after these acts of Moses regarding the stranger, the poor,
they were expected to resign every con- the widow and the orphan, we cannot but
nection with their paternal gods, and acknowledge that a refreshing spirit of
even with their idolatrous relatives. brotherly love pervades every part of
About the antiquity of baptism as a ne- these injunctions. The ideas, that all
cessary ceremony or sacrament, in em- men are children of the same father, that
bracing Judaism, even ancient authorities everybody possesses his property only as
offer contradictory opinions. According a loan, and an act of grace of Him to
to some authorities it is scarcely older whom belongs the world and its abun-
than the time of the destruction of Jeru- dance; that, therefore, he who gives to
salem, although it might, as a natural the poor not only “lendeth to the Lord,”
lustration, have been in use on such occa- but restores to Him merely a small atom
sions from a very remote period. of all the bountiful gifts which He daily
21. The particular laws concerning showers upon him: these, and all the
the widow are: “If a priest’s daughter be kindred ideas of benevolence, humility,
a widow, or divorced, and have no child, fear of God, and love of mankind, are
and return to her father’s house, as in her visibly impressed upon these incom-
youth, she shall eat of her father’s food,” parable laws. Mosaism is a doctrine both
but there shall no stranger eat thereof theoretical and practical, both religious
(Levit. xxii. 13): 2nd. “ Thou shalt not and moral, calculated both to enlighten
take the widow’s raiment to pledge” the mind and to warm the heart; a re-
(Deut. xxiv. 17; compare Job xxiv. 3, ligion of faith and of deed; of mono-
where even the act of taking a necessary theism and of love. But those two
animal of a widow or of an orphan asa characteristics are not opposed to each
——
pledge, is characterized as’ wickedness): other; they are scarcely different, they
3rd. A High-priest was not allowed to converge in the same point, they are the
marry a widow (Levit. xxi. 14; compare emanations of the same power. ‘“ He
Eze. xliy. 22). Besides these laws 8 kind who oppresseth the poor reproacheth his
and considerate treatment of the widows Maker; but he who honoureth Him hath
is, in numerous passages, emphatically mercy on the poor” (Prov. xiv. 31): “ he
enjoined, and their oppression is most who doth not redeem his brother, doth
severely denounced by the prophets. not give his expiation to God” (Psalm
About the right of inheritance on the xlix. 8). The love of the poor is based
part of the widow, the Mosaic law on the love of God, the one supports and
contains no regulations; she probably strengthens the other. “God accepteth
remained in the house of the first-born, not the persons of princes, nor regardeth
or any other child who had the duty to the rich more than the poor! for they
maintain her. The orphans, being almost all are the work of His hand” (Job
the most helpless class of all destitute xxxiv- 19; compare Malachi 11. 10); be-
persons, are generally included in the fore God all mortals are equals; all
precepts concerning the poor, the stranger, worldly greatness is vanity; all are
and the widow, and everywhere con- created beings, insignificant before the
sidered with most affectionate benevo- majesty of God; and this idea suffices to
lence. eradicate pride and haughtiness of the
23. The punishment of hardhearted- heart. “The rich and the poor meet
ness against the weak is pronounced with together: the Lord is the Maker of
 -

‫ו‬

30
₪
ae
334 EXODUS XXIL
bour’s raiment to pledge, thou shalt return it to him by
sun-set. 26. For that 08 his covering only; it is his
them all”; however different the earthiy cious offspring is love to mankind; and
positions of men are, they have that one brotherly love again is not left alone and
great and sacred point of contact, that unsupported, but is powerfully and in-
they all bear the image of God, that they destructibly connected with the belief in |
have an internal and everlasting affinity, God; thus Mosaism combines God and |
which has its origin in an imperishable men, heaven and earth, eternity and time, |
boon; and this conviction precludes over- the intellect and the heart—and in unit- .
weening conduct-towards a fellow-man, ing everything sacred and sublime in one
and teaches humility and genuine: bene- all-comprising point, it bore in it, from
volence. Thus the belief in God is no the beginning, the germ of a universal
barren doctrine; its first and most pre- and eternal religion.

24. 42007 Loans AND INTERESTS. VeER, 24.

We have already observed, that Moses At the expiration of this time, he was
commanded asa religious duty of charity, liable to be assigned over to the cre-
to assist persons in reduced circumstances ditor by the sentence of the praetor.
with timely loans (Deut. xv. 7—-11), and The creditor was required to keep him |
that the lender had sufficient guarantees for sixty days in chains, during which
for his advances in the harvests, the time he publicly exposed the debtor on _
houses, the beasts, and, if necessary, in three market-days, and proclaimed the
the persons of his debtors. Imprisonment amount of his debt. If no person
or torture, in cases of insolvency, are released the prisoner by paying the debt, =
nowhere mentioned in the Mosaic code; the creditor might sell him as a slave, 1
those means of punishment were only or put him to death. If there were :
later introduced, according to the juri- several creditors, the letter of the law __
dical practice of the Romans. The allowed them to cut the debtor in pieces,
conduct of heartless creditors, who some- and to take their share of his body in
times deprived their debtors of the most proportion to their debt. Although, as
indispensable utensils, and took even their Gellius says, there was no instance of a
wives and children from them, was se- creditor having adopted this extreme
verely denounced by the prophets and mode of satisfying his debt, that per-
teachers in Israel (2 Kingsiv.1; Neh. v.5; mission, and the possibility of acting so,
Isa. 1.1). In the Sabbath-year, debts could show the barbarous character of that law.
not even be demanded back from Israelites It was only by the Lex Poetelia (B.c. 326)
whose fields then rested, and yielded no that the condition of the debtors was
harvest (Deut. xv. 1, et seg.), but to refuse alleviated.
loans, because the Sabbath-year was near, To take interest for money borrowed
is described as abject baseness of the heart by the poor was entirely forbidden by the
(ver. 9, see p. 329). The humane and Hebrew lawgiver; because it would have
lenient character of Mosaism is again been a hardship for them, and would in
strikingly evident in these precepts, which most cases have defeated the object of
appear to still greater advantage, if com- the loan, which aimed at assisting them
pared with the Roman laws concerning in regaining their former independence,
the payment of borrowed money. Ac- But it is usually asserted, that it was
cording to Gellius xx. 1, it was ordained equally unlawful to take interest from
in the Twelve Tables, that if the debtor the rich, because Moses did, in general,
admitted the debt, or had been condemned not wish to encourage commerce, but
in the amount of the debt by a judge, he intended to accustom the people exclu-
had thirty days allowed him for payment, sively to agriculture; and rich persons
 EXODUS XXII. 335

raiment for his skin: wherein shall he sleep? And it shall

come to pass, when he crieth to me, that I will hear him ;
will, ordinarily, borrow money only for the kernel and most sacred part of the
the purpose of mercantile speculations, whole legislation. 2. Although commerce
which would have tended to alienate was not encouraged by Moses, he could
them from the pursuits of agriculture, not systematically exclude it: and if
and ultimately to endanger the equality he feared dangerous consequences from
of the eitizens. It is added, that. it foreign trade, he could have no objection
would have been difficult to fix, who was to a home commerce, which was indis-
opulent enough to pay interest; and that pensable in a great and flourishing state,
the permission of taking per centage the comforts of which inclined, in some
would inevitably have turned out to the periods, to luxury. We see, in fact,
disadvantage of the poor, to whom commerce not only carried on in the
nobody would easily have granted loans, time of Solomon, but before and after
if there was the possibility of investing his reign. 3. As this law belongs to the
the money more safely and more advan- class of charitable provisions, it must be
tageously in the hands of the rich. left to the conscience and feeling of every
However, neither the letter nor the spirit body to decide, who is in want of a loan
of our law justify such interpretation: without interest, and who not; in such
1. In our passage we read distinctly: “If precepts of benevolence rigid injunc-
thou lendest money to any of my people tions are impossible; it is the very
that is poor....thou shalt not lay upon nature of charity and brotherly love, to
him interest”; and still more clearly in disregard external advantage, and merely
Ley. xxv. 35—37: “ And if thy brother to seek internal satisfaction; it was,
become poor and be reduced to poverty therefore, not to be feared, that if it was
with thee, then thou shalt relieve him; allowed to take interest from the rich,
take thou no interest of him, or increase; nobody would lend to the poor; just as
but fear thy God, that thy brother may little as we apprehend at present, that
live with thee.” These words are too because every capitalist can lucratively
7-
clear to be mistaken; the loans of which invest his money, charity will cease to
those passages treat are loans of charity; exist among us. Those laws, which are
the prohibition against taking interest given for the heart, and the reward and
stands here in the midst of a cycle of punishment for which are withdrawn
laws enacted in favour of the needy, the from the earthly judge and assigned to
orphan, the widow, and the stranger; it the Eternal, must necessarily leave some
is addressed more to the feeling than the scope to feeling; charity would, indeed,
understanding; and is coupled with the lose its grace and its beatifying charm,
law of pledges, which concludes with the if it were encompassed in strict and com-
most pathetic and affecting appeal to the pulsory regulations. Moses could, there-
heart. The circumstance, that in Deut. fore, not forbid a reasonable per centage
xxiii. 20, the law is expressed with the controlled by the state, for loans advanced
general terms: “Thou shalt not lend to persons in prosperous circumstances,
upon interest to thy brother,” has little who might momentarily require it for a
influence upon the bearings of the case, thousand possible emergencies.
since Deuteronomy contains merely a It was also lawful to take interests from
sketch of the laws formerly given in foreigners (Deut. xxiii. 21), because with
greater detail; we must frequently il- regard to these, the reason above stated
lustrate the fifth book from the three did not exist. If an Israelite possessed
preceding ones; a contradiction between superfluous capital, he could reasonably
both is impossible; but deviations in the demand some compensation from a mem-
form are even found in the decalogue, ber of a foreign state for the risk incurred

.= | |
 336 EXODUS XXII.
for I am compassionate.—27. Thou shalt not revile 'God,
nor curse *a magistrate of thy people.—28. Thou shalt
1 Engl. Vers.—The gods. 2 The ruler.
by him; and if the foreigner applied that undeniable that the sacred legislator, and
capital to commercial undertakings, no all the other inspired writers, exhausted
Mosaic principle was in the least en- the whole power of human language to
dangered. Moreover, the right of reci- effect a radical extirpation of that vice;
procity prevailed in these laws. For it and if the fundamental conditions of a
Was supposed that foreign nations also pious and virtuous life are enumerated,
would not lend to Israelites without abstinence from interest is seldom omitted
interest: the Israelites, therefore, on their (Ps. xv. 5, etc.), as on the other hand,
part, were not prohibited taking from the most awful curses of heaven are
them some indemnification for the use of called down upon the heartless usurer
their money. From the same principle (Job xxiv. 9, 20, etc.). The legal punish-
of reciprocity, the Hebrews were per- ment set on usury is not stated in the —
mitted to insist in the Sabbath-year upon Old Testament; but besides the restitu-
the payment of debts due to them by tion of the unjust gain, the universal,
non-Israelites, because it was to be ex- public defamation was a punishment more
pected that the latter also, who were not tormenting than either fines or imprison-
bound by the Mosaic precepts, would not ment.—The wording of our verse seems
hesitate to exact debts from the Hebrews to intimate, that feneration was, in the
(Deut. xxiii.21). The Pentateuch offers time of Moses, a common vice among
us no clue to decide what the usual the nations with which the Israelites
per centage was; in Nehemiah vy. 11, the came into contact: “thou shalt not be to
hundredth part is mentioned; but it is him like the usual creditors.” As the pro-
not clear, whether this was the annual hibition to take no interest applies only
or the monthly interest (as among the to Israelites, not to foreigners, our text
Romans). uses the phrase “ any of my people that is
Besides the interest, the law interdicts poor.” But those words contain no intima-
encrease (Lev. xxv. 36, 37); namely, if a tion, that the majority, or the bulk of the
person lends to another fruits or corn or people, consisted of poor persons; for no
other natural products, he is not allowed legislation has taken greater care to
to demand in return a greater quantity prevent pauperism than that of Moses;
than he has lent him. According to although naturally, in the course of time,
others it is an increase at the repayment manifold inequalities of property could
of capital, for which the creditor has re- not fail to arise. For those who seek
ceived no interest, which would, in fact, the prototypes of the Mosaic laws in the _
only be another form of usury.—It is, Egyptian institutions, we add the follow-
therefore, not surprising that usury is in ing passage from Diodorus Siculus (i. 79):
the Old Testament branded with the * According to the Egyptian law, it was =
utmost contempt and ignominy; even forbidden to allow the interest to increase
the word interest is, in Hebrew, traced to more than double the original sum.
back to a root which signifies to bite But the creditor was not permitted to
like a serpent, and thus obtained in seize the debtor’s person, whilst it was
the minds of the people a_ hateful lawful to take his property for the
and abominated notion. It is, indeed, debt.”
25. ABouT THE Ricut ‫סע‬‎ PLepGES. Vers. 25, 26. |
Moses permitted the creditor, as a was the raiment of the poor debtor, the
security for his loans, to take pledges, creditor was bound to return it to him in
but under the following salutary and the evening; for the great, long garment
humane restrictions: 1. If the pledge served in the day as a dress, and in the
=

>,
*
— 00 ‫ו‬
 EXODUS XXII. 37

not delay to offer 'from the abundance of thy corn and the
choicest of thy wine; the firstborn of thy sons shalt thou
! Engl. Vers.—The first of thy ripe fruits and of thy liquors.
night as a cover (see on ver. 26; Deut. year of jubilee, fell back to the proprietors
XXiy. 12); and he, who refuses to comply without indemnification. About the
with this command, calls upon himself pledges connected with promises, see
the special vengeance of the compassionate Genesis xxxviil. 17, et seg.; about hos-
God (ver.26 ; Deut.xxiv.13; Ezek.xviii.12). tages, 2 Kings xiv.14. Jewish tradition
2. The hand-mill and the mill-stones were has, in perfect harmony with the spirit of
not permitted to be taken at all as pledges the Mosaic laws, added a great number of
(Deut. xxiv. 6), because they were indis- excellent precepts, entirely framed in the
pensable for the preparation of the flour interest of the poor and distressed, and
and bread, that is, the most necessary intended to protect them from shame and
articles of subsistence. After the same degradation.
analogy, all similar utensils were like- 26. Over the tunic the Bedouins in
wise prohibited to be taken as pledges, Asia and North-Africa wear a blanket,
as the implements of agriculture, or the called hazh, )1.6., cover), which resembles
animals necessary for its cultivation (Job perfectly the plaid of the Scotch High-
xxii.6). 3. The creditor shall not him- landers. These haiks are of different
self enter into the house of the debtor, but sizes, and of different quality and fine-
wait before the door, till the latter deli- ness. They are commonly six yards
vers up to him the pledge, evidently from long, and five or six feet broad; serving
fear, lest the former, tempted by personal the Kabyle and Arab for a complete
inspection, take a more valuable or an dress in the day; and as they sleep in
indispensable object (Deut. xxiv. 10, 11). raiment, like the Israelites of old, it serves
— According to the whole agrarian con- likewise for their bed and covering by
stitution of Moses, the sales of territorial night. It is a loose, but troublesome
estates were virtually nothing but mort- garment, frequently discomposed, and
gages, or transfers of the produce of the falling upon the ground, so that the
soil, since the fields, which, as in the person who wears it, is every moment
legislation of Lycurgus, were inalienable obliged to tuck it up, and fold it anew
property of the family (Lev. xxv.), in the about the body.
26. DisRESPECT TOWARDS Gop AND THE AUTHORITIES. VER. 27.
The decalogue already contains a solemn God is, in a theocratical state, the only
interdiction against abusing the holy name possible form of the crimes l/esae majes-
for purposes of falsehood; it is, therefore, tatis and of high-treason; it undermines
natural that disrespect, especially if it ma- the foundation of the political edifice;
nifested itself in cursing the deity -was and the whole community was, therefore,
visited with the severest punishments. interested in punishing such transgressions.
In Leviticus xxiv. 15, 16, this law is more As the chief magistrate exercises the
distinctly thus expressed: “ And thou executive power in the name and by
shalt speak to the children of Israel, say- the laws of God, reverence towards
ing, Whosoever curseth his God shall bear him is, in a religious and political point
his sin. And he who blasphemeth the of view, equally indispensable, and the
name of the Lord, he shall surely be put combination of these two laws, con-
to death; all the congregation shall cer- cerning God and the magistrates, is thus
tainly stone him: as well the stranger as easily explicable. But some expositors
he who is born in the land, when he have taken God here in the significa-
blasphemeth the name of the Lord, shall tion of judges, as in xxi. 6. But the
be put to death” (compare vers. 10—12). judges are implied in the following
This violation of the reverence due to term, magistrate; and God alone, in
Z
 ‫ו‬ ‫ה‬
\ ‫א‬ ‫יי‬. "‫לתש‬
‫י‬₪

338 EXODUS XXII.

give tome. 29. The same shalt thou do with thy oxen, ‫ן‬‎
and with thy sheep: seven days it shall be with its
mother, on the eighth day thou shalt give it me.—30. And
the meaning of judges, is used in pas- whilst such apologetical considerations
sages only where judicial proceedings could not possibly influence 4 legislator
are clearly treated of, not in an abrupt who framed his laws, not for a subjugated,
command, as in our verse. Still less but for a governing people. Moreover,
appropriate is the conception of God here that interpretation would not agree with
as strange gods or idols, as Josephus the words of the text: “‘ Whoever curseth
and Philo assert, observing, that Moses his God;” since the strange gods would
wished to prevent the heathens from abus- not be the gods of the Jsraelites. The
ing, in a similar manner, the name of Koran prescribes, that “the person who
the God of Israel from motives of retalia- utters blasphemy against God, or Moham-
tion. It has, however, been correctly re- med, or Christ, or Moses, or any prophet,
marked by Michaelis, that this interpre- is to be put to death without delay, even
tation was shrewdly advanced by Jose- though he profess himself repentant; re-
phus, in order to convince the Romans, pentance for such a sin being deemed im-
that even tlicir deities were treated by possible,” Thus blasphemy is considered
the Israelites with a certain respect; a more heinous sin than apostasy.
27. ABOUT THE OFFERING OF THE First Fruits. VERS. 28, 29, anD XXIII. 19
(First Parr).
The law concerning the /firsilings is their immigration into Egyptwas briefly
here but briefly alluded to, and is, in later but emphatically alluded to. |
passages, more fully treated. To God About the sanctification of the first-
belonged the firstlings of corn, of tree- born of men and beasts, see note on xiii. 2.
fruits, and of grapes; further, the first Compare Num. xviii. 15—18.—It is well —
wine, oil, flour, and dough, even the known, that similar offerings of the first
first wool of the sheep. The priests, as and best fruits to the gods were common =
God’s seryants, received these gifts, since to nearly all the nations of antiquity, 88
they had no territorial property of their a natural manner of divine veneration; —
own. Arneasure of the firstlings is not fixed so they were in use among the Egyptians,
in the Pentateuch ; the Talmud takes one- Greeks, Romans, Hyperboreans, and others,
sixtieth part ofthe produce asthe minimum, The first-fruits of all newly-planted trees”
but recommends one-thirtieth. Jewish belonged also to God; but, as the fruits are |
tradition demands, however, the firstlings generally in the first few years very im-
only of the seven chief productions of perfect and tasteless, they were not to be
Palestine: “wheat, barley, vine, figs, used at all; the produce of the fou %
pomegranates, olives, and honey” (Deut. year belonged to God; and from the fifth
viii, 8). In Deut. xxvi. 2—11, the year only the proprietor had the fruition -
mode of offering the firstlings is de- (Ley. xix. 23—25).—On the eighth day
scribed. They were laid in a basket thou shalt give it me. “ Lambs became
and brought into the temple to the High- pure on the eighth day, calves on the
priest, who place the basket before the twentieth, after their birth” (Plin. Hist.
altar; then the boundless merey which Nat. 8). 6
a
God has shewn to the Israelites since

28. Anour UNLAwrout MEAT. VER. 0.

As in the brief outline of the funda- omitted, a principal injunction regarding
mental laws contained in chapters xxi. the dietary laws is, with a few words,
to xxiii, no important precept could be incorporated in this code, A great num
 EXODUS XXII. 339

you shall be holy men to me: neither shall you eat any
flesh that 08 torn of beasts in the field; you shall cast it to
the dogs.
ber of these commands proceed from the expressions note to xix.6), What is torn
simple maxim, that the blood is the soul is forbidden, wherever it be found; but
of the animal, and that it must, from this our verse mentions the usual case, if the
reason, not be eaten (Ley. xvii. 11, 14; animal was torn in the field. The Koran
Deut. xii.23). If, therefore, a beast is (v.4) has borrowed these precepts from
found dead, it may well be supposed that the Mosaic law: “ You are forbidden to
it was “suffocated in its blood,” and that eat that which has died of itself, and
it did not expire in a normal way. the blood (and pork, and that at the
This is therefore entirely interdicted to killing of which the name of another
the Israclites. Althongh such animal deity except God has been invoked), and
might, in most cases, be unwholesome, that which was suffocated, and that which
and the use of its flesh be deemed was killed by strokes or by a fall, or by
injurious, it could yet not be forbidden the horns of another animal, and that
to strangers and foreigners, as they which was torn by wild beasts, except
were, in this case, not actuated by any if you have first killed it entirely” [that
religious, but merely by a_ sanitary, is, if it was still alive when it came
consideration, and they will certainly into your hands, and was then killed by
have spontaneously abstained from such you in the lawful manner]. Compare
flesh in all doubtful cases (see Deut. xiv. 11.175; xvi. 115; and Niebuhr (Descr. of
21). But there was another sort of un- Ay. p. 178,179) remarks: “The general
lawful meat, which is mentioned in rule of the Mohammedans is, according
our verse, namely, if an animal was to the opinion of the doctors of Bassora,
torn by a wild beast, a jackal, 8 fox, a not to eat any animal which attacks men,
wolf, or a rabid dog, the use of its flesh or which tears human bodies. They are
is naturally and evidently injurious for further forbidden to eat an animal which
all, and is therefore forbidden to all with- was torn by another animal. If, for in-
out exception: “it shall be thrown before stance, a dog has only tasted the blood of
the dogs.” But if, nevertheless, a man game, it is not interdicted (halal); but if
eats of such meat, “whether he be a he has eaten some portion of the flesh
proselyte or a native Hebrew, he shall also, it is forbidden (heram).... The Mo-
wash his clothes, bathe himself, and be hammedans are, in general, not permitted
unclean until the evening” (Ley. xvii. 15). to eat an animal, the death of which was
These words imply, besides, the intima- not accompanied with the shedding of
tion, that the laws concerning unlawful blood,” obviously, because then the soul
meat have also a reference to the purity was believed to be still in the animal;
and sanctity of Israel, individually and as the Rabbins also call the blood the
nationally; since the nature of food has “essence of the sacrifice,” and propose
commonly no inconsiderable influence the principle: ‘There is no atonement,
upon the refinement and the manners of except by the blood of the sacrifice.”
a people; and that those laws have this Even in the ancient Greek writers we
spiritual basis is obvious, both from our find similar precepts to that enjoined in
passage and from Deut. iv. 21 (“and you our verse; and analogous principles are
shall be holy men to me;” “for a holy adhered to in the customary right of all
nation thou art to the Lord thy God;” civilized nations.
see also Ley. xi.43, 44; compare on these
 +5 ‫ב‬ 1 6

EXODUS ie ₪
CHAPTER XXIII.
HOU shalt not raise a false report: put not thy
\
hand with the wicked to be 'a witness for violence. | /

2. Thou shalt not follow the many to evil, neither

' Engl. Vers.—An unrighteous witness.

29. 22001 JupicIaL 1081108. VERS, 1—3, 6—8.

The condensed code of the Law, which sentence was executed immediately, be-
is concluded in this chapter, naturally fore the eyes of the judge (Deut. xxxv.2; =
carries out the consequences of the Ten Josh. vii. 19—25, et seg.). Every Israel-|
Commandments; and, after murder has ite was eligible as judge, whose intelli- —
been treated in xxi, 12—14, theft in xxi. gence commanded respect, and whose
37, et seq., the ninth commandment is integrity inspired confidence (xviii. 21);
now further developed: not to bear false the principle of democratic equality per- =
witness against our neighbour. From yaded that institution also, and not the —
this principle follows, neither to join the Levites alone were admissible to judicial —
wicked to confirm a false evidence, nor, functions, as has been erroneously 88- —
in pronouncing judgment, to follow the serted. The importance and sacredness —
blind indiscriminating multitude to the of these duties are frequently and im-
detriment of justice, nor eyen to favour pressively enjoined (Deut. i. 16, 17; xiii.
the poor in the courts of the law from 15; xvi. 19, 20). Maimonides enume-
ill-placed pity. Originally the chiefs and rates seven necessary qualities of a judge:
elders of the tribes and families were, no wisdom, humility, fear of God, aversion
doubt, the judges between contending to avarice, love of truth, popularity, and
tribes or quarrelling members of the same unblemished reputation. The Hebrew
tribe (Deut. i. 16); the local tribunals judges were, therefore, held in the highest
(xvi. 18) were most likely also presided respect; they are considered as repre-
over by the elders of the respective towns. sentatives of God; and it was deemed
In difficult cases, the decision was re- highly criminal to abuse them by deed or
ferred to the priests and Levites at the language (xxi. 6; xxii, 27).
temple (Deut. xvii. 8, etc.). In the time 1. As this verse seems to speak of the
of the judges, these exercised the right of witness, the first words are to be taken:
jurisdiction; a regular administration of “thou shalt not raise or pronounce a
justice seems first to have been intro- false report;” that is, thou shalt, as
duced by Samuel (1 Sam. vii. 16, 18, 4 witness, not bring forward any eyiden ce
seq.). Already in the times of David and the truth of which is not clearly knowr
Solomon, local courts existed (1 Chron. to thee, or of the falsehood of which th
xxiii.4); the kings formed the highest artconvinced. Thus explains Ebn Ezra:
tribunals of appeal; but they were, be- “thou shalt not let go forth from thy
sides, accessible to every subject, what- heart an untruth to propagate a ₪
ever case he might wish to submit to lumny.” But the Septuagint, -
them (2Sam. xiv. 4; xy. 2, et seg.). The and others, understand these words 6
jurisdiction was public—mostly at the mean: “thou shalt not take up or credit
gates of the towns—oral and summary a false report.” But this would, of course
(Deut. xxi. 19; xxy.1). For a legal evi- refer to the judge, and would therefor
dence, two witnesses were at least re- scarcely agree with the second part ¢
quired (Deut. xix.15; Num. xxv, 30). the verse, which speaks of the duti
If more than one judge formed the tri- of a witness. — The efficient punisl
bunal, the opinion of the majority pre- ment fixed by Moses for the calumnia
yailed (Deut. xix. 12; infra, ver.2), The and false witness, was, that they suffer
 EXODUS XXIII. 341

shalt thou speak in a cause to deviate after the many

to pervert justice. 3. Nor shalt thou countenance
a poor man in his cause——4. If thou meet thy enemy’s
ox or his ass erring about, thou shalt surely bring it back
themselves that very injury which they however commendable it is in abstract
contemplated to bring over their in- questions of the law, and in civil and
tended victims—a very wise and just ex- social government.
tension of the right of retaliation (Deut. +. The legislator has proved by 8
xix. 16—21). series of excellent precepts, how deeply
2. Even if thou hearest many pro- he felt for the distress of the poor, and
nounce an unjust opinion in a lawsuit, has provided for them with unexampled
thou shalt not follow them in this in- humanity and truly paternal affection
justice; in such case, therefore, thou shalt (see notes on xxii. 20—26). But just for
not lean towards the multitude, to violate this reason he deemed it necessary to
ithe right or to pervert justice. This enjoin, not to privilege them from mis-
is the simple sense of our verse, which understood compassion: for strict justice
has, however, been misunderstood by is the chief and the strongest pillar of
the traditional interpretation ; for the every social edifice; and inasmuch as the
last words were taken together and humble position of the poor ought not to
explained: “that we must follow the prejudice him in the eyes of the judge
opinion of the majority”; which would, (ver. 6), even so should it not be an ad-
however, on the one hand, absolutely vantage or a recommendation: “Thou
contradict the first part of the verse: shalt not respect the person of the poor
“thou shalt not follow the many to evil,” nor honour the person of the mighty; in
and would, on the other hand, in moral righteousness shalt thou judge thy neigh-
questions, be a very doubtful precept, bour,” see ver, 8.

80. ABOUT FOUND PROPERTY. VER. 4.

THE law contained in this verse is ex- tempted to keep it for himself, he must
pressed more clearly and fully in Deut. restore it together with the fifth part of
xxii. 1—3: “Thou shalt not see thy its value, and sacrifice a ram as a guilt-
brother’s ox, or his sheep go astray, and offering (Deut. v. 6, 7). If a person is
hide thyself from them: thou shalt in any suspected to have fraudulently kept found
case bring them again to thy brother. property, an oath is administered to him;
And if thy brother is not nigh to thee, or and if he is guilty of a false oath, he has
if thou dost not know him, then thou —besides the usual infamy attending per-
shalt bring it to thy house, and it shall jury—to restore, in addition, the fifth
be with thee until thy brother seek after part of the value, and to sacrifice a guilt-
it, and thou shalt restore it to him again. offering, that God may pardon his trans-
In like manner, shalt thou do with his gression (Levit. v. 20—26). In this, and
ass; and so shalt thou do with his raiment, in the following verse, the enemy is treated
and with all lost things of thy brother’s of, as the animosity against him may
which he hath lost, and thou hast found, tempt a man to injustice; and all obliga-
shalt thou do likewise: thou mayest not tions of love, due to an enemy, must, as
hide thyself.” But if the proprietor is a matter of course, be extended to all our
only discovered some time afterwards, fellow-men. And even the thoroughly
and if he died in the meantime, his rela- orthodox protestant divine, Gerlach,
tives receive the property; if he has no writes: “In these laws, genuine, active
relatives it is handed over to the priests love for an enemy, 18 inculcated; they
(Numb. vy. 8). But if the finder has at- prove how unjust it is unconditionally to
ee EXODUS ‫ה‬‎ , we ¥ ‫ו‬‎ ul 5 " 1
‫ו‬ ote Si‫‏‬

to ‎‫ו‬ If thou seest the ass of him that; hateth thin

re 4 /‫‏‬

lying under its burden, 'forbear to leave ₪ to it; thou

shalt leave 07 only with him.—6. Thou shalt not hend the
judgment of thy poor in his cause. 7. From a false 681186 =|
thou shalt keep aloof; and the innocent and righteous —
1 Engl. Vers.— And wouldest forbear to help him, thou shalt surely
help with him.
ascribe to the Old Testament the sentence been said, Thou shalt love thy neighbour,
in Matt.v.43: ‘You have heard that it has but hate thine enemy.’ "

31. Humanity rowarps ANIMALS. Ver. 5.

Tux truly humane and wise precept of G. See on ver. 3.
this verse is, in itself, sufficiently clear, 3. From a false cause thou shalt heep
but it gains additional light by the pa- aloof, that is, as a judge thon shalt shun
rallel passage in Deut. xxii. 4: “'Thou every falsehood, and strictly adhere to
shalt not see thy brother’s ass or his ox truth, and even—as Rabbinical inter-
fall down by the way and hide thyself preters explain—if thou seest that the
from them: thou shalt surely help him to court or the witnesses are inclined to
lift them up again.” But, however un- injustice, rather resign every connection —
questionable this sense is, the words of with them. Compare Ley. xix. 15, 35;
our verse are extremely disputed. The Deut. i. 16, 17; xvi. 18—20; xxiv. 17;
simplest and clearest interpretation is the xxv. 1—3.—And the innocent and right-
following: “If thou seest the ass of thy eous slay thou not; strive not to oppress
enemy lying under his burden, for- or injure the innocent before thy tribunal; =
bear to leave it (the burden) to him Jor I will not justify the wicked ; that is,
(the ass); thou shalt leave it (or the the judge who pronounces unjust verdicts.
place) only with him (the master).” ₪. As all the laws concerning judges
The law enjoined in our verse was, Ist., have only been given, in order to secure
necessary among an agricultural people, impartiality of jurisdiction, but as this —
where the loss of a beast of burden might end is necessarily defeated by the ac-
cause the ruin of a citizen; and, 2nd., ceptance of any kind of presents ‫סע‬‎ |
practicable, as every body learnt from his bribes from either party: such practice —
youth how to manage animals, and was has been unconditionally and emphati- =
therefore well enabled to assist his fellow- cally forbidden, the reason being added —
men in cases like those to which our because bribery “maketh blind the seeing,
verse alludes, The wisdom and huma- and perverteth the words of the righteous”; _
nity of this law is self-evident; it is both even wise and conscientious judges are,
advantageous for the prosperity of the from the weakness of human nature, led
community, and considerate for the suf- away from inflexible and uncompromising
ferings of an over-burdened animal, and justice by insinuating presents, and even
efficacious in eradicating a blind and flattering words, and other marks of
destructive hatred among the members personal attention; but the judge, in
of the same commonwealth. Other pre- exercising his functions, must forget his
cepts of compassion towards animals are own person, and live entirely for his holy
enjoined in ver. 19; in Ley. xxii.28; Deut. and responsible duties (compare Deut.
‎‫ואא‬.01,7,6; and ‎‫ואא‬.4; which will be xvi. 19, 20). It is not the fault of the
explained in their due places. We have inspired lawgiver, if later very frequent y
in the larger edition of this work reviewed the loudest and justest complaints against
the expositions of ancient and modern impudent corruptions of the judges we
interpreters on this verse. raised (Isaiah i, 23; v.23; Psalms XXxvi. I 0
 EXODUS XXIII. 343
slay thou not: for I shall not justify the wicked. 8. And
thou shalt take no *bribery; for the bribery blindeth the
“seeing, and perverteth the words of the righteous.—
9. And thou shalt not oppress a stranger; for you know
the heart of the stranger, since you were strangers in the
2 Engl. Vers.—Gitt. 3 Wise.

Proy. xvii. 23; xviii. 6, etc.).—A_ punish- Compare the verse of Virgil: ‘“ Not
ment for bribery is not mentioned in the unacquainted with misfortune I have’
Mosaic law; according to Josephus learned to succour the distressed” (Ain.
(Ap. ii. 27) it was considered a capital i. 630). — The context leads spon-
crime. A corrupt judge deserved, at taneously to the idea, that in the courts
least, the same punishment as a false of justice the strangers and the natives
witness (Deut. xix. 16—21). are to be treated with perfect equality,
| 9. About the right of the stranger, see which duty is expressly enjoined in
on xxii. 20—26; and about the expres- Deut. i. 16,
sions used in our verse, see ibid. ver. 20.
32. Asour SABBATH AND SABBATH-YEAR. VER. 10—12.
ALTHOUGH every calm Biblical critic fices; seven days lasted the mourning for
will sedulously keep aloof from mystic the dead (Gen. 1. 10); seven days also
speculations on the hidden properties of the marriages (Judg. xiv. 12); seven
the numbers, it cannot be denied, that in animals were, in primeval times, pre-
the sacred yolume some numbers pre- sented, on solemn occasions, as alliances
dominate, which bear a holy and religious and promises (Gen. xxi. 28—30); and
character. Among these the number the sacred word oath is etymologically
seven ranks first. Its frequent, almost connected with the number seven; sym-
regular repetition, cannot be accidental. bolical actions are repeated seven times
The seventh day is the Sabbath, the (1 Kings xviii. 43; 2 Kings v. 10, 14;
seventh year the Sabbath of the fields; compare Genesis iv. 15; Ezekiel xxxix.
after seven times seven years the 9:31, 29: ‫ו‬‎,‫ ג‬3s. Nom. xxiii 1, 14
jubilee, or the perfect restoration of the 1 Chron. x. 12, etc.); the mark of the
original conditions of property ensues; highest reverence was a sevenfold pros-
the seventh new-moon is the “ day tration (Gen. xxxiii, 3); and a progeny
of the sound of the trumpet,” or “the of seven children was considered a
day of remembrance”; the seventh month peculiar blessing (1 Sam. ii. 5; Jer. xv. 9;
is almost entirely occupied with the Job 1.2); seven was, in fact, frequently
holiest festivals; Passover lasted seven used as a number signifying many, in
days, and on every day a sacrifice of general, or as the number par excellence
seven lambs was offered; seven days was (Deut. xxviii. 7; Judg. xv. 7,17; 2 Kings
the Feast of Tabernacles, and seven weeks iv. 35; Psalms cxix. 164; Prov. xxiv. 16;
lie between Passover and Pentecost; seven xxvi.15; Isaiah iv.1; xi.15; Jobv.19;
days the young animals remained with Mich. v. 4; Ruth iv. 15). Seven chief
their mothers before they were fit for utensils were in the holy Tabernacle: 1. the
firstling-offerings (Exod. xxii. 29); the altar of burnt-offerings; 2. the laver;
circumcision was performed after full 8. the shew-bread table; 4. the altar of
seven days from the birth; seven days incense; 5. the candelabrum; 6. the ark;
was the legal duration for many Levitical and 7. the mercy-seat and the Cherubim,
lustrations; during seven days the priests which formed one vessel, xxv. et seg. But
were initiated; seven times the blood was even in historical events, the number seven
sprinkled at important expiatory sacri- is very markedly obvious. Noah took into
 7

344 ‫‏‬SUDOXE ‫אא‬ "‫הו‬

land of Egypt.—10. And six years thou shalt sow thy
land, and shalt gather in the produce thereof: 11. But
the ark seven pairs of every clean animal 7% days each, and after this time assumes
(Gen. vii.2); seven days before the be- a new phase. These periodical and 6%-
ginning of the deluge he was once more traordinary changes of the moon pro- |
informed of it (ver.4); he waited seven duced a powerful impression upon the
days after having first sent out the dove; susceptible minds of the ancient nations,
and when she returned, seven days more they excited them to reflections on this
(vers. 10, 12); Jacob served seven years wonderful phenomenon, and everything
for Leah and seven years for Rachel counected with it, assumed, in their eyes,
(Gen. xxix. 20,27, 30); Pharaoh dreamt a peculiar significance. Hence the day
of seven fat and seven lean cows, of of the new-moon was generally celebrated =
seven full and of seven empty ears of with some distinguishing solemnity, which,
corn; and accordingly, seven years of like all festivals, is regulated and fixed in
abundance and seven years of famine the Mosaic law (Num. x. 10; XXViii, 11,
ensued. (Gen. xl.1; compare 2 Sam. xxiv. etc.); and the new moon 18 in the Old
18; ‫ל‬‎ Kings viii. 1); the father-in-law of Testament frequently mentioned together
Moses had seven daughters (Exod. ii. 16), with the Sabbath (2 Kings iy. 23; Isaiahi.
of whom Moses selected the worthiest for 18, etc.). Hereto we add, that the num-
his wife; Jericho was encircled during ber of the seven planets known to them
seven days; on the seventh day, seven (Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, the Sun, Venus,
priests with seven trumpets passed seven Mercury, the Moon), which successively
times round the city, which was then presided over the hours of the day, and
only attacked and taken (Josh. vi.); each of which commenced therefore a
Solomon finished the temple in seven different day, contributed in later times
years (1 Kings vi.88); and at its con- not a little to secure to -it that
secration celebrated a festival of twice mysterious significance; especially as
seven days (viii. 65). It would be easy, the result of the astrological pursuits
by obvious combinations, to increase this soon brought all human affairs and oc-
list considerably; and we mention only, cupations into some relation with those
that the three patriarchs and their four planets. But that division of the week
wives make the number seven; but we into seven days was known and adopted
may distinctly call attention to the fact, by the most different nations, as 6
that the three “signs of the Covenant” Assyrians, Arabs, Indians, Chinese, Peru-
of Mosaism, circumcision, the Passover, vians (but not the Persians), and many
and the Sabbath, are all connected with African and American tribes, which neyer
the number seven. The same mystic came into intercourse with the Israelites,
number prevails especially in the Indian and later by the Greeks and Romans, —
mythology: a God shines through the who followed the Egyptians. We must, —
world on a chariot drawn by seven therefore, recognise therein, not an ex-
horses; there are seyen worlds (Locas), clusively theocratical, but a general astro-_
seven great continents (Dripas), seven nomical arrargement, which offered itself
oceans; the human body consists of to the simplest planetary observation of
seven chief members; there are seven every people. Hence we reject the
periods in the life of man, ete. very artificial theories of Baehr, Kurtz,
The simple and obvious explanation and others, that seven is composed of —
of the holiness of the number seven is, three (the character of the divine) and
that the ancient Israelites, as most of the four (the character of the Kosmos),
Eastern nations, counted originally their and that it therefore signifies the com-
months after the course of the moon, bination of God and the world. How-
which renews itself in four quarters of ever, the historical and other appli- =.
=
 4

| - ‫תאסתסא‬‎ XXII
/ * el 5
" / 0 ‫וז‬‎ 8 1 rho .
‘Je ; - 4
"

‫מו‬ / el‫‏‬

‘the seventh year thou shalt let it rest and lie still; that
the poor of thy people may eat: and what they leave the
cations of the number seven above in- accompany it with a perfect restitution
| ‘prove unmistakeably that the of the fields to the former proprietors; and
_ Israelites attached to it a peculiar sanctity this is the jubilee. It cannot be denied,
and meaning; that it was considered as that the chief principle, on which these
4‫ו‬‎ number of combination and connection, systematic and comprehensive institutions
of unity and harmony, of salvation and are based, is the idea that the Israelite
blessing, of peace and sanctification; of the belongs, with his person and his property, |
covenant between God and Israel (and to God; “for the land is mine, says the
therefore in some respects indeed the Lord, for you are only strangers and
= theocratical number), of expiation and sojourners with me” (Ley. xxv.23); “to
atonement, of purification and initiation; me the children of Israel are servants; ©
and it must be admitted, that although they are my servants, whom I have
the importance of the number seven 8 brought forth from the land of Egypt:
Se lsriginally an astronomical source, the I am the Lord your God” (ver. 55).—On
- divine legislator nowhere alludes to its the Sabbath, which belongs to the Lord
planetary character, but endows it with (xx. 10), the Israelite shall individually
- purely spiritual meaning, in accordance and personally elevate himself to God;
with his usual tendency to ennoble the in the Sabbath-year the land shall remain
received idolatrous notions into original uncultivated, as God intended then to
and elevating truths. About the week of use it, as it were, for His own purposes,
ten and of five days, see note on xii. 3. for the poor, the stranger, and the help-
- -- It is thus indisputable, that the number less (Lev. xxv.6,7); and in the jubilee,
= seven obviously predominates through all all property and persons shall be restored
- the Mosaic festivals; and even the col- to their original condition, in which they
lective number of the holy convocations were placed by the divine Law and by
amounts to seven, namely: two on Pass- the first distribution of the land. This
over, one on Pentecost, one on the is the higher idea embodied in those
seventh new-moon, one on the Day of peculiar institutions, which possess, how-
\ > Atonement, and two on the Feast of ever, many other collateral advantages.
{ ‘abernacles; and this comprehensive and The precepts concerning the Sabbath-
- organic connection of the festivals with year are: 1. In Palestine the fields and
each other, has justly been considered as vineyards shall be cultivated for six
a safe guarantee of their contemporary years, and their produce gathered; but in
Mosaic origin. But more extraordinary the seventh year they shall rest. 2. That
than the general festivals even, is the cycle produce, however, which grows sponta-
Bet Sabbaths, ordained by Moses, and of neously belongs, for common use, to
> course based on that sacred number. Now the proprietor, the servants, the hirelings,
the Sabbath may either aim at the mental the strangers, and the beasts. 3. The
= and physical recreation of the individuals, people shall live from the superfluity of
and this is the Sabbath par excellence, the preceding years, especially the sixth.
_eyery seventh day of the week, on which 4. Except from strangers, debts were not
we have already treated in the fourth allowed to be exacted, since the pro-
commandment; or it may be directed to prietors gained no harvests (Deut. xv.
- the interests of the landed property, and 1--8; see supra on xxii.24), The Israel-
the rest from agricultural labours; and ites, therefore, when standing under
‫ו‬‎
. is the release, every seventh year; Roman authority, enjoyed, in the Sab-
or it may, lastly, tend to secure the bath-year, exemption from taxes; and,
nal liberty of the Israelites, and in 5. On the Feast of Tabernacles of
order to make this liberty a real boon, to every seventh year the Law of Moses
 0
\

EXODUS XXI
‫נש‬ ‫שד‬

‫כ‬
a>‫‏‬ ;

,/ \
i oe
WS

beasts of the field shall eat. In like marina ‫וש‬‎ ‫ו‬ rl .

1
do with thy vineyard and with thy oliveyard—12. Six
days thou shalt do thy work, and on the seventh day thou
shalt rest: that thy ox and thy ass may rest, and the son
|
was to be recited in the temple to the neglected before the exile (2 Chron. :
whole nation, men and children and Xxxvi. 21, from which passage it has |
Strangers (Deut. xxxi. 10—13). But the been concluded, that it was not observed |
release of the slaves took place after the during a period of about 500 years); |
sixth year of their servitude, irrespec- but that it was really carried out after |
tive of the Sabbath-year (see p. 292). the return from the Babylonian captivity 4
From this exposition, the following acces- (Neh. x. 81). Thus the Sabbath-year had
sory advantages of the Sabbath-year are an ideal and practical signification: to |
evident: 1. The soil enjoyed a regular keep in memory the inalienable sove-
rest, doubly necessary in the imperfect reignty of God, and to promote the fer- |
state of agriculture of those ages, and tility of the land; and even if the latter
calculated considerably to enhance the object should have been the ulterior aim
fertility in the other years. 2. It is sup- of Moses, he has, with his usual wisdom,
posed (according to Michaelis and others), admirably ennobled and spiritualized it.—
that the Israelites, in order to prevent As the jubilee is the natural and neces-
want or scarcity in the seventh year, sary development of the Sabbath and the
economized the abundance of their har- Sabbath-year, it has been found strange,
vests and stored them up, so as to be that it is here with no word alluded
almost entirely protected against famine. to; and this circumstance has been used
3. The corn trade with the heathen coun- as a proof that the Mosaic laws have a
tries was precluded. 4. The leisure from successive and gradual origin, and that —
all material and external occupations must the precepts concerning the jubilee have
necessarily have given a greater impulse been added at a later period. But the ‫הש‬ ‫וחל‬5 ‫ד‬

and scope to religious life; and therein sketch of the laws contained in ch. xxi.
lies, no doubt, the reason of the command to Xxill. is not intended as a complete —
---=

concerning the public reading of the Law system incorporating all laws; it is a ———
=

on the Feast of Tabernacles of the Sab- delineation of the fundamental precepts;

bath-year. It exercised, therefore, the and the only condition which can reason- _
same salutary spiritual influence upon their ably be demanded is, that none of the
minds as the weekly Sabbath, by freeing detailed laws later revealed should be at =
them from the harassing anxieties of every- variance with those precepts; which can
day life; it was, in fact, like it, called certainly not be asserted with regard to
“a Sabbath to the Lord” (Ley. xxv. 2); for the Sabbath-year and the jubilee.
it brought the nation freedom from that 40. According to Ebn Ezra, Luzzato, — e
S
E

agricultural labour which was assigned and others, these laws are here only in-
to it as its ordinary occupation.—When serted on account of the benefits which =
the cycles of the Sabbath-year com- they confer on the poor, the strangers,
menced, is uncertain; the Jewish authori- and the beasts. This may be the inyi- —
ties state, that they were first introduced sible thread by which those ordinances —
fourteen years after the entrance of the unfolded themselves in the mind of the —
Hebrews into Canaan; immediately after inspired writer; but this did not prevent |
the distribution of the land, which like him from explaining them in their fu
its conquest (Josh. xiv. 10), lasted, ac- meaning and signification,
cording to tradition, seven years. It is, 11. It appears, from Ley. xxv. 7,
however, known, that the Sabbath-year that the proprietor is entitled, like all
seems to have been almost entirely other persons, to the spontaneous growth
 EXODUS XXII
aa

of thy handmaid, and the stranger may be refreshed.—

18. And in all things which I have said to you be cir-
cumspect: and make no mention of the name of other
gods; it shall not be heard out 01 thy mouth.—14. Three
of the seventh year: the land belongs this is one of the features of the laws of
then to all in common; and the ori- Sabbath, in which it is distinguished
ginal natural state of mankind, before from similar institutions of other nations.
the individual property was marked by Cato Censorius pronounces even the con- ,
limits and boundaries, was thus visibly trary principle : “ For mules, horses, and
represented, From the analogy of the asses, there are no rest-days.” The Sab-
= jubilee (Ley. xxy.9), we may infer, that bath is indeed, the image of the whole
> the year of release was proclaimed on the Mosaic faith; it mirrors forth all the other
> Day of Atonement, or the tenth day of precepts of the Law; its aim is sanctity,
the seventh month, not in Abib; for after spirituality, charity, and love; knowledge
binecompletion of the harvest only perfect of God and meditation on His revealed
rest of the fields could take place; and in truths—and the same was the inward
= the eighth month the new agricultual la- tendency of the Mosaic religion; it was
bours were, in ordinary years, commenced. the perfect separation from paganism,
—Rashbam observes, that although here the opposition of materialism, and the
- vineyards and oliveyards only are men- abnegation of selfishness in favour of
tioned, the whole vegetation produced brotherly love; and we here, therefore,
_ by human labour is included in our law. remind the reader of Montesquieu’s per-
- | 1%. See on the fourth commandment, tinent remark: “ Quoique tous les états
‎‫ אא‬It is, however, worthy of ayent en général un méme objet qui est
remark, that, as here the law of Sabbath de se maintenir, chaque état en a pour-
6 s repeated in connection with the laws of tant un qui lui est particulier. L’aggran-
humanity and charity, the obligation to dissement était l’objet de Rome, la guerre
> permit, on the seventh day, complete rest celui de Lacédémone, la Religion celui
| to the servants, the strangers, and the des Lois Judaiques” (De VEsprit des
animals also, is again enjoined. And Lois xi. 5).
33. PROHIBITION NOT TO MENTION THE Names OF IDOLS. VER. 13.
The importance of the Sabbath induces bidden to use the name of God falsely
the legislator to add a general admoni- or disrespectfully (xx. 7; xxii.27), thus
tion to the observance of the divine com- the heathen deities should entirely dis-
-mandments; and he does this with the appear from the language. The Jewish
greater propriety, as the end of the interpreters, Rashi, Ebn Ezra, as also
Sabbath is the inculcation and study of Jerome, translate: “ You shall not swear
the Law. In order to eradicate idolatry, by the name of the idols;” others inter-
with all its far-spreading roots, the idols pret: “You shall not give occasion to
not only be banished from the a heathen even to use the name of an
hearts, but also from the lips; they should idol for an oath.” This sense is, however,
be alluded to or mentioned, much
n even not contained in our words.
less be worshipped. And as it was for-
34. Toe TuHrere PRINCIPAL FESTIVALS. Vers. 14—17.
Although Passover has predominantly Pentecost and the Feast of Tabernacles.
a national and historical meaning, it On the first day of Passover the ripe first-
‘stands yet evidently in relation with the ling-sheaf was offered by the priest
vreat epochs of the agricultural year, and (Ley. xxiii. 10, 11; see supra, p. 137);
is therefore internally connected with then the corn-harvest commenced with

* as a.
tas Fred 4 = 8*-4of ew , ‘ Ze
 ‫ו‬ EXODUS XXII.‫‏‬
times thou shalt celebrate a feast to me in the year.
15. Thou shalt keep the feast of unleavened bread: seven
days thou shalt eat unleavened bread, as I have com-
the ingathering of the barley, which was tribes secured as long as the people made
followed by that of the wheat crops; and pilgrimages to the temple of Jerusalem to
within the seven weeks between Passover participate in the common festivals, is a
and Pentecost the harvest was finished, strong proof of the uniting influence of
so that, on the latter festival, shew-bread, these grand institutions, and of their :
baked from the new corn, was offered onthe mighty effects upon the national cha- :
altar. Hence is explicable the designation racter of the Israelites (1 Kings xii.
he “ Festival of Conclusion,” which was later 26—33). It might be urged, that these
5. 2
attributed to Pentecost; it is the termi-
|
regular and obligatory pilgrimages im- _
nation of the Passover ; the harvest, com- posed upon the nation considerable
menced in the first month, was considered sacrifices, and involved both incon-
as finished in the third; and in this sense venience and expense. However, these
Philo (Opp. ii. 294) calls the Passover “ the festivals were, by the legislator, invested
forerunner of another greater festival.” with a sacred character; they were re-
About the autumnal equinox, the fruits, presented as one of the pillars of the
the grapes and olives, ripened. As a fes- theocratical constitution; every Israelite
tival of thanksgiving for this last harvest felt a strong impulse to meet at once his
of the year, the Feast of Tabernacles God and his brethren from all parts of
was instituted, with which the agricul- the Holy Land; and who is so devoid of
tural year was regarded as concluded, all religious sentiment as to consider
and after which the rainy season gene- religious institutions impracticable be-
‫?או‬+;‫ב‬.7e
rally commenced. Thus in the three cause they require pecuniary and personal
festivals of Passover, Pentecost, and exertions, and not to comprehend that a
Tabernacles, the whole cycle of the agri- nation, the very centre of whose exist-
cultural holy-days was completed; they ence is religion, will cheerfully sacrifice
were festivals of thanksgiving for the every worldly advantage in order to
blessing which God had bestowed upon satisfy a spiritual craving ? 8 natural,
the seeds; and their solemnization, the that the Israelites who lived in foreign
pilgrimages to the central sanctuary and countries, or in Palestine yery distant
the offering of sacrifices, together with from Jerusalem, did not attend in the
‫ו‬ee‫א‬t‫י‬
e‫ב‬
the celebration of social and convivial temple every year on the three festivals,
feasts, bore at once a religious and civil, as it would have been impossible to make
a solemn and cheerful, character, a double journey—from Jerusalem back,
Undoubtedly these festivals contributed and to Jerusalem again—in the short
also considerably to cement the political interval between Passover and Pentecost.
unity of the Hebrew nation, and to pre- But pilgrimages to national sanctuaries
vent dangerous animosities and jealousies
_
were, at very early times, performed by
among the tribes. Without the common different ancient nations. Those of the
temple, at which the whole nation peri- Arabs to Mecca are considered as old asthe
odically assembled for sacred and joyful time of Abraham, who is even said himself
festivities, Israel would soon have been to have made forty journeys to that city.
dismembered into a variety of small and The very Hebrew word, Hag, is identical
weak states; it would thus have become with the Arabic Hadj. The parallel of —
‎‫ מה‬easy prey to the attacks of the power- the Mahommedan pilgrimages to Mecca
ful enemies around them, and the internal assists us likewise to understand how the |
connection even would soon have been many thofisands of guests could find room
loosened and dissolved. That J eroboam |
within the walls of Jerusalem, ‘In Mecea. e
e
did not consider the separation of the ten
 EXODUS XXIIT. 349

manded thee, in the time appointed of the month Abib;

for in it thou camest out from Egypt; and none shall ap-
pear before me empty: 16. And the feast of harvest,
was, arrive, on such occasions, more than giving of our laws, asserting that, on this
fifty thousand strangers. “ As for house- day, the sixth of the third month, the reve-
room, the inhabitants straiten themselves lation of the decalogue took place (see on
very much, in order at this time to make xix. 2); and calls further Pentecost, figu-
their market. As for such as come last, ratively, festival of conclusion, since it —
after the town is filled, they pitch their completed, spiritually, that which Pass-
tents without the town, and there abide over or the redemption from Egypt had
until they remove towards home. As for commenced: for liberty without the di-
provision, they all bring sufficient with vine laws would have been imperfect and
them, except it be of flesh, which they useless (See, however, supra ‫סת‬‎ 4
.may have at Mecca; but all other pro- —17). But, even Philo makes no
)visions, as butter, honey, oil, olives, rice, mention of the meaning of Pentecost as
biscuit, ete., they bring with them as the festival of legislation, although this
much as will last through the wilderness, is, of course, the only one at present at-
forward and backward, as well as the tributed to it by the Jews, as it can have
time they stay at Mecca; and so for their for them no importance as the festival of
camels they bring store of provender, etc., the harvest.
with them” (Pitt). According to Hero- The principal passages treating of our
dotus (ii. 60), the Egyptians also cele- festival are, Lev. xxiii. 15—22; Numb.
brated, annually, common festivals, in XXVill, 26—31; Deut. xvi. 9—12; and
appointed parts of the desert (see note we learn therefrom: Ist. Pentecost was
on y. 1). to be celebrated on the fiftieth day after.
A. 15. About Passover, and the laws the first day of holy convocation of Pass-
connected with it, see notes to chapter xii. over, that is, fifty days after the sixteenth
-The words, and none shall appear before me of Nisan. ‘This is evidently the sense of
empty, belong to all the three festivals, and the words, “from the morrow after the
must, therefore, not,as the English Version Sabbath” in Levit. xxiii. 15; for the first
does, be included within parenthesis, like and seventh day of Passover are Sabbaths,
the precept concerning Passover. Mo- days of rest, they are * holy convocations,
dern commentators find in this command no work shall be done thereon” (vers. 7,
an analogy to the custom of Oriental 8, compare ver. 39). Further, the text
nations, who were forbidden ever to ap- in ver. 15, qualifies the word Sabbath more
pear before their kings without presents. accurately, by adding: “from the day that
B. 16. The signification of Pentecost you brought the sheaf of the wave offering,”
is already evident from the different and this was done according to ver. 11,
names which it bears: Ist. the festival of on the sixteenth day of Nisan. And thus
the harvest, in our passage, as then the writes Josephus: “Qn the second day
harvest even of the later grains, as wheat, of unleavened bread, which is the six-
was considered as finished. 2nd. The teenth day of the month” the first-fruits
day of the first-fruits (Numb. xxviii. 26), were offered in the temple, in the manner
the day on which the first loaves made described, p. 187, and, “when a week of
from the new corn were offered on the weeks has passed after this sacrifice
altar. 3rd. The feast of weeks (Deut. (which weeks contain 49 days), on the
xvi. 10), because it was celebrated seven fiftieth day is Pentecost.” This natural
complete weeks, or fifty days after Pass- interpretation, adopted by Jewish tra-
over (ver. 9), and thence the Greek name dition, has been rejected by some sects,
Pentecost, the fiftieth day. Jewish tra- as the Sadducees and Karaites, who take
dition calls the festival also the time of the “the morrow after the Sabbath” for the
 ‫דיו‬ %
₪ < See‫‏‬
‎‫אל‬
350
₪- 4

EXODUS XXIIL Ww

the firstfruits of thy labours, which thou

hast sown in thy
fields: and the feast of ingathering at
the end of the year,
day after the weekly-Sabbath in the
week reconciled by Jewish tradition by the
of Passover, and, therefore, celebrate
Pen- conjecture that the passage in Leviti
tecost always on a Sunday. cus
Still less treats of the sacrifice which was to be
acceptable is the opinion, that
those connected with the oblation of the shew-
words signify the day after the conclu ||
- bread; but that in Numbers, of the addi-
sion of the Passover, which always =|
began tional sacrifice; and Josephus also
with a Sunday, and the seventh adds |
day of the numbers of both passages, statin
which was therefore a Sabbath; for g, as
it is the required sacrifices: three bullocks
the conjecture of some critics, that at the 4
for a burnt-offering, and 6
beginning of the year new weeks alway rams,
s and fourteen lambs, with two kids of
were commenced, so that the seventh, |
four- the goats, as an expiation for sins.
teenth, and twenty-first of Abib were These |
Sab- sacrifices were also to be offered with
baths. But this interpretation not only the
“rite of waving ” over the firstling-br
rests on entirely unsupported suppositions ead
, (Levit. xxiii, 20). 4th. The day was
but the offering of the firstling-sheaf would,
celebrated 88 8 “holy convocation,
thus, literally take place after the ” and
festival, every kind of labour was interd
whereas that ceremony was an integr icted
al (ver. 21; Numb, xxviii, 26); it was a
part of the Passover rites themse
lves. festival of joy, which all, even the
2nd. On Pentecost two leavened servants
shew- and strangers, should equally
breads from the new corn share
were offered, (Deut. xvi. 11), and which was
each containing one-tenth of an ephah chiefly
of celebrated by common repasts, and
flour (Levit. xxiii. 16, 17). The expres pro-
- bably with dances and public
sion “from your habitations you games.
shall We have historical evidence that
bring them,” has not been unders this
tood, by beautiful festival, which falls in
the Hebrew tradition, to mean the most
that lovely season of the year, was, even
every Israelite was to bring two loaves in the
, time after the exile, cheerfully and
but that two were presented in all, in univer-
the sally solemnized,
name of the whole people, just
as one c. Tue Feast or Tanernacurs
firstling-sheaf was offered on Passov was
er, celebrated from the fifteenth day
But it was enjoined as a duty incum of the
bent seventh month Tishri, “when
on every individual, to offer volun the season
tary of the year is changing for winter,”
gifts according to his ability (Deut. during
xvi. seven days. ‘The principal Passages
10). After these loaves had been pre- con-
cerning this festival are: Levit, xxiii,
sented on the altar, with the rite of
waving, 33—43; Numb. xxix, 12—39;
they were (two or three days later) Deut. xvi,
given 13--15. Herefrom we gather the follow-
over for food to the priests, who were _
not ing data: Ist. The festival is to
permitted to leave anything over till be ob-
the served as a time of joy on account of
following day. 3rd. As sacrifices the |
were ingathering of the fruits and the perfe
to be offered, according to Levit. ctly |
xxiii, finished harvest; for it marked the
18, 19, seven lambs of the first end of |
year, one the agricultural year, 2nd. As, there
bullock, and two rams, with fore, =
the neces- the people were, for the current
sary meat-, and drink-, offering; year, -6‫ע‬‎
a kid of lieved from allabour and all care,
the goats as an expiation for sins, it could
and freely abandon itself to joy (Deut.
two lambs of the first year, for a xvi. 15); |
peace- and in these pleasures also all the
offering. But, in Numbers xxviii. 2-1, membe, ,
of the community should equally
are prescribed two bullocks, one ram, parti-
seven cipate. 8rd. As the Passover was be th
lambs of the first year, with the
meat-, an agricultural and a historical festiy
drink-, and expiatory offerings. ,1
This (see on ver. 14—17), so the Feast
discrepancy of the numbers has of
been Tabernacles was als. connected with
t
 EXODUS XXIII. 351

when thou hast gathered in thy labours out of thy field:

17. Three times in the year all thy males shall appear
remembrance of the benign guidance take a citron in their left hands, and a
with which God protected Israel in the bough of the palm-tree surrounded by
desert; and it was therefore commanded, willows and myrtles in their right hands,
that every Israelite should, during the and carry them, during the service in the
seven days of the festival, live in temple, as symbols of the manifold pro-
tabernacles, “that your generations may ductions of nature. 7th. The sacrifices
know that I have let the children of in the temple were extremely numerous: |
Israel dwell in tabernacles, when 1 on the first day the burnt-offering was to
brought them forth from the land of consist of a sacrifice of thirteen bullocks,
Egypt” (Levit. xxiii. 43); and that re- fourteen lambs, fifteen rams; and a kid of
miniscence could not be renewed in a the goats, as an expiation for sins, with
more appropriate season than when the the meat-, and drink-, offering; and on the
blessing of the land was safely stored up, following days the same number of lambs
and the rich produce of the past harvest and of rams, with the kid of the goats,
allowed them a happy prospect into the but abating one of the bulls every day
following months of relaxation and repose. till they were reduced to seven only
4th. On the first day was a holy convoca- (Numb. xix, 12—39). This distinction in
tion, and a Sabbath, on which every work the character of the sacrifices, imparted to
was to be suspended. 5th. The eighth day the festival a peculiar dignity,and itis called
after it was also a holy convocation, and by Josephus and Philo, the holiest of all
a Sabbath, and is simply called, “ festive festivals, Hereto we add, that on the Feast
assembly.” ‘The days between the second of Tabernacles of every Sabbath-year, the
and eighth day were probably, like the Law was publicly read in the temple
middle days of Passover, passed in public (Deut. xxxi. 10; see supra, p.345). It
amusements, especially dancing. Michaelis is therefore not surprising, that Jewish
conjectures, that a sort of general fair tradition developed the laws concerning
_ was held, where the visitors from all parts this festival with extraordinary predilec-
of the country exhibited their wares for tion, and compiled very complicated
sale; and he compares herewith, not in- rituals concerning the construction of the
appropriately, the origin of the modern tabernacles, the four kinds of fruits.—Ac-
commercial “ masses” from the religious cording to Nehem. viii. 17, the Feast of
masses. 6th. The Israclites shall take Tabernacles was, before the exile, not
on the first day “the fruit of a beautiful legally celebrated by the Israelites. It is
tree, branches of palm-trees, and the interesting to read the description of this
boughs of a thick-leaved tree, and willows festival given by Plutarch, who finds it
of the brook,” and rejoice before God perfectly analogous to the Greek Bacchie
seven days (Levit. xxiii. 40). This ob- festivals, believes the branch of the palm-
seure precept kas been understood by tree to be a thyrsus, and mentions the
some sects, asthe Karaites and Sadducees, Levites, whom he believes to have been
to mean, that those boughs and fruits are called so either from “ Lysius,” or, Euius!
to be applied to the adornment of the which latter statement must be very
tabernacles, This conception seems to be perplexing for those who think Plutarch
countenanced by Nehem. viii. 15, 16, to have been deeply and thoroughly
where at least two of those plants—the versed in Biblical literature (see on ii. 4),
palm-tree, and the “thick-leaved trees ”— —At the end of the year; that is,
are clearly mentioned as necessary for the when another year has commenced; for
construction of the tabernacles, as has the new labours of the field were begun
been prescribed. But Jewish tradition in the eighth month, or, as Mendelssohn
commanded, that the pilgrims should explains; “after the year is finished, and
 %
earr
“‘as

359 | EXODUS ]‫אא‬‎

before the Lord God.—18. Thou shalt not offer the blood
of my sacrifice with leavened bread: neither shall the fat
a new year has commenced,’”’ In xxxiv. the “three festivals.” Passover is the
22, “the circuit of the year” is used commencement of the harvest; seven
synonymously with the expression of our weeks ensue, which by their very number
verse. are marked as holy; then follows the day
13. Rashbam finds in the phrase: “be- of conclusion, or Pentecost, which, as the
fore the Lord God,” an allusion to the culminating point of harvest, can possibly
promise later given by God in the parallel only last one day, not seven days like the
passage xxxiy.21—26: “ neither shall any two corresponding festivals. The time
man desire thy land, when thou wilt go of the harvest is, therefore, sacred, devoted
up to appear before the Lord thy God to God; it reminded incessantly that the
thrice in the year” (ver. 24). If indeed the blessing of the land, that every nourish-
Israelites celebrated their seven and eight ment and support comes from Him alone;
days’ festivals of Passover and Taber- and thus, in the midst of the gathering
nacles conscientiously and in accord- of material property, the religious doc-
ance with the Mosaic precepts, which trines of faith and humility were kept
command every male Israelite to attend alive; and, in the midst of the lavish gifts
in Jerusalem, it is certainly an extraordi- of nature, the thoughts were directed to
nary fact, that the numerous and so the God of Israel, who had, in Egypt, so
inveterate enemies of the Israelites did obviously proved Himself as the Lord of
not avail themselves of these times of nature, and the omnipotent sovereign of
defencelessness, to invade and to subdue the world, by the redemption of His
the provinces, But it appears from the people. The bread which was offered
passage of Nehemiah .above quoted, and on Pentecost, was of wheat, whilst the
from other evidences, that before the exile firstling-sheaf of Passover was barley;
these festivals were not very scrupulously for the harvest was finished; all crops
observed; and concerning the time after were gathered in; and the offering of
the exile, the historical accounts are God was naturally of the best and
defective. Our text enjoins too distinctly choicest grain. That bread was leavened,
that every year all male Israelites shall because it represented the daily, ordinary
appear before God, to admit the suppo- food; it was not the raw material, it was
sition, that not the attendance of all the prepared food itself, from an analo-
Hebrews in the same year was required, gous reason; two loaves were presented,
or that in the Sabbath-year the concourse accompanied by two lambs (whilst on
of the people was greater; or that the Passover one sheaf and one lamb were
whole nation was represented through the offered), because the happy conclusion
elders (compare supra, p.348).— Rosen- of the harvest was necessarily marked
miller observes correctly: “ This belonged by a greater gift of gratitude than its
necessarily to a theocratical constitution. commencement. The lambs were, on
God is considered as the king, and the sub- Pentecost, sacrificed as a _ eucharistic
jects assemble thrice every year to do Him offering, not as a holocaust, as on Pass-
homage”; and similarly Mendelssohn: over,—for Pentecost was in its nature
“He is the lord and proprietor of the and tendency'a festival of thanks and re-
land; therefore shalt thou, at appointed joicing.—In an internal historical relation
times, appear before Him like a servant with Passover stands the Feast of Taber-
before his master, and shalt offer Him nacles; the one created Israel as a nation,
presents as a mark of thy loyalty and the other symbolizes its preservation; in
allegiance.” the one, God showed Himself as the
Let us, with a few words, recapitulate rescuer of Israel, in the other as their
once more the tendency and meaning of permanent king; the one represents His
 EXODUS XXIII 353

of my festival sacrifice remain until the morning.—

19. The first of the firstfruits of thy land thou shalt bring
justice and omnipotence, the other His festivals; both its character was more
providence and love; the one exhorts to cheerful, and its tendency was larger
grateful adoration, the other to unshaken and more comprehensive; and hence the
belief; and this belief is typified by names are explicable, with which it was
living eight days in moveable, frail, and designated as the greatest of all festivals,
unsafe tabernacles—at once a remem- as the festival car’ éoyny (see p. 351);
brance of past protection and help, and and the multiplied sacrifices, which con-,
an emblem of the eternal confidence in sisted of seventy bullocks, and of two
His grace and His faithful guidance. rams and fourteen lambs daily; the
And thus the Feast of Tabernacles is, number seventy (being seven multiplied
from another point of view, also a festival by ten) is not accidental; and the cir-
of covenant both between God and every cumstance, that on the last day seven
individual Israelite, and between God bullocks were sacrificed, is not insignifi-
and Israel, as His people; all the Mosaic cant.—And whilst the thankful mind
festivals emanate systematically from the regarded the results of the labour of the
same sublime ideas of sanctity and truth. year, it was, in general, reminded of the
But externally also, with regard to the providence of God, which rules over
produce of the soil, the Feast of Taber- centuries and nations with the same love
nacles is connected with the two other with which it has watched over the short
festivals, It marks the perfect conclusion space of one civil year, and over the
of the agricultural year; not the corn activity of one individual. Thus meet
only which belongs to the necessities of the external and internal significations
life, but the fruits also, and wine and oil, of this beautiful festival The very
which serve for the cheerfulness, the en- tabernacles represent those two ideas;
joyment and recreation of life, were their construction shows the unbounded
gathered in; the whole abundance of the confidence in God, and their materials
year could be overlooked; the Feast of represent the gifts of God, the rewarded
Tabernacles recalled likewise the remem- and justified faith (see Baumgarten,
brance of Pentecost, which again reminded Comm. I. ii, 42, et seg.; Baehr, Symb. ii.
of Passover (Deut. xvi. 13); thus the p. 645—664).
former included, as it were, the two other
35. SUPPLEMENTARY LAW ABOUT THE PASCHAL SACRIFICE. Ver. 18.
The celebration of DPassover began nant between God and Israel, and as it
with the solemn offering of the paschal- was to be consumed as a whole by the
lamb; after this introductory ritual, the whole congregation (xii. 3, 6,9), it was
holy festival was considered as fully com- neither allowed to leave any part of its
menced; and it was consequently neces- flesh till the morning (xii. 10), nor of its
sary, to remove everything leavened fat; for the one was the portion of the
before the killing of the lamb, and Israelites, the other that of God; where-
thence the precept: “thou shalt not offer fore Moses ordains: “neither shall the
the blood of my sacrifice with leavened fat of my sacrifice remain until the morn-
bread”; that is, whilst leavened bread is ing.”
still in your houses. And as the paschal- 19. First part. On the offering of the
lamb was a symbol of the national cove- first fruits, see note to xxii, 28, 29.

36. Tae Law ‫גמססצ‬‎ THE * Kip AND THE MILK or Its MoTHER.” VER. 19;
SECOND Part.
Thou shalt not seethe a kid in its ency of this remarkable law, which
mother’s milk. 'The meaning and tend- is repeated three times (xxxiv, 26;
A A
PS
354 EXODUS XXIII.
into the house of the Lord thy God.—Thou shalt not
seethe a kid in its mother’s milk.—20. Behold, I send 'a
' Engl. Vers.—An angel.
Deut. xiv. 21) can only be ascertained ding such perverse customs was thus
from the context, in which it is intro- necessary,
duced. In our passage and in Deut. But further, in Deut. xiv. 21, that pro-
Xxxly. 26, it follows immediately after hibition follows after the laws concerning
the precept concerning the offering of the allowed and forbidden food; however,
firstling-fruits; and it must, therefore, no the general principle of the prohibition
doubt stand in some relation to the pro- against the use of any flesh of torn
ducts of agriculture. This simple con- beasts, is added: for “thou art a holy
sideration leads us to certain accounts, nation to the Lord thy God; thou shalt
calculated to spread some light over this not seethe the kid in the milk of its
obscure precept. Ancient interpreters mother.” We are almost compelled by
already, as the Karaites, inform us that this connection of “the holy nation” with
it was customary among heathen nations, our prohibition, to recognise in the latter
after all fruits had been gathered in, to a direct moral meaning, since the holiness
choose a kid; to boil it in the milk of its generally includes a refinement of man-
mother, and then to sprinkle this milk, ners and ennoblement of moral senti-
under mysterious rites, upon their trees, ments. And this reason is adduced by
fields, gardens, and orchards, in the belief, many ancient interpreters. Abarbanel
that they became thereby more fertile, remarks: “the principal end of this law
and that they would, in the ensuing year, is to prevent unfeeling cruelty,” and it is
yield a more abundant produce. And in this respect analogous to the precept,
most probably, in order to destroy among not to kill a beast and its mother on the
the Israelites this pagan custom, that same day (Ley. xxii. 28), Ebn Ezra ob-
law was enjoined; for firstling-fruits of serves: “It is needless for us to search
fields, which had by that ceremonial the reason of that prohibition, for it is
received fictitious fertility, and which concealed from the eyes of even the
had thus become objects of supersti- wise; but perhaps it was enjoined, be-
tious practices, were an abomination to cause it is a cruelty to seethe the kid
the Lord. | with the milk of its mother” (compare
Abarbanel mentions a similar custom Rashbam; but even Mendelssohn con-
even in the Occident, for instance, in Spain sidered the attempt of searching after the
and England; he writes: “It is the custom reason of this law as a hopeless toil:
in the kingdom of Spain, to this very “the benefit arising from the many inex-
day, that all shepherds assemble twice plicable laws of God is in their practice,
every year to deliberate on their affairs, not in the understanding of their motives;
and to stipulate laws concerning their it must suffice for us to know, that they
cattle when they kill young animals, boil are of divine origin”). And it appears
them, etc., and I learnt as an authentic cruel indeed, and hard-hearted almost to
fact, that the same custom prevails in that mockery, to seethe the young animal
distant isle called England.” And Cle- in that very milk, which nature had
ricus compares with this law the custom, destined to its own nourishment. But
that among many ancient nations a kid travellers report, that even at present
or a goat was sacrificed to Bacchus, the Arabs do not boil their meat
because nothing is more injurious to the in water, but in sour milk (Labbin),
vine than their bite; it was therefore not Maimonides considers it objectionable
impossible that similar notions prevailed in a sanitary point of view: “As to
among the tribes which surrounded the prohibition, not to eat meat boiled in
the Israelites, and that a law forbid- milk, we are of opinion, that such meat
 EXODUS 1 5

messenger before thee, to keep thee in the way, and to

bring thee into the place which I have prepared. 21. Be-
ware of him, and obey his voice, provoke him not; for he
is too compact a food, which engenders general prohibition against eating meat
surfeit.” But he adds also the conjecture, and milk together in any way or form
that this law was intended to prevent whatever, and applied the threefold
some pagan rite.—That 270 stands here repetition of the law to the interdic-
for every eatable, pure mammal generally, tion of eating, profit or advantage,
is self-evident, as similarly in xxi. 35, ox, and cooking. The Talmud has de-’
in xxiii. 5, ass, 000.; Ebn Ezra and Abar- voted considerable sections to all pos-
banel explain: “let not the young firstling- sible consequences of this interpretation
fetus grow up by the milk of the mother, of the law, which was likewise extended
but sacrifice it to God on the eighth day to birds (see Chulin, viii; Sanhedr. iv).
after its birth’ (xxii. 29); which is That other Asiatic tribes do not know
‘incompatible with the Hebrew text. such law or custom, is, for instance, tes-
—The very artificial conjecture of tified by Layard (Discoveries, p. 289):
Michaelis is now, we believe, univer- “The dish usually seen in a Bedouin
sally discarded. He takes “its mother” tent is a mass of boiled meat, sometimes
generally, as sheep, or any other animal, mixed with onions, upon which a lump
and believes, that Moses intended to of fresh butter is placed and allowed to
‫אאי‬
forbid roasting and boiling with milk, and melt.”
to accustom the Israelites to the use of 20—23. The sketch of the funda-
olive-oil, which abounded in [alestine; mental laws is concluded; the most
thus they would perceive the superiority necessary moral, religious, and civil
of the Holy Land over Egypt, and never precepts have been enjoined, and
be tempted to return again thither. It the little and original “ Book of the
is certainly a novel legislative experiment, Covenant” (xxiy. 6) is completed (see
to strengthen patriotism by the aid of the p- 286). Very appropriately, exhorta-
culinary art. Luther translates : * thoushalt tions are added, faithfully to adhere to
--7
not seethe the kid whilst it is still suck- these laws; and, as rewards, are pro-
ing its mother’s milk.” If our law applies mised, the special providence of God,
to sacrifices or to firstlings, it would co- the safe guidance to the Holy Land, and
incide with Levit. xxii. 27; if to other the destruction of the enemies. The
animals, it would be a mere sanitary latter part of our chapter forms a suitable
precept. “We know no more,” says resting-point in the progress of the speci-
Ewald (Antig. p. 223), “by what re- fication of the legal injunctions. The
yolting sight this prohibition may have decalogue is the embryo or the inner-
been called forth, but evidently that most kernel of the legislation; in always
phrase became a kind of memorial larger circles and always richer develop-
by which Israel should always be re- ment, the divine precepts unfold them-
minded of that tender mildness and con- selves from this germ. First a summary
siderate humanity which was to distin- (the decalogue); then an outline (chaps.
guish it from the barbarous nations. As Xxi—xxili); and then only the whole
such a pithy dictum this sentence con- and complete system of the legislation
cludes the whole series of laws in the in its minutest detail, So lucid is this
Book of the Covenant, and is in perfectly arrangement of the sacred materials, that
the same manner repeated in later groups abot the leading ideas of the most special
of laws; Exod. xxxiv. 26; Deut. xiv. 21; laws no uncertainty, no doubt, is possible ;
compare Levit. xxii. 28; Deut. xxii. 6, et and so systematical is the gradual pro-
seq.” It is well known that Jewish tra- gress, that it must be intelligible for the
dition found, in the words of our text, a most ordinary comprehension,
‫ו‬.
 356 EXODUS XXIII.

will not pardon your transgressions; for my name is in

him. 22. ‘For if thou wilt indeed obey his voice, and do
all that I speak; then I will be an enemy to thy enemies,
and an adversary to thy adversaries. 23. For my ?mes-
senger shall go before thee, and bring thee to the
1 Engl. Vers.—But. 2 Angel.

The promises of God, after the pro- is different from that mentioned in .‫אאא‬‎
mulgation of this outline of the theocra- Others (Herder, Rosenmiiller, Vater) un-
tical laws, are: He will be the enemy of derstand by messenger here, the pillar of
Israel’s enemies (ver. 22); He will strike fire and of cloud, which is, indeed, in xiy.
them with consternation and terror (ver. 19, also called “the angel of God.” But
27), and confound them even by the the pillars are only symbols of divine
terrors of nature (ver. 28); He will lead providence, and precede the Israelites to
His people by a messenger into the Holy lead them through the trackless desert:
Land, and will there also destroy their how can we apply to them expressions
enemies (vers. 20, 23), not at once and like: “ Beware of him, and obey his voice,
suddenly, but gradually (vers. 29, 30); provoke him not; for he will not pardon
and He will extend their territory in the your transgressions”? (ver. 21). The
south to the Red Sea, and in the east to pillars are tacit guides of the marches of
the Euphrates (ver. 31); lastly, they will Israel; to issue commands, or to punish
always enjoy an abundance of provisions, disobedience, is certainly contrary to their
be exempted from disease and pestilence nature (see note on xiii.21,22), The
(ver. 25), reach a vigorous old age, and remark of Vater, “that from the pillar
increase uninterruptedly (ver. 26).—But, of cloud the commands of God proceed,”
on the other hand, the conditions of all proves nothing for the obedience due to
these -blessings are, that they faithfully the pillar itself; the place where a being
and willingly follow the divine messenger dwells is not identical with that being.
(ver. 21), and serve God (ver. 25), never Others take “messenger” as God Him-
worship the heathen idols, but destroy self, or His providence; but the ex-
them everywhere (ver. 24), not conclude pression, * 7 send a messenger,” proves
an alliance with the heathens themselves that it is not God Himself; and the
(ver. 32), and even not allow them to words of the twenty-first verse, just
0
live in their midst, as they would be quoted, show, that no abstract notion,
seduced by them to idolatry, and thus be but a concrete visible being is spoken of.
led to their inevitable ruin (ver. 33). The same must be objected to “ the Torah
20. Behold I send a messenger before or the ark of the covenant,” which others
thee. It may naturally be expected that have understood. Even the beautiful
on the meaning of the messenger, whom idea which Philippson finds in our words,
God promised to send as a guide for the “that Israel advances and flourishes un-
Israelites, the most dissenting opinions der the special and immediate guidance
have been proposed. Some see in him of God, whilst the destinies of other
the Son of God, who is identical with nations are dependent on the concatena-
God (compare 1 Corinth. x.9); but, from tion of external events happening after
Exod. xxxiii. 2,3, it is perfectly evident, His plan,” even this idea lies too far
that the messenger and God are different from the simple tenor of our text. We
beings: God promises to expel the ene- are, therefore, compelled to take here
mies by a messenger; He will Himself not the word messenger in its literal
go with the Israelites; for it cannot be ad- meaning, and to refer it to Moses and
mitted, that the “messenger”of our passage his successor Joshua, who are, in more —
 -‫ה‬
az‫‏‬
‫ז‬ EXODUS XXIII. 357

Amorites, and the Hittites, and the Perizzites, and the

Canaanites, the Hivites, and the Jebusites: and I will
destroy them. 24. Thou shalt not bow down to their
gods, nor *be induced to serve them, nor do after their
works; but thou shalt utterly overthrow them, and quite
3 Engl. Vers.—Serve,

than one passage, called the messengers of ally? Some allege, because God foresaw
God. The expression “messenger” is, else- the sins of the golden calf (xxxiii. 3);
where, also used for prophet (Hagg.i. 13; others, “ because Israel might easily pro-
Mal. iii.1), priest (Eccles. v.5; Mal. ii.7), fane God’s presence, and thus load
and, once, even the people of Israel, “which great sins upon themselves.” But the
is the messenger of God and the teacher messenger and God are virtually iden-
_of the nations” (Isa. xlii. 19). But God’s tical; the former is the representative of
“messengers are, as His representatives, the latter; Providence requires a con-
filled with a heavenly spirit; God speaks crete personification, and this is “the
through them (ver.22); His name is in man of God,” Moses,
them (ver. 21); therefore the commands, 1. As the messenger acts in the name
“Obey the voice of my messenger,” of God, obedience to His commands is a
and, “ Do all that I shall say,” are iden- godly duty, and obstinacy will find no
tical (ver. 22); for elsewhere also God and pardon, which he has no power to pro-
His messenger are introduced promiscuous- mise and which J shall not grant.
ly (see note to iii. 4; compare xxxtii. 2). 23. About the nations here enume-
Only about the time of the Babylonian rated, see notes on iii. 8, and xiii. 5. The
exile, when, by the influence of the Chal- messenger will guide the Israelites, but
dean dogmas of Zoroaster, the angel- God Himself will destroy the enemies.
ology was very considerably enlarged, 24. As after the decalogue (xx. 20),
the angels appeared as personal beings here also the prohibition of idolatry is
different from God; they then became prominently repeated, since the pure un-
the mediators between man and God, defiled monotheism constitutes the whole
and were no more identified with God. basis of the divine covenant with Israel
Therefore the opinion of the Jewish com- (see note on xx. 3—6); and Ebn Ezra
mentators is also questionable, who un- expresses this idea vigorously thus: “ At
derstand here a real angel; some the the beginning of the Book of the Cove-
Metatron, others Michael, after an un- nant, God warned the Israelites against
certain allusion in Dan. x. 13. Refrac- idolatry; and, at its conclusion, He re-
toriness against God’s messenger is peats the same admonition...... but there
equivalent to disobedience to God is this difference, that at the beginning
Himself; and dissatisfaction of the God merely prohibited the making of
former will call down the wrath of any gods of silver or gold besides Him-
the latter (ver.21). Thus the messenger self, whilst, at the end, He ordered them
of God has certainly “ divine qualities,” to destroy all idols which they would
but only in so far as 118 fulfils His mis- find in the land of Canaan, and which the
sion as the divine delegate, just as the former inhabitants had made; for the
prophets are the mouth of God in their idolator is like one who trespasses against
inspired effusions, but not in all other all the prohibitions of the Law; and all his
relations.—From the preceding remarks, positive acts of righteousness are of no
the impropriety of the question is obvious, avail to him, either in this or in the future
why God promises to lead the Israelites world.” Israel’s vocation is its opposi-
through a messenger rather than person- tion to paganism; and the culminating
 Poa

358 EXODUS XXIII.

break down their images. 25. And you shall serve the
Lord your God, and He will bless thy bread, and thy
water: and I will take sickness away from the midst of
thee.—26. There shall 'be no aborting, nor barren woman
in thy land: the number of thy days I will fulfil. 27. I
will send my fear before thee, and will confound all the
people to whom thou wilt come, and I will make all thy
enemies turn their backs to thee. 28. And I shall send
hornets before thee, which will drive out the Hivite, the
Canaanite, and the Hittite from before thee.—29. I shall
1 Engl. Vers.—Nothing cast their young, nor be barren, ? Destroy.

point of this opposition is the majesty as demon, evil spirit, which deserves no
and omnipotence of God compared with refutation. The analogy of the preceding
the vanity of the pagan deities. verse: “I will send my fear before thee,”
25. The blessing will consist in abun- shows that “ fear,” and “hornets,” have,
dancé of the necessaries of life and vi- in some respects, a synonymons meaning.
gorous health. It is well known that Now, it must be admitted, that by
the eastern nations are sparing in the hornets not only individuals have been
use of flesh; bread forms their principal dangerously injured, but whole armies
food; and hence the comprehensive have been seriously inconvenienced. But
meaning of this word in Hebrew; and we need scarcely observe, that a sys-
travellers inform us that three persons in tematic expulsion of the numerous hostile
four live entirely upon it, or upon such nations of Canaan by swarms of hornets,
compositions as are made of barley or “ without sword or bow ” of the Israelites
wheat flour; see xv. 26. Ebn Ezra proves (Josh, xxiv. 12), would be one of the very
metaphysically and psychologically, that, greatest miracles, which would no doubt
as the observance of the divine behests have been repeatedly dilated upon in the
secures to the mind the government over later historical accounts. But, on the
the passions of the physical man, health one hand, except in that one passage in
and long life are the natural consequences Joshua, we find no further mention of
of piety. such a fact; and, on the other hand, we
26. The abundance of children which read, in all historical books of the Old
is here promised, secures permanence to Testament, how the Israelites conquer
Israel as a nation, whilst longevity is the and destroy their enemies in the usual
immediate reward of the individual; but manner, by battles and pursuits. It
for the Israelite who lived with his hopes will thus beeasy to arrive at an opinion
and his longings in the future, both bless- concerning the dispute of the Talmud
ings are equally important. (in Sotah 36a), whether one or two
2%. About the fulfilment of the assur- armies of hornets accompanied 6
ance here given, see Josh. ii. 9—11. Israelites; whether they preceded only
28. As God promised to Israel (ver. Moses to the Jordan, or whether they
20), that He would send “ His messenger” followed Joshua also beyond it, ete. We
to assist them, so He threatens the ene- must, therefore, understand “hornets ”
mies that He will send hornets to de- metaphorically, as any plague or punish-
stroy them. According to this analogy, ment which God will inflict upon the
Augustin and others who understand enemies, in order to deliver them up the
messenger there as angel, take here hornet easier into the hands of the Israelites,
 EXODUS XXIII. 359

not drive them out before thee in one year; lest the land
become desolate, and the beasts of the field multiply
against thee. 30. By little and little I shall drive them
out from before thee, until thou be increased, and wilt
inherit the land. 31. And I shall set thy boundaries from
the Red Sea even to the Sea of the Philistines, and from
the desert to the river: for I shall deliver the inhabitants
of the land into your hand; and thou shalt drive them,
out from before thee. 32. Thou shalt make no covenant
with them, nor with their gods. 33. They shall not

29, 30. The expulsion of the hostile 2 Chron. viii. 17), fortified Hamath Zobah
tribes has been promised; but it is a new (probably Epiphania), built Tadmor, that
proof of the divine love, that this expul- is, Palmyra in the desert (2 Chron. viii.);
sion was not to take place suddenly and his dominions extended even from Thiph-
rapidly; for the Israelites were not yet sah on the Euphrates (Thapsacus) to
numerous enough to fill the whole ex- - Gaza (1 Kings iv. 24; compare Raumer
tensive land, which was to be their in- Palest. p, 23),
heritance (ver. 31); the population would, 32,33. So extremely anxious is the
in many parts, be 80 scanty, that divine legislator for the exclusive and
the wild beasts would spread there, and pure worship of God, that with judicious
cause serious devastations. Therefore prudence, he forbids the Israelites, not
the conquest of the land would be ef- only not to suffer the idols (ver. 24),
fected gradually till the number of the nor to admit any association with them
people would have adequately in- (ver. 32), but even to enter into any
creased. alliance with heathen nations, or to suffer
31. The ideal extent of the promised them in their country, lest they should
land will be: from the Red Sea to the seduce them to serve their gods, and thus
Mediterranean Sea, and from the Arabic prove to them a snare of destruction: a
desert to the Euphrates. It is obvious that precaution, which the whole later history
these localities describe more the general of Israel proclaims as wise and indispen-
extent of the country than its real limits, sable. Compare Num. xxv. 1, 2. But
since Palestine itself is strictly not even we refer expressly to our notes on xxii.
included in them, and .must be sup- 20, from which it will appear, how little
plied from the enumeration of the tribes Moses intended an absolute and uncon-
in ver. 23. Similar specifications of the ditional separation from all foreigners, and
boundaries were given already before in how admirably he, in this difficult point
Gen. xv. 18, and were repeated later in also, combined expediency and humanity.
Josh.i. 4. It is known, that these promises “ A covenant is made with the gods, if
were only realized under David; and that they are honoured with divine veneration,
the Israelites remained but for a short and if in return their assistance is ex-
period in possession of so extensive a pected,” observes Rosenmiiller; but even
territory (compare 1 Kings .‫צץ‬‎ 1—5).— the toleration of idols in the country is
David had already conquered Damascus a kind of friendly union, tacitly admitting
> (2 Sam. viii. 6) and subjected Syria; a certain legitimacy of their existence;
but Solomon possessed Eziongeber and and, in fact, a league with the heathens
Elath on the Red Sea (1 Chron. ix. 26; involves a covenant with the gods also,
 (

360 EXODUS XXIIL, XXIV. ‫יו‬‎ ‫ו‬

dwell in thy land, lest they make thee sin against me, lif .
thou serve their gods, for it will surely be a snare to thee. | =
1 Engl. Vers.—For if,.....it will.

since the pagans will naturally enter that their gods he suffered and respected.
compact under the condition only, that Compare on ver, 24.

CHAPTER XXIV.
Summary.—After God had commanded Moses, again to approach the mountain
accompanied by Aaron, Nadab, and Abihu, and seventy of the elders of Israel,
and then to ascend it alone (vers. 12), he went down, communicated to the people
all the laws “of the Book of the Covenant” (from xx, 19 to xxiii. 33); wrote
them down; erected an altar and twelve pillars; offered holocausts and eucha-
11800 sacrifices; sprinkled one part of the blood on the altar, and the other part
on the people; read to them the Book of the Covenant, the stipulations of which
they unanimously promised to observe (ver, 3—8), Then he went with his
companions to the mountain; and all see, without danger, the appearance
of God ~
(vers. 9, 10,11), Moses, then, on the repeated command of God,
ascends the
mountain, accompanied by Joshua, whilst the others remain behind
to judge the
people in their absence. Clouds covered the top of the mountain;
six days
Moses stood before it to prepare himself for his renewed communion
with God;
on the seventh day the Lord called him into the clouds, where he
stayed forty ‫ז‬‎
days and forty nights in the divine presence (ver. 12—18).—On
the farther
connection of this chapter, see on ver. 1 .

ND He said to Moses, Come up to the Lord, thou,

and Aaron, Nadab, and Abihu, and seventy of
the elders of Israel; and prostrate yourselves from afar.
1. To the fundamental laws, at the portant event. The whole history of
conclusion of the preceding chapter (ver. Abraham and his descendants aimed and
20—33), the rewards had been added tended to this point. It was not sufficient
which would attend their faithful fulfil- that a personal covenant was, by God,
ment, and thus the Book of the Covenant, concluded with that patriarch; that that
with all its doctrines and conditions, was covenant was renewed, on an enlarged
perfectly completed. Before any new basis, with Jacob as the representative of
progress in the specification of the divine a family ;and that it was, by the paschal
laws can be made, the ratification of the rites, extended to a national convention.
covenant between God and Israel is now Mere political existence was not the only
logically inserted. Not only were these boon which God intended to bestow on
recent revelations clearly written down Israel; he had decreed to select it as His
by Moses, and an altar and twelve pillars people, as that nation which should wor-
erected according to the number of the ship Him as their eternal King. Liberty
twelve tribes (ver.4); not only did the was the smallest portion of the divine
people willingly promise faithful obe- favour towards Israel; ‘Truth unfailing
dience to these divine commands (vers. and beatifying crowned that independ-
3,7); but sacrifices are killed, and their ence; the blessing was not temporal, but
blood—the blood of the covenant—was spiritual; God promised to be ever near
sprinkled on the people (vers. 5, 6, 8). His people; and Israel pledged itself
We must pause one moment at this im- never to be faithless to its God. A higher
 EXODUS XXIV. 201

2. And Moses alone shall come near the Lord: but they
shall not come near; neither shall the people go up with
him.
climax in the internal connection between transition from the addressed second
God and Israel was impossible; and the person into the third (in ver. 2,) is also
covenant related in these Verses is, there- frequent, as, in fact, the use of the pro-
fore, the last which the Old Testament noun instead of the substantive is not
specifies. yet quite general in the Pentateuch (see
The connection of our chapter, which on ver.2). 4. The first and second,
has been much disputed, is simply this: verses contain the conclusion of the divine
After the communication of the decalogue, communication to Moses after the deca-
Moses had again ascended the mountain logue, so that xx.19 to xxiv.2 belong
(xx. 18); here God revealed to him the closely together. 5. In ver. 9, we
laws of the Book of the Covenant, from must not translate: they went up the
xx. 19 to xxiii. 33, whilst the people stood mountain; for then the repeated com-
afar off (xx.18); and, before He dis- mand of God, that Moses shall come to
missed him, He ordered him to commu- Him on the mountain (ver. 12) would be
nicate these laws to the people, and then superfluous; but it signifies only: they
to appear again, with Aaron, Nadab, and went TO the mountain; from the foot of
Abihu, and seventy of the elders of Israel the mountain they saw the divine appa-
(xxiv. 1), but so that he alone should rition; there they were to await the re-
really ascend the mountain, whilst the turn of Moses (ver. 14), and to consume
others and the people should remain at a the sacrifices (ver. 11), whilst the peo-
distance (ver. 2). And so Moses did; he ple remained at a distance (xx. 15).
went down, and imparted to the people 6. Joshua, as the servant of Moses,
all the laws of God (ver. 3), and, after hav- accompanied him up the mountain, with-
ing ratified the covenant by a sacrifice, he out, however, entering with him into the
went, with Aaron, Nadab, and Abihu, cloud, which symbolized the presence of
and the seventy elders, to the mountain God (vers. 13,16,18). It is, therefore, per-
(ver.9); but God commanded that Moses fectly inappropriate to consider the con-
alone, accompanied by Joshua, should tents of verses 1 and 2 only as a repetition
go up (vers. 12, 13), whilst the others of xx. 15—18: “ And God had spoken to
should await his return at the foot of the Moses,” so that the whole revelation,
mountain (ver.14). After six days of from xx. 19 to xxiii.33, would lie be-
preparation, during which the glory of tween the second and third verse. Such
God covered the mountain in clouds, violent dismemberments are absolutely
God called Moses to Himself; he ascended against the harmonious simplicity of
the mountain entirely, and remained in the Biblical narrative. Rashi, following
the clouds during forty days and forty some Talmudists, supposes even that the
nights (compare also on xix. 25). Thus events of this chapter (to ver. 11) hap-
all difficulties which have been found in pened before the promulgation of the
the context disappear, and we only re- decalogue (the fourth of Nisan), and
mark: 1. The first part of our verse is ought, therefore, to have been inserted
thus to be supplied: “ And God said to before the twentieth chapter. But against
Moses: Descend, communicate my laws this opinion Nachmanides has already
to the people, and then come up again, forcibly observed, that, before the reve-
with Aaron,” ete., similar to xix. 24: lation, the expression, * Book of the Cove-
“Go descend, and come up again.” nant” (ver.7), would be unintelligible,
.2. That God speaks of Himself in the as it is impossible to understand thereby
third person as in many other pas- the seven laws of Noah or the precepts
sages, as xix. 21; xx.7,etseq. 3. The given in Marah, or the contents of the
 362 EXODUS XXIV.
3. And Moses came and told the people all the words of
the Lord, and all the judgments, and all the people answered
with one voice, All the words which the Lord hath said will
wedo, 4. And Moses wrote all the words of the Lord, and
rose up early in the morning, and built an altar under the
mountain, and twelve pillars, according to the twelve
tribes of Israel. 5..And he sent the young men of the
children of Israel, and they offered burnt-offerings and
sacrificed thank- 8 of oxen to the Lord. 6. And
Moses took half of the Ane and put 2 in basins; and
half of the blood he aon on the altar. 7. And he

Book of Genesis, which were at that time ascended only the northern lower mount,
= universally known, and needed, therefore, Horeb, whereas Moses proceeded to the
no new solemn ratification. Even Tar- southern higher top of the Sinai. But
gum Jonathan adds in the text, that such a difference is nowhere alluded to
this communication to Moses took in our text; and if we admitted it, it
place on the seventh of Sivan, that is, would certainly be more appropriate to
on the day after the revelation. This suppose, that the elders waited on the
is indubitably the correct view, which plain, formed by the separation of the
has likewise been adopted by several two peaks after their elevation from a
modern expositors. The Hebrew text common base, on which at present the
mentions only the two eldest sons of convent of Elijah stands (see p. 47).
Aaron, Nadab and Abihu, as those who Compare xx. 15.
accompanied Moses; but the Samaritan 3. Moses descends from the mountain
codex adds here, and in ver. 9, from and reports to the people the legislation
vi. 23, the two younger brothers, Eleazer (xx. 19 to xxiii. 33); they promise ready
and Ithamar. The seventy elders, here obedience (ver.7), as in .8.‫אוא‬‎ The
mentioned, are not that-council, endowed unanimity, with which the Israelites here
with higher authority and filled with the pledge themselves to the divine worship,
divine spirit, which was later instituted partakes of the sublime, and we willingly
(Num. xi. 16,17) on the command of forget for a moment, how little they
God; but they are the representatives of remained faithful to this promise, even
the Israelites, who shall, in their name, in the time immediately following.
convince themselves of the truthfulness 4. Ratification of the covenant, ver,
of the revelations of Moses by the sight 4—8. The altar is for God; the twelve
of the divine majesty (vers. 10,11).—About pillarsfor Israel. A similar covenant by
the elders in Egypt, and in the desert, stones is mentioned in Gen. xxxi. 46.
see notes to 11.16 and xviii.21. And, 5. About the sacrifices and the * young
since neither priests nor Levites, but elders men of the children of Israel,” see notes
from all the tribes, were chosen to witness to xvili.12 and .99.‫אוא‬‎ That common
that grand apparition, the priestly dig- meals attended the conclusion of alliances a |
nity of the whole people was again from very early times appears from Gen.
obvious (xix.6).— And prostrate your- xxxi.54; but this custom is here only
selves from afar. The elders came only the accidental basis; it is raised into a
to the foot of the mountain, but did not sacred action; the meals are 0
ascend the mountain itself. Geddes and into 8
Rosenmiiller conjecture that the elders 6. One half of the blood was sprin- —
 EXODUS XXIV. 363
took the Book of the Covenant, and read before the ear
of the people: and they said, All that the Lord hath said
will we do, and be obedient. 8. And Moses took the
blood, and sprinkled zt on the people, and said, Behold
the blood of the covenant, which the Lord hath made
with you ‘on the condition of all these words.—9. Then
went up Moses and Aaron, Nadab and Abihu, and
seventy of the elders of Israel: 10. And they saw the’
God of Israel: and there was under His feet *like a work
of pellucid sapphire, and *like heaven itself in its clear-
' Engl. Vers.—Concerning. = ? As it were a paved work of a sapphire stone.
3 As it were the body of heaven.

kled on the altar consecrated to God, loc.— Similarly Iliad iii. 298—3801, the
the other half on the Israelites (com- spilling of wine is symbolized:
pare Gen. xv. 10). “And hence our
doctors inferred, that our forefathers “Hear, mighty Jove! and hear ye gods
entered into the covenant by circumcision, on high !
and baptism, and sprinkling of blood; And may their blood, who first the league
for there is no sprinkling without baptism” confound,
(Rashi, after the Talmud). Shed like this wine, disdain the thirsty
9. See ver. 8.-- The ratification was ground,” etc.
not to proceed from the representatives, (Pope’s Translation).
but from the mouth of the whole nation 9. They went to the mountain (see
itself. on ver. 1).—It has been found surprising,
%. The blood of the covenant, is the that Joshua is here omitted, although, as
blood, by the shedding of which a is evident from ver. 13, he ascended with
league is sanctioned. But the meaning Moses; and it has been answered that
of this rite seems to have been, that as the Joshua was present neither in the name
blood of the sacrifice was shed and of the people nor for his own sake, but
sprinkled to all directions: in a similar only as the attendant of Moses ready to
manner the blood of him, who would execute the orders of the latter, or that he
break the alliance, was to be shed. Clericus was among the seventy elders, and
compares herewith an analogous cere- needed, therefore, not to be mentioned
‘mony prevalent among the Romans in separately.
concluding treaties. For the fecial priest, 1@. They saw the Lord, and under
who ratified the treaty, spoke among His feet it was like a work “of pellucid
others the following words, as Livy sapphire.” Our genuine sapphire, sky-
(i. 24) relates: “Hear, O Jupiter;...... blue, and harder than ruby 18 here
that the Roman people will not, under meant. The sapphire of the ancients,
any condition, first swerve from this probably the dark-blue not transparent
treaty. If they first. swerve by public lapis lazuli, lazure-stone,is neither appro-
concert, by wicked fraud; on that day priate in Job xxviii. 16—since it is not
do thou, O Jupiter, so strike the Roman very precious—nor in Exod. xxviii. 18, as
> people, as I shall here this day strike this it was, according to Pliny, not applicable
beast; and do thou strike them so much for sculptural purposes. It was, then,
the more, as thou art more able and more under the feet of the Lord “like a work of
powerful, and the mightier and stronger pellucid sapphire, such as the heaven can
thou art.” Compare Rosenm. ad hunc ever be seen in its utmost clearness and
 ₪ > \

364 EXODUS XXIV.

ness. 11. And upon the nobles of the children of Israel

He laid not His hand: so they saw God, and did eat and
drink.—12. And the Lord said to Moses, Come up to me
to the mountain, and be there: and I will give thee the
tables of stone, ‘namely, the law and commandments,
which I have written *to teach them. 18. And Moses
rose up, and his minister Joshua: and Moses went up to
the mountain of God. 14. And to the elders he said,
Remain here for us, until we return to you: and, behold,
Aaron and Hur are with you: if any man has any cause,
let him come to them. 15. And Moses went up to the
mountain, and the cloud covered the mountain. 16. And
! Engl. Vers.—And. ? That thou mayest teach them.

serenity,” or as Targum Jerusalem para~- of the Covenant with cheerful confidence;

phrases: “like a sky cleared from clouds.” for the holocausts were sacrificed entirely,
Onkelos, striving to avoid all anthropo- but the thank-offerings were consumed.
morphistic expressions with reference to RabbiJehuda Halevi, quoted by Ebn Ezra,
God, translates: “ And they saw the remarks: “ Although the elders had been
majesty of the God of Israel, and beneath permitted to behold the divine glory,
it His majestic throne,” and the Sept.: they required physical food; and this is
“they saw the place where God stood.” expressly mentioned, in order to show
In all these passages, the verbs to see the superiority of Moses, who stayed on
and to behold must be understood as a re- the mountain forty days and forty nights
flection in the mind, but in no way as a real without eating or drinking.”— Onkelos
perceiving with the eye; for the eyes can thus paraphrases our verse: “And the
only see corporeal things, and besides some princes of the children of Israel suffered
qualities as the corporeal form and the no injury, although they had seen the
like. glory of the Lord; and they were as
11. Although the elders saw God in rejoiced at their sacrifices, which had
His glory, He did not punish them; been favourably accepted, as if they had
they remained uninjured, according to eaten and drunk”: in which the latter
the popular belief, that nobody can see part especially is freely rendered.
God and live (see note on iii. 5).—The 12. About the connection, see on ver. 1.
words, “ He laid not His hand,” simple as 13 About Joshua, see note to ver. 9.
they are, have been very differently inter- 44. We return, namely, I and Joshua.
preted. We adduce only Abarbanel’s —About Chur, see note on xvii. 10.
explanation: “the other elders (except The judicial disputes were naturally
the seventy) did not become participant decided in the camp, not at the foot of
of the divine vision”; and that of Rosen- the mountain, which was sacred; there-
miller (Orient ii. p. 88—90), who refers fore, the sense of our verse is: return to
this expression to the custom of Oriental the camp; but if you come back to meet
princes, to touch very respected persons us, do not proceed farther than to this
with their hands, and to nod to others place.
only slightly. Both expositions are 16. And the cloud covered it, namely,
arbitrary and against the spirit of our the mountain; not Moses, who was only
text.—They saw God and did eat and six days later called into the cloud (com- =
drink; they continued *he sacrificial meal pare ver. 18),
 ‫ו‬

6
EXODUS XXIV., XXV. 365

the glory of the Lord dwelt upon Mount Sinai, and the
cloud covered it six days: and the seventh day He called
to Moses out of the midst of the cloud. [17. And the
sight of the glory of the Lord was like devouring fire on
the top of the mountain in the eyes of the children of
Israel.] 18. And Moses went into the cloud, and ascended
up into the mountain: and Moses was in the mountain
forty days and forty nights.
az. About the appearance of God in 18. See xxxiv. 28: “And he was
> fire, see note on iii. 2.—This verse is of there with the Lord forty days and
parenthetical signification; for ver.18 be- forty nights; he did neither eat bread
longs immediately to ver. 16. nor drink water.” Compare Deut. ix. 9.

CHAPTER XXV.
INTRODUCTION.
The outlines of the divine legislation have been revealed to the redeemed people
‎)‫אא‬.---‫אא‬111(;a solemn covenant has been concluded on the basis of those fundamental
laws (xxiv. 5—8); the immediate end of the deliverance from Egypt is attained. But
an abstract delineation of a metaphysical religious system was not only insufficient
for the mental condition of the Israelites, but would have offered very doubtful gua-
rantees for a permanent observance. Now, pure and unadulterated monotheism was
the corner-stone of the new religious edifice erected by Moses; it is so much its dis-
tinguishing feature; that the first tablet of the decalogue seems to aim exclusively at
the injunction of that doctrine (see p. 253). It was therefore necessary, above all
other considerations, to create a firm and visible centre of monotheism,*to keep per-
_ petually the idea of the one omnipotent God alive in the minds of the people, and so
‘to exclude for ever a relapse into the pagan and idolatrous aberrations. Thus the
erection of a holy portable tent as the abode of the Almighty, during Israel’s wander-
ings, is commanded; God promises henceforth to dwell among His people, and to
commune with His chosen servant, not from the cloud-covered mountain-peak, but
from that visible place consecrated to His sanctity (xxix. 42—45; compare xv. 17),
The elaborate detail with which the holy Tabernacle and all its various vessels are
described, suffices alone to convince us of the great importance which the legislator
attaches to these precepts; and, as most of the parts of which the sacred structure was
composed have a significant symbolical meaning illustrative of the spiritual connection
between God and Israel, it is not only important but highly interesting to obtain a
clear and comprehensive picture thereof, both in its totality, and in its chief parts, by
which the exposition and understanding of the next chapters will be materially facili-
tated and shortened.

THE HOLY TABERNACLE.

I. DESCRIPTION OF THE TABERNACLE.
It consisted of three distinct parts; the Holy of Holies, the Sanctuary, and the Court.
The two former constituted the Tabernacle in its stricter sense, and were, at
least externally, combined into one continuous structure. It was thirty cubits long,
ten cubits broad, and as many cubits high, and formed therefore an oblong
square; the longer sides were those which extended from east to west (xxvi. 18, 20).

4. '
 366 . THE HOLY TABERNACLE.

It was made of boards ef acacia wood, plated with gold, each of

which was
ten cubits long and one cubit and a half broad. The longer sides
consisted therefore
of twenty such boards, whilst the shorter (western) sides were to contain
eight boards
(xxvi. 25). But the latter wculd not cover a breadth of
ten, but of twelve cubits. It
is therefore added, that “six boards should be made for the
side westward, and other
two for the corners of the Tabernacle, in the two sides they shall be double,
beneath and above and at the two corners ” (vers. 22—24),
From this obscure pas-
sage, it appears, in our opinion, that each board was
half acubit thick, so that six
boards at the western side would completely close the tent
from within (nine cubits
added to the one half cubit at each side, being the thickness
of the boards at the
northern and southern wall); one half cubit breadth is double
at each corner, and one
cubit stands over at each side, for a purpose which will
presently be obvious. We
reject, therefore, all the various conjectures proposed to
reconcile those two passages,
Now the boards, in order to be fixed in the ground,
were individually provided at the
end with two symmetrically placed tenons, each of which
fitted into a socket of silver,
resembling, according to Josephus, the sharp end of a spear,
so that the longer side of
the tent had forty tenons and forty sockets; and the shorter
sixteen tenons and sixteen
sockets.
But only the northern, southern and western sides were
in this way framed from
wood. At the eastern side was the entrance, which was
covered with a curtain,
of blue, red, and crimson, and twined byssus, into
which figures were embroidered.
This curtain, which formed of course a square of
ten cubits, was supported by five
pillars of acacia wood overlaid with gold, fixed
by means of golden hooks, and five
sockets of brass. ‘The curtain was fastened to the pillars
by golden nails,
The fifth side, or the ceiling of the Tabernacle, consiste
d of a costly covering com-
posed of ten carpets or curtains of twined byssus, and blue, red, and
, crimson
with figures of the Cherubim interwoven. The length of each curtain was
eight-and-twenty cubits; the breadth, four cubits;
so that they covered a space of
1,120 square cubits. Five and five curtains were
joined together; at the edge of the
inner side ofeach of these two Joined curtains
, fifty purple loops were fastened, and
these two rows of loops were joined by means of
fifty golden hooks or taches,
16 18 the common opinion that this splendid coverin
g of exquisite texture was like
the other three coverings, which we shall describe
, spread over the wooden frame so as
to hang outside the boards. But, if this were the case, only 300 square cubits of that
rich texture would have been visible at the ceiling
of the tent, whilst the remaining
820, together with the images of the holy Cherub
im represented thereon, would have
been concealed by the following much inferior
coverings, and thus nearly three-fourths
of the costly stuffs, and the exccllent workmanship
would haye been wasted. Besides,
the sacred text seems clearly to distinguish this
covering as that of the Tabernacle
from the others, as those of the tent over the
Tabernacle, compare xxyi. 1 and 2
6, and 11; xl. 18, 19. Therefore Vater already (Pent. ii. p. 110) has
thrown
out the conjecture, that the first covering
was suspended by small hooks within
the boards, so that the inside of the Taberna
cle was entirely covered with
it. And this supposition has been raised to a
certainty by the conclusive arguments
with which Baehr (Symbol. i. p.63—65)
has supported it, and which Friederich
(Symbol. p. 13) has in vain endeavoured to invalida
te. Now as those curtains were
twenty-eight cubits long, they covered, if
spread over the breadth of the Tabernacle,
the whole extent, except one cubit at each end (for to cover 0 it entirely
cubits would have been required); and,
as they were four cubits broad, the first five
covered two-thirds of the tent (from the east,
see infra), whilst one half of the remain-
ing five was hung over the last third, and
the other over the boards of the western
side.
Then a covering of goats’ hair was spread outside over the Tabernacle. It
 THE HOLY TABERNACLE. 367

was composed of eleven curtains, each thirty cubits long, and four cubits broad; six
of these were joined together, and so also the other five; then these two pieces were
fastened, like the internal covering, by means of loops and hooks; but the latter were
of brass instead of gold. As the boards were half a cubit thick, these curtains also
did not reach entirely to the ground, but half a cubit of the gilded boards remained
uncovered on the northern and southern side; but not so at the western wall. For,
in xxvi. 12, it is stated, that “the half curtain which remains of the curtains of the
tent shall hang over the back-side of the Tabernacle”; and in ver. 13, “that a cubit on
the one side, and a cubit on the other side of that which remains in the length of the
curtains, shall hang over the two sides of the Tabernacle.” We must, therefore, sup-
pose, that the loops and hooks lay the breadth of half a curtain (two cubits) more
westward from those of the inner curtain; now, as the thickness of the double boards
of the western side was one cubit, and of those of the eastern side, together with the
pillars, on which the curtain was fastened, likewise one cubit; it follows, that there was
one cubit overhanging at the eastern side over the gate, and one cubit at the western
side, on the ground. According to Josephus (loc. cit.), that additional cubit was
rolled up and used to serve as an ornamental elevation, or a kind of cornice
over the gate.
,-
Over this coyering was a third of rams’ skins, dyed red, and a fourth of badgers
skins (xxvi. 14), both 61 which were not only spread over the roof, but hang down at
the sides as a protection against the injurious influences of the weather. But as the
Tabernacle was to be carried by the Israelites during all their wanderings in the desert
five golden rings were fastened at the outside of the boards of the three sides, and poles
of acacia wood, covered with gold, were, like bars transversely passed through them.
The “middle pole in the midst of the boards reached from end to end ” (xxvi. 28);
the other four were probably so arranged that two together reached over the whole
side, so that, in all, three full bars were on each side. Thus the whole framework
received, naturally, a greater consistency and compactness. If we add hereto
that the coverings were fastened to the ground by means of tent-pins of brass, and,
most probably, by cords, we have completed the delineation of the external frame-
> work of the Tabernacle.
But this structure was divided into two parts of a different degree of sanctity, by a
splendid curtain, adorned with the images of the Cherubim, and suspended immedi-
- ately under the loops and hooks of the first covering, so that the western
part was ten, and the eastern twenty cubits long. ‘The former is the Holy of Holies;
the latter, the Sanctuary. This curtain also hung like that of the whole Tabernacle,
on pillars of gilt acacia wood, but they were only four in number, fixed by means
of hooks of gold and four sockets of silver. Golden nails were here likewise applied
to fasten the curtain to the pillars.
a. THE HOLY OF HOLIES formed a perfect square, bainten cubits in length,
and as many in breadth and height. The sacred furniture which it contained, was:
1. Tue Arx, or THE ARK OF THE CovENANT; also called “ Ark of the Tes-
timony ;” or, the “Ark of the Lord.” It was made of acacia wood, two cubits
and a half long, one cubit and a half broad, and as high, plated with gold from
within and from without. It had, therefore, the form of an oblong chest, pro-
bably provided with four small feet (see on xxv.10—15), Round it was a border of
pure gold, which encircled it like a crown. Baehr (Symb. i. 377, 378) endeavoured
to prove that this crown was fixed round the middle of the ark; but his arguments
are partly weak, partly fallacious.
For the purpose of transportation, the ark was provided with four rings at
its four feet, two on each side;two gilded staves of acacia wood were passed through
them—perhaps, at the longer sides—and were never removed from them; probably,
that there might be no occasion to touch the holy vessel.
 368 | THE HOLY TABERNACLE.

Into the ark, the two tables of the Law (called also, the Testimony) were put, and
nothing more (see 1 Kings viii.9). Before it, was placed an urn full of manna (see
note to xvi. 33), and the blooming staff of Aaron (Num. xvii. 25), and, at its side,
the Book of the Law (Deut. xxxi. 26).
2. Tue Mercy-Sear (in Hebrew, Capporeth) is one of the most important
parts of the sacred implements; and the Holy of Holies is therefore called,
in 1 Chron, xxviii. 11, the house of the mercy-seat. It was two cubits and a half
long, and a cubit and a half broad (and, according to the Talmud, it was one
hand-breadth thick); the former dimensions coincided, therefore, with those of the
ark; but it was made of pure gold, not of acacia wood, and is thus distinctly
different from the ark. It is, therefore, not merely the lid or cover of the ark, which,
as we must necessarily suppose, had its. proper cover of acacia wood; it is an inde-
pendent and very momentous part of the Tabernacle; it is always enumerated as such,
and not as a mere appendix to the ark; it is even more important than the ark itself
(Lev. xvi. 2); and in xl. 20 it is distinctly stated, “ that the Capporeth was put on the
ark over it.” |
3. ‎"‫ מז‬CuERvUBIM.—On the mercy-seat, and forming one whole with it (xxv. 19),
were two golden figures of the Cherubim, with their faces turned to each
other, and looking down upon the Capporeth, and with their wings expanded oyer it.
Their size is not stated, but they were probably not very large; neither is their form
in any way described; they are mentioned as if they were objects generally known to
the contemporaries of Moses, Jamieson accounts for this silence by the supposition,
that the configuration of the Cherubs was, by tradition of the patriarchs, handed down
from those which were placed before the Paradise to guard the access to the tree of
life; whilst Kitto (Cycloped. of Bibl. Liter. i.215, 216) believes, that it was known
from Egyptian prototypes. If the latter opinion has at least some possibility, the
former deserves scarcely any notice. Josephus (Antiq. III. vi.5) remarks, that they
resembled no animals that were ever seen by man, and that no man in his day knew
their form (so also Clem. Alex., Strom. v. p.241). Ezekiel (i. 10) describes them as
compound figures, with the heads of a man, an ox, a lion, and an eagle (representing
reason, power, strength, and penetration; or, perhaps love, constancy, magnanimity,
and sublimity), with four wings, two of which served to fly, two others to cover the
body, and straight feet, without flexible joints at the knee. But, although the
Cherubim had very different forms, so that they have not inappropriately been called,
“ changeable hieroglyphics”; and although the prophet might in his vision have beheld
more complicated and adorned figures, mostly with four heads, but sometimes only
with two (that of a man and a lion; xli, 18, 19): it appears from our context (xxy. 20),
that those on the ark had but one face and two wings; and as they were intended to
symbolize the divine presence (see infra), that face was most probably that of man,
who is the image of God; and even in the descriptions of Ezekiel, however different
they are from the Cherubim of the ark, the human figure is predominant (i. 5).
But winged figures are not peculiar to Egypt; they are most frequently found in the
whole of western Asia, especially Babylon and Persia; and although they are mostly
of a very phantastical form, there are yet some among them, which would nearly agree
with the allusions made in our text (compare Kitto, loc. cit. p. 424, 425; cut 226,
~No. 1, 2; and cut 231, No. 4); and all of them have at least that characteristic in
common with the Biblical Cherubim, that they have a purely symbolical character; so
that even heathens could not suspect the holy Tabernacle of the Israelites to contain
idolatrous images (see Wilkinson, Religion and Architect. of the Anc. Egypt. p. 275);
except, perhaps, an absurd remark of Tacitus (Hist. vy. 4). Hengstenberg (Mos.
and Egypt p. 157—164), who strives to prove almost in all Mosaic institutions
an Egyptian model, asserts, like many earlier commentators, that the Cherubim
are identical with the sphinxes; for, as the latter were a combination of the

--₪‫ע‬6
:
 THE HOLY TABERNACLE. 369

forms of a man and a lion, indicating the joint qualities of wisdom and strength
so had the former the head of a man and the body of a lion, But 1. he starts
from the erroneous supposition, that among the ancient nations, with which the
Hebrews came into contact, the Egyptians alone knew compound animals; and
2. he asserts, that of the four heads of the Cherubim of Ezekiel, those of the man
and the lion, are the principal ones; but the sphinx has only one head, the resemblance
with the lion lies in the body; and therefore the Cherubim of Ezekiel can in no way
be compared with the sphinxes of Egypt. Others trace the Cherubim, with as
little propriety, to the dragons of the Greeks, or the griffins of the Indians, or to
the horses of the Greeks and Romans, which draw Jupiter’s chariot.—These are the
implements of the Holy of Holies.
B. THE HOLY, OR THE SANCTUARY was twenty cubits long and ten
cubits high; it was separated from the Holy of Holies by the costly curtain above
described; and its entrance was at the eastern side, through another less magnificent
curtain. The furniture of the sanctuary was:
1. THe SHEW-BREAD TABLE. It was made of acacia wood overlaid with gold, one
eubit and a half high; its plate was two cubits long and one cubit broad. The latter
rested on boards or lists, of one hand-breadth, which encircled the four feet like an
enclosure. The plate was, besides, like the ark, encircled at the border with a golden
wreath or crown. Whether the enclosure had its own wreath of gold is not quite
clear from xxv. 24, 25; but this is with probable reasons denied by several Rabbins.
Four golden rings were fastened in the four corners of the feet, probably immediately
under the border or enclosure; and two staves of acacia wood, overlaid with gold, were
put into the rings for the transport of the table in the journeys of the Hebrews.
On the table were placed as shew-bread twelve (unleavened) cakes, in two rows of
six cakes each. They were made of the finest flour, each of them containing two
omers, or two-tenths of an ephah (see note to xvi. 36); according to Jewish tradition,
they were ten hand-breadths long, five broad, and one finger thick. On each row
pure frankincense was burnt, either on the cakes themselves, or in two vials placed on
the rows, as a symbol that the shew-bread was offered and sanctified to God. They
were always on the table; but every Sabbath they were taken off, replaced by new
="---
ones, and eaten by the priests in the holy place (Ley. xxiv. 5—9; see, however, 1 Sam.
Xxi. 6—9).
The utensils belonging to the holy table were all of gold, namely, @) the dishes,
in which the bread was brought upon the table and taken away from it. They were
rather flat. 6) The bowls, probably for carrying the frankincense, which was to be
burnt over the bread (see Ley. xxiv. 7). c. The cans and cups, most probably for
pouring out the wine for the libations connected with the burning of the frankincense;
and although the wine is not mentioned in our text, both those words, and the ana-
logy with similar offerings, render 15 indubitable, that it was used in the service of
the holy table (see Numb. iv. 7), although it might not have been of equal importance
with the bread, from which reason it is like the frankincense, not mentioned in xxv.
23—30.
2. Tue CANnDLESTICK occupied the southern (or south-western) part of the
Sanctuary, opposite the table. It was entirely of gold, and weighed, together with
its appendages, one talent of that metal (see note on xxi. 32). It was manufactured
with beaten work, hardened by the hammer. It rested on a base, the form of which is
not described in the sacred text. Rashi conjectures that it had the shape of a chest,
with three feet under it; the representation on the triumphal arch of Titus, which
contains figures of birds and marine monsters, is undoubtedly spurious, From the
base arose a shaft, which divided itself into three branches to both sides, so that the
candelabrum consisted of seven arms. On each of them was put a lamp of an
uncertain shape, which was every evening filled with half a log of pure olive oil,
22

₪><
370 THE HOLY TABERNACLE.

lighted, and extinguished in the morning, except, perhaps, the central lamp, which
burnt from evening to evening; or, according to Josephus, three lamps burnt in the
day-time. From xxv. 37, it appears that the wick of the middle lamp stood upwards,
whilst the wicks of the six branch-lamps were turned towards it; so that the
seven lights appeared to form a whole; and, in fact, the shaft was called “the
candlestick” (xxv.35). The dimensions of the shaft and of the branches are alike
unknown to us, Josephus calls the arms of. the candlestick “thin”; they were
most likely of unequal length, and semi-circular form, so that the seven lamps
stood in a straight line. Whether the candelabrum was placed so that the lamps
extended from west to east, or from north to south, must remain undecided. Josephus
(Antiq. 111. vii.7) states, that “the lamps looked to the east and to the south, the
candlestick being situate obliquely.”
The arms of the candelabrum were ornamented: a) With ealyxes of almond-flowers,
three on each arm, and four on the shaft, one at each point, from which the arms
branched out, and the fourth most probably immediately beneath the lamp, or,
perhaps, exactly above the base; twenty-two in all; 5) with apples or pome-
granates; they are certainly ornaments of a spherical form, similar to the capitals
of columns, although it is impossible to define their exact shape; and 6( with
blossoms of pomegranates )?( or lilies, or almonds (compare Num. xvii. 23);
but it is very hazardous to fix upon any particular flower, since the Hebrew
word is the general term for blossom or bud. It is the opinion of many exposi-
tors, that each calyx had its apple and its blossom; and that those three orna-
ments together formed a whole, of which, however, the calyxes formed the chief part.
But it appears more probable, from ver. 33, compared with ver, 34, that every three
calyxes were accompanied by one apple and one blossom, except on the shaft, where
the fourth calyx seems to have had its own apple and blossom.
The Ox to be used for the candlestick is described as “ olive-oil, pure beaten.”
The olive-tree, extensively cultivated and highly esteemed by ancient nations,
formed one of the most precious productions of Palestine, and one of its most
lucrative articles of export. It was chiefly grown on sand-hills and mountains,
but thrives also on a moist soil, and even under water. Although it is of very
slow growth, it is said to attain an age of from sixteen hundred to two thousand years.
It reaches a height of twenty to thirty feet; it has a smooth grey rind; its far-
spreading branches cover almost the whole length of the stem to the top; the leaves,
which are in pairs, have a lanceolate shape, are thick and stiff, almost without
peduncles, about two and a half inches long, and of a dull evergreen on the upper,
and hoary on the under surface. Between the leaves, white blossoms break forth in
clusters; and the “ fruit is an elliptical drupe, with a hard stony kernel, and remark-
able from the outer fleshy part being that in which much oil is lodged, and not, as is
usual, in the almond of the seed.” ‘The berry is first green, and assumes, later, a
purple and black colour. It ripens in September. The best kind of oilis obtained
from the unripe green olives, which are carefully plucked or shaken off, and then
merely squeezed or beaten in a mortar. This is the oil which was prescribed for
the holy service; it is of a white colour; it gives a better light and little smoke, and is
much superior to the other sorts, obtained from the ripe olives by treading them out
with the feet, or by throwing them into oil-presses, or oil-mills, although the
latter yielded a more abundant quantity. It was natural, that the holy oil was to be
pure, and unmixed with oil of any other quality.
To the candelabrum belong, as accessory utensils, the snuffers and the fire-
shovels.
3. Tue Attar OF INcENsE. Between the shew-bread table and the candlestick,
and before the curtain which separated the Sanctuary from the Holy of Holies
(xxx. 6), stood the altar of incense, It was square, one cubit long, one cubit broad,
 THE HOLY TABERNACLE. 371

and two cubits high, of acacia wood overlaid with pure gold, ornamented with a golden
wreath round its top, with horns of the same materials as the altar itself on which
the blood of atonement was sprinkled by the High Priest, Lev. iv. 7 (whilst the rest
of the blood was poured at the bottom of the altar of burnt-offerings), and with
golden rings for the staves. No sacrifice of any kind was to be killed on this altar;
3 pure incense only was to be burned on it by Aaron every morning, when he dressed
i, the lamps, and every evening when he lighted them, About the different kinds
of incense to be used for that purpose, see note on xxx. 34—38,
‫ל‬
‫י‬9
‫ששרכי‬
‫ל‬ 0. THE COURT. Around the Tabernacle and its implements was a Court, one hun-
dred cubits long, fifty cubits broad, and formed by pillars and curtains five cubits high,
The pillars were of wood, not plated with metal, twenty on each of the longer sides,
ten on the shorter ones. But as the pillars at the corners were counted double, their
aggregate number amounted to fifty-six (mot sixty) columns, Like those of the
‫ל‬o0‫ו‬e‫ש‬ Tabernacle, they were, at the nether end, provided with sockets, in this case
of brass, but they were ornamented at the top with capitals overlaid with
silver (xxxviii. 17), and had, besides, silver hooks, over which rods of the
| same metal were laid, to connect the columns, and to support the hangings of
0-2
‫יב‬‎
5
a
=
ae
the Court. These hangings were of fine twined linen, five cubits between every
‫בי‬ two pillars, but as the northern and southern side had each one hundred cubits
oa. and as twenty-one pillars of the distance of five cubits would be required for one hun-
dred cubits, we must suppose that five cubits of the hangings were taken up by foldings
and by the thickness of the columns, The same was necessarily the case with the
hangings of the western side.
Mae
naire
i The entrance into the Court was from the east, that when the sun arose it might
ie‫‏‬
‫א‬
send its first rays upon it. Here was, exactly in the middle, a door, twenty
cubits wide, overhung with a curtain of the same materials and workmanship
as that before the Sanctuary, so that from each side of this entrance a space
of fifteen cubits was left. ‘The curtain was supported by five columns, and the
hangings on each side of it by three pillars. We must here again suppose that the
curtain was so folded that it occupied twenty cubits of stuff between the four columns,
whilst the fifteen cubits of hanging at each side rested on their three columns and the
extreme pillar of the curtain.
The Court had no covering, but was exposed to the open air. From without it was, like
the Tabernacle, fastened in the ground by brass pins and tent ropes.
The sacred text does not state in which part of the Court the Tabernacle stood, but
the most probable opinion is that of Philo, who asserts that the Tabernacle stood
twenty cubits distant from the north, south, and west side of the Court (not in its
middle, as Josephus states), so that fifty cubits remained for the space between the
southern side of the Tabernacle and the entrance of the tent. This latter space was
occupied by two holy implements, namely:
1. Tue Avtar or Burnt-orrerines. It was of hollow dards of acacia wood,
covered with brass, but probably, except during the journeys, filled with earth (see
xx. 24), which formed, at the same time, the upper side, or surface, on which the
sacrifices were performed. Its height was three cubits, but both its length and breadth
were five cubits. At the four corners were four horns of the same wood, overlaid
with brass, on which a part of the blood of the sin-offering was sprinkled by the
priest (xxix. 12), and by which, perhaps, the sacrificial animals were fastened to
the altar before they were killed (Psalm cxvyiii. 27). Instead of the wreath round
the ark, and the altar of incense, this altar had a border, and under it a grate of net-
work of brass, according to some, to serve as a kind of bench or step for the officiating
priests; according to others, more probably in order to receive whatever might fall
from the altar, and, as the network might have been very close, coals or wood were
caught by it, and ashes only fell through. The network reached downward from the
2 Boz
 ‫ג‬ THE HOLY TABERNACLE.‫‏‬

border to the middle of the altar (xxvii. 5). On it, at the four corners of the altar,
were four rings of brass into which two staves of acacia wood, overlaid with brass,
were put for transport. From the ground to the top of the altar, led, as many assert,
a kind of gentle sloping dam of earth, according to Rabbinical tradition, on the south
side (see, however, on xx. 23).
The vessels used in connection with this altar, were all of brass, namely: a. pots,
to remove the ashes; 6. shovels, to clean the surface of the altar; c. bowls, or, basins,
in which the blood of the sacrifices was received for sprinkling the altar; d. Sorks,
or, fleshhooks, by means of which the pieces of flesh were put or turned on the fire;
and, e. fire-shovels.
2. Tue Laver in which the priests washed their hands and feet before they
performed any of their sacred functions. It stood between the altar of burnt-
offerings and the curtain of the Sanctuary, according to the Talmud, a little
to the south. It was made of brass; chiefly * 01 the looking-glasses of the women,
who served at the door of the holy tabernacle” (xxxviii. 8). Its form is not
described in the text: but we may infer from the corresponding vessels of the
temple of Solomon, that it was semicircular; and all ancient interpreters agree in
this opinion. It is further supposed, that it was provided with small apertures or taps,
through which water could conveniently be let out; for it is asserted, that the priests
could not wash their feet in the laver itself, because it was too high, and because the
water would have become impure and unavailable if but one priest had washed his feet
therein. But we leave these, and other similar conjectures undecided, since they
cannot be substantiated from the Biblical text. The laver rested on a brazen base,
the shape of which must likewise remain uncertain.
This is a brief outline of the Holy Tabernacle and its implements; in which sketch
we have endeavoured to simplify the description as much as practicable, by studiously
avoiding all polemical regard to unimportant accessories.—If we survey the sacred
structure in its totality, we cannot discover any of its parts, which the Israelites should
have been unable to execute, either from want of materials, or deficiency of skill; and
the frequently repeated objections against the authenticity of the sacred description
based on that argument, have been so successfully refuted by Baehr (Symb. i. 271—276;
ii. 116—119), both as regards the character and proportions of the building, and the
mechanical mode of its execution, that we consider it unnecessary to enter into a
question so widely connected with researches foreign to our present subject. And
with these arguments, the arbitrary conjecture, that the Tabernacle is a fictitious
structure, framed in smaller dimensions after the model of the Solomonic temple,
loses the only weak basis on which it rested.

‫ם‬1 THE MATERIALS USED IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE‫‏‬

TABERNACLE.‫‏‬
A. THE METALS mentioned in xxv. 3, are gold, silver, and brass; the application
of iron was considered inappropriate in the construction of holy utensils (xx, 22). ‫ו‬-
‫ש‬4‫ש‬.6

1. Gop, almost everywhere qualified by the epithet pure, is according to

the Talmud such gold, as “loses nothing in the fire.’ In the Tabernacle it
was used a) as a solid mass: for the hooks and nails of the pillars, and of the two
inner curtains; the loops and hooks of the first covering, for the mercy-seat, the
Cherubim, the rings and the wreaths of the ark, of the shew-bread table, and of the
altar of incense; for the dishes, the bowls, cans, and cups; for the candlestick, with the
snuffers and fire-shovels. 6) As acovering of the acacia wood: for the boards and poles
of the Tabernacle, the pillars of the two inner curtains; for the ark, the shew-bread 5
‘
table, and the altar of incense, with their staves, and the horns of the latter.
?
2. SitveR, which is here not described by any epithet. It was used a) as a solid .
i
1
 THE HOLY TABERNACLE. 373

mass for the sockets of the boards of the Tabernacle and of the pillars for the two
internal curtains; the hooks and rods of the pillars of the Court; 5) as a covering for
the capitals of the Court pillars,
3. Brass was considered less precious than the two preceding metals, although
it was of great durability, and had a shining colour. It was used a) as a solid
mass for the sockets.of the pillars of the middle curtain, the loops and hooks of
the second covering, the tent pins of the Tabernacle and of the Court; the sockets of
the Court-pillars; the border, the net-work, and the rings of the altar of burnt-
offerings; its pots, shovels, bowls, forks, and fire-shovels; the laver and its base
6) As a covering: for the sides of the altar of burnt-offering, its horns and staves.
Thus some idea might be formed of the quantity of metal employed in the sacred
structure; and the holy text distinctly states the amount of each species, namely, 29
talents and 730 holy shekels of gold, 100 talents and 1775 holy shekels of silver,
and 70 talents and 1400 shekels of brass (xxxviii. 24, et seq.). About the value of the
shekel and the talent, see note on xxi. 32. The hundred talents of silver were applied
for the hundred sockets of the Tabernacle; and the 1775 shekels for the hooks, rods,
and capitals of the pillars of the Court.—Many modern critics have considered this
great quantity of precious metals as another argument against the authority of the
Mosaic description of the Tabernacle; but the enormous, almost incredible abundance
of gold and silver in the Orient, especially in former times, is so well known, that that
objection must appear perfectly futile, and we content ourselves with referring to the
interesting facts and data compiled by Baehr, Symb. i. p. 259, 260.
B. COLOURS enumerated in xxv. 4, 5.
1. Brun, or Vioret-Brur, which is a dark colour playing partly into red,
partly into sea-blue, was obtained from the juice of a shell-fish, mostly found in
rocks and cliffs, called buccinum, murex or conchylium. It is of a spiral form, with
around opening. However, the exact species of shell-fish, from which the ancients
gained the purple, is still a subject of dispute. Such fish were abundantly found on
the coasts of Phoenicia, Laconia, and North Africa; and are still of frequent occurrence
throughout the whole of the Mediterranean and Atlantic; but the shells of the different
coasts yield very different colours. If the Phoenicians (Tyrians) are not the
inventors of that colour, they were at least (like the Lydians) most celebrated for the
skill which they exhibited in its application for dyeing. Woollen stuffs were especially
dyed with it, but sometimes also linen and cotton. Modern observations have
testified the fact, that the tinging juice is originally white, but upon being exposed to
the sun becomes first light green, then deep and sea-green, and then only blue or
red; but it has been remarked, that this circumstance does not appear to entirely
agree with the purple of the ancients. As each shell-fish furnishes only a few drops
of the tinging juice, called the flower, and contained in a white vessel in the neck, it
was considered so precious, that only kings and princes, and the highest officials, wore
purple garments, and that in the time of the Roman emperors, the citizens were inter-
dicted, on penalty of death, from using that colour. Contravention of this law was
regarded as crimen laesae majestatis; and the murex itself was called holy.—In the
Tabernacle it was applied for the curtains before the Court, the Sanctuary, and the
Holy of Holies, and for the first covering and its loops.
2. Rep is obtained from a shell-fish, which is caught in the sea by bait. Pliny
(ix. 60) describes it thus: “The second class of shell-fish is called purpura,
the mouth of which is projecting in a fistular form, and the inside of which has a
tubular shape. It is, besides, furnished with prickles to the top, generally seven
such stings standing on each spire, which are not found in the buccinum, but both have
as many spires as they count years.”—It was used for the same parts of the ‘Taber-
nacle as the blue, except for the loops of the first covering.
8. Crimson is that bright much-valued colour which is obtained from the dead

Mey)
 374 THE HOLY TABERNACLE.

bodies and eggs of a small insect, the female of the coccus ilicis of Linnzus,
(Arabic, hermes, crimson), which, towards the end of April, settles on the branches or
leaves of the holm-oak, and which is so diminutive, that the ancients considered it
not as a living insect, but as a sort of grain, or small raisin, and as a vegetable
production of the tree itself. * 1518 about the size and shape of a pea, of a deep violet
colour, powdered with white,” adhering to plants, chiefly oaks; in the spring, the
females lay eggs; then the bodies decay, and form a cover which shields the eggs.
The ilex aquifolia grows frequently in Asia Minor, Palestine, and in the southern
parts of Europe; it attains the height of two or three feet, has oval, pointed, evergreen,
bristly leaves, a grey smooth rind, and bears round scarlet-red berries in grape-like
clusters. The colour under discussion may, therefore, have been vermillion (worm-
colour). The Phoenicians were again the nation which had brought the art of
preparing and applying crimson to the highest perfection (Plin. ix. 65). It was
prescribed to be used for the curtains and hangings of the Tabernacle.
c. STUFFS AND OTHER MATERIALS. They are:
1, Linen. This is, perhaps, the most contested of all the materials mentioned in
connection with the sacred structure; but we have tried, in the larger Edition of this
Commentary, to bring in harmony the great variety of conflicting or inaccurate
opinions set forth on this subject.
The country most renowned for the manufacture of linen was Egypt. Pliny and
Athenzus ascribe the invention of the art of weaving to Egyptians. Some products
of their loom were so remarkably fine, that they felt like silk, or resembled entirely
A the finest cambric or muslin, and were therefore called “woven air.’ The most
x remarkable feature in its manufacture is, that the number of threads in the warp
exceeded that of the woof, often even by threads four times the quantity. The linen
employed for enveloping the mummies was of a much coarser texture, especially that
which was next to the body. Linen was likewise exclusively used for household
purposes, for dresses, as for the coverings of chairs and couches, The textures had ‫ו‬‎
often coloured borders; in such cases, the colour was imparted to the threads previous
to the fabrication of the cloth. The colouring matter of the blue stripes was generally
indigo. (See Wilkinson, Manners iii. p.114—127). According to Herodotus (iv. 86),
the bands used for enveloping the mummies were byssine sindon; and numerous modern
microscopic examinations have proved the mummy-cloths, even of the poorest indi-
viduals, to be linen. For the threads of linen have a cylindrical form, are transparent,
and articulated or jointed like a cane; those of cotton have the appearance of a flat
ribbon, with ahem or border at each edge. The threads 01 mummy-cloth have, on
accurate observation, been found perfectly to exhibit the qualities of the former,
without any mixture of the latter.
2. Woor. If we read, that the hangings of the Tabernacle were to be made of
“linen, and blue, and red, and crimson, with Cherubim of the weaver’s work” (xxvi. 1),
this is to be understood, that the principal or main substance was linen, but that wool, Pa
‎‫ר‬te
|
‫ש‬

dyed with the costly colours enumerated, and worked into ornamental figures, was +
skilfully interwoven. And so in all similar passages. That wool was used for that 1
purpose is, in itself, probable, considering the abundance of this material in the East, 1
and its peculiar susceptibility for those shining colours, and it is expressly mentioned in |
Hebrews ix. 19. ‫י‬‎
8. Goats’-Harr Covertnc. The finest and softest hair, probably of the Angora |
goat (not of the black Syrian, or brown Egyptian, breed), was manufactured into a
beautiful, but solid substance, which was used for coverings of tents, and which
is so strong, that it withstands even long and violent rain-showers; although this
was, in the present case, scarcely necessary, as it was shielded by two other stronger
coverings.
4. Rams’ Skins DYED Rep formed the third covering of the Tabernacle. The
 THE HOLY TABERNACLE. 375

rules of Hebrew grammar permit us to understand likewise, skins of red rams;

and, if so, it would be the Ovis tragelaphus, which is thus described: The trage-
laphus is a distinct species of sheep, having a shorter form than the common
species, and incipient tear-pits. Its normal colour 18 red, from bright chesnut
to rufous chocolate; which last is the cause of the epithet purple being given to it
by poets. Far to the south, or within the tropics, the species is densely clothed
with coarse short hair, but longer on the neck, and pendant in great abundance
beneath the throat. The skins were, perhaps, tanned, and coloured crimson (see
C. Hamilton Smith, in Kitto’s Cycl. ii. p. 600).
5. BapcErs’ Skins were applied for the fourth and uppermost covering of the
Tabernacle, and for wrapping ‫טק‬‎ the ark and other holy implements during the
journeys; they are besides mentioned in Ezek. xvi.10, as the material from which’
ladies’ shoes were made. ‘This latter circumstance excludes the opinion of those,
especially ancient interpreters, who understand it as a colour, although they differ
widely in determining it. But it is most difficult to decide, which animal is intended
by tachash; and as we deem a minute disquisition into this subject here inad-
visable, we content ourselves with merely specifying the various significations which
have been assigned to that Hebrew term: badger, jackal, seal, boar, pardale, weasel,
fitchet, dolphin, mermaid, especially the species of dugong; tahesh, a kind of hyena;
walrus (a polar animal); * 8 ruminant of the antelope family, known to the natives
under various names, such as pacasse, empacasse, thacasse, facasse and tachaitze, all
more or less varieties of the word tachash” (!) (C. H. Smith).—In such uncertainty,
and considering that the question is, after all, of little importance, we adhere to the
received translation of badger, which has, at least, as many reasons in its favour as
any of the other numerous conjectures. For the objection, that probably the skins of
clean animals only were applied for the Tabernacle, does not appear of great weight,
if we consider that this is the fourth quite external covering separated from the
framework by two other coverings.
6. AcaciA Woop was the only wood employed in the whole structure of the
Tabernacle. It grows very abundantly in Arabia Petraea, chiefly near the Sinai,
so that even a locality there was called Shittim (Num. xxy. 1). There are especially
two genera of this tree, the Acacia vera, which yields the gum-arabic, and which is
described by Hasselquist (Trav. p. 514), and the Acacia Arabica, which is very similar
to the former, but the blossoms of which are not fragrant like those of the Acacia
vera. The wood of the Acacia is so durable, that it is said even not to rot in water,
It has, further, the quality of extreme lightness, which must have increased its value
as a material for a portable tent.
The usual measure mentioned in connection with the sacred structure is the cubit.
The Hebrew word signifies originally fore-arm; and not in Hebrew alone are many
measures derived from parts of the human body (compare hand-breadth, or palm;
finger-breadth, span, xxviii.16); but in many other languages are arm and ell expressed
by the same word. This cubit comprised naturally the length from the elbow to the
extremity of the longest finger (not merely to the root of the hand at the wrist),
and was generally considered to contain six palms or hand-breadths, which was
the length of the common Asiatic and Egyptian cubit, and of that of the Romans.
This is the eubit “ by the fore-arm of a man,” mentioned in Deut. iii. 11.—But it is further
known, that the Babylonians used, besides, another “royal” cubit, which was by one
palm longer than the common one; and it is, from two passages of the Scriptures, more
than probable, that the Hebrews adopted in later periods that longer measure; namely,
1. from 2 Chron. iii. 3, where cubits “of the former length” are introduced; and 2.
from Fzek. xl. 5, where we read of “ six cubits of one cubit and a palm each.” It
is obvious, that these two cubits cannot be distinguished as “ sacred and profane,”
as has been done after the analogy of the two kinds of the shekel (see note on xxi. 32),
 376 THE HOLY TABERNACLE.

Nor can we see, that the supposition of Winer and others, that
the Hebrews used in
their common commercial intercourse a third, shorter cubit of five palms, has any
foundation or probability, although a similar opinion has been
advanced by Rabbinical
writers also. Now, according to the accurate calculations of Boeckh,
Bertheau, and
Thenius, the eubit of six palms contains 048390 French
millimeter, or 214°512 Parisian
lines. About hand-breadths, see note on xxv. 25.
It is well known, that among many other nations of antiquity
also holy arks or
shrines were employed for religious purposes; among
the Egyptians, the Trojans,
Greeks, Romans, Etruscans, Northern Germans,
Mexicans, and even among the
tribes of the islands of the South Sea. Most of the modern critics have, there-
fore, with great assurance pointed to these shrines,
especially those of the Egyp-
tians as the models of the Mosaic ark, But although the
external forms of both are
not entirely different (we see in almost all of them winged
human figures, corre-
sponding with the Cherubim, in some a wreath, and in some a cover like the
Capporeth): it is unquestionable, that their respective
contents and purposes were
diametrically opposed; for whilst the Hebrew ark was destined
as the receptacle of the
holiest religious and moral truths of Mosaism, the Greek and Egyptian shrines
contained only symbols of begetting and conceiving, or of
the most material powers
of physical nature (see supra, p.30). If therefore, there
be any historical connection
between the Egyptian shrines and the Mosaic ark, it
is here, as in all similar cases
(perhaps also as regards the shew-bread table, the
candle-stick, the altar of incense,
and the laver), not that of servile and blind imitation
, but that of refining and
spiritualizing: paganism adapts all religious ceremoni
es to cosmical, Mosaism to
purely ethical purposes, “All these arks,” says
Rosenmiiller, “had, like that of the
Hebrews, the aim to render the mysterious objects
preserved therein more venerable
to the people.” But the essential object is that which
is contained in the ark, not the
ark itself; unless we maintain, that the religion
of the Egyptians was identical with
that of the Hebrews, because both worshipped in temples,

.
Ill. THE SYMBOLICAL MEANING OF THE TABERNACLE.
Two extreme opinions have been proposed on
this question; the one distinguished by
its great simplicity, the other characterized by
an extraordinary degree of sagacious
combination; and whilst the former has been
shared by many, especially modern
Biblical enquirers, the latter has obtained in K.
W. F. Baehr a most ingenious, learned
and persevering champion. It is expedient,
briefly to examine the relative value of
these two opposite systems :—
1, “ The whole structure of the Tabernacle,”
observes Winer (Bibl. Dict. ii. p. 531),
“has undoubtedly been designed after the
religious and Levitical requirements, and
is simply based upon the ordinary construction
of tents. The Oriental tents have
usually two divisions; their interior is illumi
ned by a lamp; the back compartment is
prohibited to strangers, and was therefore,
as the adytum in the Holy Tabernacle,
particularly appropriate for the reception of
the mysterious ark. For the offering of
burnt-sacrifices an Open court, capacious
enough to receive the worshippers, was
necessary. The wood, of which the frame-work was
manufactured, is the only one
which offered itself in the desert; the adornm
ents with precious metals, and the costly
curtains and hangings, are easily accountable from
the desire of devoting to the Deity
the most valuable part of property, and of furnis
hing the sanctuary with the greatest
possible dignity; even the colours of the first covering are perhaps
because merely chosen
they were at that time generally employed for similar splendid strue-
tures.”—But this opinion will satisfy but few. Tf the Tabernacle was, indeed,
nothing but a copy of a common Oriental tent, with no ulterior end
meaning, it is impossible to account or higher
for the unusually detailed description of the
 THE HOLY TABERNACLE: 377

holy text; for the circumstance, that God “showed Moses the pattern of the
Tabernacle, and the pattern of all the implements thereof” (xxv.9); and for the
almost literal repetition ot the same description, when the execution of the structure
is related (from chap. xxxvi.). If the candelabrum was merely the usual tent-lamp,
serving to no other purpose but to illumine the interior, why was it necessary,
so minutely to prescribe its shaft, its arms and its ornaments? What does the
mercy-seat mean, and what the Cherubim—the altar of incense and the shew-bread
table? ‘The Orientals are distinguished by a rich, even luxurious imagination, which
lends life, meaning and significance to those objects even, which seem only to appeal
to the calm reflective faculties; they attribute to all things, which engage their attention,
a higher spiritual meaning; they are apt to symbolize. It is, therefore, unquestion-
able, that those who adhere to that opinion just quoted, see too little in the construction
and arrangement of the Mosaic Tabernacle. For whilst the external appearance of
the structure was imposing enough to inspire the common mass of the people with
feelings of religious reverence and awe, those of superior minds and deeper intellects
found in its parts and composition inexhaustible materials for the most fertile re-
flections, and for an ennobling insight into the attributes of the divine Ruler, and His
relation to the chosen people.
2. It is not quite so easy to dispose of the second opinion above alluded to. But
we should deem this part of our work incomplete and deficient, if we did not try to
offer a succinct exposition and criticism of Baehr’s views. He judiciously and appro-
priately takes his starting-point from the names with which the Tabernacle is designated
in the sacred text, and shows: a. that “ house,” “ tent,” and “ habitation,” are
equivalent terms. But here already he makes an incomprehensible leap in his
argumentation; for he asserts, “the structure which God has erected, the house in
which God lives, is—ihe creation of heaven and earth.” However, we read distinctly
“in xxix. 44, the reason, why the Tabernacle was called “the house of God”; for “I
will dwell in the midst of the children of Israel, and will be their God.” It is sin-
gularly illogical to suppose, that God commanded the erection of a visible dwelling-
place among the people of Israel, and that this dwelling-place should yet be nothing
else but heaven and earth, which are themselves visible objects, and required no
allegorical representation. But this is the foundation of Baehr’s whole symbolical
system, which, as he himself confesses, is not substantiated by a single passage of the
Old Testament; and as that principal idea is erroneous, it must necessarily lead to
very fallacious interpretations, if applied to the individual parts of the Tabernacle.
And, in fact, we meet with artificial symbolization at almost every step. On the one
hand, he maintains, that the ground represents the earth; the roof or covering signifies
the heavens—the pillars are the mountains, which support the heavens (i. p.77); whilst
he asserts, on the other hand, that the Tabernacle itself is an image of heaven, and
the Court an emblem of the earth (p.79); and it is this latter conception, which he
especially carries out and advocates. But if the Tabernacle signifies the heavens, what
does the decided distinction between the Sanctuary and the Holy of Holies mean?
(see infra). |
2. * Tabernacle of meeting” signifies the place where God meets and addresses
Moses and the people; it is not originally intended as a place of assembly for the
Israelites, although this might have been the natural consequence of its primary
destination. (The rendering of the English version, “Tabernacle of the congregation,”
is, therefore, incorrect. See xxv. 22; xxix. 42—45; xxx.6; Num. xvii. 19),
c. “Tabernacle of the testimony,” is properly so called, from the most important
and sacred object preserved therein, the decalogue (which is called a “witness” of
the Covenant between God and Israel). However, the two appellations, ** Tabernacle
of meeting” and “ Tabernacle of the testimony,” are not synonymous; between the
place, where God appears to Moses or Israel, and the ark, where the tablets of the
378 THE HOLY TABERNACLE.

Law are preserved, we see no necessary internal connection; they are two different
names of the Tabernacle, derived from two different purposes, which that structure was
destined to serve; although that place was the most appropriate for future revelations,
in which the result of the first and greatest of all revelations was deposited. It appears
scarcely necessary to comment on the final result at which that author arrives: that
the Tabernacle is, on the one hand, the image of creation or of general revelation,
and, on the other hand, a symbol of the revelation by the word through the medium
of the decalogue; it is the place of light and life; it is, in a word, the world and the
creation conceived as the testimony and revelation of God.
d. “Sanctuary” is the name of the Tabernacle, because it was intended as the
abode for God, the Holy One; and because He had promised to reveal Himself there
to Moses and the people. But it is forced, to connect, by gradual, although almost
imperceptible, transitions, the notion of sanctity with that of sanctification, purity, and
salvation; so that the Tabernacle would be the place “where Israel, by its commu-
nion with God, obtains true salvation.” The term Sanctuary, therefore, so far from
being “ the most specific and most characteristic” designation of the Tabernacle, is
much less definite than the two preceding ones; and holy is no epithet exclusively
used with respect to the Tabernacle, but employed for everything which has any, even
the remotest, reference to the Deity or religion.
So, then, remains as the meaning of the Tabernacle, that it was an external but
holy symbol of the presence of God among the Israelites, and the place from whence
God promised to meet and to grant His future revelations to Moses and the people,
and where the decalogue, as the witness of the divine covenant, was preserved,
Hence the meaning and purport of the different parts of the Tabernacle are self-
evident. The ark contained the tablets of the Law, the germ and quintessence of all
revelation, the most precious treasure of the holy people, the representative of the
entire Law, the basis of Israel’s whole existence; and the Most High himself, sym-
bolized by the mysterious forms of the Cherubim, spread His protecting wings over
that eternal inheritance of mankind. The mercy-seat—the most important emblem of
the Holy of Holies—was the place for the expiation and sanctification of Israel, for
the reconciliation of God with His people. The Cherubim represented, therefore, the
presence of God, who promised to instruct Moses and the people from between
these holy figures; they were the emblem of the Hebrew theocracy; and God Himself
is hence frequently called * He who throneth between the Cherubim” (1 Sam.iv.4; *
2 Sam. vi.2; etc.); and, like the Cherubim before the entrance of Paradise (Gen. iii. 24),
they are, as a part of the ark, connected with the expiation of sin, and are the
guardians of a divine and mysterious treasure. And, as the revelations of God took
place from spirit to spirit, merely by the voice of the Eternal without a corporeal
visible form, that part of the sacred structure which contained the symbols of divine [
presence and revelation was dark, neither illumined by the rays of the sun, nor by
artificial light. The Holy of Holies was to impress the officiating High-priest with a
feeling of supernatural awe and reverence. The shew-breads are a perpetual offering
brought to God by the people of Israel (therefore, twelve cakes): the table was a neces-
sary utensil for these offerings. The candlestick, in itself indispensable to illumine the
dark, reminds of the eternal watching providence of God, and of knowledge and
enlightenment through the word of God (compare Isa.ii.5; Psa. xxxvi. 10; etc.),
which should never cease in Israel (Psa. lxxx. 16); and the seven arms point to the
sacred, purely religious, spiritual character of the candlestick. The meaning of the
altars and the laver requires no specification. The utensils of the Holy of Holies
typify the descending of God to man; those of the Sanctuary and the Court, the
rising up of man to God; and thus the whole structure admirably represents the
mutual love of God and Israel. That the altar of burnt-offerings was the chief object
of the holy tent is an untenable opinion; none of the names supports an assumption,
 ‫יע ור‬ ee ‫‏‬,+ . Gee ‫ג‬‎

THE HOLY TABERNACLE. 379

according to which all the complicated utensils of the Sanctuary and of the Holy of
Holies would be reduced to mere appendages of the altar of the Court. It is beyond
every doubt, that the ark and the mercy-seat were the real end of the sacred structure;
and hence their place in its most recondite part. All the implements of the Sanctuary
and of the Court belonged only to the service of the Tabernacle, and sacrifices were
offered before its erection also (xix. 12; xxiv. 5),
8. Baehr further finds a particular significance in all the numbers mentioned in
connection with the Tabernacle and its materials; the fact, that ancient, especially
Oriental, nations attached a high importance to certain numbers (i. 119—138) induces
him to examine all the measures of the holy tent, and to expound their meaning. It
will not be uninteresting to offer here, in a concise form, the results of his investiga-)
tions, equally obtained by sagacity and learning.
The number one, being the first real number, and the head and source of the whole
numerical system, may be considered as the number by itself, but serves chiefly to
designate the Deity as the unity which comprises the universe.
Two is separation, difference, opposition, antagonism, imperfection, and even
destruction and perdition; but, being the first equal number, it is the representative of
every thing equal.
Three signifies that concrete and perfect unity resulting from the reconciliation of
difference and opposition; it 18 the perfection of all ideas, and especially the * signa-
ture of the Deity.” “ All the religious systems of the ancient world agree in repre-
senting the supreme Deity as a trinity of combined gods, forming one whole; and
whilst this one primitive being is a mere abstract, neutral and impersonal, the divine
impersonification appears always in the trinity, from which the other deities emanate.”
In this sense, the trinity was familiar to the Indians, Buddhists, Chinese, Chaldeans,
and even to the Persians, Greeks, and almost all northern nations.
Four is the number of the world, the sum of all created things and of divine
revelation.
Five is the number of perfection in its half-accomplished stage; it is not itself per-
fection, but strives to attain it.
About the number seven *see note on xxiii. 10O—12.
Ten is the symbol of completion and perfection (1+2+3+4+4=10).
Twelve (4X3) denotes a whole, in the midst of which God resides, a body, which
moves after divine laws; it is therefore the “signature of the people of Israel.”
It is neither the place here, to investigate into the probability and truth of these
significations attributed to the various numbers, nor do we intend to follow Baehr into
his minute, although very ingenious application of those symbols to the individual
parts of the Tabernacle, or into his symbolical interpretation of the metals, colours,
and other materials used in that holy structure. The metals, in his opinion, typify
light, and more especially is gold the image of heavenly and divine light; szlver, that
of purity and moral excellence; brass resembles gold in colour, but is considerably
inferior to it in splendour. Acacia wood is a symbol of indestructibility and eternity.
And thus the Tabernacle is “ the abode of light and life.’ The colours are the sym-
bols of the different names of God; blue signifies the special revelation of God,
being the colour of heaven and ether; red denotes the highest dignity, majesty and
royal power; crimson is that, which fire and blood have in common, and sym-
bolizes therefore life in its full extent; white, lastly, is the colour of light and
innocence, or sanctity. And so again is the Tabernacle the image of light and
life> It must be admitted, that Baehr’s combinations are generally most sagacious
and skilful, that they are supported by an extraordinary amount of research, and
that they mostly result in ideas perfectly in harmony with the spirit and genius
of the sacred writings. But that author was not satisfied with general truths; he
applied them to the minutest details of the Tabernacle; he carried the comparison
 380 TIE HOLY TABERNACLE.

between the ideas and their external representation to an excess often bordering on
futile play ;he lost himself in deductions more and more foreign to the original principles;
and his labours, although carried on with the greatest intellectual vigour, have not
produced those valuable results for science to which they might have led, had he
known how to govern a too agile imagination.
4. We conclude with briefly reviewing the principal other symbolical interpretations
of the Tabernacle hitherto proposed :—
a. The oldest explanation of this kind is that of Philo. He believes, that the
Tabernacle is a representation of the universe; the tent itself which was only acces-
sible to the priests, signifies the intellectual, the open Court, the material world; the
four colours, or four covers, are the four elements; the two Cherubim signify the two
principal (the creative and ruling) powers of God, or the two hemispheres above and
beneath the earth; the altar of incense is to recall the productions of the earth and the
sea, which God mercifully brought forth for the use of man; the candlestick, with its
seven lamps, typifies the seven planets; the middle lamp (that of the shaft) the sun;
the table with the shew-bread signifies the human food; the twelve cakes denote also
the twelve signs of the zodiac and the twelve months.—Very similar to this exposition
of Philo is that of Josephus: the Court means the earth; the Sanctuary, the sea; the
Holy of Holies, the heaven; and kindred ideas are expressed by Clemens Alexandrinus,
Origen, Chrysostomus, Theodoret, Jerome, and many Rabbinical writers.—It will be
perceived, that this is fundamentally the same view as that defended by Baehr, who
however, justly deviates from it as regards the astronomical elements (the planets,
zodiac, etc.), which have been brought into connection with the holy abode of God,
and which would almost stamp upon it a pagan character. In fact, nothing is more
in antagonism with the purely ideal and moral character of Mosaism than a relation,
however distant or hidden, with the powers of the Kosmos. God and nature, the
creation and the Creator, are everywhere so decidedly distinguished, that the most
majestic descriptions of the glory of nature are invariably accompanied by some
declaration, that all that grandeur proceeded from God, and is subject to His sovereign
will (Ps. civ. etc.); and so deeply was this truth felt by the Psalmist, that he added, after
a splendid picture of the glory and sublimity of nature, an almost still more enthu-
siastic praise of the Divine revelation and its beatifying influence upon the soul of man
(Ps. xix; compare p.185, 186).
6. Many Talmudical commentators, starting from the Scriptural statement, that
Moses saw the model (xxv. 40) of the Tabernacle during his stay on the mountain,
assert, that the Tabernacle is really an imitation of a similar, although infinitely more
grand structure in heaven; that a certain invisible connection exists between both,
and that everything which is performed in the earthly Tabernacle is at the same
time done in a much higher. perfection in its heavenly prototype, especially as
regards expiation. However, few only have understood this in quite a literal
and material sense; by far the greater part of the Rabbins, spiritualizing these notions,
maintained, that the Holy Tabernacle embodied, in earthly forms, certain divine and
ideal truths, which were communicated to Moses during his mysterious communion
with the Deity.
0. The typical or Christian explanation, proposed already by some Fathers of the
Church, but more fully developed by Cocceius and his followers, enjoyed long a great
reputation. According to this school, the Tabernacle is a type of the congregation
or church of Christ, the Court represents the external or visible, the tent the internal
or invisible church, namely, so that the Sanctuary is the symbol of the ecclesia militans
and of the status gratiae, and the Holy of Holies that of the ecclesia triumphans and
of the status gloriae. However, these views have long been abandoned even by the greater
part of the orthodox Christian theologians, and we content ourselves with condensing
the just objections urged against them: a. The Tabernacle, if conceived in this sense,
 THE HOLY TABERNACLE, 381

loses all connection with, or application to, the time for which it was intended, and
during which it existed. (, That interpretation leads to the most artificial, often
ridiculous conclusions, if applied to the individual parts of the sacred text.
y- The Tabernacle is no holy person, but the holy place of divine revelations,
6. The passages in the New Testament which are generally adduced in corroboration
of this system (Ephes. ii. 21, 22; 1 Peterii.4; Hebr. ix.), contain no direct allusion
to Christ or the Christian congregation, but only to the general and local character
of the structure.
0. Maimonides, Spencer, Hess, Koeppen, and many modern antiquaries, con-
sider the holy temple as a magnificent palace for the Almighty King of Israel;
the priests are the ministers of the King, the sacrifices are demonstrations of »
loyalty, the shew-bread and the wine are His food, the mercy-seat is His throne,
the sanctuary the ante-chamber for the officials, etc. This opinion has been com-
bated by Baehr (i. p. 10—15, and 113—116) with particular sagacity and success.
He proves that the veneration of the kings was copied from the worship of
the deities, not vice versa; for the palaces were constructed like temples, not the
temples like palaces. Moses saw the prototype of the Tabernacle, which would
have been superfluous, if the latter was nothing but the usual tent of Oriental
princes. If luxury and splendour were the chief consideration, why were many
valuable offerings of the people refused? (xxxvi.5—7). If it was intended as the
palace of a mortal king, why is the couch or bed wanting? etc. However, it must be
added, that Maimonides seems himself not to have been quite satisfied with this
merely external, almost worldly explanation of the holy structure, and bending
towards the right direction, he maintains likewise, that it represented certain funda-
mental truths of Mosaism, as, for instance, the ark proves the unity of God; the
Cherubim, the existence of angels, etc.
e. Luther believes the Tabernacle to represent human nature; the Court signifies
the body, the Sanctuary is the soul, the Holy of Holies the spirit. The same idea
appears already in Philo’s writings, and has been carefully elaborated by Friederich
in the work above quoted. But this interpretation also completely loses sight of
the immediate destination of the holy tent, and is, besides, especially in the anatomical
| and osteological deductions of Friederich, as artificial as the typical or the oldest
cosmical symbolization.
J. We have already stated the general views of Baehr, and add here a short survey
of the symbolical significations which he ascribes to the individual utensils. The ark
occupied the exact centre of the Tabernacle [?], because the decalogue formed the
centre and heart of the Mosaic Law; it was covered with gold not only from without
but also from within, because the interior enclosed the greatest treasure of the people;
the golden wreath denotes divine sanctification, The mercy-seat is the throne of the
God of Israel, the central point of the Hebrew theocracy, the place of divine revelation,
of forgiveness and redemption. ‘The Cherubim represent the creation in its most per-
fect productions [which is questionable; his whole exposition on the Cherubim does
not lean on the Mosaic figures, but those of Ezekiel, with their four faces instead of one];
they stand in a stooping attitude, in humility and devotion looking upon the throne of
God [?]; the mercy-seat and the Cherubim together signify omnipotence, sanctity
and expiation. The ark is, in importance, subordinate to the mercy-seat, and stands:
to it in the relation of a foundation to the house erected upon it. The shew-bread is
that bread through which God shows Himself, or by the eating of which the soul beholds
God [certainly a very far-fetched opinion]; the twelve cakes correspond with the
number of the tribes of Israel; they were unleavened, because every corruption and
putrefaction were removed from the holy place; and the incense shows the heavenly
transport of the soul which it feels in beholding God; the shew-bread table indicates
that the means of satisfying the soul with the light of heaven are always in readiness
 382 EXODUS XXV.
in the divine abode [with which interpretation disagree, however, passages such as
Xxxiil. 20: “ thou canst not see my face”]. The light of the candle-stick is the type of
knowledge and intelligence, the seven-fold light makes this knowledge manifest as
pure and holy; the candle-stick itself is the word of God fand Baehr applies this idea
of the word of God to all the parts and ornaments of the candelabrum, with more
ingenuity than clearness and plausibility]; the incense is the symbol of the name of
God [for the incense represents prayer, and praying is equivalent to invoking the
name of God! In the same manner, and with the same result, he applies this to the
four different kinds of incense prescribed by Moses]; the altar of incense is a monu-
ment of blissful divine communication, and an exhortation for man to praise and to
worship God, and to elevate himself to His perfection; it was square, because it was a
place of revelation; the four horns denote the divine power, glory, and majesty; the
altar of burnt-offerings was made of earth, to remind of the sinfulness and
frailty of man, for whose salvation the animal sacrifices were instituted; the
frame-work was of acacia wood, because it was a place of light and life; it was covered
with brass, which corresponds symbolically with the earth; its dimensions (five by
three cubits) represent the preparatory degree of sanctity, perfection, and revela-
tion; the washing of the hands and the feet in the laver signifies the sanctification of
God and Israel; the mirrors [which Baehr believes were externally fastened on the
laver] symbolize self-examination and self-knowledge, which must precede the puri-
fication, and were to remind the priests of their sinfulness—The reader will, by this
sketch of Baehr’s system, be enabled to test the correctness of our opinion above pro-
nounced on that author’s views (p. 379), and we add, that in the details the relation
between the Court and the tent, which he asserts to be that between earth and heayen,
is almost entirely lost.—It will suffice merely to mention, without discussing the
opinion of the hypercritical school, which sees in the Tabernacle a poor copy of the
splendid Solomonic temple, after the model of which it was, in their opinion, fancifully
conceived by a later writer, the author of the book of Exodus,

CHAPTER ‎‫וצטאא‬
Summary.—God commands Moses to order the people of Israel to offer free-will gifts
as the materials of a holy Tabernacle to be erected as a visible habitation of God,
and for the garments of the priests who were to be consecrated. God describes
the dimensions and construction of the ark, the mercy-seat, and the Cherubim ; the
shew-bread table and its utensils; the candlestick and its accessories.

AND the Lord spoke to Moses, saying: 2. Speak to

the children of Israel, that they bring me an
offering; of every man whose heart impelleth him you
shall take my offering. 3. And this is the offering which
.‫ ב‬The following commands (to xxxi.‫‏‬ the divine habitation, although certain in- ee
we
)17 were given to Moses during his forty‫‏‬ viduals only were appointed to carry out
days’ stay on Mount Sinai (xxiv. 18); for‫‏‬ the designs; and this is perhaps the rea-
in xxxi. 18 only it is related, that he re-‫‏‬ son of the transition of the third person
ceived from God the two tables of the‫‏‬ (“that they take”) into the second (* you
Law which were to be preserved in the‫‏‬ shall take”).—For me, for my name, or,
holy ark (ver. 16: “which I shall give‫‏‬ to my glorification.
thee’).‫‏‬ 3. The abundance of precious metals
2. The whole people of Israel are invited and costly materials which the Israelites .

to contribute their gifts for the erecting of possessed in the desert, will be found ex- x i

= |
9
3
 EXODUS XXV. 383

you shall take of them: gold, and silver, and _ brass,

4. And blue, and 'red, and crimson, and fine linen, and
goats’ hair, 5. And rams’ skins dyed red, and badgers’
skins, and acacia wood; 6. Oil for the light; spices for
anointing-oil, and for incense of perfumes; 7. Onyx-
stones, and stones for setting, for the ephod, and for the
breast-plate. 8. And they shall make me a sanctuary,
that I may dwell among them. 9. Quite so as I show
thee the pattern of the Tabernacle and the pattern of all
1 Engl. Vers.—Purple, and scarlet.

plicable if we consider the following garments; see the notes on the twenty-
points: Ist. they inherited from the eighth chapter.
= patriarchs considerable wealth, of which 8. The words, “that I may dwell
we have no reason to suppose they were among them,” are usually considered as
robbed in Egypt; there are, on the con- a parenthesis, the proper place of which
trary, traces that they had no want of would be at the end of the next verse,
substance (compare xvi. 3; Numb. xi. 5). But, as the term sanctuary was mentioned,
2nd. They had received, at their de- its end and purport is at once aptly de-
parture from Egypt, very rich presents in scribed, with a few characteristic words
gold and silver and raiment (see iii. (see supra, p.377); and the following
21, 22; xi. 2, 3; xii. 35, 36). 3rd. They verse adds then another very essential
enriched themselves by the spoil of the feature and condition of the sacred struc-
Egyptian army; and, 4th. of the defeated ture.
Amalekites. Besides, they had, no doubt, %. God imparted to Moses the con-
commercial intercourse with the mercan- struction of the Tabernacle and its ves-
tile caravans which traversed the desert, sels, not merely by verbal description, but
and which could supply them both with by showing him, in his vision on Mount
the necessaries and the luxuries which Sinai (ver. 40), its model and prototype.
they desired (see note on xvi. 4). About It is undeniable, that the idea which our
the metals mentioned in our verse, see verse expresses (see also Num. viii. 4) is
supra, p. 372. intended to enforce the conviction, that
4. About the colours, see p.373; those the Tabernacle has some higher purport
who translate blue, red, and crimson wool and is designed after some more recon-
(Mendelssohn, and others), render the dite plan; that it is to represent the
sense rather than the words. It appears internal spiritual connection between God
from this verse, from xxvi.1, and espe- and Israel, and that it implies a symbo-
cially from xxxy. 25, that the threads lical tendency which reaches far beyond
were dyed before they were manufactured its external construction; and it is a
into cloth. That this was also the custom significant fact, that, indeed, both Jewish
among the ancient Egyptians has been tradition and all the earlier commentators
remarked in p. 374, and is testified felt, almost without exception, the inter-
by modern travellers. About linen and nal necessity of searching, beyond the
goat’s-hair, see p.374. immediate purpose of the edifice, after a
%. About the materials enumerated in deeper, more comprehensive, and more
this verse, see p. 374, 375. mysterious interpretation. But more
6. About the holy oil, see supra, p. 370. than this we are not justified to infer
.‫ יל‬The objects here mentioned are de-‫‏‬ from the obscure expression of our verse,
scribed in the explanation of the priestly‫‏‬ and we cannot stop to examine specula-

|
 ‫אוה‬ ‫יע בי א ו‬, ‫ עלגב‬-

1 EXODUS ‎‫אא‬
its instruments, just so shall you make it—10. And they
shall make an ark of acacia wood; two cubits and a half
shall be its length, and a cubit and a half its breadth, and
a cubit and a half its height. 11. And thou shalt overlay
it with pure gold, within and without shalt thou overlay
it, and thou shalt make upon it a crown of gold round
about. 12. And thou shalt cast four rings of gold for it,
tions like those of several ancient com- of these three utensils, which, in a higher
mentators: that Moses really beheld the sense, form an undivided unity, and sym-
same Tabernacle in heaven, but on a bolize the whole sum of revealed religion.
more magnificent scale (see p. 380), or From this reason they constitute the only
that God showed him all the mysteries contents of the Holy of Holies, and are
of nature, which he then systematically not, like the vessels of the Holy, arranged
embodied in the sacred edifice. It suf- as three separate articles; the mercy-seat
fices that our text is important, as form- and the Cherubim seem to have been
ing a safe basis for the symbolical inter- worked from one solid mass of gold
pretation of the Tabernacle and its parts. (vers. 18, 19), and to have formed one
That fundamental idea of the spiritual connected piece; and the ark was, by its
relation between God and Israel is at own cover and the Capporeth doubly
once plain and grand; and, whilst its closed, to point at once to the paramount
simplicity stamps it with the character of sacredness and the eternal perfection and
primeval genuineness, its sublimity ren- unchangeableness of its contents, the
ders it worthy of forming the foundation Tables of the Law.—lIt will not be found
of a religious system calculated to elevate surprising, but in exact accordance with
and purify mankind to its remotest gene- the sanctity of the Holy of Holies, that
rations. But we must carefully abstain later, when Moses orders, and Bezaleel
from working out this elementary idea enters upon, the actual execution of the
into complicated and artificial details, different implements of the Tabernacle,
foreign to the spirit of the nation and the those three articles are mentioned, not
time in which it originated. The sacred among the first, but among the later
text’ is our only guide; and we must parts; for the framework of the structure
modestly resign every further progress was necessarily required for the reception
when that only unfailing guide leaves us. of those most sacred utensils, before
1O—15. Description of the ark of they could themselves, with propriety,
the Covenant (see p. 367). The ark and be executed (see xxxv. 11—18; xxxvi. 8;
the furniture immediately attached to —xxxvii. 9). From the same point of
it, the mercy-seat and the Cherubim, were view, namely that of relative importance,
the chief end of the whole structure of the description of the altar of burnt-
the Tabernacle; for the ark was to con- offerings precedes that of the Court itself,
tain the “Tables of the testimony,” the in which that altar was to be placed
direct emanation of the Divine will; the (compare xxvii. 1—8 and 9—19). Ina
mercy-seat was intended perpetually to less regular order is mentioned the altar
maintain the purity of Israel and its har- of incense, which formed the third utensil
mony and connection with God by atone- of the Sanctuary. It is only introduced
ment and repeated communion, whilst in xxx. 1, after the description of the
the Cherubim represented the Divine Tabernacle itself, the vessels of the Court,
presence and His watching Providence and the garments of the priests. But in
(see supra, p. 378): therefore our text very ‎‫ואאא‬. 8; xxx. 15; and xxxviii. 1, it is
appropriately begins with the description mentioned in its due place.—In ver. 10
 EXODUS XXYV. 385
and put them on its four 'feet; and two rings shall be on
the one side of it, and two rings on the other side of it.
13. And thou shalt make staves of acacia wood, and over-
lay them with gold. 14. And thou shalt put the staves
4 into the rings on the sides of the ark, to bear the ark
with them. 15. The staves shall be in the rings of the
1 Engl. Vers.—Corners.

the Israelites are commanded to make exodus. The ruins and sepulchres of ’
the ark (“and they shall make,” as in Thebes have, in this respect also, yielded
ver. 8, with regard to the whole Taber- us unexpected information. Numerous
nacle), whilst in the 11th and the follow- gilt bronze vases, trinkets, statues, toys,
ing verses, Moses alone is addressed, to and many other objects in metal and wood
intimate: 1, that the whole of Israel have been discovered. If the faces of
should manifest their zeal and interest mummies, the painted cloth, the wooden
in the construction of that sacred edifice, coffin, and other objects were overlaid
which was the symbol of unity with their with thick gold-leaf, this was done in-
God; and 2. that Moses was in this, as tentionally, not from want of skill, which
in many other respects, their representa- the Egyptians seem to have possessed
tive, who served and acted in their stead. in an extraordinary degree. The Tal-
—The verb, “and thou shalt make,” mud understands our verb, in all in-
generally begins the command concerning stances, as plating, and asserts even,
a new article, but not always; as it is but against our simple context, that
sometimes unavoidably used in the more Bezaleel made three chests, two of gold
minute description of a utensil already and one of acacia wood, all of them per-
named.—About the length of a cubit, see fectly finished, but open; that he then
p. 375.— Thou shalt overlay it with pure gold. put the wooden chest into the golden,
It is doubtful whether this expression signi- and the other golden one into that of
fies the modern art of gilding, or covering wood, and covered the uppermost; and
with thin plates of precious metal. The thus the ark was overlaid with gold
etymology of the Hebrew word offers within and without.—The crown of gold
no assistance, as it signifies merely to on the ark was round its upper part, not
= make bright. The same verb is, however, round the middle, see p. 367.—Four golden
frequently used in the description of the rings were to be fastened to the four
temple of Solomon, in which, for instance, Jeet, the construction of which, being
carved wooden-figures and flower-work quite subordinate and merely auxi-
were adorned in the same manner (1 Kings liary parts of the ark, is not mentioned
vi. 28, 35); and it is more than doubtful, or described. ‘This is the only proba-
whether the gold-leaf can be reduced to ble meaning which can be attributed
a degree of tenuity so as to be applicable to the Hebrew word, which never signi-
for such purposes; but it might also fies corner, although it is so interpreted
be a matter of some difficulty to fasten by the Septuagint, Onkelos, and many
plates to the round staves belonging to others. It is true it seems more plausible,
the Tabernacle. Although, therefore, that the rings, through which the staves”
overlaying might have been the usual, were passed for the transportation of the
because more ancient process, gilding ark, were rather in the middle, or more
was applied in some cases, which must at the upper part of the ark, as thus it
be inferred from probability. In Egypt would have been easier to keep the equi-
the art of gilding was known and ex- librium, especially as the Capporeth and
tensively used before the time of the the Cherubim increased the weight; and
0 C

|
 4

386 EXODUS XXV.

ark; they shall not be taken from it. 16. And thou
shalt put into the ark the testimony which I shall give
thee.—17. And thou shalt make a mercy-seat of pure
gold; two cubits and a half shall be its length, and a
cubit and a half its breadth.—18. And thou shalt make
two Cherubim of gold, of beaten-work shalt thou make
them, from the two ends of the mercy-seat. 19. And
make one Cherub on the one end, and the other Cherub on
the other end; 'from the mercy-seat shall you make the
Cherubim, on its two ends. 20. And the Cherubim shall
stretch forth their wings over zt, covering the mercy-seat
with their wings; and their faces shall look one to another;
towards the mercy-seat shall the faces of the Cherubim be.
21. And thou shalt put the mercy-seat above upon the
1 Engl. Vers.—Even of.

from this reason, no doubt, Ebn Ezra cannot be understood as a witness against
believes—but against the Hebrew text— Israel, * because it is not yet engraved on
that the four rings at the feet were merely the hearts of Israel;” it is, on the con-
for ornament, as is usual in chests. How- trary, an eternal monument of Israel’s
ever, the smallness of the dimensions of faith and obedience, of its readiness not
the ark, renders its safe transportation, only to listen to His words (xix. 8; xxiy.
even with the rings at its feet, not im- 7), but to follow Him through ** pathless
possible, especially as the greatest care desert, in a land which is not sown” (Jer.
was taken in carrying the sacred im- ii. 2).—The two passages usually quoted
plements. Besides, as Nachmanides ob- in corroboration of that opinion (Deut.
serves, “the respect due to the holy ark ‎‫ואאא‬. 21, 26), uncertain in themselves,
required that it was borne high and free do not refer to the Tables placed in
above the shoulders ofthe priests.” And the- ark, but to the whole Law and the
the character and meaning of the ark parting song of Moses.—The circum-
demanded almost, that it should, in the stance, that our command concerning
journeys of Israel, be conspicuously the Tables of the Law is repeated in
visible to the whole people, like a divine ver. 21, has induced Rabbinical commen-
standard, convincing them in their fa~ tators to establish a distinction between
tigues and tribulations of the protecting these two passages, whereas the 21st verse =
presence of the God, in whose name comprises, by way of recapitulation, the
Moses had led them, in endless marches implements of the Holy of Holies, and
and circuits, from the fertile soilof Egypt their mutual position (for the Capporeth
to the barren and dreary tracts of the includes the Cherubim), and a mention —
wilderness. of the ark occasions naturally an allusion =
416. In the ark was to be deposited to the Tables, which were the only end =
the testimony, that is, the two Tables and contents of the ark,
of the Law, which were a _ witness 1. About the mercy-seat, its sacred-
of the divine covenant concluded with ness and importance, see p.368, and p.379.
157861, and through Israel with mankind, 18—20. About the Cherubim and
on condition of the moral laws engraved their meaning, see p. 868, and .‫ו‬‎ 379.—
on them (see p.493). But this testimony They were to be made of beaten work;
 EXODUS ‎‫יצטאא‬ 387
ark; and in the ark thou shalt put the testimony which I
shall give thee. 22. And there I shall meet with thee, and
commune with thee from above the mercy-seat, from
between the two Cherubim, which ave upon the ark
of the testimony, of all things which I shall com-
mand thee to say to the children of Israel.—23. And
thou shalt make a table of acacia wood; two cubits
shall be its length, and a cubit its breadth, and a cubit
and a half its height. 24. And thou shalt overlay
it with pure gold, and make thereto a crown of gold
round about. 25. And thou shalt make to it a border of
a hand-breadth round about, and thou shalt make a
golden crown to its border round about. 26. And thou
shalt make for it four rings of gold, and put the rings in
the four corners which 6 on its four feet. 27. Over

not of solid gold, opposed to hollow work; 51. The construction of the ark re-
nor turned work. Nor does it mean, as quired that first the Tables of the Law
the ancient commentators usually ex- were deposited in it, and that then only
plained, beaten with the hammer out of the Capporeth was placed upon it: and
one piece, in opposition to a vessel joined thus it is, indeed, represented in the
together from different parts. However, parallel passage, xl. 20.
the words “from the mercy-seat shall 22. And there will I meet with thee.
you make the Cherubim,” justify us in God promises to reveal His will to Israel,
supposing that they were not fastened to through Moses, from the mercy-seat be-
the former in any exterior manner, but tween the Cherubim; this is, therefore,
that they were worked out of it, on both the place of perpetual and direct revela-
sides, as inseparably belonging to it; in tion, or, of the “meeting of God and
the same manner as the horns projected Israel,” and hence the whole structure is
from the altar (xxvii. 2). — Philippson called “the Tabernacle of meeting,”
attributes to the Cherubim the meaning, see p. 377.
“that they step between God and man 23—29. Descripiion of the shew-bread
(as angels), and without destroying the table, see p. 369. As the golden wreath
connection between both, they conceal round the ark has been believed to re-
from man the pure and divine spirituality present the “crown of the Law,” so the
which he is never permitted to attain.” wreath round the table has been asserted
But such a complicated, and, in itself, to signify ‘‘the crown of kingdom,” which
contradictory notion of a separation in belongs to God, who, however, has not,
the unity, lies far from the true import of since the creation, when He produced the »
the ark and its accessories, which repre- world out of nothing, departed from the
sent the full and unlimited connection eternal and natural laws prescribed by
between the purity of God and the soul Him to the universe, but who may make
of man; and if the latter does not reach the simple shew-bread to yield the richest
the former, the obstacle lies in man, not blessing. However judicious this appli-
in God, who emphatically and incessant- cation might be, it goes too far in sym-
ly commands: “Thou shalt be perfect with bolizing ornaments which were only
the Lord thy God” (Deut. xviii. 13). intended to add to the dignity and splen-
2c2
 388 EXODUS XXYV.

against the border shall the rings be for places of the

staves to bear the table. 28. And thou shalt make the
staves of acacia wood, and overlay them with gold, that
the table may be borne with them. 29. And thou shalt
make its dishes, and ‘its bowls, and its cans, and its cups,
with which the libations are made: of pure gold shalt
thou make them. 30. And thou shalt put upon the table
shew-bread before me always.—31. And thou shalt make
a candlestick of pure gold; of beaten-work shall the
candlestick be made; *its base, and its shaft, its calyxes,
its apples, and its blossoms, shall be of the same. 32. And
six branches shall come out of its sides; three branches of
the candlestick out of the one side, and three branches of
the candlestick out of the other side; 33. Three *calyxes
of almond-flowers, wzth apple and blossom, on one branch ;
' Engl. Vers.—Spoons thereof, and covers thereof, and bowls thereof, to cover withal
(or to pour out withal). 2 His shaft and his branches, his bowls, his knops,
and his flowers. 3 Bowls made like unto almonds.

dour of the sacred utensils. The border And this is, in the simplest manner, done
was to be “ of one hand-breadth.” From by the shew-bread, for which again the
1 Kings vii. 26, compared with Jerem. lii. table was necessary, just as the ark for the
21, it appears clearly that one hand- Tables of the Law. Hence we cannot sym-
breadth is equal to the breadth of the four pathise with the explanation of Philipp-
Jingers of the hand, of course if closely son, who, however ably he develops it,
pressed to each other; and hence the Vul- takes the shew-bread as the “bread of
_gate translates here four fingers. The Divine guidance, or as the prosperity pro-
rings for the staves were probably under duced by God’s immediate providence.”
the enclosure in the corners, where it Divine providence is a notion so spiritual
joins the feet; therefore, “over against and ideal, that it can scarcely be repre-
the border."— With which the libations sented by cakes or bread. The table,
weremade, As the shew-bread wasa kind with its loaves, reminds of God as the
of peace-offering, its oblation was natu- supporter and preserver of the world,
rally, like all sacrifices of this class, at- which He provides with sustenance; not
tended with wine-libations, for which the of God as the mysterious dispenser of
vessels mentioned in our text were ne- fate; they are a thank-offering, intended
cessary. The confession of Maimonides to keep alive practical piety and thank-
of his incapability of finding the signi- fulness, not a metaphysical emblem,
fication of the shew-bread table proves which would have been superfluous after
the difficulty of the subject, which, how- the promise of the pillar of cloud and
ever, disappears in a great measure, if the pillar of fire, which was to accompany
this part of the Sanctuary is considered Israel, as a symbol of Divine guidance,
in connection with the general tendency on all their journeys,
of the holy structure. God creates every 30. See p. 369. The shew-bread
blessing, and bestows it upon man, from should be “ before God always,” that is,
whom He requires nothing in return but before the vail which separates the Sanc-
a grateful acknowledgment of His gifts, tuary from the Holy of Holies, the proper
 EXODUS XXV. 389

and three calyxes of almond-flowers, with apple and

blossom, on the other branch; so in the six branches
which come out of the candlestick. 34. And on the
candlestick shall be four calyxes of almond-flowers, with
their apples and their blossoms. 35. And there shall be
an apple under two branches of the same, and an
apple under two branches of the same, according to
the six branches which come out of the candlestick.
36. Their apples and their branches shall be of the same:
all of it shall be one beaten-work of pure gold. 37. And
thou shall make its lamps seven; and they shall ‘put on
its lamps, and *light them to the side thereof. 388. And
its °snuffers and its fire-shovels shall be of pure gold.
39. Of a talent of pure gold shall he make it, with all
these vessels. 40. And see that thou make them after their
pattern which was shown thee in the mount.
4 Engl. Vers.—Light, or cause to ascend. 5 That they may give light over
against it. 6 Tongs thereof and the snuff-dishes thereof.

| residence of God. And from this reason and eternal efficacy of the latter through
they were unquestionably called in He- the word of God.—And light them to the
brew, “the bread of the face,” viz. of side thereof (ver. 37). The shaft, as the
God; not because “their position was principal part of the candelabrum, is used
towards all sides of the Tabernacle,” as as identical with the candlestick itself
several Rabbinical commentators believe. (ver. 34); and our words mean: and he
| Rashbam understands: “ fine bread, (the priest) shall light the lamps of the
worthy to be placed before a king,” after six branches so that their light falls
the questionable analogy of 1 Sam. i. 5. to the side of the middle lamp, or that of
31—40. Description of the Candela- the shaft; so that all the seven lamps
brum, its vessels and ornaments, see p. 482. seemed to have a connection and relation
Among the ancient nations the Egyp- to each other; or that they might appear
tians especially possessed a peculiar pre- one (see xxv. 11. etc.).
dilection for flowers, both natural and arti- 39,40. Ofa talent of pure gold shall
ficial; the sacred lotus is almost invariably he make it. The second person, used in
introduced as an ornament, and, according almost all preceding descriptions, changes
to Pliny, they made fantastical flowers, here into the third person, according to
which received the name Egyptian flowers. a Hebrew idiom, implying an ellipsis: he
—lIt is well known that the almond-tree to whom that duty devolves (here, the
is a Biblical type for rapid growth and artist) shall make it. The candelabrum,
vigilance; it is among the first trees to together with the snuffers and the fire-
produce buds and fruits (compare Numb. shovels, weighed one talent of gold, as the
xvii. 16—24; Jer.i. 11); andthe almonds addition: “ with all these vessels,” clearly
symbolize, therefore, on the candlestick, shows. About the weight and value of a
which is itself the emblem of enlighten- talent see note on xxi. 32.
ment and knowledge, the quick diffusion
 390 EXODUS XXVI.
‫ו‬

CHAPTER XXVI.
Summary.—God further describes the structure of the Tabernacle itself: the boards,
with their sockets and bars; the magnificent internal hangings; the threefold
exterior coverings of goats’-hair, rams’-skins, and badgers’-skins; the vail be-
tween the Sanctuary and Holy of Holies, and the hanging before the eastern front
of the Tabernacle,

Cuar. XXVI. 1. And thou shalt make the ‘habitation

with ten curtains of fine twined linen, and blue, and red,
and crimson: with Cherubim ’of the work of the skilful
weaver shalt thou make them. 2. The length of the one
curtain shall be eight and twenty cubits, and the breadth
of the one curtain four cubits: one measure shall be for all
the curtains. 3. Five curtains shall be coupled together
one to another; and five curtains shall be coupled one to
another. 4. And thou shalt make loops of blue upon the
border of the one curtain at the edge in the coupling;
and the same shalt thou do *in the border of the utter-
most curtain in the second coupling. 5. Fifty loops shalt
thou make in the one curtain, and fifty loops shalt thou
make in the edge of the curtain which zs * in the second
coupling; that the loops ’may correspond one with another.
6. And thou shalt make fifty taches of gold, and couple
' Engl. Vers.—Tabernacle. 2 Of cunning work,
3 In the uttermost edge of another curtain. + In the coupling of the second,
5 May take hold one of another.

1—6. The ten internal curtains, see —The distinction made in our text be-
p. 366. We must distinguish be- tween stuffs with interwoven and em-
tween the habitation in our verse, and broidered figures, was known in very early
the tent in ver. 7; the former expres- times; and Pliny remarks: “ Babylon
sion describes, besides the frame-work, was most celebrated for producing tex-
with the boards and columns, more the tures with various colours, and they were
interior, the latter, more the external therefore called Babylonian....To make
aspect of the holy structure; and the similar stuffs with the needle is an inven-
same difference exists, therefore, between tion of the Phrygians, whence they are
the first and the three other coverings. known under the name of Phrygian
The habitation was, by the mysterious manufactures.” On the Egyptian monu-
forms of the Cherubim on its walls, mani- ments, both arts are represented; and it
fested as the “habitation of God.” The is known, that the sails of the pleasure-
covering of goats’-hair gave it the appear- yachts of the Egyptian kings and gran-
ance of a tent.—The ten curtains of the dees were embroidered with the figures of
habitation denote its perfection and unity; the phcenix, flowers, and other emblems,
they are, like the decalogue, divided into instances of which are found in the ruins
two halves; but they are again so com-
bined, “ that the habitation is one” (ver. 6).
of Thebes from so early atime as that of
Rameses III. There is, in Hebrew, a
|
i
ָ
 EXODUS XXVI. 391

the curtains together with the taches, that the habitation

may be one.—7. And thou shalt make curtains of goats’
hair, to be ‫"ב‬‎ tent over the habitation: eleven curtains
shalt thou make. 8. The length of the one curtain shall
be thirty cubits, and the breadth of the one curtain four
cubits: one measure shall be to the eleven curtains.
9. And thou shalt couple five curtains by themselves, and
six curtains by themselves, and shalt ‘roll up the sixth
curtain in the forefront of the Tabernacle. 10. And thou
shalt make fifty loops on the border of the one curtain
which is the uttermost in the coupling, and fifty loops *on
the border of the curtain in the second coupling. 11. And
thou shalt make fifty taches of brass, and put the taches
into the loops, and couple the tent together, that it may
be one. 12. And the superfluity which remaineth of the
curtains of the tent, the half-curtain which remaineth,
shall hang over the backside of the Tabernacle. 18. And
the cubit on the one side, and the cubit on the other side
of that which remaineth in the length of the curtains of
the tent, it shall hang over the sides of the Tabernacle, on
this side and on that side, to cover it—14. And thou
shalt make a covering for the tent of rams’-skins dyed
§ Engl. Vers.—Covering. 7 Double. | * In the edge of the curtain which coupleth
the second.

third expression (xxvili. 32, etc.), which ₪--14. The three coverings of the tent,
signifies merely the tissue with the thread see p.367. There is no probability for
of one colour.—Both weaving and em- the conjecture, that the goats’-hair cover-
brvidering were, in Egypt, occupations ing also was put at the inner side of the
of men; the weavers in Panopolis, Arsinoe, Tabernacle; it was not necessary that the
Pelusium, and Alexandria, were renowned ore cubit which was, on the north- and
in different periods; on the monuments, south-side, left uncovered by the first and
weaving men are frequently met with; more precious curtains, should be over-
if women were engaged in the same pur- hung; that was, on the contrary, the
suits, it was considered an exception; only part which showed that the boards
their peculiar occupation seems to have were over-laid with gold; if that was
been at the distaff (xxxv.25); and, on also covered, the costly metal would
the monuments, spinning men occur by have been wasted for no purpose. Be-
far less frequently than spinning women. sides, if the goats’-hair covering were put
—The twenty-eight cubits of each cur- under the first hangings, it would contra-
tain covered the ceiling and the north dict the clear statement of the seventh
and south sides, only leaving one cubit verse; to hang it above them, and so to
open at the lower part of the sides (see hide them entirely, is an absurdity.
.p. 366). 25—25. The boards of the Tabernacle,
 / os ‫יו‬
a ee ee : en
/ 0% J ‫וי‬‎ |
| . : i

392 EXODUS XXVI.

red, and a covering above of badgers’-skins.—15. And
thou shalt make the boards for the Tabernacle of acacia
wood, standing up. 16. Ten cubits shall be the length of
the board, and a eubit and a half shall be the breadth of
one board. 17. Two tenons shall there be to one board,
arranged one against another: thus shalt thou make for
all the boards of the Tabernacle. 18.°And thou shalt make
the boards for the Tabernacle, twenty boards on the south
side, southward. 19. And thou shalt make forty sockets
of silver under the twenty boards; two sockets under one
board for its two tenons, and two sockets under another
board for its two tenons. 20. And for the second side of
the Tabernacle, on the north side, there shall be twenty
boards: 21. And their forty sockets of silver; two
sockets under one board, and two sockets under another
board. 22. And for the 'side of the Tabernacle westward
thou shalt make six boards. 23. And two boards shalt
thou make at the corners of the Tabernacle, in the two
sides. 24. And they shall be ?double beneath, and at the
same time they shall be double above, at the one ring:
thus shall it be for them both; they shall be for the two
corners. 25. And they shall be eight boards, and their
sockets of silver, sixteen sockets; two sockets under the
‫ ו‬Engl. Vers.—Sides,‫‏‬ 5 Coupled together beneath, and they shall be coupled together
above the head of it unto one ring.

see p. 366. The tenons were not fixed They were fitted into golden rings (ver,
directly in the ground; for “the habdi- 29), except, perhaps, the middle bar,
tation of God should have no connec- which was, according to the traditional
tion with earth”; but they were fitted into explanation, passed through the boards
sockets; and these are inserted in the themselves, which were, for this pur- 4
R
052ol
ground, so that one socket always cor- pose, bored through. It is certain, that,
responded with one tenon. ‘Tradition as the middle bar is expressly stated
| gives to the sockets a length of six, and a to have “reached from end to end,”
breadth of three palms, and maintains, the others ran only along a part of the
with improbability, that they were placed sides. The bars were especially neces-
on the ground, which would have raised sary for giving the structure a greater
the whole structure by about one cubit. compactness.
—The opinion, that the two boards at the 31—33. The vail between the Holy
corner did not form aright, but an ob- and the Holy of Holies, (see p. 367).
tuse angle, is to be rejected; for it would It was hung up immediately beneath
destroy the symmetry of the whole struc- the golden taches of the inner cover-
ture. ing, and thus formed, to the west, the
26—30. The five bars, see p.367. Holy of Holies, ten cubits in length,
 EXODUS XXVI. 393

one board, and two sockets under the other board.—

26. And thou shalt make bars of acacia wood; five for the
boards of the one side of the Tabernacle, 27. And five
bars for the boards of the other side of the Tabernacle, for
*the side westward. 28. And the middle bar in the midst
of the boards shall reach from end to end.—29. And thou
shalt overlay the boards with gold, and make their rings
of gold for places for the bars: and thou shalt overlay the
bars with gold. 30. And thou shalt rear up the Taber-
nacle according to its manner which was shown thee in
the mount.—31. And thou shalt make a vail of blue, and
red, and crimson, and fine twined linen; of the work of
the skilful weaver shall it be made, with Cherubim.
52. And thou shalt hang it upon four pillars of acacia
wood overlaid with gold: their hooks shall be of gold
upon four sockets of silver. 33. And thou shalt hang up
the vail under the taches, and shalt bring in thither,
within the vail, the ark of the testimony: and the vail
shall divide to you between the Holy and the Holy of
‘Holies. 34. And thou shalt put the mercy-seat upon the
ark of the testimony in the Holy of Holies. 35. And thou
shalt set the table without the vail, and the candlestick
over against the table on the side of the Tabernacle to-
3 Engl. Vers.—The two sides,

and to the east, the Holy twenty cubits the impression which this arrangement
long. According to Jewish authorities, made on the entering priest must have been
it was four fingers thick, to prevent any imposing enough to turn his mind at once
person penetrating with his eyes into the to the holiest thoughts, and powerfully to
adytum. remind him of his sublime duties, for
34. Into the Holy of Holies was placed which he was previously prepared by
the ark, with the mercy-seat; and, of the sacred oil and the distinguishing gar-
course, the Cherubim on the latter, which ments. The Samaritan text inserts here
are, however, not expressly mentioned, the description of the altar of incense,
as they formed one whole with it. from xxx. 1--10, and omits it in this
35. According to ancient interpreters, latter place. But no ancient translation,
the table stood two and a half cubits nor any manuscript, offers a similar trans-
from the northern side, the candlestick position; and, although we confess that
as distant from the southern side, be- that arrangement would be more regular,
tween both, the altar of incense, and all it is not, the only one which the Biblical
three vessels occupied the middle of the style admits; besides, xxx. 7—10 refer
Holy, that is, they were ten cubits from clearly to the twenty-eighth and twenty-
each of the two inner vails. Certainly, ninth chapters, and would be almost un-
 /

394 EXODUS XXVI., XXVII.

ward the south, and thou shalt put the table on the north-
side. 386. And thou shalt make a hanging for the door of
the tent, of blue, and red, and crimson, and fine twined
linen, wrought with needlework. 37. And thou shalt
make for the hanging five pillars of acacia wood, and
overlay them with gold, and their nails shall be of
gold: and thou shalt cast five sockets of brass for
them.
intelligible in our place; the precepts structure: the Holy of Holies, the Sanc-
concerning the altarof incense conclude tuary, and the Court, is self-evident; they
the whole description of the holy vessels, represent the gradual approximation be-
because it implies the most sacred part of tween God and Israel; in the Court,
the daily functions of the priests. every individual approached God through
36. The vail at the eastern side, which, the burnt-offerings; in the Sanctuary, the
according to Josephus, had, in inclement people came near God through its repre-
seasons, a linen cover, is not, like that sentatives, the priests; and, in the Holy
between the two parts of the habitation, of Holies, through the High-priest, the
called curtain, but simply cover, and head of all the clerical functionaries:
is, in several points, distinguished from further, in the Court, merely by an ex-
it: 16 was not woven, but embroidered ternal offering ; in the Sanctuary, by the
(see on vers.1—6); no Cherubim were light of truth and by the ardour of faith;
represented on it; it rested on five and, in the Holy of Holies, by revelation
instead of four columns; and_ the and atonement, those two highest means
sockets of the latter were not of silver, of connection between God and man.
but of brass. Most of these circum- Recent commentators even have had the
stances prove, that the vail between courage to follow the foot-steps of Baehr;
the Tabernacle and the Court was not they could not hope safely to gain the ports
intended as equally costly and equally where this sagacious scholar wrecked, and
sacred as that between the Holy and the their laborious efforts have only tended
Holy of Holies. The absence of the to encumber Biblical criticism with an
Cherubim is especially characteristic; additional burden of sophistical conjec-
they symbolize the nearness of God; tures and mysterious combinations, con-
everywhere in the interior of the Taber- vincing to none except their sanguine
nacle they were visible—on the mercy- framers. The word of God is profound;
seat, on the interior hangings, on the but it is vain to penetrate into subjects
western vail ; without the structure, they for which it gives itself no clue. The Law
were nowhere represented. But we ab- is written for man and for his use, to serve
stain here, also, from indulging in specu- as an instrument of his salvation; the
lations about the typical meaning of the leading ideas can, therefore, not be so
numbers, metals, colours, etc., and its hidden or obscure that they permit oppo-
application on the proportions of the holy site interpretations; what is not clearly
tent; the end of the three parts of the alluded to is forced and spurious.

CHAPTER XXVII.
Summary.—
The altar of burnt-offerings, with its utensils, and the Court which
surrounds the Tabernacle are described. The use of pure olive-oil for the
eternal light is commanded, and this service is for ever entrusted to Aaron and
his descendants.
 EXODUS XXVII. 395
A ND thou shalt make the altar of acacia wood, five
cubits the length, and five cubits the breadth; the
altar shall be square; and its height shall be three
cubits. 2. And thou shalt make its horns upon its four
corners; its horns shall be of the same: and thou
> shalt overlay it with brass. 3. And thou shalt make ‘its
pots to remove its ashes, and its shovels, and its basins,
and its flesh-hooks, and its fire-shovels; all the vessels.
thereof thou shalt} make of brass. 4. And thou shalt
make for it a grate of net-work of brass; and upon the
net thou shalt make four brazen rings in its four
corners. 5. And thou shalt put it under the border
beneath, that the net may reach to the midst of the altar.
6. And thou shalt make staves for the altar, staves of
acacia wood, and overlay them with brass. 7. And the
staves shall be put into the rings, and the staves shall be
1 Engl. Vers.—Its pans to receive.

1--8. The altar of burnt-offerings, animals. And hence all the members of
see p.371. It is also called “the brass the house of Israel were permitted access
altar,” because it was overlaid with this not only to the Court, which stood un-
metal, and “the outer altar,” because its covered, free in the air, but to this altar;
place was without the habitation, in the this was the first step towards a unity be-
Court.—Its horns shall form one whole tween God and man: and here the in-
with the frame-work and the brass cover- dividua! might sufficiently purify himself
ing of the altar itself, as was also com- from guilt and sin, to participate in the
manded with regard to the mercy-seat national unity between God and Israel,
and the Cherubim (xxv.19), On these represented through the priests in the
horns the blood of the sin-offerings was interior of the holy habitation.—The altar
sprinkled (Lev. iv. 7, etc.); they were was to be “ hollow with boards,” but was,
seized by the persecuted, who had sought in accordance with xx.21, naturally filled
refuge at the altar (1 Kings i. 50); per- with earth, not only the upper part, whilst
haps also the sacrificial animals were the lower one was hollow, as Michaelis
fastened on them (Psalm exviii. 27). The believes, but entirely. The wooden
altars of almost all ancient nations were frame-work was carried by the Israelites on
frequently provided with horns; they were their journeys, whilst the earth remained
not seldom as trophies, entirely con- perhaps, as a mark of their stations, just
structed of the horns of the sacrifices; and as the frame-work was during the journeys
the representations of Egyptian and other the emblem of the altar rather than
Eastern altars show the same peculiarity. this implement itself; for the earth con-
The horns are a symbol of power, of pro- stituted the altar. It is, therefore,
tection, and help; and at the same time erroneous, if Clarke writes: ‘‘ The altar
of glory and salvation; they represent, seems to have been a kind of frame-
therefore, significantly the whole meaning work, and to have had nothing solid in
and end of the sacrifices; and they mani- the inside, and only covered with the
fest that that salvation is effected through grating of the top.” Just the top, on

We:
 396 EXODUS XXVII.
upon the two sides of the altar! in carrying it. 8. Hollow
with boards shalt thou make it; as it was shown thee in :
the mount, so shall they make .--9. And thou shalt :
make the Court of the Tabernacle: for the south-side |
southward there shall be hangings for the Courtof fine |
twined linen of one hundred cubits long for one side:
10. *And its pillars shall be twenty, and their sockets,
twenty, of brass; the hooks of the pillars, and their rods,
of silver. 11. And likewise for the north-side in length
there shall be hangings of one hundred cubits long, and its
pillars twenty, and their sockets twenty of brass; the
hooks of the pillars and their rods, of silver. 12. And
for the breadth of the Court on the west-side shall be
hangings of fifty cubits: their pillars ten, and their
sockets ten. 13. And the breadth of the Court on
the east-side eastward shall be fifty cubits. 14. The
hangings on one side of the gate shall be fifteen cubits;
their pillars three, and their sockets three; 15. And on
the other side shall be hangings fifteen cubits; their pillars
three, and their sockets three. 16. And for the gate of
the Court shall be a hanging of twenty cubits, of blue, and
red, and crimson, and fine twined linen, the work of the
embroiderer; and their pillars shall be four, and their
sockets four. 17. All the pillars round about the Court
shall be united with rods of silver; their hooks shall be of &
! Engl. Vers.—To bear it. ? And the twenty pillars thereof and their twenty
sockets shall be of brass. ‘

which the sacrifices were burnt, con- according to tradition, the sloping dam
sisted of earth; and the grating was which led up to the upper surface. As
not on the top, but round the sides, several parts of the altar of burnt-
beneath the border. The wooden frame offerings are indeed obscure, the text
was protected against the injurious in- refers to the prototype which Moses had
fluence of the fire, within by the earth, seen on the mountain, and which he is
and without by the metal with which it was
commanded to imitate.
covered, and which was, perhaps, at the top 9—19. The Court, see p.371. The
a little thicker, and bent round the wood. hangings are frequently explained to
On the altar fire was always maintained have been made “ like the sails of a ship,
(Lev. vi.6). Whether it had a bottom of meshy, not woven.” But although these
the same materials as the sides is uncer- hangings were only five cubits high (ver.
tain. The ashes were placed on the 18) and covered only half the height of
eastern side of the altar; to the west the Tabernacle ; and although it might
stood the brazen laver, and to the south, thus not appear inappropriate to suppose,
 EXODUS XXVIII, XXVIII. 397

silver, and their sockets of brass. The length of the

Court shall be one hundred cubits, and the breadth fifty
everywhere, and the height five cubits of fine twined
linen, and their sockets of brass. 19. All the vessels of
the Tabernacle in all its service, and all its pins, and all
the pins of the Court, shall be of brass.
20. And thou shalt command the children of Tara
that they bring thee pure beaten olive-oil for the light, to
put on the lamps for ever. In the 'Tent of Meeting
without the vail, which zs before the testimony, Aaron
and his sons shall arrange it from evening to morn-
ing before the Lord: 7 shall be a statute for ever to your
generations, on the part of the children of Israel.
1 Engl. Vers.—Tabernacle of the Congregation.
that the other half was likewise partly was with a fourfold covering, it seems to
visible by the meshes of the net-work: the have been customary in the service of
statement, that those hangings were of the temple, that one light at least was
twined linen precludes that conception always burning (see ibid.; compare, how-
(see p. 374). ever, 1 Sam. iii. 3); although the word
20, 21. About the “ pure beaten olive- perpetual, if added to sacrifices or other
oil,” to be used for the candelabrum, see sacred functions, means merely such as
p. 370. The light was to burn from recur regularly and at appointed times
evening to morning (xxx. 8), and a quan- (Num, iv. 16, etc.). =Inthe * tent of meet-
tity of oil sufficient for this purpose (ac- ing,” or the “tent of appointment” (not
cording to tradition, half a log) was, in the “tabernacle of the congregation’),
the evening, to be put into the lamps. God promises to meet Moses and Aaron,
But, in order to make it literally “a per- through His revelations; it was not di-
petual light,” and because no sky-light rectly a place of assembly for the people
fell into the structure, surrounded as it (see p.377; compare xxv. 22; xxix. 42).

CHAPTER XXVIII.
Summary.—Aaron and his sons are appointed priests, and their official garments
described; namely, for the common priests: 1. the tesselated tunic; 2. the drawers;
3. the girdle; 4. the turban; to which were added, for the High-priest: 5. the
robe; 6. the ephod; 7. the breast-plate, with the Urim and Thummim; and, 8,
the mitre, with the golden plate. The priests are commanded never to perform
the service without any of these preseribed garments; and punishment of death is
threatened to him who trespasses this command.

| ‎‫ כו‬bring 'thou near to thee Aaron thy brother,

and his sons with him from among the childeen
of Israel, 0 initiate him to my service, namely,
! Engl. Vers.—Take thou. ? That he may minister unto me in the priest’s office.
1. The Israelites had been selected by be His peculiar people (xix.5; compare
God among all the nations of the earth to Hos. iv. 6); God has brought them to

aad
 ‫ל‬ /

398 EXODUS XXVIUL

Aaron, Nadab and Abihu, Elazar and Ithamar, Aaron’s
sons. 2. And thou shalt make holy garments for Aaron
thy brother, for glory and ‘distinction. 3. And thou
shalt speak to 5811 who have a wise heart, which I have
‫ ו‬Engl. Vers.—Beauty.‫‏‬ ? All that are wise-hearted, which I have filled.

Himself (ver. 4), whereas before they ance recalled forcibly the centre and
were as distant from Him as all the idol- kernel of the Mosaic doctrines; his office
worshippers; He destined them to be a symbolized the internal relation between
holy people, a kingdom of priests (ver. 6); God and Israel, the duties of the indi-
all the laws and institutions which He vidual, and the great historical mission
ordained tended only to prepare them for of the nation. Hence the minuteness is
this vocation, to realize this promise. explicable with which the official robes of
What the Israelites were among the the priests are ordered and described;
nations, were the Levites among 6 they were intended to represent sublime
tribes of the Hebrews. God calls Israel and important ideas; they were auxiliary
His first-born son; and the Levites re- means for impressing upon the people
present, in Israel, the first-born sons the vocation of Israel; they can, there-
(note on xili,2). Israel is the host, the fore, not be insignificant, accidental, or
army, the champion of God; and in arbitrary; we are not only entitled, but
Israel again, the Levites are His troops, compelled, to search after the ideas em-
who fight His battles (xxxii. 28; Deut. bodied in the garments; and we reject at
Xxx. 8--11, etc.). But, among the once and entirely the views of those who
Levites, the family of Aaron is singled see, in the complicated priestly dress,
out for the immediate servants of God; nothing but an aggregate of unconnected
the other branches of this tribe are only pieces, without meaning or ulterior aim,
the ministers, the menials of the Aaron- only calculated to enhance the pomp of
ites; the latter alone represent Israel as the priests, and thus to awe by external
a kingdom of priests; they are more splendour the impressible senses of the
properly the connecting link between multitude. — About the sons of Aaron,
God and Israel; and, therefore, our verse see vi. 23, where they are enumerated in
uses, with regard to Aaron and his sons, the same order as in our verse. 1
the same significant idea of bringing 2. The garments of Aaron are called
near, with which the election of Israel holy, because they were necessarily worn
as the peculiar people was designated during the performance of his official
(chap. xix.; compare Lev. vii.35; x. 3); functions; they were as indispensable for |
and as there the separation took place the priests as the priests were indispen-
“from all the nations,” so here, “from sable for the Tabernacle; and everything
the midst of Israel,’ which, though con- is holy which stands in connection with
secrated in its totality, requires mediators the sacred habitation of God. If, there-
exclusively and entirely devoted to sanc- fore, the Tabernacle has any meaning
tification and religious service. And in beyond a mere tent of boards and cur-
order to give to this idea 01 priestly tains, the priestly robes must be drawn -
sanctity the most concrete shape of which into the same circle of ideas. But these
it is capable, God distinguished and robes are further intended to be “for
separated among the Aaronites again one glory and for beauty;” they are the ex-
individual, the High-priest, who united ternal marks of distinction; they mani- —
in his person, and represented in a strik- fest him who wears them as conspicuous
ing manner, the whole sum of the theo- in dignity and holiness; they represent —
cratical truths; he was the head of the his elevation and his important spiritual |
state, its spiritual king ; his mere appear- privileges,
 EXODUS XXVIII. 399

filled with the spirit of wisdom, that they make Aaron’s

garments to consecrate him, and to initiate him to my
service. 4. And these are the garments which they shall
make: a breast-plate, and an ephod, and a robe, and 8
% Engl. Vers—Embroidered coat.

3. Every faculty, every knowledge vice is entirely bound to the Tabernacle,

which man possesses, is a gift of God; which is the place of testimony and re-
without His assistance man is unable to velation.” But it is impossible to sympa-
attain either at moral perfection or intel- thize with this exposition; the priests are
lectual clearness; even the ability of the the representatives of the people rather
workman is a gracious present of the than of God; they bring the sentiments of
Lord, who “fills the heart with the spirit Israel before God, not the will of God
of wisdom,” In Biblical phraseology the before Israel; not to reveal, but to obey,
heart is considered as the seat of the is their office. If we are to seek any
mental powers, as well as of feeling; meaning in the number four, it is that of
“men of heart” are men of intelligence. completeness and entirety; the square is
Now, the artists and workmen are not closed from all sides, it is symmetrical
filled with that divine spirit for the and whole; and thus the fourfold parts
special purpose of preparing the priestly of the priestly dress may point to its
robes, but Moses is ordered to invite all perfection and completeness; the priest
those who feel in themselves the ability, is entirely clothed in holiness ; all worldly
to assist in this holy work. meditations, all profane feelings are
4. In the summary of this chapter we banished, and the mind and the heart are
have enumerated the eight parts of the exclusively directed to God and to sanc-
priestly dress. Now, it is at least remark- tity. Hence are explicable phrases like:
able, that the robes of the common priest “he clothed himself with cursing like with
consisted of four parts, but those of the his garment” (Psalm cix. 18); or, “ he
High-priest of twice four, and that the put on the garments of vengeance for
latter, on the Day of Atonement, when clothing, and was clad with zeal as a
he performed the most important acts of cloke (Isa. lix. 17).”
his office, changed four pieces for four The first of the priestly garments is the
others. It 18 a matter of course, that the Tunic. It was probably worn above the
different commentators apply to the gar- shirt, was a long close robe, without
ments of the priests the same principles folds, covering the whole body, and reach-
of symbolical explanation which they ing down to the feet, with sleeves; it was
endeavoured to demonstrate in the Holy of linen, and formed, no doubt, one whole,
Tabernacle, and we meet here, indeed, with an aperture at the upper part for the
with the same variety of. opinions, the neck; it was woven (xxxix. 27), and,
same sagacity and learning, and the same probably, as one entire piece, without the
artificiality and futility. We find the application of a needle; for this art of
cosmical, rabbinical, typical and modern weaving whole garments was perfectly
negative conception; and Baehr has con- familiar to different ancient nations, and
tinued his eloquent argumentations, is, by Josephus, alluded to with regard
although, on the whole, his results are to another part of the priestly dress,
here by far happier than in his theory on It is generally qualified by an epithet,
the Tabernacle (see, however, infra). But which means, most likely, tessellated, so
the number four typifies to him divine that the forms of squares were interwoven
revelation, and their garments show, in the garment; the sexagonal form,
therefore, that they are “ the living instru- which Maimonides supposes, like the
ments of revelation,” because “ their ser- cells of the ruminating beasts, is by no
 400 EXODUS XXVIII.
tesselated tunic, a mitre and a girdle; and they shall
make holy garments for Aaron thy brother and his sons,

means plausible. The purpose and meaning According to tradition, the girdle was
of this vestment is self-evident; it is of a three fingers wide, and thirty-two cubits
white colour, which typifies purity; it is long. At present, Oriental girdles are
of fine linen or byssus, which is the about half a foot wide, and are still, as
emblem of religious sanctity; it is entire, they were formerly, often an article of
to represent the priest as entirely clothed great luxury, covered with jewels and
in purity and sanctity; it has the square costly embroidery. It served frequently
ornaments interwoven which point again as a receptacle of the sword, writing-
to the completeness of this garment, materials, and the purse. So im-
which is undoubtedly the most important portant, and so specific a sign of the
part of the priestly dress. Baehr calls it clerical office was the girdle considered,
the “garment of salvation, of righteous- that, in later times, the priests were not
ness, of peace, of life, of heavenly light,” permitted to wear it during their ordinary
and he arrives at these significations by occupations, whilst this permission was
the same specious deductions of which granted them with regard to all other’
we have already given sufficient speci- parts of the sacred dress.
mens, 11]. The third part of the priestly
II. Over the tunic the GrrpLe garments is generally called BREECHES,
was tied. Although the girdle formed which is, however, scarcely an adequate
an indispensable part of the Oriental rendering of the Hebrew term used for it;
dress (see note on xii. 11), it is more it is explained in the text as a garment
especially the symbol of readiness, of “to cover the flesh of nakedness” (ver.
office, and of appointment to some duties 42), or simply, “to be on the flesh’
(Isaiah xxii. 21, etc.); and as the tunic (Lev. xvi. 4); they are further described
of the priest was close and without to reach “from the loins to the thighs”;
folds, it was scarcely required to fasten and Josephus speaks of them in the
it; and this is another reason which justi- folowing manner: “It is a girdle com-
fies us in assigning to the girdle a more posed of fine twined linen, and is put
internal meaning. It was manufactured of about the privy parts; the feet are inserted 0
+7 ay
2-0

linen, with blue and red-and crimson, and into them, in the manner of breeches;
was embroidered with figures, quite like but above half of it.is cut off, and it
the vail of the Court and Sanctuary, and it ends at the thighs, and is there tied fast”
is thus sufficiently marked and charac- (Antiq. 111. vii.1). The Rabbins assert ae
al
terized as belonging to the holy service. that they reached to the knees, and were
Josephus (loc. cit.) remarks: “The be- above the flanks fastened by ribbons.
ginning of its circumvolution is at the From all this it is evident, that the
breast; and when it has gone often round, drawers were rather a vesture intended
it is there tied, and hangs loosely thence to cover the pudenda, than breeches
“down to the ancles: I mean this, all the made for the whole lower part of
time the priest is not engaged in any the body. Breeches were, indeed, un-
laborious service, for in this position it necessary for the priests; for 1. the
appears in the most agreeable manner to close tunic prevented every possibility
the spectators; but when he is obliged to of accidental indecency, which was
assist at offering sacrifices, and to do the still more precluded 2. by the law, that
appointed service, that he may not be no steps should lead up to the altar
hindered in his operations by its motion, (xx. 26; see note there); and hence it is
he throws it to the left, and bears it on also obvious, that the drawers were more
his shoulder” (compare Ezek. xliy. 18). a symbol than a garment, But this
 EXODUS XXVIII. 401

to initiate him to my office. 5. And they shall take 'the

gold, and the blue, and the red, and the crimson, and the
1 Engl. Vers.—Gold, and blue, and purple, and scarlet.
ec.

typical meaning offers itself sponta- and hides the seams of the swathes, which
neously by the consideration, that the would otherwise appear indecently; this
ss
flesh is the emblem, not only of adheres close upon the solid part of the
frailty and weakness, but of sensuality, head, and is thereto so firmly fixed, that
of sin, and of worldly wishes; and the it may not fall off during the sacred
priest, in wearing the drawers over service of the sacrifices” (Antiq. III.
the pudenda, which are preeminently vii. 3). Whatever may be judged of |
the seat of carnal desires, was to be this description of Josephus in general,
reminded of his spiritual duties, of sanc- it is obvious that he, in some respects at
tity and piety of life. Thus this part of least, confounds the head-covering of the
|
uv the garments is in harmony with the ordinary priests with that of the High-
significance of the whole priestly attire. priest; and this is a proof, how cautious we
IV. To complete the dress of the ought to beinfollowing Josephus, although
common priest a covering for the head himself a priest, in the description of the
was necessary, and this is called Tur- sacred garments, which might, in his
BAN. It was likewise of byssus, the time, have been considerably modified.
usual material of the sacred dress; and Very characteristic for the meaning
as the head is the seat of reflection, it of the head-covering is further the
was especially required to show that it additional ornament on the tiara of
was likewise consecrated; the thoughts the High-priest. A plate of gold fre-
of the priests were to be hallowed, and quently called crown, according to tra-
‘all their ideas directed to the fountain of dition two fingers wide, and probably
truth. Therefore the priests were ex- only reaching from one temple to the
pressly forbidden to uncover their heads other, was by means of a blue ribbon
(Ley. x. 6), for then one essential part of fastened on the mitre, but probably so
their holiness would have been wanting. that it was partly (but not entirely) on
In fact, the Orientals seem to have given the forehead; on it the most sig-
to the covering of the head especially nificant words were engraven: Ho :i-
most significant shapes, many of which NESS TO THE LorD, that is, he who
are still preserved on Egyptian monu- wears it is entirely devoted to God,
ments ; even in Isaiah lix. 17, ‘‘a helmet and it is his mission to elevate the
of help” is mentioned. The form of the people to the same sanctity. The fore-
turban is uncertain; we are only informed head is not only considered the mark of
that it was fastened to the head by intelligence, but is also the most con-
means of ribbons, to prevent its falling spicuous part of the head; there the
off (xxix. 9; Ley. viii. 13). Josephus High-priest, who was himself the im-
describes it thus: “ Upon the head he personification of the holy people, of the
Wears a cap, not of a conical form, kingdom of priests, wore the diadem—the
nor encircling the whole head, but still emblem of royalty—with that inscription,
covering more than half of it; it is which condensed in a few momentous
called Masnaemphthes, and its make words the whole end, the complete sum of
is such that it seems to be a crown, the revealed religion. The plate of the mitre
being made of thick swathes, but is, therefore, the culminating point of the
the contexture is of linen; and it is whole pontifical attire; it mirrors forth,
doubled round many times, and sewed both in its form, and its material, and in
together: besides which, a piece of fine the majestic words inscribed on it, the
‘linen covers the whole cap from the upper grand task of the High-priest, and through
part, and reaches down to the forehead, him of the Hebrew nation; and the
BD

1 ae
9%
--
 ec

402 EXODUS XXVIII.

fine linen.—6. And they shall make the ‫עסק‬‎ of gold,
blue, and red, crimson, and fine twined linen, of the work
of the skilful weaver. 7. It shall have two shoulder-
pieces joined at the two ends thereof, and so it shall be
joined together. 8. And the 'band of the ephod, which is
upon it, shall be of the same workmanship, and of the
same prece ; of gold, blue, and red, and crimson, and fine
twined linen. 9. And thou shalt take two onyx-stones,
1 Engl. Vers.—Curious girdle.

original meaning of the Hebrew word, he takes off the shoes; if he approaches
“shining or splendour” is, at the same it with shoes, it would virtually be a
time, intended to single out this orna- declaration that he does not think it
ment as that which is the brightest, the clean. However, this argument seems
most striking of the High-priest’s vesture. too artificial to be attributed to the un-
These are the garments of the common sophisticated minds of the ancient nations;
priests. We have already remarked on and it is not in accordance with iii. 5, or
iii. 5, that it was an almost universal Josh. v.15. Being unshod was obviously
practice, except, perhaps, among the considered a mark of humility and con-
Egyptians, not to enter holy places with trition; and hence mourners took off their
covered feet, much less to perform in the sandals (2 Sam. xv. 30; see p.34; Ezek.
temples or sanctuaries sacred functions. xxiv. 17, 23).—In the following verses, we
Both this fact, and the silence of the text, shall explain the specific garments of the
justify the supposition, that the Hebrew High-priest, except the mitre; which we
priests were also commanded to minister were, by its close connection with the
in the Tabernacle unshod; a fact which is turban, obliged to anticipate in the pre-
unanimously confirmed by tradition. ceding notes.
And this circumstance alone suffices to 5. The workmen shall themselves re-
refute the assumption of many modern ceive the costly materials directly from the
critics, that the sacred vestures were only hands of the people; unlimited confidence
intended to produce, by their costilness, was rested in their integrity, for they were
a dazzling effect; for it is well known men filled with the “spirit of wisdom,”
what degree of luxury was, by the or, which is identical with it, penetrated
Orientals, lavished on the adornment of “with the fear of God.” Sot
SU
their shoes and sandals; and a legislator, 6—13. V. Tue Epnop includes
whose only end was pomp, would not many characteristic points of the ponti-
have omitted to avail himself of that fical attire, and thereby manifests the
means to increase it. To the reasons internal character of the High-priest’s —
adduced in the note on iii.5, for that office. 1. It was made of the work
far-spread custom, we add one of Baehr, of the skilful weaver (see p. 390);
which is more plausible at first glance, and is thus, at once, discernible as
than on a more accurate examination. appertaining to the Holy of Holies, the
He believes, that, because shoes are in- vail of which was of the same distin-
tended to protect the feet from unclean- guished workmanship. The High-priest
ness, they seem to suppose that the per- alone was allowed to enter into the imme- _
son who wears them stands on an unclean diate presence of the Ark of the Testi-
place; and if he wishes, therefore, to in- mony; to the representative of the theo- _
timate that he considers it pure or holy, cratical community alone could the privi-
and that he cannot defile himself on it, lege be granted of communing with the
1ּ |4
. |

3.
|
 EXODUS XXVIII. 403

and thou shalt engrave on them the names of the children

of Israel. 10. Six of their names on the one stone, and
the remaining six names on the second stone, according to
their birth. 11. With the work of the engraver in stone,
0
like the engravings of a signet, shalt thou engrave the two
stones, according to the names of the children of Israel;
thou shalt make them set in sockets of gold. 12. And
an

thou shalt put the two stones upon the shoulders of the
ephod for stones of memorial to the children of Israel;
invisible King. A threefold climax in stood before God. The significance of
the workmanship is here obvious; the this arrangement is self-evident. The
tunic was simply the work of the weaver; High-priest represented Israel before
the girdle was the work of the embroi- God; the stones were, therefore, for the
derer; whilst the ephod was prepared with people, who saw them and their names
the highest kind of texture. The Cherubim engraved on them, a memorial that the
were not interwoven in the ephod, be- High-priest officiated in their name; that
cause they would have had no meaning he interceded in their fayour; that he
in the garments of an official who did strove to expiate their sins and to recon-
not represent the nearness of God, but cile them with their Creator, from whom
who was only to prepare the people for it. they had swerved by their transgressions.
But, 2. Besides the materials used for the The stones with the names on them were,
vail of the Holy of Holies, gold threads therefore, for every individual an earnest
were applied in the ephod, which, like admonition to render himself, by repent-
the golden plate on the mitre, point to ance and atonement, worthy of that re-
the sovereignty of the High-priest, who conciliation; for the prayers and the
was the spiritual king of the nation; for sacrifices of the High-priest are effica-
gold is generally the emblem of regal cious only in so far as the people itself
"power. The garments of the High- shows a craving after the restoration of
priest in general are called the “golden that blissful harmony.—Less appropriate
garments”; and, indeed, no part of are the explanations, that the stones are
them was without this metal <A a memorial to recall to God the memory
shield of similar workmanship is de- of the piety of Israel and of the merits of
scribed by Herodotus iii. 47; it was pre- the patriarchs; or that they are to re-
sented to the Lacedaemonians by the mind Aaron, that he stands before God
Egyptian king, Amasis. The ephod had in the name of the twelve tribes; this
no sleeves, and was to consist of two latter conviction was incessantly im-
parts, called “ shoulder-pieces,” one of pressed upon Aaron’s mind by the whole
which covered the back, the other the nature of his office, and by the character
breast and the upper part of the body. of his functions.
There, where they were united on the The “shoulder” is a natural symbol of
shoulders, two, probably square, onyx- eminence and elevation; that which is
stones, set in gold, were to be fixed, worn on the shoulders is conspicuous,
on which the names of the twelve obvious to all; therefore the holy vessels
tribes of Israel were to be engraved, were, during the journeys of the Israelites,
six on each stone, according to the carried on the shoulders. Now the
age; and the High-priest was to wear whole ephod was only intended as a
these stones as “stones of memorial” garment for the two onyx stones with
for the children of Israel, when he the names of the twelve tribes, just
‫ םס ל‬2
 ( =

AOA EXODUS XXVIIL

and Aaron shall bear their names before the Lord upon
‫חש‬

his two shoulders for a memorial.—13. And thou shalt

make sockets of gold; 14. And two chains 'of pure gold
1 Engl. Vers.—At the ends; of wreathen-work.

as the ark was only made in order to re- There were also two sardonyxes upon the ~
ceive the Tables of the Law, or the shew- ephod, at the shoulders, to fasten it, in —
bread table for the shew-bread; the whole the nature of buttons, having each end
end and tendency of the ephod is com- running to the sardonyxes of gold that —
prised in the concluding words: “and they might be buttoned by them. On
Aaron shall bear their names before the these were engraven the names of the
Lord, upon his two shoulders for a me- sons of Jacob, in the letters of our own
morial” (ver. 12); and as those stones country, and in our own tongue, six on
and the names were to remind Israel of each of the stones, on either side, and
the duties of self-examination and re- the elder sons’ names were on the right —
pentance, they were appropriately worn shoulder” [compare Talmud, Sot. 36;
on the shoulders, where they were promi- Rashi, on ver. 10]. In these statements
nently visible to all. It requires, at two points seem to disagree with the
present, scarcely any proof to show the description of the text: a. The ephod had | ְּ|
great antiquity of the art of engraving. certainly no sleeves; those of the tunic
That it was familiar to the ancient alone, which were of the characteristic —
Indians, Ethiopians, and Egyptians, is priestly material, fine linen, and contained
indubitable; both in seals and in rings the significant squares in their texture,
figures and words were engraved; and covered the arms of the High-priest; and, =
several specimens have been discovered b. It is improbable that the ephod left a
dating from very remote periods (Gen. void in the middle of the breast, to in- —
‎‫ טאאא‬18; xli.42), Equally popular sert there the breast-plate, as Josephus
and ancient is the art of setting precious continues; for thereby the ephod would =
stones (ver. 11); and many articles of gold, not only have lost its wholeness, which it
inlaid with jewels, have been found in was intended to preserve, even by weay-
Egypt. About onyx-stone, see infra, ing the girdle on it, but the breast- |
p- 538. plate could scarcely be called, with pro-
4. The ephod, in order to remain close priety, the “breastplate of the ephod”? — i
to the body, required a girdle, and it is if its place was not on the ephod
commanded that this girdle shall be of itself. We will not omit to add what the 1
the same costly materials as the ephod same writer remarks on the use and effi-
itself, and that it shall form one whole cacy of the two onyxes of the ephod: — 4
with it, or that it shall be woven out “ As to those stones which the High-priest =
of the same piece (ver. 8); we must, bore on his shoulders....the one of them
therefore, assume, that a band was an- shone when God was present at their — /
nexed on either ride of the ephod, sacrifices; I mean that which was in the |
probably more on the lower part.— nature of a button on his right shoulder,
Josephus describes the ephod thus: “ It bright rays darting out thence, and being _
resembles the Epomis of the Greeks. It seen even by those who were very remote,
was made in the following manner: it which splendour yet was not before
was woven to the depth of a cubit, of natural to the stone. This has appeared |
several colours, with gold intermixed, but a wonderful thing to those who have not
embroidered; but it left the middle of the so far indulged themselves in philosophy
breast uncovered; it was made with as to despise Divine Revelation.” Jose-
sleeves also; nor did it appear to be at phus mentions a similar miraculous in-
all differently made from a short coat. tervention with respect to the Urim and
 EXODUS XXVIII.

shalt thou make of wreathen work, twisted in the manner

of ropes, and thou shalt put the wreathen chains into the
sockets. —15. And thou shalt make the BREASTPLATE ‫סע‬‎
1 Engl. Vers.—Of judgment.

Thummim, which we shall notice in due the breast-plate through those of the
place; but he confesses that he has never ephod, so that the former was tied to
himself witnessed that wonder, “for,” the latter, and a moving from its place
says he, “that supernatural shining was impossible. ‘Thus, it is unquestion-
ceased two hundred years before I com- able, that the ephod and the breast-plate
posed this book [that is, since John Hyr- were intended to form one whole, which
canus], God having been displeased at unity is symbolized by the wreathen,
the transgression of His laws” (Antiq. rope-like chains of gold, whilst the latter
111. viii. 9).—It is known, that. later the four rings, with the blue ribbon, were
common priests also wore ephods, but necessarily required if both vestures
they were merely of linen, (1 Sam. ii. 18; should in all parts be equally close to
xxii. 18; 2 Sam. vi. 14), each other. But it would be artificial to
414—30. VI. Tue BreAst-PLaTEe seek in this unity a hidden typical mean-
which was of the same skilful work ing, as, for instance, Baehr has endea-
as the ephod (ver. 15), and of the same voured to discover. He believes, that the
costly materials, is the uppermost of the ephod and breast-plate together represent
pontifical garments, and must, there- the royalty of the High-priest, but so that
fore, necessarily be smaller than the the former is an emblem of government,
ephod, which it was intended to cover the latter of jurisdiction, which two func-
only on one part, namely, “on 6 tions were, in ancient monarchies, united
heart” (vers. 29, 30). Its dimensions are in the person of the sovereign. However,
stated at one span (half a cubit) in the sacred text urges, with regard to the
length, and one span in breadth; but Tabernacle, more than once, that it
as it was to be doubled and square, should be considered as one, or, as a
(ver. 16), it was, in fact, two spans long, whole, which implies the idea that no
and one span wide, half of the length part is superfluous or unmeaning. The
being turned back, so that it had the connection of the ephod and breast-plate
form of a bag open everywhere ex- recall the same notion; the pontifical
cept at the nether side. In order to join attire was to be viewed as one, as serving
the two parts at the upper side, two rings to illustrate, in all its parts, the same
were fixed at the two ends (ver. 28). principles and truths which were the end
But these rings served at the same time, of the whole priestdom and its official
to fasten the breast-plate to the ephod; duties; and that unity was appropriately
for two chains of wreathen work, or, indicated by the open and striking con-
more distinctly, twisted of gold-threads nection of the two uppermost parts of the
in the manner of ropes, were put into vesture,
them, and then passed into the ouches But, as the distinguishing characteristic
or sockets of the two onyx-stones on of the breast-plate, it is commanded that
the shoulders of the ephod (vers. 24, twelve precious stones, in four equal rows,
25); and, in order to prevent every were to be set on it, and that on each
loosing of the breast-plate, two other stone the name of one of the twelve tribes
rings were fixed under it over the of Israel should be engraven. Nothing
border (ver. 26), and two more on the represents both the origin and destiny of
ephod near the places whence the girdle man in a more striking and more beauti-
issued (ver. 27); and then a ribbon of ful manner than precious stones carefully
blue was passed from the rings of worked out. Like the jewel, man is a
 mee EXODUS XXVIII
DECISION with the work of the skilful weaver, like the work
of the ephod shalt thou make it; of gold, blue, and red,
and crimson, and fine twined linen, shalt thou make it.
16. It shall be square and doubled; one span shall be its
length, and one span its breadth. 17. And thou shalt set —
in it settings of stones, four rows of stones: the row of =

child of the earth; but as this earthly placed first, has, in our opinion, the
frame encloses the breath of God and an greatest relative probability.
eternal soul, it is a precious treasure in I.—Tue First Row.
the eyes of God (Ps. cxvi. 15); He values 1. 0. .‫תאמזוגא‬‎ The etymology faci-
man as bearing His image, and His in- litates the identification of this gem; for
delible impress. But it is the aim of its Hebrew name is odem, which is derived
man to train himself from a creature of from a rootsignifying “tobe red;” and the
the earth into a denizen of heaven, to interpretations of the Septuagint,Josephus, |
commute the gloom and heaviness inhe- and Vulgate, by “sardius,” lead, likewise, |
rent in matter into the aerial brightness to a gem of that colour. For the sardius,
which is the essence of the spirits; and which received this name because it was =
the smiling splendour of the precious first discovered in Sardis, although the
stones, which are, like him, taken from sardius of Arabia and Babylon was of —
the same dark womb of the common superior quality, is nearly related to the =-
=
mother, symbolize to him that internal carnelian, to which this designation was =
regeneration, that ascending from earth given because its colour is similar to that
to heaven, from impurity to purity, from ofraw flesh; but, when held betweentheeye |
worldliness to sanctity, which is the in- and the light, it appears of a deep 21000-
nermost tendency of the Mosaic dispen- red; and its value depended on the de-
sation. But, further, the jewels are, gree of vividness which its red colour |
among all ancient nations, regarded as displayed. It is a variety of chalcedony,
the foci of light, as the eyes of the earth; and belongs, therefore, to the flint family,
they are the emblems of the stars, which It possesses a considerable degree of hard-
they rival in splendour; their brilliancy ness, but is capable of being polished and |
recalls the brightness of heaven; and if cut; and the ancients engraved more
the names of the tribes were engraven frequently on it than, perhaps, on any
on twelve stones, the hosts of Israel were other stone. A fine dark-red carnelian,
‫ורש‬
‫ה‬n
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reminded to strive after the light and the called El-Akik, is found in Yemen, near
-—

purity of the heavenly hosts.—If, therefore, the town Damar; it is much worn by
the precious stones on the breast-plate the Arabians as an ornament, on the
were deeply significant we may conclude fingers, arms, or on the girdle; and it is”
that the individual jewels for the different believed to stop the flux of blood, if ©
tribes had also a specific meaning. The applied to a fresh wound. And here we
more must we deplore the great uncer- may remark, that, in the opinion of ‫א‬
‫שש‬
‫א‬
=‫ל‬

tainty which prevails with regard to the Ebn Ezra, every gem used for the breast-
identity of those gems. The ancient plate possesses some hidden virtue for
translators and commentators already healing a disease, either of the body or
differ widely in rendering and explaining of the soul. Excellent specimens of car=
them; and the kindred dialects offer, just nelian are also found in Surat, a con-
in this instance, very little assistance. siderable town near the gulf of Cambay,
We have here endeavoured to compile a in the north-western shores of India
concise survey of the different conjectures . Those discovered in Hindostan are first
proposed; that meaning which we have exposed to the sun for several weeks,
 EXODUS XXVIII. 407

‘carnelian, topaz, and *smaragd, shall be the first row.

18. And the second row shall be *carbuncle, sapphire, and
4emerald. 19. And the third row, ligure, agate, and
amethyst. 20. And the fourth row, "0227801166, and onyx,
and jasper: they shall be mounted with gold in their
‫ ו‬Engl.Vers—Sardius. ?| Carbuncle.‫‏‬ 3 Emerald. 4 Diamond. 5 Beryl.

then heated in earthen pots, and thus the ruby, the garnet, spinel, and chiefly
they assume that lively red colour to the Almandin, that is, the noble Oriental /
which they owe their Hebrew name.— garnet, which is transparent, red, with a
Others translate, less probably, carbuncle, violet shade, and a strong vitreous lustre.
or garnet. The carbuncle is usually found pure, of
2. Topaz, is, on account of its fre- an angular shape, and adhering to a
quency in Ethiopia, also called the heavy ferruginous stone of the emery kind.
topaz of Cush in Job xxvii.. 19, from 5. SAPPHIRE; see note on xxiv.
which passage it is evident how highly 10. The principal colour is blue, gene-
the Hebrews prized it. It has its name rally with a double refraction; some
(pitdah) probably, from the root pita, which sapphires give forth a starry lustre with
signifies, in Sanscrit, pale. For the topaz six rays on two opposite corners; they
is generally pale and yellowish, some- are called star-sapphires, and are con-
times quite colourless, but not unfre- sidered peculiarly precious,
quently greenish. Its dark shade passes 6. EMERALD. ‘The etymology (from
sometimes over into carnation red, some- halam, to beat, 50 strike) leads
times into lilac; whilst the pale shade passes us to suppose a hard stone. The
into greyish, tincal, and celadon green. emerald, which is of a green colour, of
It is found in alluvial strata, and occurs various depths is nearly as hard as the
in rhombic prisms. According to some topaz, and stands next to the ruby in
aucient, mostly fabulous, accounts, it was value. It is found in Peru and India.
especially obtained in the small island The Septuagint and Josephus understand
| Topazos, in the Red Sea. It has been onyx; others, with still less probability,
asserted that, the topaz of the ancients is jasper, which is unquestionably the last
our chrysolite; but it is, in all probability, of the twelve stones on the High-priest’s
identical with our gem of the same name. breast-plate ; others, diamond; but it is
2. Smaracp. According to its He- more than doubtful whether the art of
brew derivation (bareketh) it denotes engraving on it was known to the an-
a stone of a bright coruscant colour. cients, who did not even understand how
It is a sort of precious corundum, of to cut the ruby.
strong glass-lustre, a beautiful green co- 11. Tue Turrp Row.
lour, with many degrees of shade; it is 7. Ligure, So called because it was
pellucid, and causes a double refraction. first imported from Liguria, in northern
Pliny enumerates twelve species of this Italy, is a variety of the hyacinth,
stone, It is not rare in Egypt. which, like all minerals belonging to the
IL.—Tue Sreconp Row. family of Zircon, occurs in square prisms
4. CarpuncLte. It is of a deep with pyramidal terminations. That the
red colour, with a mixture of scarlet. ligure is identical with the hyacinth is
That name comprises several shining also confirmed by Epiphanius. It is
stones, of the flint family, which, espe- transparent, red passing into yellow,
cially if held up to the sun, lose their quartzy, vitreous, harder than smaragd,
deep tinge and assume entirely the colour and loses its colour in the fire. Some-
of a burning coal; to this class belong times it is brownish and green.
 408 EXODUS XXVIII.
settings. 21. And the stones shall be ‘according
to the
names of the children of Israel, twelve; according to their
names, like the engravings of a signet; every one accord-
ing to its name shall there be, for the twelve tribes.
22. And thou shalt make on the breast-plate chains of
wreathen work, twisted in the manner of ropes, of pure
gold. 23. And thou shalt make upon the breast-plate
two rings of gold, and shalt put the two rings upon the
two ends of the breast-plate. 24. And thou shalt put the
two wreathen chains of gold in the two rings which are on
the ends of the breast-plate. 25. And the other two ends of
1 Engl. Vers.x—With.

8. AGATE is said to have been first who wore it, whilst the Greek name
discovered on the shores of the river was given to this stone from its sup-
Achates in Sicily, and hence to have posed efficiency in protecting the wearer
received its name. It stood, in ancient from intoxication; but Pliny mentions
times, in very high estimation, but the opinion, that it was so designated
gradually lost its value. It is a semi- because it imitates the colour of wine
pellucid, uncrystallized variety of quartz, without reaching it. The amethyst is
is found in parallel or concentric layers a sub-species of quartz; it is generally
of various colours, and presents different bluish violet of different degrees of in-
tints in the same specimen. The colours tensity, but those of the East are some-
are finely arranged in stripes or bands; times deep red. The ancients knew five
and hence we distingush fortification species, whilst, in modern times, two
agate, when those lines are in angular varieties are distinguished: the Oriental
shapes, and resemble the design of a and Occidental amethyst; the former is
fortification, the Scotch pebble belongs to by far harder and more precious than the
this species; and moss agate, when they latter. The best amethysts are found in
are in mossy threads. ‘The ancient artists, India, Arabia, and Armenia; they occur
who used the agate very frequently for generally in crystallized forms, in hexahe-
rings, seals, cups, and many other pur- dral prisms terminated by corresponding
poses, skilfully employed those natural pyramids. Pliny calls them “easy for
lines for the various figures which they sculpturing;” and they were, indeed, very
intended to represent. This was still extensively wrought into rings, seals,
more facilitated by the circumstance, and cameos,
that, in fact, the agate is generally a IV. Tur Fourts Row.
compound or mixed stone, consisting 10. Curysouitn. It owes its He-
of quartz, chalcedony, carnelian, flint, brew name, 70/82/87, to the circum-
Jasper, etc., so that mostly two sorts of
stance that it was first found in
stone are united in the agate; and hence Tartessus, that ancient city in Spain
it has very various colours, with very between the ‘two mouths of the river
different lines and spots, which form -Baetis (Guadalquivir). The Chrysolite
sometimes complete figures, is usually green, but with different
9. AmeTuyst. The Hebrew word is, degrees of shade; it is generally trans-
according to some expositors, derived
from chalam, to dream, because it was
parent, but often only translucent;
hardness it yields to quartz, but sur-
in ,
believed, that it caused dreams to those passes glass; it occurs sometimes in
‫ן‬
 EXODUS XXVIII. 409

the two wreathen chains thou shalt fasten in the two

sockets, and put them on the shoulder-pieces of the ephod
before it. 26. And thou shalt make two rings of gold,
and thou shalt put them upon the two ends of the breast-
plate in the border thereof, which zs in the side of the
ephod inward. 27. And thou shalt make two other rings
of gold, and thou shalt put them upon the two shoulder-
pieces of the ephod underneath, towards the forepart
thereof, over against its joining, above the band of the
ephod. 28. And they shall fasten the breast-plate by its
rings to the rings of the ephod with a ribbon of blue, that
zt may be above the band of the ephod, and that the
crystals, sometimes in round pieces, with black lines. It is frequently used
sometimes in small shapeless pieces. for ornaments.
Luther renders this gem turkois, a con- The same twelve stones are mentioned
jecture based only on the similarity with in xxxix. 10--18, and Rey. xxi. 19—20,
the Hebrew name; but it is certainly where they are named as the foundations
not amber, or topaz, as others have of the splendid pillars for the walls of the
proposed. new Jerusalem; and nine of them are
11. Onyx is so called because its introduced in Ezek. xxviii. 8, in the
color resembles that of the human flesh description of the splendour of the king
under the nails. It is a kind of chal- of Tyre (the gems of the third row are
cedony of different colours, with stripes omitted). It is still customary to make
horizontally arranged; and parallel layers, a sort of rings, studded with those twelve
used for making cameos. It was imported stones, which are called the stones of the
from the land of Havilah (Gen. ii. 12); twelve months, or of health—The order,
was considered of great value (Job xxviii. in which the stones with their respective
26), and formed an important article of names were arranged on the breast-plate,
commerce (Ezek. xxviii. 13). Josephus, was probably, as Josephus, Rashi, and
Aquila, Luther, and others render sard- others believe, according to the age of the
onyx, which is nearly kindred to the children of Jacob, as on the ephod (see
onux, but was, by the ancients, considered ver. 10); so that they followed each other
of peculiar value. The Septuagint in the in the following manner, the three stones
Pentateuch, the Syriac translation, the of each row being of course arranged
Targumim, Saadiah, and many modern from right to left:
critics render beryl, which is of a pale, I. 1. Carnelian (Reuben).
sea-green colour. But it is scarcely sap- 2 . Topaz (Simeon).
phire, or ruby, or smaragd. 3 . Smaragd (Lev?).
12. Jasper. The Oriental jasper is IL. 4 4. Carbuncle (Judah).
generally of a bright green colour; some- 5. Sapphire (Dan).
times clouded with white, or spotted with 6. Emerald (Naphthalt).
red or yellow; and was very highly Ill. 7 7. Ligure (Gad).
prized. It belongs to the quartz family, 8. Agate (Asher).
and is found in numerous varieties. The 9. Amethyst (Issachar).
Egyptian jasper, which is found loose in IV. 10. Chrysolite (Zebulun).
the sand, is brown, of various shades, 11. Onyx (Joseph).
disposed in concentric stripes, alternately 12. Jasper (Benjamin).
 (
410 EXODUS XXVIII.

breast-plate be not losed from the ephod. 29. And Aaron

shall bear the names of the children of Israel on the
breast-plate of decision upon his heart, when he goeth into
It is less probable, that the names 2. In ver. 17, it is enjoined, that
were arranged according to the mothers ‘settings of stones shall be set on the
(first the sons of Leah and Bilhah, and breast-plate.” It is clear, beyond a
then those of Silpah and Rachel), or in doubt, that these stones also formed
the order of the encampment (I. Judah, an ornament on the exterior surface of
Issachar, Zebulun; IL. Reuben, Simeon, the breast-plate. Scarcely any critic of
Gad; 111. Ephraim, Manasseh, Benja- note has asserted that the costly stones
min; IV. Dan, Asher, Naphthali), with the names of the tribes skilfully en-
30. THe Urim and THUMMIM.— graven on them were hidden between the
One of the obscurest subjects connected two halves of the breast-plate. Now, it is
with the holy service and the functions of very difficult to conceive what relative po-
the High-priest, is the nature of that part sition the Urim and Thummim, and the
of the breast-plate which our text calls gems, occupied on the breast-plate; the
Urim and Thummim. Almost innume- sacred text, which 18 so minute in describ-
rable are the conjectures hazarded on this ing even the very rings and ribbons, cannot
point, but we shall here, as it is our con- be supposed to be so markedly deficient in
stant principle in all cases, take the sacred a very essential and important point.
records as our only guide, fully convinced 3. We are, therefore, necessarily com-
that this is the only possible manner of pelled to consider the Urim and Thummim
arriving at a well-established conclusion. identical with the precious stones; and the
1. Our verse commands, to put on, or thirtieth verse is therefore a more speci-
to, the breast-plate, the Urim and Thum- fied qualification, or an epexegesis, to the
mim. It is necessary to observe, that seventeenth. That this is not against
the Hebrew text admits, quite unforcedly, the genius of the Biblical style requires
the interpretation, that the Urim and scarcely any proof. Our verse concludes
Thummim were externally fixed to the the whole and detailed description of the
breast-plate. The reason that it would breast-plate, and it is perfectly appropri-
have been improper to expose that holy ate that it should contain a brief summary
object to the public gaze and thus, as it of the preceding exposition. It is obvious
were to profane it, is untenable; for the that it is, in this respect, quite analogous
Holy was accessible to every priest; the to ver. 12, where the end and nature of
vail before the Holy of Holies contained the ephod are similarly comprised in a
the images of the sacred Cherubim in few characteristic words, In giving to
“the work of the skilful weaver,” that our verse this meaning, we do by no
is, so that they were visible on both sides; means attribute to the scriptural style
and thus every priest had permission and “every possible perversity,” as some
opportunity of seeing those mysterious critics have cried out, in an outburst of
symbols of the Divine presence. Why affected indignation, which they find it
should it be forbidden to behold the Urim convenient to parade in lieu of argu-
and Thummim of the High-priest? Were ments. In fact, our verse is not even
not those sublime words * Holiness to superfluous after the seventeenth. In the
the Lord,” conspicuously visible on the latter, the principal stress lies on the
plate of his mitre? and as the High- manner in which the stones were to be
priest wore his garments only in the prepared and arranged: they were to be
Tabernacle, and deposited them, after the set in four rows, ina certain fixed order,
performance of his functions, in a cell whilst, in our verse, it is prescribed that
appropriated for this purpose (Ezek. xliv. they were to be fastened on the breast-
19), how was a profanation possible? plate, that Aaron was to wear them on
 EXODUS XXVIII. 411

the holy place, for a memorial before the Lord continually.

30. And thou shalt put on the breast-plate of decision the
Urim anp THE Tuummim; and they shall be upon Aaron’s
his heart, and that they had a certain stituted (see note on xiii. 2); that Mosaism
significant relation with the people of created no hierarchy, but a genuine theo-
Israel. We could mention many passages cracy; that, in fact, the Mosaic legislation
in which the style is by far more irre- constitutes a religious democracy on the
gular; we refer only to xxv. 24, 25, where basis of perfect equality, and that, there-
the “ golden crown” is twice introduced, fore, a separate knowledge of one class was
in a manner, that many believed, that two utterly excluded (see note on xix. 6).
wreaths are prescribed for the shew-bread But what would have more seriously en-
table, although, in fact, one only was dangered this constitution, than if the
commanded; to vi. 10--80, and x. 28— people were placed ina blind dependance
xi. 8, where the arrangement of the ideas upon ecclesiastical arbitrariness in its
is so unusual that even orthodox com- most momentous situations? For
mentators suspected these passages to be 5. The end of the Urim and Thummim
a spurious aggregate of incoherent frag- was, that the High-priest should, by their
ments. But we have, in the notes on means, in critical and difficult questions
those passages, endeavoured to vindicate which concerned the whole nation, ex-
their authenticity. In Levit. viii. 8, plore and reveal the will of God; and the
where all the parts of the pontifical robes history of Israel offers several instances of
are enumerated, the Urim and Thummim this practice (Numb. xxvii. 21; 1 Sam.
alone are mentioned, not the precious XXvill. 6; compare Ezra ii. 63; Nehem.
stones; and this is a stronger proof of the vil. 65). From this circumstance the
identity of both than many are willing to Choshen was denominated “the breast-
admit (compare xxxix. 8—21). plate of decision;” and with this name
4. It would be strange indeed, that the it is introduced in the very beginning
sacred text should have left us in perfect of its description (in ver. 15). And this
ignorance concerning the character of the is another indirect reason for the iden-
Urim and Thummim, which, as we shall tity of the twelve stones with the Urim
presently see, were intended for a very and Thummim. Aaron was to wear the
remarkable purpose. It is generally decision of the children of Israel on his
averred, that that silence is intentional; heart (ver. 30); if the stones were dif-
that the nature and application of the ferent from this “decision” they could
Urim and Thummim belonged to the“mys- not have been omitted in this yerse; and
terious discipline,” which was, by secret yet, on the other hand, twelve of the most
and private tradition, propagated among precious jewels, individually selected
the Aaronites; and that it would have after a certain plan, with the names of the
been unbecoming if the sacred historian tribes engraved on them, are too signifi-
had revealed anything of this mystery. cant to be a mere unmeaning accessory.
But where, throughout the whole Mosaic Again, for what purpose could those
legislation, do we find an analogy to such stones be intended? The text answers:
mysterious concealment? It is the dis- “‘as a memorial before the Lord for
tinguishing mark of Mosaism, that the ever” (ver. 29). But is not the purpose
whole people, down to the lowest indivi- of the names on the two onyxes of the
dual, shared the same knowledge, and ephod perfectly the same (ver. 12)? And
was admitted to the same sources of in- where is there, in the whole circle of the
formation; that the priests had no exclu- sacred utensils and robes, any other in-
sive privilege whatever; that they were stance of such strange superfluity? It is
merely the representatives of the first- therefore evident, that the stones were
born sons, in whose stead they were sub- not merely gems with the names of the
 /
/

412 EXODUS XXVIII.

heart when he goeth in before the Lord; and Aaron shall
bear the decision of the children of Israel upon his heart
before the Lord continually. —31. And thou shalt make
children of Israel; they signified more; tion issues, but from Him who has chosen
they were the Urim and Thummim. the children of Jacob as His peculiar
6. If these were hidden in the breast- nation, And if we consider the end of the
plate, unseen by all Israelites, was it not Urim and Thummin, it will be obvious,
to be apprehended that the people might that “as a memorial” means here, that
connect with them superstitious notions? Aaron shall remember that the interests
What were those mysterious objects which of the whole of Israel are entrusted to his
had the power of manifesting the fates holiness and his enlightenment; not, as in
of Israel? And this danger must appear ver. 12, where “ for the children of Israel”is
the greater, if we consider that the Urim added, and where the names on the ephod
and Thummim have questionable analo- are described as a memorial for the Is-
gies among idolatrous nations. For, raelites, that the High-priest prepares
according to several ancient historians, himself to expiate their sins, but that this
the chief judge of the Egyptians wore, is impossible without their personal co-
during his official duties, a golden chain operation by atonement and contrition.
round his neck, to which a golden We are long accustomed to the practice
figure, representing the goddess of Truth, of Moses to retain ancient usages, but to
was suspended, studded with precious ennoble them by entirely divesting them
stones of various colours. It can, there- of the impurities of the soil from which
fore, scarcely be doubted, that the Urim they are grown. The phylacteries also
and Thummim of Moses have some his- were derived from primeval customs, but
torical relation with that Egyptian cus- their external form was filled with a new
tom; now, if they were mysteriously regenerating spirit.
concealed from the people, what would 8. But what is this new meaning, this
have been more natural than~ that internal spirit of the Urim and Thum-
they represented to themselves in their mim? This cannot be doubtful after the
imagination, similar figures to those preceding remarks. As they are iden-
which they had seen in Egypt, and that tical with the twelve gems, they must
thus their notions, spontaneously bent to have some reference to their symbolical
polytheistic aberrations, converted the meaning; and this is, as we have ob-
holiest symbols into the absurdest super- served, the purification and sanctification
stition? But, from the state of sin and worldliness,
7. On the other hand, that Egyptian The brilliancy of the precious stone is a
analogy derogates in no manner from the type of the shining splendour of the puri-
sanctity of the Urim and Thummim; fied soul, and of the celestial orbs. Now
there are several very decided differences. the Urim and Thummim are nothing else
a. The Urim and Thummim were not than this “perfect light or brilliancy’s;
consulted in the usual cases of jurisdic- they represent the absolute banishment
tion; they were only resorted to in extra- of terrestrial selfishness, the highest pos-
ordinary emergencies which had immedi- sible degree of self-denial. Therefore, a

ate reference to the destinies of the Aaron had to wear them on the heart
Hebrew theocracy, and, therefore, they (vers. 29, 30), the source of all desires,
consisted of twelve stones, according to of all mundane propensities; on the heart,
the number of the tribes. 5. They were which is “deceitful above everything
not regarded as possessing in themselves and malignant, which no man knows, and
any divine power; they were mere em- which God alone searches” (Jer. xvii. 9, ‫הד‬
‫לה‬
+
‫ההל>=ק‬
.
blems; they were worn only “as a memo- 10). Ifthe heart of the High- priest was
rial”; it is not from them that the inspira- purified, if he pursued no other interests
 EXODUS XXVIII. 413

the ROBE OF THE EPHOD all of blue. 32. And tits opening
for the head shall be in the midst thereof; it shall have
1 Engl. Vers.—There shall be an hole in the top of it, in the midst thereof.
than the welfare of his people, then only interference, the reply to the High-priest.
was he worthy and capable of becoming The latter idea has been still further de-
the medium through which Israel re- veloped by the Rabbins, who assert, that,
ceived advice and guidance in times of by means of the Urim, those letters which
trouble and uncertainty. And hence the belonged to the answer shone in peculiar
much-disputed question, in what manner fulgency, either simultaneously or succes-
the answers of the Urim and Thummim sively, whilst the Thummim taught the
were given, is easily to be decided. The High-priest in which order they were to be
High-priest was, by the sight of the gems, read and composed into words; and since
powerfully impressed with the grandeur the names of the twelve tribes do not
of his mission; his mind gaye itself up contain all the letters of the alphabet, it
entirely to the duties of his office; all is asserted, with no degree of probability,
earthly thoughts vanished before him; he that those of the patriarchs were added.
was raised to a prophetic vision, and in But they maintain, that this extraor-
this state of enthusiastic sanctity God dinary effect was produced on the stone
deigned to reveal to him His will and the by the Tetragrammaton, or two holy
fates of His people; and both the High- names of God, which were placed
priest and the people were convinced of in the cavity of the breast-plate, and
the truth of such inspirations. But there which filled the mind of the High-priest
is this difference between the High-priest with enraptured enthusiasm. However,
and the prophet, that the former has to against this acceptation, it has been
try to rise up to God by moral exertion, justly observed, that it attributes to the
whilst God descends to the latter spon- Tetragrammaton a magic power, than
taneously; the one is a servant, the other which nothing is more foreign to the
a messenger; and therefore the office of spirit of Mosaism, Philo also iden-
the High-priest is continuous, prophets tifies the two sides of the breast-plate
are only inspired in extraordinary times with the Urim and Thummim.—Spen-
and for special purposes. cer asserts, that the Urim are a kind
We shall now briefly adduce the prin- of figure or Teraphim, put into the
cipal other explanations of the Urim and Choshen, and that God or His angel
Thummim. Josephus writes: “God de- revealed through it to the High-priest
clared beforehand, by those twelve stones His will and the future events; whilst
which the High-priest bore on his breast, the Thummim were a mere symbol of
and which were inserted into his breast- the truthfulness of that revelation. It
plate, when they should be victorious in is scarcely necessary to observe, that this
battle; for so great a splendour shone strange opinion is explicable from Spencer’s
forth from them before the army began to bias to trace the Mosaic institutions to pa-
march, that all the people were sensible of gan prototypes, and, in this instance, to the
God’s being present for their assistance. accounts of Diodorus and Aelian concern-
Whence it came to pass, that those Greeks ing the figure of Truth which the Egyptian
who had a veneration for our laws, arch-judge wore, during his judicial func-
because they could not possibly contra- tions, round hisneck. It belongs to those
dict this, called that breast-plate the remarkable idiosyncrasies, not uncommon
oracle” (Antiq. ILI. viii. 9; compare even in great thinkers, that Hengstenberg,
VIIL iii. 8). It is evident from these the unflinching champion of the Mosaic
words, that Josephus considers the Urim institutions, perfectly coincides with Spen-
and Thummim identical with the twelve cer, as regards the borrowing of the He-
stones, which suggested, by miraculous brew Urim and Thummim from those

a
 <a

(oo
—

414 EXODUS XXVIII.

‘a border of woven work round about its opening, like the
opening of an armour, that it be not rent. 33. And thou
shalt make upon the hem of the robe pomegranates of
blue, and red, and crimson, upon its hem round about,
1 Engl. Vers.—A braiding.

Egyptian models; and that he thinks was worn immediately under it, and above
to settle the question by the para- the tunic; but it was longer than the
doxical remark: * The external resem- former and shorter than the latter; so
blance shows the internal difference only that no part of the sacred dress was
in a more striking manner.”—Michaelis, entirely covered, with the only exception
whom Jahn, Gesenius, and others, fol- of the drawers, from reasons which will
low, believes that the Urim and Thum- be obvious from our remarks on p. 400.
mim were three very ancient stones, The long girdle of the tunic was also
one for an affirmative, the other for a partly visible under the robe. The latter
negative, and the third for a neutral had no sleeves, but was like the tunic
reply; that they had long been used for entirely woven without the use of the
lots, and that Moses ordered them to be needle; and was furnished at the upper
preserved in the breast-plate. If this side with an aperture for the head; but
opinion is perfectly arbitrary, and suffi- in order to prevent tearing the garment,
ciently refuted by passages, as 1 Sam. which would have made it unavailable
Xxili. 9, and 2 Sam. ii. 1, it is moderate, if for the sacred service, the rim of the
compared with that of Zillig, who main- aperture was strengthened with a border
tains, that the Urim and Thummim are like the hole of a linen armour, which
diamond dice, partly with the name of served, therefore, not directly for an orna-
God engraved on them; that the Urim are ment. The robe was to be entirely of blue.
polished, the Thummim unpolished gems; That this 18 significant cannot be doubted,
that the High-priest, when he wished to if we consider, that in Num. xv. 38, the
consult God, went into the Tabernacle, Israelites are commanded to wear on the
cast those dice on a table, observed their re- borders of their garments fringes with a
lative position, and pronounced the will of thread of blue, * that they might see it
God according to a theory traditionally and remember all the precepts of the
handed down from one High-priest to Lord”; we may, therefore, safely infer
> his successor. It 18 incredible to add, that the robe, with its only blue colour
that a critic like Winer, who is generally represented the High-priest as perfectly
distinguished by his sound, plain, com- and entirely under the command of God,
mon-sense views, calls this opinion inge- as the instrument and guardian of His
nious, and ranks it among the most laws. If the tunic places him in the
plausible explanations of the Urim and rank of priests, the robe is the peculiar
Thummim. But if such fantastic and pontifical garment; the former symbolizes,
visionary oddities, unsupported by the by its plain whiteness, only purity, absence
remotest allusion of the text, are suffered of worldliness, or mere negative qualities;
in Biblical criticism, we see no end of the latter points, by its blue colour, to
conjectures and whimsical combinations, heavenly virtue, to an active and positive
and the study of the sacred records, striving after\ divine excellence. But
ceasing to be a science, would only be that this garment might not be wanting
another name for the production of the in those other colours which are the
wildest and most uncouth subtleties. specific marks of the holy service, it is
31—35, VII. Tue Rose, which was 0 ordered that on the hem “pomegranates
be of the weaver’s work, is likewise called of blue and red and crimson,” should
the “ robe of the ephod” (ver. 32); for it be affixed. The form of the pome-
 EXODUS XXVIII. 415

and bells of gold between them round about: 34. A

golden bell and a pomegranate, a golden bell and a pome-
granate, upon the hem of the robe round about. 35. And
it shall be upon Aaron to minister; and its sound shall be
heard when he goeth into the holy place before the Lord, and
granates is not described in the text; round the skirt (according to the Rab-
it is therefore impossible to decide on this bins 72 in all; according to others 12, or
point; the ancient versions express them 365), “‘and it shall be upon Aaron to
as the blossoms rather than the fruits, minister; and its sound shall be heard
and in this they have at least several when he goeth into the holy place before
Biblical analogies in their favour. Their the Lord, and when he cometh out, that
meaning is equally uncertain; it is known, he die not” (ver.35). These words are
that they were to the heathen nations a too clear to be mistaken; the golden bells
symbol of procreation and conception; were to indicate to the people in the
but we need not add, that this notion Court when the High-priest entered into
is perfectly excluded in the Bible; whether the Sanctuary to perform, in their name,
they signify the love of God, or the word the prescribed service, and when he re-
of God, or the Law, or good works, turned after having finished it. We have
we must leave undecided. However, - observed, that the pious devotion of the
it is well-known how much the fruit of people was indispensable for rendering
the pomegranate-tree was valued by the the intervention of the High-priest before
ancient nations. It is found in Palestine, God efficacious; the whole people was
Syria, Arabia, Egypt, India, and the expected to give themselves up to prayer,
southern countries of Europe. It reaches contrition, and repentance, whilst the
a height of about 8 or 10 feet; has a High-priest stepped into the immediate
straight stem, with many boughs; areddish nearness of God to officiate in their
rind, and lanceolate, pedunculated leaves; name; as the High-priest was one, and
its foliage is bright and dark green; its represented both by his person and his
large flowers, although inodorous, are vestments the unity of Israel, so the
remarkable for the beautiful crimson people was, during his sacred functions,
colour of the calyx and petals; and its likewise to form 8 unity; they atoned
fruit, which is reddish-coloured, of the both for themselves individually, and for
size and shape of an orange, and ripens the nation, as inseparable members of
in August, is filled with numerous seeds, the people of God—which notions have
each surrounded with juicy and delicious become familiar to us by the explanation
pulp, which is eaten in various modes of of the paschal-lamb (see chap. xii.)—
preparation, and out of which an excel- it was therefore most appropriate that
lent sherbet is pressed. ‘The tree was they should all know the moment when
naturally much cultivated in gardens and he entered the holy abode, that they
orchards, but grows likewise wild. The might collect and concentrate their
Greeks applied several parts for medi- thoughts upon the sublime task then
cinal purposes (as the bark of the root, devolving upon them, and that they
the flowers, and the rind of the peri- should again be informed when he
carp); and already Homer mentions the returned, that they might all conclude
pomegranate, which by a rare combina- their religious reflections at the same
tion of beauty and usefulness strongly time, and might thus appear as one
recommended itself for artificial and undivided community. And nothing
ornamental imitation.—But between every was more pertinent than that the High-
two of these pomegranates (not into priest himself made this double an-
them) a golden bell was to be inserted nouncement by little bells, which pro~
 ‫אל‬ . :
| ‫צ‬
/ .

( : ‫"ל‬

416 EXODUS XXVIII.

when he cometh out, that he die not.—36. And thou shalt

make a PLATE of pure gold, and thou shalt engrave upon
it, ke the engravings of a signet: HOLINESS TO THE
LORD. 37. And thou shalt put it on a ribbon of blue,
that it may be upon the mitre; upon the forefront of the
mitre it shall be. 38. And it shall be upon Aaron’s fore-
head, that Aaron may bear the iniquity of the sacred
things which the children of Israel will consecrate, with all
their sacred gifts; and it shall be always upon his fore-
head, that they may be acceptable before the Lord.—

bably were just above his knee, so that God ensues by internal reform and puri-
every step produced a sound calculated fication; as long as the latter has not
to rouse the attention of the people. taken place, his offerings and sacrifices
We believe that we have done nothing are likewise considered unclean (not as |
more than unfolded what our text con- the Rabbins believe, because the objects
tains; several very ancient statements are in themselves unclean, as the pro-
are in harmony with it (Sirach xly. 11; ductions of nature); but the High-priest
Luke i. 10; Acts x. 4; Rey. viii. 3, +); wears ‫סמ‬‎ his mitre the golden plate with
and we reject, therefore, the various the majestic words: “Holiness to the
conjectures proposed to explain the Lord”; by means of this highest orna-
purport and end of the bells; that they ment he “bears the iniquity of the holy
typify the proclamation and expounding things, which the children of Israel
of the Law through Aaron, or the hallow in all their holy gifts”; the
vigilance and attention in the execution Israelite in beholding and reflecting on
of the Divine precepts; that they are the deep meaning of those words, becomes
made in imitation of the bells sometimes impressed with his sinfulness, thereby
worn by Oriental monarchs, or similar frees himself from it internally; thus his
vague suppositions.— The words, that he gifts become likewise pure and acceptable
die not, do not strictly apply to the trans- before the Lord. And because the plate
gression of the last-named command, of the mitre was intended to work such
but to the whole cycle of precepts con- great and momentous effects, the High-
cerning the priestly garments; a similar priest was commanded perpetually to
use of the same phrase occurs in ver. 43; wear it on his forehead, that the means
Lev. xvi, 13, ete. of grace and purification might ever be
36—38. VIII. Tut Mirre and the ready to the whole people. We believe
Puate have already been described in that these are the highest possible religious
p-401; and we observe here only with conceptions; and it is obvious how far
regard to ver. 38, that one of the functions from the truth those are who see in
of the High-priest was to purify from their our verse “narrow-minded and imperfect
sins those who made any offering in the notions” of an uncivilized people, which
holy Tabernacle; for as long as they are endeavoured \to obtain the favour of
infected with iniquity, God does not their God by presents, just as Oriental
accept their gifts; He does not delight in monarchs are propitiated by their subjects.
sacrifices and oblations, but in a pure The offerings are not brought for the
heart; if the former are not the symbol sake of God, but for the sake of him
of the latter, they are an abomination to who presents them; and as they must be
Him; the reconciliation of man with preceded by internal regeneration, they
 EXODUS XXVIII., XXIX. 417
39. And thou shalt ‘weave the Tuntc of fine linen; and
thou shalt make a mirre of fine linen; and a GrrDLE shalt
thou make of the work of the embroiderer.—40. And for
Aaron’s sons shalt thou make runics, and thou shalt make
for them GiRDLES, and TURBANS shalt thou make for them,
for glory and for distinction. 41. And thou shalt clothe
with them Aaron thy brother, and his sons with him; and
thou shalt anoint them, and consecrate them, and sanctify |
them, that they may serve me as priests. 42. And thou
shalt make them linen DRAWERS, to cover the flesh of their
nakedness; from the loins to the thighs they shall reach:
43. And they shall be upon Aaron, and upon his sons,
when they come into the Tabernacle of Mecting, or when
they approach the altar to minister in the holy place ;
that they bear not iniquity, and die: 7 shall be a statute
for ever to him and his seed after him.
1 Engl. Vers.—Embroider.

are an open confession, that the moral and consider it based on historic fact,
harmony of the mind is restored, that the they were, after the conclusion of the
heart’s equipoise is regained. ministrations, laid up in the holy chambers
40. About the garments of the com- )1020%. xliii. 14; xliv.17—19); that even
mon priests, see note on ver. 4. after they had become unavailable for
41. The ceremonies connected with the priests, they were appropriated for
the inauguration of the priests are the service of the Sanctuary, as, for
described and explained jn the next instance, for the wicks of the lamps burnt
chapter. on the Feast of Tabernacles; and that
We have only to add, with regard to the High-priest was consecrated in the
the sacred garments, that they seem to official robes of his predecessor, which he
have been preserved in the holy treasury wore during the seven days of his initia-
(Ezra ii.69; Neh. vii. 70); or if we may tion (xxix, 29, 30).
draw an inference from a prophetic vision

CHAPTER XXIX.
Summary.—The ceremonies to be performed at the consecration of Aaron and his
sons are prescribed; they consist in washing, clothing, and anointing them with,
oil; a bullock is killed as a sin-offering, a ram as a burnt-offering, and another
ram as a consecration-offering; a loaf, a cake, and a wafer, are prescribed as a
waye-offering ; the breast of the consecration-offering is waved, its leg
heayed, and both parts are sanctified to belong, in all future times, to the priests
(vers. 27, 28), whilst, in this instance, they were the portion of Moses, who acted
as priest in the consecration-ceremonies (ver. 26). Aaron’s successor shall be con-
secrated in his father’s holy garments (vers. 29, 30). The flesh of the ram of con-
secration is to be eaten in the holy place by Aaron and his sons; and no stranger
is to be admitted to it; if anything remains, it is to be burnt (vers. 33, 34). The
E ‎‫םע‬
 /

418 EXODUS XXIX.

ceremonies of consecration are to be repeated during seven days (ver. 35), Then
the sacrifices for the expiation of the altar (vers. 36, 37), and the daily sacrifices
are prescribed (vers. 88—42); the latter were, one lamb in the morning, and one
at dusk, each time accompanied by an oblation of flour, and a libation of wine.
God promises to dwell among Israel, to meet them in the holy Tabernacle, and to
shield them, as their God, always with the same power and love with which He
has redeemed them from Egypt.

‫ ג‬D this zs the thing which thou shalt do to them‫‏‬

to hallow them to serve me as _ pricsts: Take
one young bullock, and two rams without blemish,
2. And unleavened bread, and unleavened cakes ‘poured
over with oil, and unleavened wafers anointed with oil:
of fine flour of wheat shalt thou make them. 3. And
' Engl. Vers.—Tempered.

1. The construction of the Tabernacle condition of all human virtues; hence the
has been ordered; Aaron and his sons have decalogue contains in its first five com-
been appointed for its service; their official mandments, our duties towards God, and,
significant garments have been described, in the latter five, those towards our
and every preparation is therefore made to fellow-men; the altar and the offerings
enable them to enter upon their sacred were destined to restore the harmony be-
functions. But the commencement of tween God and man, which had been
their activity was too important an event disturbed by sin and transgression; they
to be left without some imposing solem- were the means by which the cravings of
nity; it makes a decided epoch in the the weak heart were satisfied, by which
history of Israel; it is, in fact, the corner- man might approach the purity of his
stone of Israel’s entire existence, For Divine prototype, and by which he might,
they were destined to be “a kingdom of at least temporarily, divest himself of
priests;” the end of their national life was selfishness and pride; thus, a reconcilia-
‫צ‬5‫א‬
64₪
not worldly splendour, nor conquest and tion, not with God only, but also with
extension of territory; not military glory ‘man, was produced, and piety became
and accumulation of wealth; but sancti- the parent of all personal and social
fication, spirituality, and purity; in this virtues. But it is obvious that the full
point they were to be distinguished from import and significance of the ceremonies
all the other nations; their energies were of consecration can only be understood
to be directed to heaven, not to earth; to in connection with the sacrifices in gene-
the purification and ennoblement of the ral; for they mirror forth the priestly
heart, which is the only imperishable and duties in their relation to the various
truly beatifying boon, and not to the pos- kinds of sacrifices. We must, therefore,
sessions of the earth, which are vanity reserve a complete exposition of these —
and vexation of spirit. Religion is the rites to the eightlr chapter of Leviticus,
kernel of Mosaism, and the first institu- where the actual inauguration of Aaron
tions, therefore, which it created were in- and his sons is related. In this place we
tended to secure for it a solid foundation, content ourselves with such remarks as
and before any other arrangement was are indispensable for the immediate -‫שמ‬‎ =
made, either civil or political, the service derstanding of the text.
of the Tabernacle was regulated in all its 2. The bread is thick and hard, first
detail. Nor is the wisdom of the legis-: sodden, and then baked in oil; the cakes
lator herein less obvious than in all his are only baked, thick, and mingled with =
other laws. The fear of God is the first oil, perhaps perforated; and the wafers —
 EXODUS ‎‫אאא‬. 419

thou shalt put them into one basket, and offer them in the
basket, with the bullock and the two rams. 4. And
Aaron and his sons thou shalt let approach to the door of
the Tabernacle of *Meeting, and thou shalt wash them
with water. 5. And thou shalt take the garments, and
clothe Aaron with the tunic, and the robe of the ephod,
and the ephod, and the breast-plate, and thou shalt gird
him with the *band of the ephod: 6. And thou shalt put
the mitre upon his head, and put the holy diadem upon
the mitre. 7. And thou shalt take the anointing oil, and
shalt pour zt upon his head, and anoint him. 8. And
2 Engl. Vers,-—The congregation. 3 Curious girdle.

are, like the cakes, baked, but thin, and between both words the Rabbins have
afterwards poured over with oil. ‘To eat established this difference, that the former
such oiled cakes is still customary in implies a complete and abundant pouring
many parts of the Hast. On the olive oil of oil; whilst the latter is merely a mark-
in general, see p. 370. ing with the finger on the forehead.
3. Moses consecrates Aaron and his This distinction is not improbable, since
sons; he performs, therefore, on this one the forehead is, as we have shown, that
occasion, the duties of a priest, and re- part of the head on which, usually, signs
ceives, accordingly, the usual emoluments and badges were worn. The symbolical
appropriated for the latter (ver. 26). meaning of olive-oil has been a matter of
4. The first ceremony was, that Aaron much dispute. We observe here, but
and his sons were washed, whether their briefly, that it is partly, on account of its
hands and feet only, as was customary richness and fatness, an emblem of power
before every ministration, or whether and success; and partly, as is well known,
other parts of the body likewise, as Jewish a type of peace and reconciliation; in the
commentators believe, is uncertain. The former sense it is the symbol of royalty,
washing symbolized the purification from in the latter that of priestdom; for the
sin, which constitutes the first negative priest is the harbinger of the peace of the
element in the internal requirements of a soul, and of reconciliation with God; and
priest. if the Tabernacle also, as we shall see,
2. The diadem is the plate of the mitre was anointed with oil, it is thereby very
(p. 401); and the addition, “ the diadem appropriately designated as an abode
of holiness,” points still more clearly to where man might regain the peace and
the words: ‘‘ Holiness to the Lord,” en- harmony of his mind, and restore a com-
graved onit. That the plate, and those plete union with his Creator, But as the
words inscribed on it were, indeed, the kings possess their power as a gift of God,
characteristic and distinguishing mark of and stand, therefore, under His sove-
the High-priest, has been observed in reignty, and are consecrated to Him; and
p. 401. as internal peace and reconciliation are
₪. The unction of the High-priest the conditions of a holy life, such as is
seems to have been different from that of required in a priest, the oil is, at the same
the common priests, for whilst, with re- time, the emblem of sanctity; the kings
gard to the former, the verb to pour, are sacred to God as His worldly substi-
is used, the term to anoint, is em- tutes, the priests, as His spiritual repre-
ployed with reference to the latter; and sentatives; the holy oil is the public sign
6 ‫ל‬
 420 EXODUS XXIX.

thou shalt let his sons approach, and thou shalt clothe
them with tunics. 9. And thou shalt gird them with
girdles, Aaron and his sons, and bind on them turbans.
And the priest’s office shall be theirs for an eternal statute,
and thus thou shalt consecrate Aaron and his sons.
10. And thou shalt bring 'the bullock before the Taber-
nacle of Meeting; and Aaron and his sons shall put their
hands upon the head of the bullock. 11. And thou shalt
kill the bullock before the Lord at the door of the Taber-
nacle of Meeting. 12. And thou shalt take of the blood
of the bullock, and put z# upon the horns of the altar with
thy finger, and all the other blood beside the bottom of the
altar. 13. And thou shalt take all the fat which covereth
the inwards, and’the lobe which is above the liver, and
the two kidneys, and the fat which 7s upon them, and
burn them on the altar. 14. But the flesh of the bullock,
and its skin, and its dung, thou shalt burn with fire
without the camp: it zs a sin-offering.—15. And thou
shalt also take the one ram, and Aaron and his sons
shall put their hands upon the head of the ram. 16, And
thou shalt kill the ram, and thou shalt take its blood, and
sprinkle z¢ on the altar round about. 17. And thou shalt
1 Engl. Vers.—A bullock. ? Caul.

of this delegation of power; those, there- one oiled wafer. These objects must,
fore, who insult kings and priests, are therefore, be considered as representing
considered as traitors against the Divine the character of the priest’s office; they
authority (2 Sam, i, 14). were burnt to the Lord as a sweet odour,
9. And thou shalt consecrate Aaron as an acceptable offering (ver. 25); they
and his sons. The Hebrew words signify typified expiation and conciliation, and
literally: * And thou shalt fill the hand of they thus expressed the chief tendency of
Aaron and the hand of his sons.” This the sacrifices. /
phrase seems to have originated in a cer- 10. This verse is the immediate con-
tain ancient ceremony connected with the tinuation of ver. 3. The bullock was
appointment or consecration of officials; brought “ before the Tabernacle of Meet-
perhaps the signs and emblems of their ing,” that is, into the Court, where the
functions were, with solemn rites, given altar of burnt-offering stood. Aaron
into their hands; and in ver. 24, it is and his sons put their hands upon the
indeed related, that Moses, who acted head of the animal as a symbol, that it
here in the name of God, placed in the takes upon itself their sins, or that, by
hands of Aaron and his sons, the fat, and sacrificing it, their sins might be pardoned
certain parts of the ram of consecration, them. In vers. 15 and 19, the same cere-
further, one loaf of bread, one cake, and mony siguifies, that the beasts are offered
re ‎‫ו‬

EXODUS ‎‫אזאא‬ 491

cut the ram *into its pieces, and wash its inwards, and its
legs, and put them to its pieces, and to its head. 18. And
thou shalt burn the whole ram upon the altar: it 08 a
burnt-offering to the Lord; it 2s a sweet odour, an offering
made by fire to the Lord. 19. And thou shalt take the
second ram, and Aaron and his sons shall lay their hands
upon the head of the ram. 20. And thou shalt kill the
ram, and take of its blood, and put zt upon the tip of the’
right ear of Aaron, and upon the tip of the right ear of
his sons, and upon the thumb of their right hand, and
upon the great toe of their right foot, and sprinkle the
blood upon the altar round about. 21. And thou shalt
take of the blood which zs upon the altar, and of the
anointing oil, and sprinkle 0 upon Aaron, and upon his
garments, and upon his sons, and upon the garments of
his sons with him; and he shall be hallowed, and _ his
garments, and his sons, and the garments of his sons with
him. 22. And thou shalt take of the ram the fat and the
‘fat tail, and the fat which covereth the inwards, and the
lobe of the liver, and the two kidneys, and the fat which
7s upon them, and the right "106; for it 2s a ram of con-
secration: 23. And one loaf of bread, and one cake of
3 Engl. Vers.—In pieces. * Rump. 5 Shoulder,

in their name, and are intended to represent 21. The sons of Aaron were anointed
certain results affecting them personally, like Aaron himself; the oil was the prin-
17,18. The ram of the burnt-offer- cipal part of the substance which was
ing was to be cut “into its pieces,” sprinkled on them and on their garments;
that is, probably, into its natural limbs; the blood was only added from the rams
whilst the bullock was burnt entirely with- of the burnt-offering and of consecration,
out being divided, because it was a sin- to show still more clearly that they were,
offering. The former was further burnt by these ceremonies, appointed to God,
wholly on the altar; the latter, except and that they were holy to Him.
some parts specified in ver. 13, without 22. And the fat tail. It is known that
the camp. the tail of a certain species of sheep (ovis
20. A part of the blood of the ram of laticaudata), found in different parts of
consecration was sprinkled upon the ears the East, contains a great quantity, often
of Aaron and his sons, to remind them more than twenty pounds, of the finest
always to listen to the commands of God; fat, and that it is, therefore, put on a
upon their hands, to enjoin the duty of little cart tied behind the animal, partly
activity and zeal in the service of God; to preserve the tail and the fat, partly to
and upon their feet, to symbolize their ease the sheep. It is thus accountable,
walking in the ways of the Law. that the tails of sheep, but not those of
422 EXODUS XXIX.
oiled bread, and one wafer out of the basket of the unlea-
vened bread, which 7s before the Lord: 24. And thou
shalt put all in the hands of Aaron, and in the hands of
his sons; and thou shalt wave them for a wave-offering
before the Lord. 25. And thou shalt take them from
their hands, and burn them upon the altar ‘besides the
burnt-offering, for a sweet odour before the Lord, it 7s an
offering made by fire to the Lord. 26. And thou shalt
take the breast of the ram of Aaron’s consecration, and
thou shalt wave it for a wave-offering before the Lord:
and it shall be thy part. (27. And thou shalt hallow the
breast of the wave-offering, and the "168 of the heaye-
offering, which has been waved and heaved of the ram of
the consecration, namely of that which is for Aaron, and
of that which zs for his sons: 28. And it shall belong to
Aaron and to his sons, by an eternal statute, from the chil-
dren of Israel; for it 7s a heave-offering: and *a heaye-
offering shall be brought from the children of Israel, of
their peace-offerings, their heave-offering for the Lord).—
29. And the holy garments of Aaron shall be his sons’.
after him, to be ahotdted therein, and to be consecrated
in them. 30. Seven days shall hieof his sons who will be
priest in his stead put them on, ‘he who cometh into the
Tabernacle of Meeting to minister in the holy place.—
31. And thou shalt take the ram of the consecration, and
seethe its flesh in the holy place. 82. And Aaron and
his sons shall eat the flesh of the ram, and the bread which
1 Engl. Vers.—For. 2 Shoulder. 5 It shall be a heave-offering from the —
children of Israel. + When he,

bulls, are mentioned in the Mosaic sacri- the breast and the leg belonged, in this
fices, 6880, to Moses, who officiated as priest;
24. The waving consisted in turning but it was, in all future peace-offerings,
the offering to all the four parts of the the portion of Aaron and his sons,
earth and to heaven, as’ a symbol, that 31. The flesh of the ram of consecra-
it was destined for the Lord of heaven tion was to be boiled “ in the holy place,”
and earth; but the heaving was only a that is, in the Court of the Tabernacle, |
movement of the offering up and down where it was also to be eaten (ver. 32),
(ver, 28). by priests only (ver. 33), in order to im=
27. This and the succeeding verse must part to this initiatory sacrifice a still
be taken as a parenthetical digression: higher sanctity.
 a)‫‏‬
‫"יו‬
EXODUS XXIX. 423

is in the basket, at the door of the Tabernacle of Meeting.

33. And they shall eat those things wherewith the atone-
ment was made, to consecrate and to hallow them; but a
stranger shall not eat thereof, for they are holy. 34. And
if aught of the flesh of the consecration and of the bread
remain to the morning, then thou shalt burn the remainder
with fire; it shall not be eaten, for it 7s holy. 85. And
thus shalt thou do to Aaron, and to his sons, according to
all things which 1 have commanded thee; seven days shalt
thou consecrate them. 36. And thou shalt offer every
day a bullock jor a sin-offering for atonement; and thou
shalt °expiate the altar, ‫"כץ‬‎ making an atonement for it;
and thou shalt anoint it, to hallow it. 387. Seven days
thou shalt make an atonement for the altar, and hallow it;
and the altar shall be most holy; 7whosoever toucheth the
altar *must be holy.—38. Now this zs that which thou
shalt offer upon the altar: two lambs of the first year,
every day continually. 39. The one lamb thou shalt offer
in the morning; and the other lamb thou shalt offer °at
dusk. 40. And a tenth deal of fine flour, poured over
with the fourth part of a hin of beaten oil, and the fourth
part of a hin of wine fora libation shall be to the one
lamb. 41. And the second lamb thou shalt offer at dusk,
and thou shalt ‘offer thereto like the oblation of the
morning, and like its libation, for a sweet odour, an ofter-
ing made by fire to the Lord. 42. This shall be the con-
tinual burnt-offering throughout your generations, aé¢ the
5 Engl. Vers.—Cleanse. 6 When thou hast made an atonement for it.
7 Whatsoever. 8 Shall. 9 At even. 10 Mingled. D0,

34. See xii. 10. medium of conciliation and atonement;

35. The consecration of Aaron and his it was, therefore, necessary that it should
sons was to last for seven days; by this itself be, and appear, clean; it was to be
number, the ceremonies prescribed for it expiated in the same manner as the priests
are characterized as holy and divine; and themselves, by sacrifice and anointment.
the rites assume a deeper meaning. Our That sacrifice was, naturally, a sin-offer-
text does not justify us in supposing, that ing.— Whosoever toucheth the altar must
only certain parts of those ceremonies be holy; no unclean individual was al-
were repeated during these seven days. lowed to approach it; it does not mean:
36, 327. The altar was, through the whatever has once touched the altar must
animals sacrificed thereon, the direct local be considered holy,
 424 EXODUS XXIX., XXX.
door of the Tabernacle of Meeting, before the Lord, where
I will meet you, to speak there to thee. 43. And there I
will meet with the children of Israel, that it be hallowed
by my glory. 44. And I will hallow the Tabernacle of
Meeting, and the altar; and Aaron and his sons I will
hallow to serve me as priests. 45. And I will dwell
among the children of Israel, and will be their God.
46. And they shall know that I am the Lord their God,
who brought them out of the land of Egypt, that 1 may
dwell among them: I am the Lord their God.
38—42. The daily sacrifices. About them, to sanctify them by His glory, and
the omer and hin, see note on xvi. 16, 36. so to assist and protect them, that they will
43—46. Only when the priests, their know that He is the same God, who
garments, and the altar, are duly purified rescued them from the Egyptian thral-
and consecrated, God promises to meet dom, and selected them as His people.
Israel in the Tabernacle, to dwell among

CHAPTER XXX.
Summary. The altar of incense, the ceremonies to be performed on it, and the kinds
of incense exclusively to be used, are described (vers, 1— 10, 34—38). A census
of the people is ordered, on which occasion every Israelite above twenty years is
to give half a shekel as ransom-money, to be applied for the purposés of the
Tabernacle (vers.11—16). Further, the brazen laver in the Court (vers. 17—21),
and the preparation and ingredients of the holy anointing oil, are described
(vers. 22—33).

ND thou shalt make an altar for burning incense;

of acacia wood shalt thou make it. 2. A cubit
shall be its length, and a cubit its breadth; square
1. The place which the precept con- line, almost the middle of which formed
cerning the altar of incense occupies, the altar of incense. Further, the latter
after the specification of the garments was, properly speaking, no altar; no
and the consecration of the priests, has sacrifices were allowed to be killed on
been justified in the note on xxvi. 35. it; it was evidently only called so on ae
CM
PR
HAB
*,
The altar of incense must, therefore, have account of its internal resemblance with
.

a necessary internal connection with those the altar of burnt-offerings; as, in fact,
ministrations, which point to the true and both were square and provided with
proper mission of the priests; and its horns; and burnt-offerings and incense
very position illustrates its end and were burnt daily. But, on the other
tendency, It stood in the Holy; on the hand, the latter was covered with brass;
one side it corresponded with the altar of the former, with gold; and, in this re-
burnt-offerings in the Court; and, on the spect, the altar of incense was superior to
other, with the ark and mercy-seat in the that of burnt-offerings. However, the
Holy of Holies (ver. 6); it was separated mercy-seat was entirely of gold, whilst
from either by a vail; and yet all these the frame-work of the altar of incense
three implements stood in one straight was of acacia wood; the former was:
 EXODUS ‎‫אאא‬. 425
5

shall it be; and two cubits shall be its height; its horns
shall be of the same. 3. And thou shalt overlay it wth
pure gold, its top, and its sides round about, and its horns;
and thou shalt make to it a crown of gold round about.
4. And two golden rings shalt thou make to it under its
crown, at its two corners upon its two sides shalt thou
make theni; and they shall be for places forthe staves to bear
it with them. 5. And thou shalt make the staves of
acacia wood, and overlay them with gold. 6. And thou’
shalt place it before the vail which zs by the ark of the
testimony, before the mercy-seat which zs over the testi-
mony, where I will meet with thee. 7. And Aaron shall
burn thereon ‘incense of perfumes every morning, when he
dresseth the lamps he shall burn it. 8. And when Aaron
*puts on the lamps *at dusk, he shall burn it, a perpetual
incense before the Lord throughout your generations.
9. You shall offer no strange incense thereon, nor burnt-
sacrifice, nor oblation; nor shall you pour libation thereon.
1 Engl. Vers.—Sweet incense. ? Lighteth ‫סע‬‎ setteth up. 3 At even.

further distinguished by the Cherubim, of incense, see p. 370. It was also called
those emblems of the Divine presence; “the inner altar,” in opposition to—the
and by the circumstance, that the High- altar of the Court.
priest only was permitted to approach it. 2. It was one cubit long and broad,
The altar of incense is, therefore, inferior but two cubits high; and formed, there-
to the mercy-seat in holiness. But the fore, like the Tabernacle itself, a double
resemblance between both lies in the fact, cube. Its horns were, like those of the
that they were equally destined to re- outer altar, out of one piece with it.
ceive the blood of expiation of the sin- 3. The top or upper surface, natu-
offerings; and that incense rose upon rally required plating with metal, on
them; with that difference, that, on the account of the burning coals, which were
mercy-seat, the blood of the sin-offering placed on it from the altar of burnt-
for the whole people of Israel was, once in offerings.
> the year, sprinkled on the Day of Atone- 6. It was placed “before the vail” of
ment, but on the horns of the altar of the Holy of Holies, that is, as the next
incense, for the High-priest and the con- words explain, “ before the mercy-seat”;
gregation, whenever they had occasion to which was, as we have shown, in one line
bring a sin-offering (Lev. iv.). These with it, though separated from it by the
comparisons will serve to explain the vail; it is very significant, that the posi-
meaning of the altar of incense, and the tion of the altar of incense is described
relative signification of the three parts with regard to the mercy-seat, with which
of the holy Tabernacle; but this subject it has an internal analogy (compare Heb,
will find its fuller and more comprehen- ix.4; Rev. viii. 3).
sive elucidation in the exposition of 49. Every incense which was not pre-
Leviticus. ‘The description of the altar pared in the manner prescribed in vers.

|
 426 EXODUS XXX,
10. And Aaron shall make an atonement upon its horns
once in a year, with the blood of the sin-offering of atone-
ment; once in the year shall he make atonement upon it
throughout your generations: it 28 most holy to the
Lord. |
11. And the Lord spoke to Moses, saying: 12. When
thou takest the sum of the children of Israel after their
number, then shall they give every man a ransom for his
soul to the Lord, when thou numberest them; that there
be no plague among them, when ¢how numberest them.
13. This they shall give, every one who passeth to those
who are numbered, half a shekel, after the shekel of the
sanctuary, of twenty gerahs the shekel; half a shekel shall
be the offering for the Lord. 14. Every one who passeth
to those who are numbered, from twenty years old and
above, shall give the offering of the Lord. 15. The rich
shall not give more, and the poor shall not give less
than half a shekel, to give the offering of the Lord, to
make an atonement for your souls. 16. And thou shalt

34—38, is called strange and unholy, and evil genius. But our text leaves us
was, therefore, to be excluded from the scarcely in doubt as to the true meaning
altar, on which, besides, no other sacrifice of that command. In taking a census of
or libation was to be offered. the people every individual is personally
10. On the Day of Atonement, the distinguished as a member of the holy
blood was, necessarily, sprinkled on the nation, of the kingdom of priests; in
horns of this altar (Lev. xvi. 18—20); in being enrolled among this favoured com-
the course of the yéar, it was only done, munity, he onght to become conscious
if a sin-offering was brought for the how little he possesses the qualities of a
High-priest or for the congregation (Ley. theocratical citizen; the census is, there-
iv. 7, 18). fore, to every one individually, both an
11—16, God commands Moses, that admonition to turn his mind to sanctity
when he numbers the people of Israel, and fear of God, and an exhortation to
every man shall give “a ransom for his repent and to atone for his transgressions;
soul to the Lord, that there be no plague and therefore half a shekel was given as
among them.” ‘This is a remarkable a sign of that craving after internal
precept, which has received more than purity, such as behoves a coyenantee of
one strange interpretation. That it God; and that gift, which was applied
has been dictated by the ancient super- for the holy service, was thus “a memo-
stition of the “evil eye,” which is dan- rial before the Lord.” But every num-
gerous to a numbered multitude, and bering implies likewise an examinatio
n
the calamitous effects of which the ran- of the numbered on the part of God;
som was intended to avert, this idea can and as the Israelites are only num-
scarcely be attributed to Moses, as it bered in order to be included among
is tantamount to the recognition of an the holy nation, it is to be feared that
 EXODUS ‎‫אאא‬. 427

take the atonement money from the children of Israel, and

thou shalt give it for the service of the 'Tent of Meeting,
that it may be a memorial to the children of Israel before
the Lord, to make an atonement for your souls.—17. And
the Lord spoke to Moses, saying: 18. Thou shalt also
make a laver of brass, and its base of brass, for washing;
and thou shalt place it between the Tent of Meeting and
between the altar, and thou shalt put water therein.
19. And Aaron and his sons shall wash thereat their
hands and their feet: 20. When they go into the Tent of
Meeting, they shall wash wth water, that they may not
die; or when they approach to the altar to minister, to
burn an offering made by fire to the Lord: 21. So they
shall wash their hands and their feet, that they may not
die; and it shall be a statute for ever to them, even to him
and to his seed throughout their generations.—22. More-
over, the Lord spoke to Moses, saying, 23. Take thou
also to thyself principal spices, of pure myrrh five hundred
1 Engl. Vers.—Tabernacle of the congregation.

many will be found unworthy of being alone.-—On the value of the shekel, see
admitted; that they will be destroyed; note on xxi.32. It is expressly added,
that “there will be a plague” in Israel; that the ransom shall be “ half a shekel
and as a symbol that they are earnestly of the holy shekel”; this contribution was
willing to render themselves worthy of employed for holiness, and was intended
this high privilege, the half shekel is to produce holiness.
given as a ransom, which is, therefore, 15--51. Tue Brazen Laver; see
indeed ‘ atonement-money.” An un- p. 372.—As washing the hands and feet
deniable proof that this half-shekel is typified purity of conduct, and sanctity of
only a symbol, lies in the precept that life, the priest who neglected these ablu-
the rich shall not give more, nor the poor tions incurred the penalty of capital
less; all are equally sinful, equally un- punishment; and this law is enjoined
worthy of being God’s servants; all re- with an emphasis which renders it in-
quire atonement and expiation.— ‘Thus disputable that it contains no mere cere-
the external necessity of providing the mony, but an important moral precept.
means for defraying the expences of the 22—33. The anointing oil is to con-
holy service, was made subservient to a sist of olive oil mixed with four ingre-
sublime act of self-examination and cor- dients, distinguished by their fragrance
rection; Mosaism leaves at every step and costliness. As the incense also con-
marks of its high spirituality.— Less sisted of four component parts, it is
acceptable appears the reason, that by obvious, that this number here alludes
the census the vanity and pride of the likewise, to perfection and wholeness,
individuals are nourished, and that the The circular form was everywhere ex-
ransom is given in order to remind them cluded; the Tabernacle and all its imple-
that they owe their existence to God ments, hangings, and curtains, had the
 “a Ue ‫ל‬‎

428 EXODUS ‎‫אאא‬.

shekels, and of sweet cinnamon half so much, two hundred
and fifty shekels, and of sweet calamus two hundred and
fifty shekels. 24. And of cassia five hundred shekels, after
the shekel of the sanctuary, and of olive-oil one hin:
25. And thou shalt make it an oil of holy ointment, an
ointment compounded after the artof the spicer: andit shall
be a holy anointing oil. 26. And thou shalt anoint the
Tent of Meeting therewith, and the ark of the testimony ;

square form; and we have seen that the changes gradually into yellow, and as-
same number prevails in the priestly vest- sumes, in hardening, a reddish colour.
ments; it is therefore significant, and II. Cinnamon, an aromatic rind, im-
points, in this instance, to perfect, un- ported by the Pheenicians, or, as others
divided, and undefiled holiness. The believe, by the Arabians, was much used
four ingredients are: for perfumes and ointments. The cin-
I, Myrru, an aromatic plant, is used not namon-tree (Laurus cinnamomum, called
only as a fumigator, but as a perfume for Korunda-gauhah by the inhabitants of Cey-
garments, beds, for embalming the dead, as Jon) grows in East India, chiefly in Ceylon,
an ointment, and also for medicines. It but, at present, also on the Malabar coast,
is not found in Palestine, except, perhaps, in the islands of Sumatra, in Borneo,
in gardens; but in Arabia, Ethiopia, and China, and Cochin-China, But the best
Abyssinia. It was very much esteemed sort is found in Ceylon, on the south-
by the ancient nations, especially the western Coast, where the soil is light and
Orientals, and was known to them in sandy, and the atmosphere moist from
several varieties (Stacte, Gabirea, Trog- the prevalent southern winds. ‘The plants
lodytica, etc.). It was applied either as a begin to yield cinnamon when about six
gum for fumigating, or liquid, as the chief or seven years old, after which the shoots
ingredient of a very costly ointment; it may be cut every three or four years.
was even admixed to wine, to enhance its The cinnamon-tree is only since the last
Spicy taste; and an extremely strengthening century more accurately known, as
power is attributed to such wine. The gum strangers were not permitted access into
either exudes of its own accord (this is the interior of Ceylon, where the cinna-
the “ pure myrrh” of our text, identical mon-groves occur. On the coast it is
with the “spontaneous myrrh” in Cant. generally about twenty to thirty feet
v. 5, and is of superior quality), or from high, but reaches a much greater height
incisions made in the rind. The season in the groves; its stem is about three feet
when it is obtained most plentifully is in in circumference. The wood is inodor-
July and August. The description which ous, soft, and white, and is applied for
e
ee

the ancient writers have furnished of this very various uses. The boughs are very
tree or shrub do by no means agree; since numerous; the leaves, originally almost
Ehrenberg’s accurate observations it has scarlet red, become bright green, are oval,
received the name Balsamodendron resembling the laurel, and four to six ‫עו‬
9‫ו‬:

Myrrha; its bark is smooth, pale, inches long; the blossoms are whitish, of
greyish; the leaves and the stem are agreeable smell, but not aromatic; in
yellowish white; the former are oval, April they develop themselves into oval
trifoliate, and stand on short, smooth fruits, resembling those of the juniper-tree;
peduncles, either singly or in clusters, they ripen in June, are neither in smell nor
The fruits are ovally pointed, and brown; in taste similar to the cinnamon, but, if
the resin is at first oily and whitish, but boiled, they secrete an oil, which becomes
ee

EXODUS XXX. 429

27. And the table and all its vessels, and the candlestick
and its vessels, and the altar of incense; 28. And the
altar of burnt-offering with all its vessels, and the laver
and its base. 29. And thou shalt hallow them, that they
may be most holy; ‘whosoever toucheth them must 6
holy. 80. And thou shalt anoint Aaron and his sons,
and hallow them to serve me as priests. 31. And thou
Engl. Vers.—W hatsoever toucheth them shall be holy.

hard, white, and fragrant; it is frequently which was mixed as an ingredient with
used for ointments, and applied to wounds; fragrant ointments. Cassia oil and cassia
it is burnt in lamps, and, especially for buds are likewise mentioned. The shrub is
the use of the king and the churches, said to grow in India and Arabia; it is
prepared into candles, which, in burning, certainly not the Laurus cassia of Malabar;
diffuse a most agreeable smell. The for this is only a wild species of the Cin-
stem and the boughs of the cinnamon- namon Ceylonicum. Nor is cassia merely
tree are surrounded with a double rind; distinguished from cinnamon “ by the outer
the exterior one is whitish or grey, and cellular covering of bark being scraped
almost inodorous and tasteless; but the off the latter, but allowed to remain on
inner one, which consists, properly, of the former. At present, cassia-bark is
two closely-connected rinds, furnishes, if frequently sold instead of cinnamon; it
dried in the sun, that much-valued brown has the same general appearance, smell,
cinnamon, which is imported to us in the and taste; but its substance is thicker
shape of thin fine barks, eight or ten of and coarser, its colour darker, its flavour
which, rolled one into the other, form much less sweet and fine than that of
sometimes one quill. This inner rind is, Ceylon cinnamon.” It is imported from
in our text, designated “ spicy cinnamon.” Bombay, Calcutta, Batavia, Singapore, etc.
From the coarser pieces, an oil of cin- The quantity of each of these spices to
namon is obtained. be mixed with the pure olive-oil was, of
III. Catamus was, from early times, myrrh and cassia, five hundred shekels,
known to the ancients. Its root was very and of cinnamon and calaums, two hun-
highly prized as a spice, especially of dred and fifty. That shekels are meant,
those species which grow in Arabia and not a smaller weight, is evident, from
India; those which occur in Europe were ver. 24, where it is expressly mentioned,
less esteemed. It is also said to have with the addition, that it should be the
been found in a valley of Mount Lebanon. holy shekel, which points again to the
Ointments and fumigations were generally sacred use for which this ointment was
prepared from it. The plant has a reed- intended (ver. 25). To prepare such unc-
like stem, which is extremely fragrant, like tions, a certain knowledge and skill was
the leaves, especially when bruised. It is necessary; and a man who possessed this
of a tawny colour, much jointed, breaking skill was a seasoner.— With this oil,
into splinters, and having the hollow stem the whole tent, and all its vessels and
filled with pith like the web of a spider. implements, were to be anointed; thereby
It was much valued among the Hebrews the one was marked as a holy place, the
(Cant. iv. 14 ; Isa. xliii. 24); and was from others as holy instruments; they were
India imported to Palestine (Jer, vi. 20; devoted to sanctity; the Divine power
xxvii. 19), rested upon them; the Spirit of God
IV. Cassia is extensively mentioned filled them.—The stranger who is here
by ancient writers as an aromatic rind, (ver. 33) forbidden to prepare, or to ap-

a
 430 EXODUS XXX. | ₪
shalt speak to the children of Israel, saying, This shall be
a holy anointing oil to me throughout your generations.
32. Upon man’s flesh shall it not be poured, nor shall |
make any other like it after its proportion; it 8 holy; holy
shall it be to you. 33. Whosoever compoundeth any like
it, or whosoever putteth any of it upon a stranger, he shall
be cut off from his people.—34. And the Lord said to
Moses, ‘Take to thyself spices, 'storax, onycha, and galba-
num; these sweet spices with pure frankincense; one part
‎‫ ו‬Engl. Vers:—Stacte.

ply, ointments mixed of the same four the human nail, and which has given the
substances just enumerated, is the Israel- name to that substance (it is called by
ite who is not of the family of Aaron, the Arabs “the claw of the devil”). It
like in xxix.33; who acts contrary to is found in the waters of India and
this injunction is threatened with excision Arabia, and is frequently used as an
from the holy nation, that is, as he appa- ingredient for incense; for although it is,
rently does not respect the command and in itself, by no means of fragrant smell,
promise of God, who attributed to that it enhances it if it is intermixed with
ointment a purifying and sanctifying other perfumes. The selection of such
power, he forfeits his right of enjoying substance for the holy incense may haye
any longer the immediate sovereignty a symbolical meaning; it may signify that
and guidance of the Holy One. the sin or worthlessness of the individual
34. The Sacrep INCENSE was mixed does not destroy the love which God
of the following four ingredients: bears to Israel as a nation; that,.on the
1. Srorax. It grows free in Syria, Pales- contrary, His compassion and long-suf-
tine, Arabia, Asia Minor, Ethiopia, and the ferance is strengthened if He sees the
southern parts of Europe; the leaves are frailty and the weakness of human nature;
oval, villose at the nether side, peduncu- —but we lay no stress upon an inter-
late, 2 inches long, and 1} inch broad; the pretation which is not based on a clear
tree attains a height of 12 to 20 feet, and Biblical statement, and which is, in fact,
produces a considerable number of thin superfluous, as it suffices to know, that
boughs. The flowers are snow-white, sit the onycha indeed produces, in com-
in clusters at the extremity of the boughs, position with the other parts, a greater
and spread a very agreeable odour; they fragrance.
bring forth small nuts, which contain two 1]. Gatsanum is the resin of the
hard smooth kernels, of a strong taste. jointed, thorny, umbelliferous shrub’ sta-
From the stem distils either spontaneously, gonitis, which grows in Abyssinia,
or by incisions, a gum-like resin, which is Arabia, Syria, and Kurdistan; it is ob-
transparent, pale-red or brownish, soft, tained by incisions in the rind; it is fat,
and very fragrant, which was mixed with glutinous, of the consistence of wax,
perfumes and ointments, and was also brownish or brownish-yellow, with white
applied for medical purposes. The other spots in the interior, which are the agglu-
translations, as balsam, liquid styrax, ben- tinated tears, of a strong, but disagreeable,
zoin, costus, mastich, bdellium, are either warm and bitter odour, by which serpents
indistinct or inaccurate. and reptiles were expelled, and the bees
II. Onycua is properly the crustaceous forced from their hives. The most known
covering of the shells of certain species of variety is the Galbanum Persicum, which
shell-fish, which has some resemblance with is said to come from Peru. Like onycha,
 EXODUS ‎‫אאא‬. XXXI. 431

shall be like the other. 35. And thou shalt make it an

incense, an ointment of the work of the omtment maker,
*with salt, pure and holy. 36. And thou shalt beat some
of it to powder, and put of it before the testimony in the
Tent of Meeting, where I shall meet with thee; it shall be
most holy to you. 37. And as for the incense which thou
shalt make, you shall not make to yourselves according to
its proportion; it shall be to thee holy for the Lord.
38. Whosoever shall make like it, to smell thereto, shall
be cut off from his people.
? Engl. Vers.—Tempered together.

it is, when burnt separately, of no agree- and that it is likewise found in India.
able odour, but if added to other ingre- The ancient naturalists differ considerably
dients of incense, it both strengthens the in the description of this plant, as they did
smell, and retains it longer. In medicine not know it from personal examination.
it was used as a stimulant and for anti- It is represented as a shrub, growing on
spasmodic drugs, as it is still employed mountains, and thorny; it reaches a
for external application to reduce indo- height of about five feet; its leaves and.
lent tumours. Galbanum is at present fruits are much like those of the myrtle.
imported from Bombay, whither it is first According to Pliny (xii, 32) the frank-
brought probably from the Persian Gulf. incense is obtained by incisions twice in
IV. FRANKINCENSE was, as is well the year; the first time in the beginning
known, extensively used for fumigations of autumn; this sort is white and pure;
and sacrifices, not only by the Romans, but and the second time in the winter, when it
by most of the ancient nations. It was im- is of a reddish colour, and in quality
ported to Palestine from Arabia Felix, es- much inferior to the former kind.
pecially from Sheba, which was considered 37,38. It is evident that the prepara-
as its native soil, although it occurs occa- tion of incense for private or profane use
sionally also in Palestine and Asia Minor, (“to smell thereto”) was forbidden, but
but scarcely in Persia or Syria. Modern not its renewal for the holy sacrifice.
travellers assert that Arabia produces The traditional opinions on this subject
only an inferior species of frankincense, are excluded by the text,
that the best sorts occur in Hadhramaut,

CHAPTER ‎‫]אאא‬.
Summary. God appoints Bezaleel for the execution of the holy Tabernacle, its
7085018, and the priestly garments; gives him Aholiab as an assistant, and fills,
besides, many others with wisdom and skill for the sacred work. He repeats
the law concerning the sanctification of the Sabbath, and delivers to Moses the
two Tables of the Law.

AND the Lord spoke to Moses, saying, ‫ל‬ 6

have called by name Bezaleel, the son of Uri,
the son of Hur, of the tribe of Judah: 3. And 1
have filled him with the spirit of God, with wisdom, and
 432 EXODUS XXXI.
with understanding, and with knowledge, and with all
manner of workmanship, 4. To devise skilful designs, to
work in gold, and in silver, and in brass, 5. And in cut-
ting of stones, to set them, and in carving of timber, to
work in all manner of workmanship. 6. And J, behold,
have given with him Aholiab, the son of Ahisamach, of the
tribe of Dan, and in the hearts of all who are wise-hearted
I have put wisdom, that they may make all that which I
have commanded thee: 7. The Tent of Meeting, and the
ark for the testimony, and the mercy-seat which 8 upon
it, and all the vessels of the Tabernacle, 8. And the
table and its vessels, and the pure candlestick with all its
vessels, and the altar of incense, 9. And the altar of
burnt-offering with all its vessels, and the laver and its
base, 10. And the 'garments of office; namely the holy
garments of Aaron the priest, and the garments of his
sons, to minister, 11. And the anointing oil, and the in-
cense of perfumes for the holy place, according to all which
I have commanded thee, shall they do.—12. And the Lord
spoke to Moses, saying, 13. Speak thou also to the chil-
dren of Israel, saying, Indeed, my Sabbaths you shall
keep; for it 2s a sign between me and you throughout your
generations; that you may know that 1 am the Lord who
sanctifieth you. 14. Therefore you shall keep the Sabbath ;
for it zs holy to you; he who defileth it shall surely be
put to death; for whosoever doeth any work thereon, that
soul shall be cut off from among its people. 15. Six days
may work be done; and on the seventh is a “great rest-
day, holy to the Lord; whosoever doeth any work on the
Sabbath day, he shall surely be put to death. 16. There-
fore the children of Israel shall keep the Sabbath to
observe the Sabbath throughout their generations, for an
eternal covenant. 17. Itzsasign between me and between
' Engl. Vers.—The cloths of service. 2 Sabbath of rest.
13—1%. The law about Sabbath is that it receives its true value only by the
here emphatically repeated (ver. 13), latter, which is the source of spiritual
to remind the Israelites, that the holy life, and the means of deliverance from
service in the Tabernacle cannot super- materialism. We have treated of this mo-
sede the observance of the Sabbath, but mentous passage in thenotes on .‫א‬‎
 %

EXODUS ‎‫אאא‬, XXXII. 433

the children of Israel for ever ;for 2m six days the Lord made
heaven and earth, and on the seventh day He rested, and
was refreshed.—18. And He gave to Moses, when He had
finished to speak to him on Mount Sinai, two tables of
testimony, tables of stone, written with the finger of God.
as. That important documents were, further illustration (compare Job xix. 24).
in ancient times, and still are, among —The finger of God is identical with
Eastern nations, engraved on stone, isa the power of God, like in viii. 15; Psa.
fact too universally known to require any 4

CHAPTERS XXXII. to XXXIV.

Summary. When the people despaired of Moses’ return, after an absence of forty
days, they urged Aaron to make a golden calf, as an image of their God who
had brought them from Egypt. They gave their gold trinkets and ornaments;
the calf was made, an altar erected, and a feast was celebrated with dancing and
immoderate joy (vers.1—6). When God saw this He was indignant at the
degeneracy of the ungrateful people; He intended to destroy them, and to
create a great nation out of the descendants of Moses. But the latter implored
God’s mercy, reminded Him of His covenant concluded with the patriarchs,
and of the promises solemnly guaranteed to them; and God revoked His decree
concerning the extirpation of His people (ver.7—14). Moses descends, hears
the revelry of the multitude; in his anger he breaks the Tables of the Law,
which God had given him; melts the calf, and reduces it to atoms, which he
throws into the water, and causes the people to drink (ver. 15—20). He
censures Aaron severely, who could only offer a very feeble excuse for his
blamable weakness (ver.21—24). Then he invites those who are for the Lord
to rally round him; the Levites respond to his call, and on his command kill
three thousand of the sinners (ver. 25—29). Moses ascends to God, and prays
that if He cannot forgive this faithlessness of the Israelites, He may destroy him
in their stead; but God declares distinctly that He will only punish the actual
sinners—and He sent a plague among the people (ver.30—35). God further
assures Moses, that He will deliver Canaan and its tribes into the hands of the
Hebrews, but that He will effect this through a messenger, not by personal
guidance, on account of the rebelliousness of the people—which announcement
spreads consternation and grief in the camp; and the Israelites divest them-
selves of their golden ornaments (xxxilii.1—6). Moses removes his tent without
the camp; God communes with him there, which the people witness with
reverence (ver.7—11). Moses wishes to see the whole glory of God, who, how-
ever, reminds him that this is impossible to a human being, but promises to
reveal to him all His attributes of mercy, and their influence upon the affairs of
man (ver. 12—23). Accordingly, God commanded him to make two other
tables of stone, and to ascend the mountain; God appeared to him ina
cloud, and proclaimed His goodness and His justice (xxxiv.1—8). Moses
here repeats his entreaty, that God might Himself accompany the people; He
promises it, renews the Covenant under the condition that they shall keep aloof
from other gods, and observe the commandments and laws previously revealed
(ver.9—26). Moses stays with God forty days and forty nights, during which
time he writes down those fundamental conditions. Then he returns to the
people with the Tables of the Law; his face was radiant with the divine glory:
therefore, whenever he did not commune with God, or speak to the people, he
covered his face with a veil (ver.27—35).
FEF F
434 EXODUS XXXII.

i epee when the people saw that Moses delayed to

come down from the mount, the people assem-
bled to Aaron, and said to him, Rise, make us ‘a
god who shall go before us; for as for this Moses, the
man who brought us out of the land of Egypt, we do not
know what hath become of him. 2. And Aaron said to
them, Take off the golden rings which are in the ears of
your wives, of your sons, and of your daughters, and bring
them tome. 3. And all the people took off the golden
rings which were in their ears, and brought them to
Aaron. 4. And he received 7 from their hands, and formed
it with a graving-tool, and made it a molten calf; and
they said, These are thy gods, O Israel, who brought thee
out of the land of Egypt. 5. And when Aaron saw 7%,
he built an altar before it; and Aaron proclaimed, and
said, ‘To-morrow is a feast to the Lord. 6. And they rose
up early on the following day, and offered burnt-offerings,
and brought peace-offerings; and the people sat down to
eat and to drink, and rose to play.—7. And the Lord
said to Moses, Go, descend, for thy people which thou
hast brought out of the land of Egypt is depraved.
8. They have swerved quickly from the way which 1
have commanded them; they have made for themselves a
molten calf, and have worshipped it, and have sacrificed
thereto, and said, These are thy gods, O Israel, who have
1 Engl. Vers.— Gods.

1--6. The prolonged absence of sacred text contains by no means “ fabu-

Moses was the only cause of the lous elements” (see p.373). The opinion
aberration of the golden calf, which that Aaron asked just to bring the ear-
they, in fact, did not intend as an rings, because he hoped that the people
idol, but as an image of the true God; would not easily part with them, since
they did not transgress the first, but they seem to have been esteemed as
the second commandment (see p. 258). amulets (Gen. .‫אאאט‬‎ 4), is not supported
The sin of the golden calf is rigorously by any allusion of the text (see ver. 24).
reprehended in Ps, evi. 19—23. Accord- Aaron’s unmanly compliance was indeed
ing to tradition, it took place on the seven- blamable, and is thus represented, not
teenth day of Tammuz, a day which later only in ver. 25, but with still stronger terms
became also more than once a day of in Deut. ix. 20; although he tried to
national griefi—The ear-rings were an remind the people, at least, of God’s
ornament worn by both men and women, supremacy, by appointing a festival in
they could therefore be collected in suffi- honour of Him (ver. 5).—The calf which
cient quantity; and this statement of the Aaron made was in imitation of the
 EXODUS XXXII. 435
brought thee out of the land of Egypt. 9. And the Lord
said to Moses, I have seen this people, and, behold, it is a
stiff-necked people. 10. Now, therefore, let me act,
that my anger be kindled against them, and that I may
annihilate them, and I will make of thee a great nation.
11. And Moses invoked the Lord his God, and said, Lord,
why is Thy anger kindled against Thy people, which
Thou hast brought from the land of Egypt with great
power, and with a mighty hand? 12. Wherefore should -
the Egyptians speak and say, To their misfortune He
brought them out to slay them in the mountains, and to
annihilate them from the face of the earth? ‘Turn from
the rage of Thy anger, and recall the evil against Thy
people. 138. Remember Abraham, Isaac, and Israel, Thy
servants, to whom Thou hast sworn by Thy own self, and
to whom Thou hast said, I will multiply your seed as the
stars of heaven, and all this land of which I have spoken
will I give to your seed, and they shall inherit 24 for ever.
14. And the Lord recalled the evil which He thought to
do to His people.—15. And Moses turned and descended
from the mount, and the two tables of the testimony were
in his hand; the tables were written on both their sides,
on the one side and on the other were they written.
16. And the tables were the work of God, and the writing
was the writing of God, graven upon the tables. 17. And
when Joshua heard the noise of the people as they shouted,
Egyptian Apis (Osiris in Memphis) or and to save Israel, from the three reasons
Mnevis (the sun in Heliopolis), but scarce- stated inthe twelfth and thirteenth verses.
ly of Typhon, the evil genius. Teligious 15—20. Joshua, as the faithful and
festivals, and especially those of 6 constant minister of Moses (xxxiii. 11),
heathens, were celebrated with dances had accompanied him, and stayed at some
and public meals (see Judg. xxi. 21; lower part of the mountain, where he
1 Sam. xviii. 6,7; 2 Sam. vi. 5; 1 Kings awaited his return (see note on xxiv. 1),—
111. 26). Moses, in his indignation, takes the calf,
z—14. Stiff-necked, obstinate, here melts it in fire, to destroy first its shape;
persisting in the Egyptian abominations then grinds, or beats, or files the gold into
in spite of God’s great miracles. God small pieces, or dust, and throws the latter
foresaw that Moses would pray for the into the water of the river which comes
people (ver. 10); He tried him, therefore, from the Horeb (Deut. ix. 21). This is the
whether he would prefer his personal only possible explanation which the literal
glory to that of the people; but Moses sense of the text admits; the words do not
implores God to fulfil His former promises, compel us to suppose the pieces to have
2.2
436 EXODUS .[]‫אאא‬‎
he said to Moses, there is a noise of war in the camp.
18. And he said, J/¢ 2s not the voice of those who cry
victory, nor the voice of those who cry defeat; the voice of
those who sing do 1 hear. 19. And it happened when he
approached the camp, that he saw the calf and the
dancing, and the anger of Moses was kindled, and he cast
the tables out of his hands and broke them at the foot of
the mountain. 20. And he took the calf which they had
made, and burnt 22 in fire, and ground zé to powder, and
scattered 7¢ on the surface of the water, and made the
children of Israel drink of zt. 21. And Moses said to
Aaron, what hath this people done to thee, that thou hast
brought so great a sin upon it? 22. And Aaron said, Let
not the anger of my Lord be kindled; thou knowest the
people, that it zs inclined to evil. 23. And they said to
me, make us' a god, who shall go before us, for as for this
Moses, the man who hath brought us out of the land of
Egypt, we do not know what hath become of him. 24.
And I said to them, Whosoever hath gold, let him take
at off; so they gave it me, and 1 cast it into the fire; and
so this calf was produced. 25. And when Moses saw
that the people *was unbridled; for Aaron had made it
unbridled to an ignominy for their adversaries: 26. Then
Moses stood in the gate of the camp, and said, He who zs
1 Engl. Vers.— Gods. 2 Were naked.

been exactly so fine as powder; and as calf, and he gave the Israelites that water
the act of drinking the water was a to drink, not only to impress upon them
symbolical one, it would be pedantic to the abomination and despicable character
urge that the atoms which are thus pro- of the image which they had made, but
duced are not small enough to amal- as a symbol of purification, to remove
gamate with the water. It is, therefore, the object of the transgression by those
neither necessary to recur with Rosen- very persons who had committed it
miller to the conjecture, that the calf (compare Num. xix.).
was, by a certain chemical process, known 21--24. <Aaron’s reply to the re-
already to the ancient Egyptians, reduced proachful question of Moses is designedly
to powder or calcined, nor to suppose obscure and confused, because he was
here with Winer, ** 516 incorrect view, or himself conscious of the great crime which
at least the incorrect expressions of a his fatal want of moral courage had abetted.
writer not versed in the matter.” Moses 25—29. Moses felt deeply the igno-
threw the atoms into the water, as an miny which Israel’s revolt must neces-
emblem of the perfect annihilation of the sarily call upon them in the eyes of their
 EXODUS XXXII. 437
for the Lord, may come to me; and all the sons of Levi
assembled to him. 27. And he said to them, Thus saith
the Lord God of Israel, Put every man his sword at his
side, pass on, and return from gate to gate in the camp,
and slay every man his brother, and every man his friend,
and every man his neighbour. 28. And the sons of Levi
did according to the word of Moses, and there fell of the
people on that day about three thousand men. 29. For.
Moses had said, Consecrate yourselves to-day to the Lord,
yea, every man with his son, and with his brother, and
bring upon yourselves a blessing to-day. 30. And it
came to pass on the following morning, that Moses said
to the people, You have sinned a great sin, and now I will
ascend to the Lord, perhaps I shall make an atonement
for your sin. 31. And Moses returned to the Lord, and
said, Oh, this people hath sinned a great sin, and they
have made to themselves a god of gold. 89. And now,
if Thou wilt forgive their sin—; but if not, blot me, I
pray Thee, out of Thy book which Thou hast written.
33. And the Lord said to Moses, Whosoever hath sinned
against me, him will I blot out 01 my book. 34. There-
fore now go, lead the people to the place of which I have
spoken to thee: behold, my ‘messenger shall go before
thee: and in the day when I visit I shall visit their sin
1 Engl. Vers.—Angel.

enemies; and in order openly to show how Gen. iv. 8, especially 1 Sam. xii. 14.— Blot
much he abhorred their perverse conduct, me, 1 pray Thee, out of Thy book which
he summoned the members of his tribe to Thou hast written ; that is, take me from
kill the criminals with the sword, and not among the living; for in the public registers
even to spare their nearest relatives from the names of all citizens are entered, but are
ill-placed compassion (see p. 258; and erased when the individuals die; and this
notes on xiii. 2, and xxii. 19). The Le- idea is here transferred to God, who is
yites obeyed; and this first act of their the ruler of mankind; compare Psalms
. ready zeal in the service of the Lord, was ‎‫אואן‬. 29; Isaiah. iv. 3.—About the mes-
their initiation in their holy mission, and senger, see note on xxiii,21.— In the
the source of all their future blessings day when I visit, I will visit their
(ver. 29). sin upon them, that is I shall not leave
30—35. If thou wilt forgive their sin them unpunished; and the plague which
—it will be an act of unmerited mercy; ensued must be considered as a chastise-
this is an ellipsis on an aposiopesis, not ment for their sin, which was thereby
unusual in the Oriental style; compare expiated. These words cannot mean:
 ‫אי‬ ‫דחוי לוי שור‬

438 EXODUS XXXII, XXXII.

upon them. 35. And the Lord plagued the people,
because they made the calf which Aaron had made.
whenever they, or their descendants, will would be in opposition with the promise
sin, I shall always punish them in some of God, that He will only punish those
degree for that transgression also; for this who have sinned (ver. 33).

CHAPTER XXXIII.
ND the Lord said to Moses, Go, journey up hence,
thou and the people which thou hast brought out
of the land of Egypt, to the land which I have sworn
to Abraham, to Isaac, and to Jacob, saying, To thy
seed will I give it. 2. And I will send 'a messenger
before thee; and I will drive out the Canaanite, the
Amorite, and the Hittite, and the Perizzite, the Hivite,
and the Jebusite: 3. To a land flowing with milk and
honey; for 1 will not go up in the midst of thee; for
thou art a stiff-necked people, lest 1 consume thee on the
way. 4. And when the people heard these evil words,
they mourned, and no man put on his ornaments. 5. *And
the Lord said to Moses, Say to the children of Israel, you
are a stiff-necked people; *if 1 go up in the midst of thee
but one moment, I should destroy thee; therefore now lay
off thy ornaments from thee, that 1 may know what I
shall do to thee. 6. And the children of Israel divested
themselves of their ornaments ‘returning from the Mount
Horeb. 7. And Moses took the °tent and pitched 7¢ for
1 Engl. Vers.—An angel. 2 For the Lord had said. 3 I will come up in the
midst of thee in a moment. + By the Mount Horeb. 5 Tabernacle.

1--6. God renews His assurance that ing their unpardonable levity (ver. 4),
He would lead Israel, through a messen- God saw their self-humiliation, exhorted
ger, into the Holy Land, and expel the them to persevere in it, and promised
Canaanites (xxiii. 20—23). But He them merciful consideration (ver. 5).
urges here, more distinctly than He had ‎‫ש‬--11. The Israelites had revolted
done before, that He would not lead against God; they were unworthy of His
them Himself, because they had now too presence; Moses alone had remained
openly manifested their disobedience and faithful, and as the Lord wisked to con-
obstinacy, a re-iteration of which would, tinue His communions with the latter, He
if God were personally present among ordered him to place his tent without the
them, cause their ruin and extirpation. camp; here He appeared to Moses, and
The people felt at last contrition, put off it could, therefore, justly be called a
their ornaments, and repented in mourn- “Tent of Meeting” (ver. 7; compare
 ‫ורון‬ ‫" יי‬1+ ‫ל‬ we. ia‫‏‬

EXODUS XXXII. 439

himsélf without the camp, and called 16 *the Tent of :
Meeting. And it came to pass, that every one who sought |
the Lord went out to the Tent of Meeting, which was |
without the camp. 8. And it came to pass, when Moses
went to the tent, that all the people rose, and stood every |
man at the door of his tent, and looked after Moses,
until he was gone into the tent. 9. And it came to pass
when Moses entered into the tent, that the pillar of cloud
descended, and stood até the door of the tent; and the’
Lord spoke with Moses. 10. And all the people saw the
pillar of cloud standing at the door of the tent; and all
the people rose, and bowed down, every man aé the door
of his tent. 11. And the Lord spoke to Moses face to
face, as a man speaketh to his friend. And he returned
to the camp; but his servant Joshua, the son of Nun,
the minister, did not depart out of the tent. 12. And
Moses said to the Lord, See, Thou sayest to me, Lead this
people; and Thou hast not let me know, whom Thou wilt
send with me; yet Thou hast said, 1 know thee by name, and
thou hast also found grace in my sight. 138. Now, there-
fore, 1 pray Thee, if I have found grace in Thy eyes, show
me, I pray, Thy way, that I may know Thee; that I may
find grace in Thy eyes: and see that this nation 08 Thy
people. 14. And He said, My presence shall go with thee,
and I will lead thee to rest. 15. And he said to him, If
6 Engl. Vers.—Tabernacle of the congregation.

xviii. 7). The glory of God, which ac- —God spoke to Moses fuce to face, that is,
companied these communications, contri- according to Numb. xii. 8, not in obscure
buted to enhance the authority of Moses, visions, not in enigmatical allusions, but
whom the people now regarded not only in distinct words and expressions, “as a
with respect, but with reverence. It was man speaketh to his friend.” However,
only after a perfect conciliation between it is more than once repeated, that al-
God and Israel, that the latter were al- though Moses heard a voice, he saw no
lowed to encamp round the Sanctuary manner of similitude (Deut. iv. 15, etc.);
(Numb. ii). “It is therefore obvious, that so careful is the sacred word in avoiding
this “Tent of Meeting” is neither the terms which might lead to erroneous
Tabernacle, the erection of which is only conceptions on the nature of the Deity.
described in the last chapter of this book, 15-23. Moses despairs of the possi-
nor, as some ancient commentators pro- bility of leading alone the obstinate and
posed, a certain portable sacred tent vacillating people into the promised land,
which the Israelites possessed as an in- although God had assured him: * 1 know
heritance from the time of the patriarchs. thee by name,” that is, 1 have selected

‫ע‬
.
 440 EXODUS XXXIII.
Thy presence does not go with me, let us not go from
here. 16. And how shall it in fact be known that I and
Thy people have found grace in Thy eyes? is ¢ not by
Thy going with us? 'and if we are distinguished, I and
Thy people, from all the nations which are on the face of
the earth? 17. And the Lord said to Moses, I shall do
the thing of which thou hast spoken; for thou hast found
grace in my eyes, and I know thee by name. 18. And
he said, I pray Thee, show me Thy glory. 19. And He
said, I shall make all my goodness pass before thee, and I
shall proclaim the name of the Lord before thee, and shall
be gracious to whom I will be gracious, and shall show
mercy on whom I will show mercy. 20. And He said,
Thou canst not see my face; for no man can see me and
live. 21. And the Lord said, Behold, there is a place by
me, and thou shalt stand upon the rock. 22. And it shall
come to pass, while my glory passeth by, that I will put
thee in a clift of the rock, and will cover thee with my
hand while I pass by. 23. And then I will take away
' Engl. Vers.—So shall we be separated.

thee among all thy people, and appointed giveness and compassion (ver. 19; see
thee as their leader (ver. 12), He im- xxxiv. 5, 6). “I will proclaim the name
plores God’s immediate and personal as- of the Lord before thee,” implies that God
sistance; he desires to know “His ways, will teach him those attributes in so un-
that he might know Him,” that is, he mistakeable a manner that he will know
wishes to be informed. of all His attri- that the revelation proceeds from Him,
butes, that he might better be enabled to However, although Moses’ might be able
act according to His will and delight to understand the nature of God, with _
(ver. 13.) Without the protection of God, his intellect, no living man can behold
Moses resigns eyery further advance in Him with his external senses (ver. 20),
their journeys; for it is by His Divine If the contents of this whole section are
nearness alone that Israel is distinguished obscure, this mysteriousness attains its
from all the nations of the earth (com- highest climax in the three last verses
pare xix. 5,6). God grants him this (21—23). The text describes one of
request so fervently urged (ver. 17); those familiar communions between God
Moses, encouraged by this concession, and Moses; the latter desires to know
renews, with greater force, his former what no human being can fathom, what
wish to be acquainted with the “glory ” no human language can express; in
of God, or with His eternal qualities speaking of the sublimest metaphysical
(ver. 18); God yields to this request truths it would be requisite to employ a
likewise, and promises to reveal to him purely metaphysical medium of expres-
all His “goodness,” or all His attri- sion; when they are discussed in the
butes of love and mercy; from which ordinary language of man, their aerial
he will be able to infer who deserves for- essence assumes unavoidably a gross gar-
| |] oie iy
|

EXODUS XXXIII., XXXIV. 441

my hand, and thou shalt see my back; but my face can-

not be seen.
ment; and itis obligatory on the reflective not permitted to behold. The last verse
mind of the reader to divest them again may, indeed, contain that profound idea
of this matter, and to conceive them in which ancient interpreters deduced from
their pure abstraction. We observe here, it, that man may see the works of God or
therefore, only, that the Divine appearance the consequences of His activity, but that
was behind covered by a cloud, and that he cannot penetrate into their internal
Moses was therefore allowed to see it; principles, their motives and their ends.
but the shining glory of His face he was

| CHAPTER XXXIV,
ND the Lord said to Moses, Hew thee two tables
of stone like the first: and I will write upon
these tables the words which were on the first tables,
which thou hast broken. 2. And be ready in the morn-
ing, and ascend in the morning to mount Sinai, and pre-
sent thyself there to me on the top of the mount. 3. And
.no man shall ascend with thee, nor let any man be seen
throughout all the mount; nor let the flocks and herds
feed before that mount. 4. And he hewed two tables of
stone like the first; and Moses rose up early in the morn-
ing, and ascended to mount Sinai, as the Lord had com-
manded him, and took in his hand the two tables of stone.
5. And the Lord descended in the cloud, and stood with
him there, and proclaimed the name of the Lord. 6. And
the Lord passed by before him, and proclaimed, The Eternal,
the Eternal, a God, merciful and gracious, longsuffering,
and abundant in goodness and truth; 7. Keeping mercy for
thousands, forgiving iniquity and transgression and sin,
but who will by no means always leave unpunished; visit-
4--5. The covenant between Israel pare xxiv. 9; xix.17). Moses executed
shall be renewed; the basis of this cove- these commands; according to tradition,
nant are the Ten Commandments; Moses he ascended the mountain on the first
is, therefore, ordered to make two other day of Ellul, and returned on the tenth
tables of stone (whilst the first had been of Tishri, the Day of Atonement, on
made by God Himself); and to appear which he proclaimed the perfect pardon
alone, without being accompanied by any which God had granted to His people. The
one, on the top of Mount Sinai. Thus this Lord fulfilled the promise made to Moses
second revelation took place in still more in xxxiii.19; He proclaimed His name
solemn solitude than the former one (com- (ver. 5); passed by before Moses, and
 442 EXODUS XXXIV.
ing the iniquity of the fathers upon the children, and upon
the children’s children, to the third and to the fourth gene-
ration. 8. And Moses hastened, and bowed to the earth,
and prostrated himself.—9. And he said, If now I have
found grace in Thy sight, O Lord, let my Lord, I pray
Thee, go among us; ‘although it zs a stiff-necked people;
and pardon our iniquity and our sin, and take us for Thy
inheritance. 10. And He said, Behold, I make a cove-
nant: before all thy people I will do marvels, such as have
not been done in all the earth, nor in any nation: and all
the people among which thou art shall see the work of the
Lord: for it 08 a terrible thing which I will do with thee.
11. Observe thou that which I command thee this day:
behold, I drive out before thee the Amorite, and the Ca-
naanite, and the Hittite, and the Perizzite, and the Hivite,
and the Jebusite. 12. Take heed to thyself, lest thou
make a covenant with the inhabitants of the land whither
thou goest, lest it be for a snare in the midst of thee:
13. But you shall destroy their altars, break their images,
and *annihilate their Astartes. 14. For thou shalt wor-
ship no other god: for the Lord, *Zealous is His name, He
28 a Zealous God: 15. Lest thou make a covenant with
the inhabitants of the land; for when they go astray after
their gods, and sacrifice to their gods, they might invite
1 Engl. Vers.—For. 2 Cut down their groves.
5 Whose name is Jealous, ete.

pronounced His attributes of kindness see our explanation of the second com-
and mercy. ‘These momentous and sub- mandment (compare Num. xiv. 18; see
lime epithets might be made the basis of ‎‫ יע‬463). The Rabbins count thirteen at-
a complete theology of the Old Testa- tributes; and they have most suitably
ment; they deserve, indeed, a systematic appointed them as a kind of refrain for
treatment, which must, however, be re- all prayers of repentance and atonement.
served to another more appropriate 2—26. Moses is overwhelmed by the
place.—* The Eternal is the Eternal,” power of these majestic titles (ver. 8);
forms the corner-stone of the Divine but as they all breathe love and com-
attributes; He is unchangeable; His passion, he is induced to repeat his
mercy once promised, will for ever be entreaty that God might go with Israel,
manifest and abundant; the sin of the and receive them as His people, although
golden calf has not altered His former it is a refractory nation (ver. 9).—God re-
decree to love and to guide Israel as His news at last unreservedly the former al-
own people. On the contents of yer. 7, liance with Israel, under precisely the same
 EXODUS XXXIV. 443
thee, and thou wouldst eat of their sacrifice; 16. And
thou wouldst take of their daughters to thy sons, and when
their daughters go astray after their gods, they would
make thy sons go astray after their gods. 17. Thou shalt
make to thyself no molten gods. 18. The feast of un-
leavened bread shalt thou keep. Seven days thou shalt
eat unleavened bread, as 1 commanded thee, in the time
of the month Abib: for in the month Abib thou camest
out of Egypt. 19. All that openeth the womb 7s mine;
and all thy cattle which is born as male, the firstling of ox
or of sheep. 20. But the firstling of an ass thou shalt
redeem with a lamb: and if thou dost not redeem z#, then
shalt thou break its neck. All the firstborn of thy sons
thou shalt redeem. And none shall appear before me
empty. 21. Six days thou shalt work, but on the seventh
| day thou shalt rest: in the time of ploughing and of reap-
| ing thou 82815 rest. 22. And thou shalt observe the feast
of weeks, of the firstfruits of wheat harvest, and the feast
of ingathering atthe year’s circuit. 23. Thrice in the
year shall all your males appear before the Lord God, the
God of Israel. 24. For I shall expel the nations before
thee, and enlarge thy boundaries: nor shall any man
desire thy land, when thou goest up to appear before the
Lord thy God thrice in the year. 25. Thou shalt not
: offer the blood of my sacrifice with leaven; nor shall the
| sacrifice of the Feast of the Passover be left to the morn-

conditions as those specified in chapters the Phcenicians and Arameans; 6

xx—xxili. He promises to do unparal- signification, “ groves,” is perfectly un-
leled miracles for Israel (ver. 10); and to supported; to adore no other deity ex-
expel the nations of Canaan (ver. 11), cept God, who is zealous and severe (ver,
but the Israelites are commanded to 14; compare xx. 5); to make no molten
abstain from every association with them gods (ver.17; compare xx. 20); to observe
(vers. 19, 15; compare xxili. 32, 33); for the Passover (ver.18; compare xxiii. 15); >
since God and Israel have conciuded, as to sanctify to God every firstborn of man
it were, a matrimonial alliance (see p. 248), and beast (vers. 19, 20; compare xxxiii.
_the adoration of heathen gods is faithless- 2,13); to keep the Sabbath even in
ness and treachery, and a breach of the the time of ploughing and reaping (ver.
sacred covenant: to destroy their altars, 21; compare xxiii. 12); to celebrate
to break their images, and to annihilate Pentecost and the Feast of Tabernacles
their Astartes (ver. 13; compare xxiii. (vers. 22, 23; compare xxiil. 14, 16, 17),
24; Astarte or Venus was worshipped by for God will during their pilgrimages to
 1141 EXODUS XXXIV.
ing. 26. The first of the firstfruits of thy land thou
shalt bring to the house of the Lord thy God. Thou shalt
not seethe a kid in its mother’s milk.—27. And the Lord
said to Moses, Write thou these words: for after the tenor
of these words'I make a covenant with thee and with
Israel. 28. And he was there with the Lord forty days
and forty nights; he did neither eat bread nor drink
water. And He wrote upon the tables the words of the
covenant, the Ten Commandments.—29. And it came to
pass, when Moses came down from mount Sinai with the
two tables of testimony in Moses’ hand, when he came
down from the mount, that Moses knew not that the skin
of his face shone; *since He had spoken to him. 30. And
when Aaron and all the children of Israel saw Moses, be-
hold the skin of his face shone: and they were afraid to
approach him. 31. And Moses called them; and all the
chiefs of the congregation returned to him: and Moses
spoke with them. 382. And afterwards all the children of
Israel approached: and he commanded them all that
which the Lord had spoken with him in mount Sinai.
33. And *when Moses had finished speaking with them, he
puta veil on his face. 34. But when Moses went before the
Lord to speak with Him, he took the veil off, until He came
out. And he came out, and spoke to the children of
! Engl. Vers.—I have made. 2 While he talked with him.
5 Till Moses had done speaking with them, ete.

the temple shield the land and keep off commands, whilst God Himself engraved
the enemies (ver. 24); to remove all leaven the decalogue on the tables (compare
previous to the sacrificing of the paschal- ver. 1; Deut. x.4). After forty days he
lamb, not to leave anything of it, or of its descended; and his face shone from the
fat, to the following morning (ver. 25; reflex of the Divine glory, which had
compare xiii. 18; xii. 10); to offer to communed with him (ver. 29). The Vul-
God all firstling-fruits, and not to seethe gate translates cornuata facies; and hence
the kid in the milk of its mother (ver. it came, that Moses is frequently repre-
26; compare xxiii. 19).—It is necessary sented with horns! Aaron and the
to remark, that all the laws here enjoined people were afraid to approach him
concern exclusively the relation between in such radiant splendour (ver.30); but
man and God, not between man and his Moses encouraged them, called them to
fellow-man; for this was a renewal of himself, and spoke to them (ver. 31).
the covenant which had been broken, not But when he was alone, ~he covered
by any neglect of human, but of divine his face with a veil, which he took off
duties. whenever God spoke to him, or whenever
22—35. Moses wrote down all these he addressed the people. The custom,
| EXODUS XXXIV., XXXV. 445
_ Israel that which he was commanded. 35. And the chil-
dren of Israel saw the face of Moses, that the skin of
Moses’ face shone: and Moses put the veil upon his face
again, until he went in to speak with Him.
therefore, of some Oriental princes, who undivided reflection, such 88 behoved him
wear a veil (letham or kenaa) when they who had been deemed worthy to ex-
appear in public, isin no way similar to perience the awful splendour of the
this practice of Moses, who covered his Almighty.
face, evidently as a symbol of deep and

CHAPTER XXXV.
Summary.—After having again enjoined the strict observance of the Sabbath
_ (xxxy. 1—3), Moses invites the people to bring free-will gifts for the construction
of the Tabernacle, and its vessels, and for the holy garments (ver. 4—20); the
people respond so liberally to the call that Moses saw the necessity of restraining
their hearty generosity (xxxy.1—7). Bezaleel, Aholiab, and all the skilful
workmen began their work; they made the curtains with their loops and taches
(vers. 8—19); the boards (vers. 20—30), and their bars (vers. 31—34); the vails
before the Holy of Holies and before the Sanctuary, with their pillars (vers.
35—38).—Bezaleel then finished the ark and its staves (xxxvii. 1—5); the
mercy-seat and the Cherubim (vers. 6—9); the table of shew-bread, with its ©
staves and vessels (vers.10—16); the candlestick with its accessories (vers.17—24);
the altar of incense with its staves (vers. 25—28); and the anointing oil and the
incense of perfumes (ver. 29).—He further made the altar of burnt-offering with
its staves and vessels (xxxvili. 1—7); the laver and its base (ver. 8); the Court
with its pillars and hangings (vers. 9—20). The text inserts the amount of gold,
silver, and brass contributed and used for the Tabernacle (vers. 24—31), Lastly,
the holy garments were made: the ephod, with its two onyxes, (xxxix. 1—7);
the breast-plate with the twelve precious stones, its chains, sockets, and rings
(vers. 8—21); the robe of the ephod, with the pomegranates and bells (vers,
22—26); the tunics (ver.27); the mitre with the golden plate, the turbans
(vers. 28, 30, 31); and the girdles (ver.29). After all parts of the holy tent and of.
the sacred garments were finished, they were submitted to Moses for examination;
he declared them all in perfect accordance with the precepts of God, and blessed
the people (vers. 32—43).—On the first day of the first month in the second year,
after the exodus from Egypt, Moses was commanded to rear up the Tabernacle,
to anoint it and its utensils; and to wash, clothe, and anoint Aaron and his
sons (xl. 1—15). When Moses had strictly executed all these injunctions
(vers. 16—33), the cloud covered the tent, and the glory of God filled the
habitation; Moses was unable to enter. When the cloud arose from the Tabernacle,
the Israelites continued their journeys; when it rested on it, they encamped;
during the day a cloud, and during the night a fire was on the Tabernacle,
and assured the Israelites of the immediate presence and protection of their God .
(vers. 34—38).

ND Moses assembled all the congregation of the

children of Israel, and said to them, These are
the words which the Lord hath commanded, that you
1. Now only Moses communicated to cerning the holy service contained in
the people the Divine commands con- chap. xxvy.—xxxi.; after the covenant
 446 EXODUS ‫אאאט‬‎
should do them. 2. Six days shall work be done,
but
on the seventh day there shall be to you a holy day,
a great day of rest to the Lord: whosoever doeth work
therein shall be put to death. 3. You shall kindle
no
fire throughout your habitations on the Sabbath day.
—
4. And Moses spoke to all the congregation of the childr
en
of Israel, saying, This is the thing which the Lord com-
manded, saying, 5. Take from among you an offering
to
the Lord: whosoever is of a willing heart, let him bring
it, the offering of the Lord; gold, and silver, and brass,
6. And blue, and red, and crimson, and fine linen, and
goats’ har, 7. And rams’ skins dyed red, and badgers’
skins, and acacia wood, 8. And oil for the lights,
and
Spices for anointing oil, and for incense of perfumes,
J. And onyx-stones, and stones for setting, for the ephod
and for the breast-plate. 10. And every wise-heart
ed
among you shall come, and make all that the Lord
hath
commanded; 11. The Tabernacle, its tent, and its cover-
ing, its taches, and its boards, its bars, its pillars, and
its
sockets; 12. The ark, and its Staves, the mercy-
seat,
and the vail as a hanging; 13. The table, and
its
Staves, and all its vessels, and the shew-bread; 14.
And
the candlestick for the light, and its vessels, and its lamps,
with the oil for the light, 15. And the altar of incens
e,
and its staves, and the anointing oil, and the incens
e of
perfumes, and the hanging at the door, for the door of
the
Tabernacle; 16. The altar of burnt-offering, with its
brazen grate, its staves, and all its vessels, the laver
and
which had been broken by the worship guarantee of the future faithfulness of
of the golden calf (xxxii,) had been Israel. This law is here, therefore, not
renewed (xxxiii., xxxiv.).—The people merely repeated to show, “that the work
was assembled, because all should par- of the Tabernacle is not allowed on
ticipate in the holy work. Sabbath.”— bout
A the reason why no fire
2—3. Whilst the law concerning Sab- should be kindled on the day of rest, see
bath concludes the precepts of God about p- 268. It has been remarked, that this
the Tabernacle (xxxi. 12, 17), Moses command could not materially ineonyes
begins them with it; because the sancti- nience the inhabitants of Palestine, since
fication of the Sabbath, which is a sign they take one principal meal towards the
of Covenant between God and Israel, evening; they could therefore prepare one
and which is intended to lead to a onFriday afternoon, and another on Satur-
Spiritual and internal life, is the safest day immediately after dusk. But this is
 EXODUS XXXY. 447
its base; 17. The hangings of the Court, its pillars, and
their sockets, and the hanging for the door of the Court;
18. The pins of the Tabernacle, and the pins of the Court,
and their cords; 19. The garments of service, to do
service in the holy place, the holy garments for Aaron the
priest, and the garments of his sons, to serve as priests.—
20. And all the congregation of the children of Israel
departed from the presence of Moses. 21. And they
came, every one whose heart impelled him, and every one
whom his spirit made willing, and they brought the
Lord’s offering to the work of the Tent of Meeting, and
for all its service, and for the holy garments. 22. And
they came, both men and women, as many as were
willing-hearted, and brought 'nose-rings, and ear-rings,
and *necklaces, all articles of gold: and every man
who offered an offering of gold to the Lord. 23. And
every man with whom was found blue, and red, and
crimson, and fine linen, and goats’ hair, and red skins of
rams, and badgers’ skins, brought them. 24. Every one
who wished to offer an offering of silver and brass brought
the Lord’s offering: and every man, with whom was
found acacia wood for any work of the service, brought 7é.
25. And all the women who were wise-hearted spun
with their hands, and brought that which they had spun,
both of blue, and of red, and of crimson, and of fine linen.
26. And all the women whose heart impelled them in
wisdom spun goats’ hair. 27. And the chiefs brought
' Engl. Vers.—Bracelets. 2 Tablets.

erroneous; it was considered a part of teenth century), have proved unsuccess-

the Sabbath recreation to enjoy a cheer- ful.
ful meal during the day, not after its 4. About the stuffs here enumerated,
conclusion; and in xvi. 23, it is expressly see p. 372—376.
commanded to prepare, on the sixth day, 14. About the difference between
the food of the Sabbath. It is known habitation and tent, see p. 390.
that the Caraites observe this law to the 11--19. See xxxi. 2—11.
very letter, and suffer in their houses on 22. About the sources of the wealth of
Sabbath neither light nor fire; and the the Israelites in that time, see note on
efforts which some more liberal members ‎‫ אא‬3.
of that sect have made to relax the rigour 2z. According to ancient interpreters,
of this very inconvenient practice (for the chiefs of Israel brought the precious
instance, Elijah Bechizi, in the fif- stones for the ephod and the breast-plate,
 -

448 EXODUS XXXV., XXXVI.

onyx-stones, and stones for setting, for the ephod, and for
the breast-plate; 28. And the spice, and the oil for the
light, and for the anointing oil, and for the incense of
perfumes. 29, Every man and woman whose heart made _
them willing to offer for all manner of work, which the
Lord had commanded to be made by the hand of Moses,
this the children of Israel offered as a free-will gift to the
Lord.—80. And Moses said to the children of Israel,
See, the Lord hath called by name Bezaleel the son
of Uri, the son of Hur, of the tribe of Judah;
31. And He hath filled him with the spirit of God, in
wisdom, in understanding, and in knowledge, and in all
manner of workmanship; 82. And to devise skilful
designs, to work in gold, and in silver, and in brass,
33. And in the cutting of stones, to set them, and in
carving of wood, to work in all manner of skilful work.
d4. And He hath given in his heart to teach, both in his
heart and that of Aholiab, the son of Ahisamach, of the
tribe of Dan. 385. He hath filled them with wisdom of
heart, to work all manner of work, of the artificer, and of
the ' skilful weaver, and of the embroiderer, in blue, and |=
in red, in crimson, and in fine linen, and of the weaver, =
and of those who do any work, and of those who devise :
skilful designs. |
! Engl. Vers—Cunning workman.
with the names of their respective tribes might have been produced in superfluity,
already engraved on them. But first the others in too small quantity; the state-
materials alone were collected, and then ment in xxxvi. 6, does not militate against
only the artists were appointed and in- this conception; for only when all the
vited to work them into the required works were completed, the people could
utensils or ornaments (ver. 30, et seq.); be requested not to bring any more
for the works demanded a common super- materials,
vision and control; or else some parts

CHAPTER XXXVI.
1‘AAD, Bezaleel and Aholiab shall make, and every
wise-hearted man, to whom the Lord hath given
wisdom and understanding to know how to work all
' Engl. Vers.—Then wrought Bezaleel and Aholiab.
 EXODUS XXXVL 449
manner of work for the service of the Sanctuary, accord-
ing to all which the Lord hath commanded.—2. And
Moses called Bezaleel and Aholiab, and every wise-hearted
man, in whose heart the Lord had given wisdom, even
every one whose heart impelled him to approach the work
to doit. 3. And they received of Moses all the offering,
which the children of Israel had brought for the work of
the service of the Sanctuary, to make it. And they
brought yet to him free-will gifts every morning. 4. And '
all the wise men who wrought all the work of the Sanc-
tuary, came every man from his work which they made;
5. And they spoke to Moses, saying, The people bring
much more than enough for the service of the work, which
the Lord commanded to make. 6. And Moses com-
manded, and they caused it to be proclaimed throughout
the camp, saying, Let neither man nor woman make any
more work for the offering of the Sanctuary. ‘So the
people were restrained from bringing. 7. For the material
they had was sufficient for all the work to make it, and
too much.—8. And so every wise-hearted man among
them who wrought *the work, made the habitation ten
curtains of fine twined linen, and blue, and red, and
crimson: with Cherubim of the work of the skilful weaver
made he them. 9. The length of the one curtain was
eight and twenty cubits, and the breadth of the one cur-
tain four cubits: one measure was for all the curtains.
10. And he coupled the five curtains one to another: and
the other five curtains he coupled one to another. 11. And
he made loops of blue upon the border of the one curtain
from the edge in the coupling: and the same he made
in the border of the uttermost curtain in the second
coupling. 12. Fifty loops made he in the one curtain,
and fifty loops made he in the edge of the curtain which
was in the second coupling: the loops corresponded one
* Engl. Vers.—The work of the Tabernacle, made, ete,

S—38. See xxvi. Although even inthe Biblical style (see Gen. xxiv), the
literal repetitions of the same occurrence, lengthened and accurate reiteration of
or the same command, are not unusual the description of the holy vessels seems
GG

‫עוי‬
‫ש‬,%"

+1
 450 EXODUS XXXVI.
with another. 13. And he made
fifty taches of gold,
and coupled the curtains one to another with the taches:
so the habitation became one. 14. And he made curtains
of goats’ hair for the tent over the habitation: eleven
curtains he made them. 15. The length of the one
curtain was thirty cubits, and four cubits was the breadth
of the one curtain: one measure was for the eleven cur-
tains. 16. And he coupled five curtains by themselves,
and six curtains by themselves. 17. And he made fifty
loops on the border of the curtain which was uttermost in
the coupling, and fifty loops made he on the border of the
curtain in the second coupling. 18. And he made fifty
taches of brass to couple the tent together, that it might
be one. 19. And he made a covering for the tent of rams’
skins dyed red, and a covering of badgers’ skins above
that.—20. And he made the boards for the Tabernacle of
acacia wood, standing up. 21. The length of the board
was ten cubits, and the breadth of one board one cubit
and a half. 22. One board had two tenons, arranged one
against the other: thus did he make for all the boards of
the Tabernacle. 23. And he made the boards for the
Tabernacle, twenty boards for the south side, southward:
24, And forty sockets of silver he made under the twenty
boards; two sockets under the board for its two tenons,
and two sockets under another board for its two tenons.
25. And for the second side of the Tabernacle, on the
north side, he made twenty boards. 26. And their forty
> sockets of silver; two sockets under the one board, and
two sockets under another board. 27. And for the side
of the Tabernacle westward he made six boards. 28. And
two boards made he at the corners of the Tabernacle in
the two sides. 29. And they were double beneath, and
at the same time they were double above, at the one ring:
thus he did to both of them in both the corners. 30. And
there were eight boards; and their sockets were of silver,

to imply their importance, their signifi- mount (xxv. 9,40); and he watched that
cance, and their symbolical character; they were conscientiously executed ac-
Moses had scen their models on the cording to the Divine prototypes.—In this
 EXODUS XXXVI, XXXVII. 451

sixteen sockets, under every board two sockets.—31. And

he made bars of acacia wood; five for the boards of the
one side of the Tabernacle, 32. And five bars for the
boards of the other side of the Tabernacle, and five bars
for the boards of the Tabernacle for the side westward.
33. And he made the middle bar to pass through the
boards from one end to the other. 34. And he overlaid
the boards with gold, and made their rings of gold to be
places for the bars, and overlaid the bars with gold.— |
85. And he made a vail of blue, red, and crimson, and
fine twined linen: of the work of the skilful weaver he
made it, with Cherubim. 36. And he made thereto four
pillars of acacia wood, and overlaid them with gold: their
hooks were of gold; and he cast for them four sockets of
silver.—37. And he made a hanging for the door of the
Tabernacle of blue, and red, and crimson, and fine twined
linen, of the work of the embroiderer, 38. And its five
pillars, with their hooks: and he overlaid their capitals
and their rods with gold, and their five sockets were of
brass.
and the following chapters the Alexan- Hebrew text, so that even the division
drian version contains numerous devia- into verses is doubtful,
tions from, and transpositions of the

CHAPTER XXXVII.
ND Bezaleel made the ark of acacia wood: two
cubits and a half was its length, and a cubit and
a half its breadth, and a cubit and a half its height.
2. And he overlaid. it with pure gold within and without,
and made a crown of gold to it round about. 38. And
he cast for it four rings of gold on its four feet; two
rings upon the one side of it, and two rings upon the
other side of it. 4. And he made staves of acacia wood,
and overlaid them with gold. 5. And he put the staves
4. Ver. 1—24, see xxv. 10—40; ver. Holy are described, whilst the following
25—28, xxx. 1—5; ver. 29, xxx.23—38. chapter mentions the construction of the
—In regular order, first the vessels of Court and its utensils.
the Holy of Holies, and then those of the
2 6 2
 452 EXODUS XXXVII.
into the rings on the sides of the ark, to bear the ark.—
6. And he made the mercy-seat of pure gold: two cubits
and a half was its length, and a cubit and a half its
breadth. 7. And he made two Cherubim of gold, of
beaten-work made he them, on the two ends of the mercy-
seat; 8. One cherub on the one end, and another cherub
on the other end: out of the mercy-seat he made the
Cherubim on its two ends. 9. And the Cherubim spread
out their wings over it, covering with their wings the
mercy-seat, and their faces looked one to another; towards
the mercy-seat were the faces of the Cherubim.—10, And
he made the table of acacia wood: two cubits was its
length, and a cubit its breadth, and a cubit and a half its
height: 11. And he overlaid it with pure gold, and made
thereto a crown of gold round about. 12. And he made
to it a border of a hand-breadth round about; and made
a crown of gold to its border round about. 13. And he
cast for it four rings of gold, and put the rings in the four
corners which were on its four feet. 14. Over against the
border were the rings for places for the staves to bear
the table. 15. And he made the staves of acacia wood,
and overlaid them with gold, to bear the table. 16. And
he made the vessels which were upon the table, its dishes,
and its bowls, and its cups with which the libations were
made, of pure gold.—17. And he made the candlestick of
pure gold: of beaten-work made he the candlestick; its
base and its shaft, its calyxes, its apples, and its blossoms,
were of the same: 18. And six branches came out of its
sides; three branches of the candlestick out of the one
side thereof, and three branches of the candlestick out of
the other side. 19. Three calyxes of almond-flowers, with
apple and blossom, on one branch; and three calyxes of
almond-flowers, with apple and blossom, on another
branch; so on the six branches coming out of the candle-
stick. 20. And on the candlestick were four calyxes of
almond-flowers, with their apples and blossoms: 21. And
an apple under two branches of the same, and an apple
under two branches of the same, and an apple under two
 EXODUS XXXVII., XXXVIIL. 453
branches of the same, according to the six branches
coming out of it. 22. Their apples and their branches
were of the same; all of it was one beaten-work of pure
gold. 23. And he made its seven lamps, and its snuffers,
and its fire-shovels, of pure gold. 24. Of a talent of pure
gold made he it and all its vessels. —25. And he made the
incense altar of acacia wood: its length was a cubit, and
its breadth a cubit; it was square; and two cubits was its
height, its horns were of the same. 26. And he overlaid ©
it with pure gold, both its top and its sides round about,
and its horns; and he made to it a crown of gold round
about. 27. And he made two rings of gold for it under
its crown, at its two corners, upon its two sides, for places
for the staves to bear it with them. 28. And he made
the staves of acacia wood, and overlaid them with gold.—
29. And he made the holy anointing oil, and the pure
incense of perfumes, according to the work of the oint-
ment-maker.
29. This verse alone interrupts the the incense belonged to the service of the
_regular enumeration, evidently because Holy, not of the Court.

CHAPTER XXXVIII.

a he made the altar of burnt-offering of acacia

wood: five cubits was its length, and five cubits
its breadth; 7t was square; and three cubits its height.
‎‫ל‬. And he made its horns on its four corners; its horns
were of the same: and he overlaid it with brass. 3. And
he made all the vessels of the altar, the pots, and its
shovels, and its basins, and the fleshhooks, and the fire-
pans: all the vessels thereof made he of brass. 4. And
he made for the altar a brazen grate of network, under its
border beneath, to the midst of it. 5. And he cast four
rings for the four ends of the brazen grate, for places for
the staves. 6. And he made the staves of acacia wood,
and overlaid them with brass. 7. And he put the staves
into the rings on the sides of the altar, to bear it with them;
 454 EXODUS XXXVIII.

he made the altar hollow with boards.—8. And he made the

laver of brass, and its base of brass, of the looking-glasses
of ‘the women who served at the door of the Tent of Meet-
ing.—9. And he made the Court: for the south side south-
ward were hangings of the Court, of fine twined linen, one
hundred cubits. 10. Their pillars were twenty, and their
sockets twenty of brass; the hooks of the pillars and their
rods were of silver. 11. And for the north side the hang-
ings were one hundred cubits, their pillars were twenty,
and their sockets twenty of brass; the hooks of the pillars
-and their rods of silver. 12. And for the west side were
hangings of fifty cubits, their pillars ten, and their sockets
ten; the hooks of the pillars and their rods of silver.
13. And for the east side eastward fifty cubits. 14. The
hangingsof the one side of the gate were fifteen cubits;
their pillars three, and their sockets three. 15. And for
the other side of the Court gate, on this hand and on that
hand, were hangings of fifteen cubits; their pillars three,
and their sockets three. 16. All the hangings of the
Court round about were of fine twined linen. 17. And
the sockets for the pillars were of brass; the hooks of the
pillars and their rods of silver; and the overlaying of their
capitals of silver; and all the pillars of the Court were
united with rods of silver. 18. And the hanging for the
gate of the Court was of the work of the embroiderer, of
blue, and red, and crimson, and fine twined linen: and
twenty cubits was the length, and the height with the
breadth was five cubits, corresponding with the hangings
of the Court. 19. And their pillars were four, and their
' Engl. Vers.—Of the women assembling, which assembled.

₪. The laver and its base were made of metal, especially of brass, is univer-
* 01 the mirrors of the women who served sally known; at Thebes some of these
at the door of the Tent of Meeting.” utensils have been discovered, which
It is perfectly inappropriate to under- have almost been restored to their ori-
stand, “with the mirrors,” signifying ginal polish. Although Egyptian women
that the latter were affixed on the laver visited the temples, according to ancient
to remind the priests, before entering testimonies, with mirrors in their left
the Holy Tabernacle, of the duty of hands, it is unnecessary to suppose with
self-examination (see p. 372). That the Spencer, that Moses, in order to preclude
mirrors of the ancient Egyptians were this practice among the Hebrews, ordered
 EXODUS XXXVIII. 455
sockets of brass four; their hooks of silver, and the over-
laying of their capitals and their rods of silver. 20. And
all the pins of the Tabernacle, and of the Court round
about, were of brass.—21. These are the accounts of the
Tabernacle, even of the Tabernacle ot the Testimony, as it
was counted, according to the commandment:-of Moses, 'by
the service of the Levites, through Ithamar, the son of Aaron
the priest. 22. And Bezaleel the son of Uri, the son of
Hur, of the tribe of Judah, made all that the Lord -1‫ת‬60‎
manded Moses. 28. And with him was Aholiab, son of
Ahisamach, of the tribe of Dan, an artificer, and a skilful
weaver, and an embroiderer in blue, and in red, and in
crimson, and in fine linen.—24,. And all the gold which
was applied for the work, in all the holy work, the gold of
the offering, was twenty-nine talents, and seven hundred
and thirty shekels, after the shekel of the sanctuary.—
95. And the silver of those who were numbered of the
congregation was one hundred talents, and one thousand
seven hundred and seventy-five shekels, after the shekel of
the sanctuary: 26. A bekah for every man, that is, half
a shekel, after the shekel of the sanctuary, for every one
who passed to those who were numbered, from twenty
years old and upward, for six hundred thousand and three
thousand and five hundred and fifty men. 27. And the
hundred talents of silver were for casting the sockets
of the Sanctuary, and the sockets of the vail; one
hundred sockets of the hundred talents, a talent for a
socket. 28. And of the thousand seven hundred and
seventy-five shekels he made hooks for the pillars, and
1 Eng! Vers.—For.

the women to offer their mirrors for the 24. About the talent and shekel see
construction of the laver and its base. note on xxi. 32.
—The “ Tent of Meeting,” is here either 26. The number of the Israelites
the tent of Moses (xxxiii.7), or, by anti- above twenty years (603,550), is the same
cipation, the holy Tabernacle. in this and in the later census, Numb.
9—20. See xxvii. 9—19. i. 46; but there were, besides, 22,000
21. The tent is called the ** Tabernacle Levites (Numb. iii. 39), who seem not to
of Testimony” on account of the Tables be included in our passage.
of the Law which formed its most impor- 2s. According to Rosenmiiller, the
tant contents (xxxi, 18; see p. 377). rods were not of solid silver, but only
 ‫ור ושרי ו ד‬ ‫ילייר‬ ‫")יו‬

456 EXODUS XXXVIIL, XXXIX.

overlaid their capitals, and made rods
for them. —
29. And the brass of the offering was
seventy talents,
and two thousand and four hundred sheke
ls. 380. And
therewith he made the sockets to the door
of the Tent of
Meeting, and the brazen altar, and the braz
en grate for it,
and all the vessels of the altar. 31. And
the sockets of
the Court round about, and the sockets
of the Court gate,
and all the pins of the Tabernacle, and
all the pins of the
Court round about.
overlaid with this metal, as, else, the 30, 31. The laver and its base are
1,775 shekels would not have sufficed;
here not enumerated among the brazen
and he adduces the analogies of xl. 5, vessels, as they were made of the mirror
compared with xxx. 1, 3; and of xxxix. s
which the women offered separately for
39, compared with xxvii. 1, 2,
that purpose.

| CHAPTER XXXIX. :
ANP of the blue, and the red, and the crimson,
they
made garments of office, to do service in
the holy
place, and made the holy garments for
Aaron; as the
Lord commanded Moses. 2. And he made
the ephod of
gold, blue, and red, and crimson, and
fine twined linen.
3. And they beat the gold into thin plate
s, and cut 7
¢nto wires
, to work it in the blue, and in the
red, and in
the crimson, and in the fine linen, with
the work of the
skilful weaver. 4. They made shoulder-pieces for it,
‘coupled together: at the two ends
it was coupled
together. 5. And the band of the ephod, which was
it, was of the same prece, and of the same upon
workmanship,
of gold, blue, and red, and crimson, and
fine twined linen;
as the Lord commanded Moses.—6. And
they wrought
the onyx stones, set in sockets of gold,
graven like the
engravings of a signet, with the names
of the children of
Israel. 7. And he put them on the shoulders
of the
' Engl. Vers.—To couple it together.
2—31. See xxviii, 6—40.
into the form of wires. In the Hebre
3. The metal was first beaten into thin w
text the singular changes here with
plates. These plates were then cut into the
plural, as very frequently in these chap-
sarrow slips, which were afterwards,
by ters, since both the one and the
means of a hammer and a file, round other
ed have an impersonal signification
; 68
 EXODUS XXXIX. ABT
ephod, as stones of memorial for the children of Israel;
as the Lord commanded Moses.—8. And he made the ~
breast-plate with the work of the skilful weaver, like the
work of the ephod; of gold, blue, red, and crimson, and
fine twined linen. 9. It was square; they made the
breast-plate double: one span was its length, and one
span its breadth, being doubled. 10. And they set in it
four rows of stones: the first row was a carnelian, a topaz,
and a smaragd: this was the first row. 11. And the
second row, a carbuncle, a sapphire, and an emerald.
12. And the third row, a ligure, an agate, and an amethyst.
13. And the fourth row, a chrysolite, an onyx, and a
jasper: they were enclosed in sockets of gold in their
settings. 14. And the stones were according to the names
of the children of Israel, twelve, according to their names,
like the engravings of a signet, every one according to its
name, for the twelve tribes. 15. And they made upon
the breast-plate chains of wreathen work, 'twisted in the
manner of ropes, of pure gold. 16. And they made two
sockets of gold, and two gold rings, and put the two rings
on the two ends of the breast-plate. 17. And they put
the two wreathen chains of gold in the two rings on the
ends of the breast-plate. 18. And the other two ends of
7"the two wreathen chains they fastened in the two sockets,
and put them on the shoulder-pieces of the ephod, before
it. 19. And they made two rings of gold, and put them
on the two ends of the breast-plate, upon its border, which
was on the side of the ephod inward. 20. And they
made two other golden rings, and put them on the two
*shoulder-pieces of the ephod underneath, toward the fore-
part of it, over against its joining, above the band of the
ephod. 21. And they fastened the breast-plate by its rings
to the rings of the ephod with a ribbon of blue, that 7
1 Engl. Vers.—* Twisted in the manner of ropes,” omitted. 2 Sides.

change does not always indicate that dif- but this is superfluous, since the Urim
ferent persons executed the different parts and Thummim are identical with the
of the works, as some critics inferred. twelve gems enumerated in vers. 10—13;
21. The Samaritan text adds: “ And | 806 0,
they made the Urim and Thummim;”

~
 458 EXODUS XXXIX.

might be above the band of the ephod, and that the breast-
plate might not be loosed from the ephod; as the Lord com-
manded Moses.—22. And he made the robe of the ephod
of woven work, all of blue. 23. And there was an opening
in the midst of the robe, like the opening of a coat of mail,
with a border round about the opening, that it should not
ER
Se
‫יי‬‎

sews:
Bese
6
be rent. 24. And they made upon the hem of the robe
pomegranates of blue, and red, and crimson, and twined
linen. 25. And they made bells of pure gold, and put
the bells between the pomegranates upon the hem of the
robe, round about between the pomegranates; 26. A bell
and a pomegranate, a bell and a pomegranate, round about
the hem of the robe, to minister zn 77; as the Lord com-
manded Moses.— 27. And they made the tunics of fine linen,
of woven work, for Aaron and for his sons; 28. And the
mitre of fine linen, and the beautiful turbans of fine linen,
7—"a and the linen drawers of fine twined linen; 29. And the
girdle of fine twined linen, and blue, and red, and crimson,
of the work of the embroiderer; as the Lord commanded
Moses.—30. And they made the plate of the holy crown
of pure gold, and wrote upon it a writing, like the
engravings of a signet, HOLINESS TO THE LORD.
31. And they tied to it a ribbon of blue, to put zt on the
mitre above; as the Lord commanded Moses.—32. Thus
was all the work of the habitation of the Tent of Meeting
finished: and the children of Israel did according to all
which the Lord had commanded Moses, so they did.
33. And they brought the habitation to Moses, the
tent, and all its vessels, its taches, its boards, its bars, and
its pillars, and its sockets; 34. And the covering of rams’
skins dyed red, and the covering of badgers’ skins, and
the vail for the hanging; 35. The ark of the testimony,
and its staves and the mercy-seat; 36. The table, and all
its vessels, and the shew-bread; 387. The pure candle-
stick, with its lamps, the lamps to be arranged in order,
and all its vessels, and the oil for the light; 38. And the
golden altar, and the anointing oil, and the incense of
perfumes, and the hanging for the door of the Tabernacle;
 EXODUS XXXEX:, ‫אז‬‎ 459
39. The brazen altar, and its grate of brass, its staves,
and all its vessels, the laver and its base; 40. The
hangings of the Court, its pillars, and its sockets, and the
hanging for the gate of the Court, its cords, and its pins,
and all the vessels of the service of the habitation for the.
Tent of the Meeting; 41. The garments of office to do
service in the holy place, 'the holy garments for Aaron the
priest, and his sons’ garments, to serve as the priests.
42. According to all that the Lord had commanded Moses,
so the children of Israel made all the work. 43. And
Moses saw all the work, and, behold, they had done it as
the Lord had commanded, even so had they done it: and
Moses blessed them.
' Engl. Vers.—And the holy garments.

CHAPTER XL.
ND the Lord spoke to Moses, saying, 2. On
the first day of the first month shalt thou rear the
habitation of the Tent of Meeting. 38. And thou shalt
put therein the ark of the testimony, *and hang the vail
before the ark. 4. And thou shalt bring in the table, and
set in order the things which are to be set in order upon
it; and thou shalt bring in the candlestick, and put on its
lamps. 5. And thou shalt place the altar of gold for the
incense before the ark of the testimony, and put the
hanging of the door on the habitation. 6. And thou shalt
place the altar of the burnt-offering before the door of the
habitation of the Tent of Meeting. 7. And thou shalt
place the laver between the Tent of Meeting and the altar,
and shalt put water therein. 8. And thou shalt erect the
Court round about, and put the hanging at the Court
gate. 9. And thou shalt take the anointing oil, and
anoint the Tabernacle, and all that zs therein, and shalt
2 Engl. Vers.—And cover the ark with the vail.

2. On the first day of the first month 3. The vail which “covers the ark.”
after the departure from Egypt, or one is that which separates the Holy of Holies
year less fourteen days after this event, from the Holy; compare ver, 21.
the Tabernacle was reared up.
 460 . EXODUS XB:
hallow it, and all its vessels; and it shall be holy. 10. And
thou shalt anoint the altar of burnt-offering, and all its
vessels, and hallow the altar; and it shall be an altar most
holy. 11. Amd thou shalt anoint the laver and its base,
and hallow it. 12. And thou shalt bring Aaron and his
sons to the door of the Tent of Meeting, and wash them
with water. 13. And thou shalt clothe Aaron in the
holy garments, and anoint him, and sanctify him; that he
may serve meas priest. 14. And thou shalt bring his
sons, and clothe them with tunics; 15. And thou shalt
anoint them, as thou hast anointed their father, that they
may serve me as priests: for their anointing shall certainly
be for an everlasting priesthood throughout their genera-
tions. 16. Thus did Moses; according to all that the Lord
had commanded him, so he did.—17. And it was in the
first month of the second year, on the first day of the month,
that the Tabernacle was reared up. 18. And Moses reared
the habitation, and placed its sockets, and set up its boards,
and fastened its bars, and reared up its pillars. 19. And
he spread the tent over the habitation, and put the cover-
ing of the tent above upon it; as the Lord had commanded
Moses. 20. And he took and placed the testimony in
the ark, and set the staves on the ark, and put the mercy -
seat above the ark: 21. And he brought the ark into the
Tabernacle, and set up the vail of the covering, and
hung i before the ark of the testimony; as the Lord had
.‫י‬
+-‫א‬
'->

15. Whilst every successive High- 34—38. The same cloud which was
priest was to be anointed in the same to the Israelites, since their exodus from
manner as Aaron had been anointed, the Egypt, a sign and pledge of Divine pro-
common priests required, later, no unction, tection, covered now the holy Tent;
but only a consecration; with the sons of the glory of the Lord filled it so com-
Aaron all their descendants were anointed pletely that Moses was unable to enter;
for all futurity. this was for the people a guarantee
23— 31. The ceremonies here de- that God intended to dwell among them;
scribed, were performed by Moses only that He had again accepted them as Hig
after the Tabernacle was erected and “ peculiar treasure;” only when the cloud
anointed, during the seven days of con- had withdrawn to the Holy of Holies,
secration; on the eighth day the priests Moses could approach God and commune
themselves undertook these functions, with Him. This cloud was at the same
from which Moses then for ever ab- time a signal for the journeys of Israel;
stained (see Levit. viii. ix), when it rested over the Tabernacle, they
 EXODUS XL. 461
commanded Moses. 22. And he placed the table in the
Tent of Meeting, upon the side of the Tabernacle north-
ward, without the vail. 23. And he arranged the bread
in order upon it before the Lord; as the Lord had com-
manded Moses. 24. And he put the candlestick in the
Tent of Meeting over against the table, on the side of the
Tabernacle southward. 25. And he put on the lamps
before the Lord; as the Tord commanded Moses.
26. And he put the golden altar in the Tent of Meeting
before the vail: 27. And he burnt incense of perfumes
thereon; as the Lord had commanded Moses. 28. And
he put the hanging of the door before the Tabernacle.
29. And he put the altar of burnt-offering before the
door of the habitation of the Tent of Meeting, and offered
upon it the burnt-offering and the meat-offering; as the
Lord had commanded Moses. 30. And he set the laver
between the Tent of Meeting and the altar, and put water
there for washing. 31. And Moses and Aaron and his
sons washed their hands and their feet thereat; 32. When
they went into the Tent of Meeting, and when they ap-
proached the altar, they washed; as the Lord had com-
manded Moses. 33. And he reared up the Court round
about the Tabernacle and the altar, and set up the hang-
ing of the Court gate. So Moses finished the work.—
34. Then the cloud covered the Tent of Meeting, and the
glory of the Lord filled the habitation. 35. And Moses

encamped; when it rose from it, they organization of the Sanctuary and of
continued their marches, as is more fully priestdom is described: the Books of the
described in Numb. ix. 17—22. This Law are not only individually in har-
notice is here, by anticipation, inserted mony with their parts, but they form col-
from the same principle, which guided lectively a work internally pervaded by
the sacred historian in the remark con- the spirit of unity and order.
tained in xvi. 35; he frequently com- The history of the Tabernacle may thus
bines the facts bearing on the same be traced. During the journeys of the
subject to one complete narrative; he Israelites, its various parts and utensils
writes no chronicle, but a pragmatical were carefully wrapped up and carried by
history. But further, the contents of the Levites, who erected it again when
these verses point, on the one hand, to the Israelites encamped. In the time of
the journeys detailed in the fourth Book, Joshua it was brought to Shiloh, where it
whilst they are, on the other hand, closely remained during the whole period of the -
connected with Leviticus, where the whole Judges, and where annually the great
 ‫שר" ו‬ ‫!יד‬ wh‫‏‬
ST‫‏‬
462 EXODUS XL.
was not able to enter into the Tent of Meeting, for
the
cloud rested on it, and the glory of the Lord filled the
habj-
tation. 36. And when the cloud ‘arose from the
Taber-
nacle, the children of Israel went onward in
all their
Journeys: 37. But if the cloud did not arise, then
they
did not journey till the day that it arose. 38. For
the
cloud of the Lord was upon the Tabernacle by day,
and
fire was on it by night, in the sight of all the house
of
Israel, throughout all their journeys.
' Engl. Vers.—Was taken up.
national festivals were celebrated; it was found them, at the beginning of this book,
considered as the only legitimate sanc- as an increasing multitude of ill-treated
tuary, although other holy places of public and idolatrous slaves; we leave them as
assembly are mentioned from the lifetime a
free nation, the guardians of eternal truth,
of Joshua down to the period of the the witnesses of overwhelming miracles,
kings, as Shechem, Gilgal, Mizpah, and Released from the vain and busy worldli-
Bethel. After the great victory of the ness of proud Egypt, they encamp in the
Philistines in the time of Eli, the Taber- silent desert, in isolated and solemn soli-
nacle was removed to Nob, likewise in tude, holding converse only with their
the territory of Benjamin; but was, after thoughts and with their God.
the destruction of this town, brought to Before
them stood erected the visible habitation
Gibeon, where we meet it in the time of of Him whom they acknowledged and
David and Solomon. The latter king adored as their rescuer from Egyptian
ordered it to be brought to Jerusalem, thraldom; the mysterious structure dis-
and, with all its vessels, to be deposited in closed to them many profound ideas of
the temple. From this time it is no more their new religion; and they respect
mentioned in the sacred records.—The ed
the priests as their representatives and
equally changeful fate of the Ark of the their mediators. The communion between
Covenant will be adverted to in its proper God and His people was opened; the
place. pious might preserve, the penitent sinner
So, then, had the descendants of Jacob
might restore the harmony of the mind;
advanced a most momentous step; we
life had its aim, and virtue its guide.

|
 465

ae
‫ו‬oF‫ב‬

Fo
O₪ N
«

ADDITIONS.

To p. 47.

Ewald is of opinion that Sinai is the earlier, Horeb the later name, But if this is the
case, did both peaks, the northern and the southern one, bear the same name? And
what are the reasons which Ewald adduces for this opinion? ‘Deborah (Jud. v. 5)
uses the name of Sinai, whereas that of Horeb is not found earlier than—Exod. iii. 1;
Xvil. 6, etc.,” for that critic assigns these portions of Exodus to the “ fourth historian ”’
of the Pentateuch.—For those who are familiar with Ewald’s theory of analyzing, or
rather anatomizing, the sacred books, this remark requires no elucidation.—However,
it is evident from xvii. 6, compared with xix. 1, 20, that Horeb designates the whole
region, since already during the encampment. of the Hebrews in Rephidim, Moses
stood “on a rock in Horeb,” but that Sinai is the name of the highest mountain of that
region, on which the revelation took place.

To p. 154.
Royle (in Kitto’s Cyclop. of Bibl. Lit. ii. p. 976) believes the hyssop of the Bible 0
be identical with the caper-plant (capparis spinosa), called in Arabic asuf, which grows
in several valleys about Mount Sinai, “ creeping up the mountain side like a parasitic
plant, its branches covered with small thorns.” But although Royle’s demonstration
is admirable for its logical precision, he does not succeed in raising his opinion beyond
a vague hypothesis, the principal support of which is an accidental, but often illusory,
resemblance of names.
f

To p. 442.
The attributes of God, are:— ‫ר‬‎
‫י‬ ‫ר‬‫ר‬‫ו‬
ON
S2

The Eternal is the Eternal; that is, as the Talmud explains it: * 1 am the Lord
before man sins, and I am the Lord after he has sinned and repented,” He
does not chastise for ever; His loving-kindness changes not.
He is an all-powerful God, Lord of the Universe, ruler of nature and mankind ;
might and glory belong to Him alone.
Merciful, full of affectionate sympathy for the sufferings of human frailty; look-
ing with feeling compassion on the imperfections, the aberrations, and the
miseries of mankind.
Gracious, assisting and helping wherever aid is necessary, consoling the afflicted
and raising up the oppressed.
Long-suffering, not hastening to punish the sinner immediately after his trans-
gression, but leaving him time, and affording him opportunities to retrace
his evil course,

+"
464 ADDITIONS.

Abundant in goodness, granting His gifts and blessings beyond the desert of man;
not distributing His bounties with cold and rigid justice, but prompted by
kindness, and by the desire of beatifying His creatures.
Full of truth, not only recompensing the pious as He has promised, but eternally
true to Himself, pursuing His sublime and inscrutable schemes for the salva-
tion of mankind; faithfully governing the world in accordance with the
truths revealed by Him.
Keeping mercy for thousands, remembering the good deeds of the ancestors to the
thousandth generation (xx. 6); reserving reward and recompensation to the
remotest descendants.
Pardoning every transgression; bearing with indulgence the sins of man, and by
forgiveness restoring him to the original purity of his soul. The Rabbins
distinguish between sins committed from evil disposition, from malice or
spirit of opposition, and from error or heedlessness. God is ever ready to
pardon all transgressions, either springing up from a corrupt heart or careless
unconsciousness of the snares surrounding the path of virtue.
However, as man is a free agent, as he is responsible for his deeds, and as he |
possesses a spirit capable of discerning between right and wrong, God cannot
leave entirely unpunished repeated wickedness and obstinate persistence in
evil; His goodness cannot destroy His justice; He is often compelled to inflict
chastisement to reform the sinner; man is to gain salvation by exerting his |
innate divine powers; he is to strive after the purity of God with perse-
verance and zeal; but in these exertions he can be certain of God’s gracious
assistance; the incompetency of man is aided by a superior power; and the
justice of God is as much tempered by kindness, as His kindness is kept in
constant equipoise by His paternal severity. Another interpretation of this
attribute see on p. 262.

FINIS.

WERTHHIMER END 0. PRINTERS, CIRCUS PLACE, FINSBURY CIRCUS.

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‫הדלוה‬
‫ו‬
‫מ‬ ‫‪ 2‬זל‬
‫‪Baas‬‬ ‫ו‪‎‬‬
‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬
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