WSN MODULE 4

MAC Protocol Overview

Medium Access Control (MAC) protocols are a set of rules and mechanisms that determine
how nodes in a network access a shared communication medium. In the context of wireless
sensor networks (WSNs), MAC protocols are particularly crucial due to the limited energy
resources of sensor nodes and the need for efficient, reliable communication. The primary
objectives of MAC protocols include maximizing throughput, minimizing latency, ensuring
fairness, and most importantly for WSNs, conserving energy.

Objectives of MAC Protocols

1. Throughput Efficiency: Ensure that the network can handle the maximum possible
amount of data transfer.
2. Stability: Maintain consistent performance under varying network conditions.
3. Fairness: Provide equal access opportunities to the medium for all nodes.
4. Low Access Delay: Minimize the time between a packet's arrival and the first attempt
to transmit it.
5. Low Transmission Delay: Minimize the time taken from the arrival of a packet to its
successful delivery.
6. Low Overhead: Reduce extra transmissions such as control packets or
retransmissions due to collisions.

Key Challenges in Wireless MAC Protocols

1. Collision Avoidance: Prevent simultaneous transmissions by multiple nodes, which

can lead to data loss.
2. Hidden-Terminal Problem: Nodes unable to detect each other’s transmissions may
cause collisions at a common receiver.
3. Exposed-Terminal Problem: Nodes refraining from transmitting due to unnecessary
sensing of medium as busy.
4. Energy Efficiency: Reduce energy consumption by minimizing idle listening,
overhearing, collisions, and control overhead.

Fundamental Classes of MAC Protocols

1. Fixed Assignment Protocols:

o Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA): Allocates fixed time slots to each
node for exclusive access.
o Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA): Allocates different frequency
bands to different nodes.
o Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA): Uses different codes to separate
transmissions, allowing concurrent transmissions over the same frequency.
o Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA): Utilizes spatial separation to allow
simultaneous transmissions.
2. Demand Assignment Protocols:
o Allocate resources dynamically based on demand, providing flexibility to
accommodate varying traffic loads.
 3. Random Access Protocols:
o Nodes compete for access to the medium, with mechanisms to handle
collisions.
o Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA): Nodes listen to the medium before
transmitting. Variants include:
▪ CSMA with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD): Used in Ethernet,
where nodes detect collisions and retransmit.
▪ CSMA with Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA): Used in wireless
networks to avoid collisions, often incorporating RTS/CTS
handshakes.

Energy-Efficient MAC Protocols for WSNs

1. Sleep/Wake Scheduling: Nodes periodically switch between active and sleep states
to save energy.
2. Low Duty Cycle Protocols: Minimize the time nodes spend in active states.
3. Contention-Based Protocols: Reduce energy waste by minimizing collisions and
control overhead.
4. Schedule-Based Protocols: Use predetermined schedules to coordinate transmissions
and sleep cycles.

Conclusion

MAC protocols play a crucial role in wireless sensor networks by managing how nodes
access the communication medium. They need to address traditional performance metrics like
throughput and latency while also focusing on energy conservation, which is paramount in
WSNs. Various approaches, from fixed assignment to demand-based and random access
protocols, have been developed to meet these challenges. Efficient MAC protocols ensure
reliable, fair, and energy-efficient communication in wireless networks.

Challenges in Wireless MAC Protocols

Hidden-Terminal Problem

• Occurs when two nodes are out of range of each other but within range of a common
receiver.
• In the scenario described, node A and node C are both within range of node B but
cannot hear each other.
• If node A starts transmitting a packet to node B and later node C also tries to transmit
to node B, node C will sense the medium as idle because it cannot hear node A’s
transmission.
• This leads to both transmissions colliding at node B, making both packets unusable.
• The problem arises specifically with Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA)
protocols.
Exposed-Terminal Scenario

• Occurs when a node refrains from transmitting a packet because it senses the medium
as busy due to a nearby transmission, even though its transmission would not cause a
collision.
• In the given scenario, node B is transmitting a packet to node A, and node C wants to
transmit a packet to node D.
• Although node C's transmission would not interfere with node B's transmission (since
node A and node D are far enough apart), node C senses the medium as busy and
refrains from transmitting.
• This results in unnecessary waiting and wasted bandwidth.

Solutions

• Busy-Tone Solutions: One approach to mitigate the hidden-terminal and exposed-

terminal problems.
• RTS/CTS Handshake: Used in IEEE 802.11 WLAN standard and proposed in the
MACA/MACAW protocols to handle these issues.
o Before transmitting data, a node sends a Request to Send (RTS) packet.
o The receiver responds with a Clear to Send (CTS) packet if the channel is
clear.
o This exchange helps to alert other nodes about the impending transmission,
reducing the likelihood of collisions.
Important Classes of MAC Protocols

Fixed Assignment Protocols

Fixed assignment protocols are a class of Medium Access Control (MAC) protocols in which
the available communication resources (such as time slots, frequency bands, or codes) are
allocated to nodes in a predefined and long-term manner. This ensures that each node has
exclusive access to its assigned resources, thereby avoiding collisions and reducing the need
for complex coordination mechanisms during data transmission.

Key Characteristics of Fixed Assignment Protocols

1. Exclusive Resource Allocation:

o Each node is given a dedicated portion of the communication resources, which
it can use without competing with other nodes.
o The allocation is typically long-term, lasting for minutes, hours, or even
longer, as opposed to being reassigned dynamically.
2. Collision-Free Transmission:
o Since resources are assigned exclusively, nodes can transmit data without the
risk of collisions.
o This leads to more predictable performance in terms of delay and throughput.
3. Resource Utilization:
o Fixed assignment protocols are efficient in scenarios with stable and
predictable traffic patterns.
o They might be less efficient in highly dynamic environments where the
demand for resources fluctuates significantly.
4. Signaling Mechanisms:
o Protocols may include mechanisms to renegotiate resource assignments to
accommodate changes in network topology, such as nodes joining or leaving
the network, mobility, or variations in load patterns.
o This ensures that the protocol can adapt to some extent to changing conditions.

COMMON TYPES OF FIXED ASSIGNMENT PROTOCOL

Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA):

o The time axis is divided into fixed-length superframes, each further

subdivided into fixed time slots.
o Each node is assigned specific time slots to transmit periodically within each
superframe.
o Requires precise time synchronization between nodes to avoid signal overlap.
• Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA):
o The available frequency band is divided into subchannels, each assigned to
different nodes for exclusive use.
o Nodes need frequency synchronization and the ability to tune their receivers to
the appropriate channel.
o FDMA transceivers are more complex than TDMA transceivers due to the
need for narrowband filters and tuning capabilities.
 • Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA):
o Nodes spread their signals over a larger bandwidth using different codes for
separation.
o Receivers must know the transmitter's code, with other transmissions
appearing as noise.
o Effective CDMA implementation relies on efficient code management.
• Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA):
o Utilizes the spatial separation of nodes to differentiate transmissions.
o Requires advanced signal processing techniques and antenna arrays.
o Due to its complexity, SDMA is generally not suitable for wireless sensor
networks (WSNs).

These fixed assignment protocols are crucial in avoiding collisions and ensuring efficient use
of the communication medium in environments where the network topology and traffic load
patterns are relatively stable or can be managed through signaling mechanisms.

Demand Assignment Protocols

Demand assignment protocols are a class of Medium Access Control (MAC) protocols where
the exclusive allocation of resources (such as time slots, frequency bands, or codes) to nodes
is made on a short-term basis, typically for the duration of a data burst. These protocols
dynamically allocate resources based on current demand, aiming to optimize the use of the
communication medium while minimizing collisions and maximizing efficiency.

Key Characteristics of Demand Assignment Protocols

1. Dynamic Resource Allocation:

o Resources are allocated to nodes based on immediate demand, rather than
long-term assignments.
o This allows for more efficient utilization of the communication medium,
especially in dynamic environments with varying traffic loads.
2. Short-Term Exclusivity:
o Nodes receive exclusive access to resources for the duration of their data
burst, ensuring collision-free transmission during this period.
o After the data burst, resources are reallocated based on new requests.
3. Adaptability:
o These protocols can adapt to changing network conditions, such as varying
traffic patterns, node mobility, and changes in network topology.

Types of Demand Assignment Protocols

1. Centralized Protocols:
o Centralized protocols involve a central node that manages the allocation of
resources to other nodes in the network.
o Nodes send requests for resources to the central node, which then allocates
resources based on availability and priority.
Examples of Centralized Protocols:

• HIPERLAN/2:
o A centralized protocol where nodes send bandwidth requests to a central
controller.
o The central controller allocates resources and sends confirmation back to the
nodes.
• DQRUMA (Distributed-Queue Request Update Multiple Access):
o Nodes send bandwidth requests to a central controller, which manages
resource allocation.
• MASCARA:
o A centralized protocol with similar operation to HIPERLAN/2 and DQRUMA,
focusing on efficient resource allocation.
• Polling Schemes:
o The central node polls associated nodes to determine their need for resources.
o Nodes can also piggyback requests onto data packets sent in their allocated
slots.
• IEEE 802.15.4:
o A protocol where a central coordinator allocates resources in a star topology.
o Suitable for networks with energy-unconstrained central nodes.

2. Distributed Protocols:
o In distributed protocols, nodes coordinate among themselves to allocate
resources without relying on a central controller.
o This can reduce the burden on any single node and improve scalability.

Examples of Distributed Protocols:

• Token-Passing Protocols (e.g., IEEE 802.4 Token Bus):

o Nodes pass a token frame that grants the right to transmit data.
o The token circulates among nodes organized in a logical ring.

Advantages of Demand Assignment Protocols

• Efficient Utilization:
o Resources are allocated based on current demand, leading to more efficient
use of the communication medium.
• Adaptability:
o These protocols can quickly adapt to changes in network conditions, traffic
patterns, and topology.
• Reduced Collisions:
o By granting exclusive access to resources during transmission, collisions are
minimized.

Disadvantages of Demand Assignment Protocols

• Complexity:
o The need for dynamic allocation and coordination can introduce complexity,
especially in distributed implementations.
• Central Node Dependency:
RTS/CTS

• RTS and CTS stand for Request to Send and Clear to Send, respectively. They are
signals used in data communication to manage the flow of data between devices,.
Here's what each means:

RTS (Request to Send): Request to Send (RTS) is a control frame employed in the
medium access control (MAC) layer protocol IEEE 802.11 RTS/CTS.

• The protocol uses the concept of Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (MACA)
in wireless networks. The RTS/CTS (Request to Send / Clear to Send) mechanism
aims to reduce frame collisions introduced by the hidden terminal problem.
• RTS is a signal sent by the transmitting device to the receiving device to ask
permission to send data. It indicates that the transmitting device is ready to send
data and is requesting clearance from the receiving device.

Working Principle of MACA implementing RTS

The MACA protocol works with the condition that the communicating stations are synchronized
and frame sizes and data speed are the same.

Let us consider that a transmitting station STA has data frame to send to a receiving station STB.
The operation works as follows -

• Station STA sends a RTS frame to the receiving station.

• On receiving the RTS, station STB replies by sending a CTS frame.
• On receipt of CTS frame, station STA begins transmitting its data frame.
• After successful receipt of the data frame, station STB sends an ACK frame
(acknowledgement frame).

The sequence is illustrated as follows –

Frame Format of RTS frame There are five fields in a RTS frame, namely -
• Frame Control: This is a 2 – bytes control field.
• Duration: It is a 2 – bytes field that specifies the transmission time required by the
data frame.
• RA (Receiver Address): It is a 6 – bytes address field.
• TA (Transmitter Address): It is a 6 – bytes address field.
• FCS (Frame Check Sequence): It is a 4 – bytes sequence for error detection.
Generally cyclic redundancy code (CRC) is used.

CTS (Clear to Send):

• Clear to Send (CTS) is a control frame employed in the medium access control
(MAC) layer protocol IEEE 802.11 RTS/CTS.
• The protocol uses the concept of Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (MACA)
in wireless networks. The RTS/CTS (Request to Send / Clear to Send) mechanism
aims to reduce frame collisions introduced by the hidden terminal problem.
• CTS frame is sent by the receiver after it gets the RTS frame prior to receiving of the
actual data frame.
• CTS is a signal sent by the receiving device to the transmitting device to grant
permission to send data. When the receiving device is ready to accept data, it
sends a CTS signal to the transmitting device, indicating that the transmission
can proceed.

Working Principle of MACA implementing CTS

The MACA protocol works with the condition that the communicating stations are
synchronized and frame sizes and data speed are the same. Let us consider that a transmitting
station STA has data frame to send to a receiving station STB.
The operation works as follows -

• Station STA sends a RTS frame to the receiving station.

• On receiving the RTS, station STB replies by sending a CTS frame.
• On receipt of CTS frame, station STA begins transmitting its data frame.
• After successful receipt of the data frame, station STB sends an ACK frame
(acknowledgement frame).

The sequence is illustrated as follows –

Frame Format of CTS frame

There are four fields in a CTS frame, namely -
• Frame Control: This is a 2 – bytes control field.
• Duration: It is a 2 – bytes field that specifies the transmission time required by the
data frame.
• RA (Receiver Address): It is a 6 – bytes address field.
• FCS (Frame Check Sequence): It is a 4 – bytes sequence for error detection.
Generally cyclic redundancy code (CRC) is used.

Collision Avoidance:

• Network Allocation Vector (NAV):

o Nodes hearing RTS, CTS, data, or ACK packets set a NAV timer to avoid
transmitting while the medium is in use.
o Prevents collisions and ensures no transmissions interfere with ongoing data
exchanges.