Module 4 / Unit 1

Network Components

A network is two or more computer systems linked together by some form of

transmission medium that enables them to share information. The network
technology is what connects the computers, but the purpose of the network is
to provide services or resources to its users. These services may include
access to shared files and folders, printing, and database applications.

Networks are built from media, appliances, and protocols but they exist to provide services and
resources to users. (Image by Svetlana Kurochkina © 123rf.com.)

Network Clients and Servers

Network clients are computers and software that allow users to request
resources shared by and hosted on servers.

LANs and WANs

Networks of different sizes are classified in different ways. A network in a
single location is often described as a Local Area Network (LAN). This
definition encompasses many different types and sizes of networks though. It
can include both residential networks with a couple of computers and
enterprise networks with hundreds of servers and thousands of workstations.
Typically, most of the equipment and cabling used on a LAN is owned and
operated by the company or organization using the LAN.

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 Networks in different geographic locations but with shared links are called Networking Concepts
Wide Area Networks (WAN). A WAN is more likely to make use of a service
provider network. Companies that operate national telephone networks are
called telecommunications companies or telcos. Companies that specialize
in providing Internet access are called Internet Service Providers (ISP).
Telcos operate as ISPs themselves but also make parts of their networks
available to smaller ISPs.

Network Media
A network is made by creating communications pathways between the devices
on the network. Network endpoints can be referred to as nodes or hosts.
Communications pathways are implemented using an adapter installed in the
host to transmit and receive signals and network media between the interfaces
to carry the signals. There are two main types of local network connections:

■ Wired data connections use cabling and either electrical signals over
copper wire or light signals over fiber optic to connect nodes. Most local
networks use a wired network standard called Ethernet to implement these
links.

■ Wireless (Wi-Fi) data connections use radio signals to transmit signals

over the air. With Wi-Fi, a node usually connects to an access point at a
range of up to about 30m.

Wide area networks can also use copper or fiber optic cabling and various
types of wireless networking, including point-to-point radio, cellular radio, and
satellite communications.

Addressing and Protocols

Network signals must be packaged in such a way that each host is able to
understand them. Also, each host must have a means of recognizing the
location of other hosts on the network. These functions are provided by a
network protocol. A network protocol identifies each host on the network using
a unique address. It also defines a packet structure. A packet is a wrapper for
each data unit transmitted over the network. A packet generally consists of a
header (indicating the protocol type, source address, destination address,
error correction information, and so on) and a payload (the data).

Networks use multiple protocols. The packet from one protocol can
be wrapped within the packet from another (encapsulation).

The overwhelming majority of networks use TCP/IP to perform these functions.

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Module 4 / Unit 1
TCP/IP

In an age when even your refrigerator is connected to the Internet, it’s

important that you understand the basics of networking, specifically, how the
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) suite of protocols
works to provide the apps and services we increasingly rely on.

Packet Transmission
The original research underpinning TCP/IP was performed in the late 1960s
and early 1970s by the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA), which
is the research arm of the US Department of Defense (DoD). The DoD
wanted to build a network to connect a number of military sites. The prototype
was a research network called ARPANET, first operational in 1972. This
connected four university sites using a system described as a packet
switching network.

Prior to this development, any two computers wanting to communicate had to

open a direct channel, known as a circuit. If this circuit was broken, the
computers would stop communicating immediately. Packet switching
introduces the ability for one computer to forward information to another. To
ensure information reaches the correct destination, each packet is addressed
with a source and destination address and then transferred using any available
pathway to the destination computer. A host capable of performing this
forwarding function is called a router.

A packet switching protocol is described as "robust" because it can

automatically recover from communication link failures. It re-routes data
packets if transmission lines are damaged or if a router fails to respond. It can
utilize any available network path rather than a single, dedicated one.

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Packet switching internetwork. Image © 123rf.com.
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 The figure above shows an example of an internetworking system. A packet Networking Concepts
being sent from Network A to Network D may be sent via Network C (the
quickest route). If this route becomes unavailable, the packet is routed using
an alternate route (for example, A-F-E-D).

As well as the forwarding function and use of multiple paths, data is divided
into small chunks or packets. Using numerous, small packets means that if
some are lost or damaged during transmission, it is easier to resend just the
small, lost packets than having to re-transmit the entire message.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite Layers

The major benefit in utilizing TCP/IP is the wide support for the protocol. It is
the primary protocol of the Internet and the World Wide Web. It is also the
primary protocol for many private internets, which are networks that connect
Local Area Networks (LANs) together.

As mentioned above, TCP/IP is a suite or set of network transport protocols.

When considering network technologies and protocols, it is helpful to conceive
of them as working in layers. The TCP/IP model consists of four layers, each
with defined functions. At each layer are protocols within the TCP/IP suite, or
its supporting technologies, that make use of the protocols in the layer below
and provide services to the protocols in the layer above:

Layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite.

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Module 4 / Unit 1 The four layers are as follows:

■ Link or Network Interface layer—responsible for putting frames onto the

physical network. This layer does not contain TCP/IP protocols as such. At
this layer, different networking products and media can be used, such as
Ethernet or Wi-Fi. Communications on this layer take place only on a local
network segment and not between different networks. Data at the link layer
is packaged in a unit called a frame.

■ Internet layer—encapsulates packets into Internet datagrams and deals

with routing between different networks. Three key protocols are used at
this layer:

● Internet Protocol (IP)—the main protocol in the TCP/IP suite is

responsible for logical addressing and routing of packets between hosts
and networks.

● Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)—used for hardware address

resolution. Each host has a link or network interface layer address,
usually called the Media Access Control (MAC) address, to identify it on
the local physical network. To deliver packets, this local MAC address
must be resolved to a logical IP address using ARP.

● Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)—sends messages and

reports on errors regarding packet delivery.

■ Transport layer—these protocols provide communication sessions

between computers. Each application protocol is identified at the transport
layer by a port number. There are two transport protocols:

● Transport Control Protocol (TCP) provides connection-oriented

delivery. This means that the delivery is reliable and that packets are
delivered in the correct sequence.

● User Datagram Protocol (UDP) provides connectionless delivery –

there is no guarantee that packets will arrive in the correct sequence.
Any issues arising from the unreliable nature of UDP must be dealt with
at the application layer. The advantage of UDP is that there is less
overhead involved in processing and transmitting each packet and so it
is faster than TCP.

■ Application layer—the top level of the architecture contains protocols that

provide the communications formats for exchanging data between hosts,
such as transmitting an email message or requesting a web page.

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 Internet Protocol Networking Concepts

The Internet Protocol (IP) is the primary protocol responsible for the
forwarding function we defined above. It provides packet delivery for all higher-
level protocols within the suite. It provides best effort delivery between hosts
on a local network or within an internetwork of an unreliable and
connectionless nature.

Delivery is not guaranteed and a packet might be lost, delivered out of

sequence, duplicated, or delayed.

IP Packet Structure
At the IP layer, any information received from the transport layer is wrapped in
a datagram. The transport layer datagram is the payload and IP adds a
number of fields in a header to describe the payload and how to deliver it:

Field Explanation
Source IP address Identifies the sender of the datagram by IP
address.
Destination IP Identifies the destination of the datagram
address by IP address.
Protocol Indicates whether the data should be
passed to UDP or TCP at the destination
host.
Checksum Verifies the packet's integrity upon arrival
at the destination.
Time to Live The number of seconds a datagram is
allowed to stay on the network before
being discarded, otherwise packets could
endlessly loop around an internet. A router
will decrease the TTL by at least one
second when it handles the packet, and is
required to decrement the TTL by at least
the time spent in the router.

Once the fields have been added, the IP datagrams are packaged into a
suitable frame format and delivered over the local network segment.

IP Addresses
As you can see from the fields in the datagram, an IP address is used to
logically identify each device (host) on a given network. An IP address is a 32-
bit binary value. To make this value easier to enter in configuration dialogs, it is
expressed as four decimal numbers separated by periods: 172.30.15.12 for
instance. Each number represents a byte value, that is, an eight-character
binary value, also called an octet, or a decimal value between 0 and 255. This
is referred to as dotted decimal notation.
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Module 4 / Unit 1 Recall that you can convert between binary and decimal by setting out the
place value of each binary digit. For example, you can convert 172 as follows:

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0
128*1 64*0 32*1 16*0 8*1 4*1 2*0 1*0
128 + 0 + 32 + 0 + 8 + 4 + 0 + 0
= 172

Refer back to Unit 2.1 for the topic on binary and decimal notation.

This information relates to IP version 4. IP version 6 (IPv6) defines

longer addresses (128 bit compared to 32 bit). These are
expressed in hex notation (2001:db8::abc:0:def0:1234 for
example).

Network Prefixes and Subnet Masks

An IP address encodes two pieces of information:

■ The network number (network ID)—this number is common to all hosts on

the same IP network.

■ The host number (host ID)—this unique number identifies a host on a

particular network or logical subnetwork.

In order to distinguish the network ID and host ID portions within an address,

each host must also be configured with a network prefix length or subnet
mask. This is combined with the IP address to determine the identity of the
network to which the host belongs.

The network prefix is also a 32-bit number. It contains a contiguous series of

binary ones where the matching bit of the IP address is a part of the network
ID. The rest of the mask is zeroes and represents the host ID bits in the IP
address. For example, the prefix /8 would contain eight binary ones followed
by 24 binary zeros. The prefix could also be expressed as a subnet mask by
converting it to dotted decimal (255.0.0.0).

IPv6 only uses network prefixes to identify the network portion of

the address.

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 Packet Delivery and Forwarding Networking Concepts

The Internet Protocol (IP) covers addressing and forwarding at a "logical" level
between networks with distinct IDs (network layer). Actual delivery of
information takes place at the lower physical/data link layer. The IP datagram
is put into a frame. Frames can only be delivered over a local network
segment.

MAC Addresses
Frames use a different addressing method than IP. At the data link layer, each
host is identified by the address of its network interface. This is called a
hardware address or a Media Access Control (MAC) address. The MAC
address is assigned to the network adapter at the factory. It is a 48-bit value
expressed in hex notation. It is often displayed as six groups of two
hexadecimal digits with colon or hyphen separators or no separators at all (for
example, 00:60:8c:12:3a:bc or 00608c123abc) or as three groups of
four hex digits with period separators (0060.8c12.3abc).

Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)

If two systems are to communicate using IP, the host sending the packet must
map the IP address of the destination host to the hardware address of the
destination host. The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is the protocol that
enables this process of local address discovery to take place. Hosts broadcast
ARP messages onto the local network to find out which host MAC address
"owns" a particular IP address. If the destination host responds, the frame can
be delivered. Hosts also cache IP:MAC address mappings for several minutes
to reduce the number of ARP messages that have to be sent.

Using ARP for local address resolution.

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Module 4 / Unit 1 Routing
If the destination IP address is a local one (with the same network ID as the
source), the host uses ARP messaging to discover the local destination host. If
the network IDs are different, the sending host uses ARP messaging to
discover a router on the local segment (its default gateway) and uses that to
forward the packet. The router forwards the packet to its destination (if known),
possibly via intermediate routers.

DNS and URLs

As we have seen, network addressing uses 48-bit MAC values at the data link
layer and 32-bit IP addresses at the network layer. Computers can process
these numbers easily, but they are very difficult for people to remember or type
correctly.

People find it much easier to address things using simple names.

Consequently, there are protocols to assign names to hosts and networks and
to convert these names into IP addresses. The name resolution protocol used
with the TCP/IP suite is called the Domain Name System (DNS).

Domain Name System (DNS)

DNS name resolution hierarchy.

The Domain Name System (DNS) is a hierarchical, client/server-based

distributed database name management system. The purpose of the DNS
database is to resolve resource names to IP addresses. In the DNS, the clients
are called resolvers and the servers are called name servers. The DNS
database is distributed because no one DNS server holds all possible DNS
records. This would be far too much information for a single server to store.
Instead, the hierarchical nature of the DNS namespace enables DNS servers
to query one another for the appropriate record.

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 The namespace is structured like an inverted tree, starting at the root, and Networking Concepts
working down. Below the root are a set of Top Level Domains (TLD) that define
broad classes of entities (.com versus .gov, for instance) or national
authorities (.uk versus .ca, for instance). Within the TLDs, entities such as
companies, academic institutions, non-profits, governments, or even
individuals can all register individual domains. An organization may also create
sub-domains to represent different parts of a business. Domains and sub-
domains contain resource records. These records contain the host name to IP
address mapping information used to resolve queries.

Any computer holding records for a part of the namespace is said to be a

name server. Name servers that contain the requested resource records for a
particular namespace are said to be authoritative. If they are not authoritative
for a namespace, they will have pointers to other name servers which might be
authoritative.

Resolvers are software programs running on client computers. For example,

name resolution is a critical part of web browsing, so web browser software will
implement a resolver.

Hostnames and Fully Qualified Domain Names

A hostname is just the name given to an IP host. A hostname can be
configured as any string with up to 256 alphanumeric characters (plus the
hyphen), though most hostnames are much shorter. The hostname can be
combined with information about the domain in which the host is located to
produce a Fully Qualified Domain Name (FQDN). For example, if www is a
host name, then the FQDN of the host www within the comptia.org domain is
www.comptia.org.

DNS Query Example

In the graphic below, a client needs to establish a session with the
www.comptia.org web server.

Resolving a hostname using DNS.

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Module 4 / Unit 1 1) The resolver (client) sends a recursive DNS query to its local DNS server
asking for the IP address of www.comptia.org. The local name server
checks its DNS data corresponding to the requested domain name.

A recursive query makes the local name server responsible for

resolving the name and means it cannot just refer the resolver to
another name server.

2) It then sends a query for www.comptia.org to a root name server.

3) The root name server has authority for the root domain and will reply with
the IP address of a name server for the .org top level domain.

4) The local name server sends an iterative query for www.comptia.org to

the .org name server.

An iterative query means that the local name server does not
expect the .com name server to return a record and that it will
accept a referral to another name server. Name servers that are
authoritative for domains will only typically respond to iterative
queries.

5) The .com name server doesn't have a resource record www.comptia.org

but it can provide the IP address of the name server responsible for the
comptia.org domain.

6) The local name server now queries the comptia.org name server for the IP
address of www.comptia.org.

7) The comptia.org name server replies with the IP address corresponding to

the FQDN www.comptia.org.

8) The local name server sends the IP address of www.comptia.org back

to the original resolver.

Note how each query brings the local name server closer to the IP address of
www.comptia.org.

Uniform Resource Locators (URL)

When a web browser is used to request a record from a web server, the
request must have some means of specifying the location of the web server
and the resource on the web server that the client wants to retrieve. This
information is provided as a Uniform Resource Locator (URL).

The URL (or web address) contains the information necessary to identify and
(in most cases) access an item.

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 Networking Concepts

URL with 1) Protocol; 2) Host location; 3) File path.

A URL consists of the following parts:

1) Protocol—this describes the access method or service type being used.

URLs can be used for protocols other than HTTP/HTTPS. The protocol is
followed by the characters ://

2) Host location—this could be an IP address, but as IP addresses are very

hard for people to remember, it is usually represented by a Fully Qualified
Domain Name (FQDN). DNS allows the web browser to locate the IP
address of a web server based on its FQDN.

3) File path—specifies the directory and file name location of the resource, if
required. Each directory is delimited by a forward slash. The file path may
or may not be case-sensitive, depending on how the server is configured. If
no file path is used, the server will return the default (home) page for the
website.

Internet Application Services

The protocols we have discussed so far all involve supporting communications

with addressing formats and forwarding mechanisms. At the application layer,
there are protocols that support services, such as publishing, e-commerce, or
messaging. The TCP/IP suite encompasses a large number and wide range of
application layer protocols. Some of the principal protocols amongst these are
discussed below.

HTTP and HTML

HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is the basis of the World Wide Web.
HTTP enables clients (typically web browsers) to request resources from an
HTTP server. A client connects to the HTTP server using its TCP port (the
default is port 80) and submits a request for a resource using a Uniform
Resource Locator (URL). The server acknowledges the request and returns
the data.

To run a website, an organization will typically lease a server or space on a

server from an ISP. Larger organizations with their own Internet Point-of-
Presence may host websites themselves. Web servers are not only used on
the Internet however. Private networks using web technologies are described
as intranets (if they permit only local access) or extranets (if they permit
remote access).

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Module 4 / Unit 1 HTTP is usually used to serve HTML web pages, which are plain text files with
coded tags (HyperText Markup Language) describing how the page should
be formatted. A web browser can interpret the tags and display the text and
other resources associated with the page, such as picture or sound files.
Another powerful feature is its ability to provide hyperlinks to other related
documents. HTTP also features forms mechanisms (GET and POST) whereby
a user can submit data from the client to the server.

The functionality of HTTP servers is often extended by support for scripting

and programmable features (web applications).

SSL/TLS
One of the critical problems for the provision of early e-commerce sites was the
lack of security in HTTP. Under HTTP, all data is sent unencrypted and there is
no authentication of client or server. Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) was
developed by Netscape and released as version 3.0 in 1996 to address these
problems. SSL proved very popular with the industry and is still in widespread
use. Transport Layer Security (TLS) was developed from SSL and ratified as
a standard by IETF. TLS is now the version in active development, with 1.2 as
the latest version.

SSL/TLS is closely associated with use of the HTTP application, referred to as

HTTPS or HTTP Over SSL or HTTP Secure but can also be used to secure
other TCP/IP application protocols.

HTTPS operates over port 443 by default. HTTPS operation is

indicated by using https:// for the URL and by a padlock icon shown
in the browser.

Essentially, a server is assigned a digital certificate by some trusted

Certificate Authority. The certificate proves the identity of the server,
assuming that the client trusts the Certificate Authority. The server uses the
digital certificate and the SSL/TLS protocol to encrypt communications
between it and the client. This means that the communications cannot be read
or changed by a third party.

Use the padlock icon displayed next to a secure web address to verify the identity of the certificate
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holder.· JUL 22 2021

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 Electronic Mail (Email) Networking Concepts

Email is a messaging system that can be used to transmit text messages and
binary file attachments encoded using Multipurpose Internet Mail
Extensions (MIME). Email can involve the use of multiple protocols. The
following process illustrates how an email message is sent from a typical
corporate mail gateway, using the Microsoft Exchange mail server, to a
recipient with dial-up Internet access:

1) The email client software on the sender's computer

([email protected]) sends the message to the Exchange email server
using Microsoft's MAPI (Message Application Programming Interface)
protocol. The mail server puts the message in a queue, waiting for the next
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) session to be started.

2) When the Exchange SMTP server starts to process the queue, it first
contacts a DNS server to resolve the recipient's address (for example,
[email protected]) to an IP address for the
othercompany.com email server, listed as an MX (Mail Exchanger)
record in DNS.

3) It then uses SMTP to deliver the message to this email server. The delivery
usually requires several "hops," from the mail gateway to the sender's
Internet Service Provider (ISP), then to the recipient's ISP. The hops taken
by a message as it is delivered over the Internet are recorded in the
message header.

Viewing SMTP Internet headers for a mail message. Screenshot used with permission from
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Microsoft.

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Module 4 / Unit 1 4) The message is put in the message store on the recipient's mail server. To
retrieve it, the recipient uses his or her mail client software to connect with
the mailbox on the server, using the Post Office Protocol v3 (POP3) or
Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP).

When using POP3, the messages are usually deleted from the server when
they are downloaded, though some clients have the option to leave them on
the server. IMAP supports permanent connections to a server and connecting
multiple clients to the same mailbox simultaneously. It also allows a client to
manage the mailbox on the server, to organize messages in folders and
control when they are deleted for instance, and to create multiple mailboxes.

Email communications between a client and server would normally

be protected with SSL/TLS security.

Configuring Email
To configure an email account, you need the user name, password, and
default email address, plus incoming and outgoing server addresses and
protocol types from the ISP.

Configuring an email account—the incoming server is either POP3 or IMAP while the outgoing
server is SMTP. Screenshot used with permission from Microsoft.

Internet email addresses follow another URL scheme (mailto). An Internet

email address comprises two parts; the user name (local part) and the domain
name, separated by an @ symbol. The domain name may refer to a company
or an ISP. For example, [email protected]
or [email protected].

Different mail systems have different requirements for allowed and disallowed
characters in the local part. The local part is supposed to be case-sensitive,
but most mail systems do not treat it as such. An incorrectly addressed email
will be returned with a message notifying that it was undeliverable. Mail may
also be
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 Networking Concepts

Review Questions / Module 4 / Unit 1 / Networking Concepts

Answer these questions to test what you have learned in this unit.

1) What is a WAN?

2) What is a packet made up of?

3) What are the key features of a packet switching network?

4) What protocol is usually used to provide logical addressing on networks?

5) What type of address identifies a network interface in the context of the

local network segment only?

6) What type of device is used to transfer packets between different

networks?

7) Which protocol allows people to use names/labels to address network

resources rather than numeric addresses?

8) Which of the following parts of a web address is usually depends on a

name resolution service: protocol type, host location, file path?

9) What does HTTP stand for?

10) Which email protocol(s) are used to download messages from a mail
server?

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Module 4 / Unit 2
Module 4 / Unit 2
Connecting to a Network

Objectives
On completion of this unit, you will be able to:

□ Identify the roles of different network devices in providing local and Internet
network connectivity.

□ Distinguish the advantages and disadvantages of Internet connection

types.

□ Connect a computer to a wired or wireless network.

□ Configure a wireless access point to use secure network settings.

Syllabus Objectives and Content Examples

This unit covers the following exam domain objectives and content examples:

□ 2.4 Compare and contrast common Internet service types.

Fiber optic • Cable • DSL • Wireless (Radio frequency, Satellite, Cellular)

□ 2.7 Explain basic networking concepts.

Devices (Modem, Router, Switch, Access point)

□ 2.8 Given a scenario, install, configure and secure a basic wireless

network.
802.11a/b/g/n/ac (Older vs. newer standards, Speed limitations,
Interference and attenuation factors) • Best practices (Change SSID,
Change default password, Encrypted vs. unencrypted [Open, Captive
portal, WEP, WPA, WPA2])

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 Internet Service Types Connecting to a Network

The sort of equipment and networks used at home and in small businesses are
often described as SOHO (Small Office Home Office). A SOHO network is
typically based around a single multifunction device. This type of network
device can perform the following sort of functions:

■ Switch—connects four or eight computers together in an Ethernet LAN

using RJ-45 network ports and twisted-pair cabling.

■ Access Point (AP)—creates a Wi-Fi wireless network (WLAN) between

computers and mobile devices equipped with suitable adapters and also
switches communications between the wired and wireless networks.

■ Internet router/modem—connects the wired and wireless network clients

to the Internet via a WAN link.

Typical SOHO Internet router/modems—the antennas visible on the one on the left show that it
can also function as a wireless access point. (Image © 123rf.com.)

These devices are often simply referred to as "routers." It is

possible for the modem and the router to be separate appliances.
The function of the modem is to transmit frames across the WAN
link, while the function of the router is to forward packets between
the local network and the Internet.

There are various ways in which the WAN link can be provisioned.

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Module 4 / Unit 2 Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)
Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) is one of the most popular SOHO Internet
service types. DSL works over an ordinary telephone line, providing the line is
of sufficient quality. The DSL modem/router is connected to the telephone line
using a cable with RJ-11 connectors between the WAN port on the router and
the telephone point. Data is transferred over the line using the high frequency
ranges that voice calls don't need to use. The telephone point is fitted with a
microfilter to prevent the data signals interfering with voice calls and vice versa.

Most residential DSL services are asymmetric (ADSL), meaning that the uplink
(up to about 1.4 Mbps) is slower than the downlink (up to about 24 Mbps). The
speeds achievable are heavily depending on the quality of the telephone wiring
and the distance to the local telephone exchange. The maximum supported
distance is about three miles.

Fiber Optic
Faster Internet services can be provisioned using fiber optic networks. Fiber
optic cables perform much better over long distances and are not affected by
noise in the way that electrical signals over copper cable are. Unfortunately,
providing a fiber cable all the way to customer premises, referred to as Fiber
to the Home (FTTH), requires substantial investment by the telecom providers
and is not widely available.

Fiber to the Curb (FTTC) is a compromise solution widely deployed in urban

and some rural areas. FTTC means that the telecom provider has installed a
fiber network terminating at a cabinet somewhere in a nearby street. Each
residence is connected to the fiber network over the ordinary copper telephone
cabling using Very High Bit Rate DSL (VDSL). VDSL supports a downlink of
up to 52 Mbps and an uplink of 16 Mbps at a distance of up to about 300m.
VDSL2 also specifies a very short range (100m/300 feet) rate of 100 Mbps (bi-
directional). The VDSL Internet modem/router is connected in much the same
way as an ADSL modem/router.

Cable
Where FTTC is offered by providers with origins in the telephone network, a
cable Internet connection is usually provided as part of a Cable Access TV
(CATV) service. These networks are often described as Hybrid Fiber Coax
(HFC) as they combine a fiber optic core network with coax links to customer
premises equipment. Coax is another type of copper cable but manufactured in
a different way to twisted pair.

The cable modem or modem/router is interfaced to the computer through an

Ethernet adapter and to the cable network by a short segment of coax,
terminated using an F-connector.

Cable based on the Data Over Cable Service Interface Specification

(DOCSIS) version 3.0 supports downlink speeds of up to about 1.2 Gbps. Most
service providers packages do not offer those kinds of speeds however, with
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 Connecting to a Network

Each Internet access type requires a specific modem or

router/modem. You cannot use an ADSL router/modem to connect
to an FTTC or HFC service for instance.

Verifying a Wired Connection

When you connect a Windows computer to a wired network, the network icon
in the notification area of the taskbar should show a valid connection. A red
cross on the icon indicates that either the cable is not connected properly, is
faulty, or the network switch/router is faulty. A yellow alert on the icon indicates
that the link has not been configured properly with IP address information and
cannot connect to the Internet.

Network status icons showing (left-to-right) a working connection, a disconnected cable, and a
connection with unknown or incomplete address information. Screenshot used with permission
from Microsoft.

The Internet Protocol (IP) address information is usually configured by the

router, using a service called the Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
(DHCP). You would need to investigate either the settings on the adapter or
the switch/router.

You can test an Internet connection quite simply by trying to browse a website.

Wireless Internet Services

While a cabled Internet service will usually offer the best bandwidth, they are
not always available. Wireless services can be used in areas where it is too
difficult or expensive to lay cable.

Microwave Satellite
Satellite systems provide far bigger areas of coverage than can be achieved
using other technologies. The microwave dishes are aligned to orbital satellites
that can either relay signals between sites directly or via another satellite. The
widespread use of satellite television receivers allows for domestic Internet
connectivity services over satellite connections. Satellite services for business
are also expanding, especially in rural areas where DSL or cable services are
less likely to be available.

Satellite connections experience severe latency problems as the signal has to

travel thousands of miles more than terrestrial connections, introducing a delay
of 4–5 times what might be expected over a land link. For example, if
accessing a site in the US from Europe takes 200ms over a land (well,
undersea) link, accessing the same site over a satellite link could involve a
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Module 4 / Unit 2 To create a satellite Internet connection, the ISP installs a satellite dish
(antenna) at the customer's premises and aligns it with the orbital satellite. The
satellites all orbit the equator, so in the northern hemisphere the dish will be
pointing south. The antenna is connected via coaxial cabling to a DVB-S
(Digital Video Broadcast Satellite) modem. This can be installed in the PC as
an expansion card or as an external box connected via a USB or Ethernet port.

Cellular Radio
Cellular data connections use radio transmissions but at greater range than
Wi-Fi. Cellular data is more closely associated with Internet access for cell
phones and smartphones than with computers.

That said, a cell phone can share its Internet connection with a
computer (tethering), if the computer has no other means of
Internet access.

A cellular phone makes a connection using the nearest available transmitter

(cell or base station). Each base station has an effective range of up to five
miles (eight km). The transmitter connects the phone to the mobile and PSTN
networks. Cellular radio works in the 850 and 1900 MHz frequency bands
(mostly in the Americas) and the 900 and 1800 MHz bands (rest of the world).

Cellular digital communications standards developed in two competing formats,

established in different markets:

■ GSM (Global System for Mobile Communication)-based phones. GSM

allows subscribers to use a SIM (Subscriber Identity Module) card to use
an unlocked handset with their chosen network provider. GSM is adopted
internationally and by AT&T and T-Mobile in the US.

■ TIA/EIA IS-95 (cdmaOne)-based handsets. With CDMA, the handset is

managed by the provider not the SIM. CDMA adoption is largely restricted
to the telecom providers Sprint and Verizon.

There are many different cellular Internet service types, marketed in terms of
"generations" (3G, 4G, and 5G). Support for a particular type is dependent on
the local cell tower. Some of the technologies used include:

■ GPRS/EDGE (General Packet Radio Services/Enhanced Data Rates for

GSM Evolution) is a precursor to 3G (2.5G) with GPRS offering up to
about 48 Kbps and EDGE about 3–4 times that.

■ Evolved High Speed Packet Access (HSPA+) is a 3G standard

developed via several iterations from the Universal Mobile
Telecommunications System (UMTS) used on GSM networks. HSPA+
nominally supports download speeds up to 168 Mbps and upload speeds
up to 34 Mbps. HSPA+-based services are often marketed as 4G if the
nominal data rate is better than about 20 Mbps.

■ CDMA2000/Evolution
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standards deployed by CDMA network providers. EV-DO can support a 3.1
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 ■ Long Term Evolution (LTE) is a converged 4G standard supported by Connecting to a Network
both the GSM and CDMA network providers. LTE has a maximum
downlink of 150 Mbps in theory, but no provider networks can deliver that
sort of speed at the time of writing, with around 20 Mbps far more typical of
the speed that might actually be obtained.

■ LTE Advanced (LTE-A) is intended to provide a 300 Mbps downlink, but

again this aspiration is not matched by real world performance. Current
typical performance for LTE-A is around 40 Mbps.

Radio Frequency
As noted above, Radio Frequency (RF) is a means of provisioning a wireless
local network using Wi-Fi standard equipment. While this isn't a means of
Internet service provision in itself, it is a means for a client to connect to a
wireless router offering Internet access.

As well as the wireless router in your home network, you could use an open or
public access point to get on the Internet. You have to be careful to secure
the connections you open when doing this and to avoid using public access
points that have been set up for malicious purposes.

When using an open access point, only use web servers

supporting the HTTPS secure protocol if transferring information.
Similarly, ensure that your connection to your email provider uses a
secure type of SMTP and POP3/IMAP.

Setting Up a Wireless Network

A typical SOHO network appliance provides four wired Ethernet ports to

connect hosts to the local network via a built-in switch and, via a built-in router
and WAN modem, to the Internet. Most consumers need to connect more than
four devices to the network, and it is not very convenient to have to use those
devices only in locations where they can be cabled to the router.
Consequently, most SOHO networks rely heavily on wireless (Wi-Fi)
networking.

Wireless Standards and Compatibility

"Wireless networking" is generally understood to mean the IEEE's 802.11
standards for Wireless LANs (WLAN), also called Wi-Fi. There are several
versions of the standard, starting with the legacy 802.11a and 802.11b, which
supported data rates of 54 Mbps and 11 Mbps respectively. Subsequently,
802.11g acted as an upgrade path for 802.11g, working at 54 Mbps but also
allowing support for older 802.11b clients. 802.11a was not as widely adopted
but does use a less crowded frequency band (5 GHz) and is considered less
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802.11b/g.

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Module 4 / Unit 2 The 802.11n standard can use either frequency band and deliver much
improved data rates (nominally up to 600 Mbps). The latest 802.11ac standard
is now widely supported. 802.11ac access points can deliver up to 1.7 Gbps
throughput at the time of writing. 802.11ac works only in the 5 GHz range with
the 2.4 GHz band reserved for legacy standards support (802.11b/g/n).

Standard Maximum Transfer Rate Band

802.11a (1999) 54 Mbps 5 GHz
802.11b (1999) 11 Mbps 2.4 GHz
802.11g (2003) 54 Mbps 2.4 GHz
802.11n (2009) 72.2 Mbps/stream (Single Channel) 2.4/5 GHz
150 Mbps/stream (Bonded Channels)
802.11ac (2013) 1.7 Gbps (at time of writing) 5 GHz

Most SOHO routers support 802.11g/n or 802.11g/n/ac. This means that you
can have a mix of client devices. For example, you might have a new router
that supports 802.11ac but computers and tablets with wireless adapters that
only support 802.11n. You can use the access point in compatibility mode to
allow these devices to connect.

Compatibility modes can slow the whole network down, especially

if 802.11b clients have to be supported. If possible, use newer
standards only.

Configuring an Access Point

To configure an access point, you connect a PC or laptop to one of the LAN
ports on the SOHO router. The SOHO router should assign the computer's
adapter an Internet Protocol (IP) address using a service called the Dynamic
Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP). If this has worked properly, you should
see the network status icon in the notification area.

Look at the SOHO router's setup guide to find out the router's IP address.
Open a web browser and type the router's IP address into the address bar.
This should open a management page for you to log on. Enter the user name
and password listed in the router's setup guide. Most routers will invite you to
complete the configuration using a wizard, which guides you through the
process.

Use the System page to choose a new admin password. The admin password
is used to configure the router. It is vital that this password be kept secret and
secure. You must choose a strong password that cannot be cracked by
password-guessing software. Use a long, memorable phrase of at least 12
characters.

You must always change the default password (typically

"default,"
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access.
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 Use the Wireless settings page to configure the router as an access point. Connecting to a Network
Having checked the box to enable wireless communications, you can adjust
the following settings from the default.

It is best practice not to enable services you do not need,

especially on a multifunction device such as this. Most devices are
now shipped in "security-enabled" configurations, meaning that you
explicitly have to choose to enable services that you want to run.

■ SSID (Service Set ID)—a name for the WLAN. This is usually set by default
to the router vendor's name. It is a good idea to change the SSID from the
default to something unique to your network. Remember that the SSID is
easily visible to other wireless devices, so do not use one that identifies
you personally or your address. The SSID can be up to 32 characters.

Configuring a SOHO access point.

■ Wireless mode—enable compatibility for different 802.11 devices.

Configuring Wireless Security

To prevent snooping, you should enable encryption on the wireless network.
Encryption scrambles the messages being sent over the WLAN so that anyone
intercepting them is not able to capture any valuable information. An
encryption system consists of a cipher, which is the process used to scramble
the message, and a key. The key is a unique value that allows the recipient to
decrypt a message that has been encrypted using the same cipher and key.
Obviously, the key must be known only to valid recipients or the encryption
system will offer no protection.

Following our SOHO router configuration example, under Encryption, you

would select the highest security mode supported by devices on the network.

■ WEP (Wired Equivalent Privacy)—this is an older standard. WEP is

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Module 4 / Unit 2 ■ Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA)—this fixes most of the security problems
with WEP. WPA uses the same weak RC4 (Rivest Cipher) cipher as WEP
but adds a mechanism called the Temporal Key Integrity Protocol (TKIP)
to make it stronger.

■ WPA2—this implements the 802.11i WLAN security standard. The main

difference to WPA is the use of the AES (Advanced Encryption
Standard) cipher for encryption. AES is much stronger than RC4/TKIP.
The only reason not to use WPA2 is if it is not supported by devices on the
network. In many cases, devices that can support WPA can be made
compatible with WPA2 with a firmware or driver upgrade.

See Unit 5.3 for more information about ciphers and encryption.

On a SOHO network, you would also generate a Pre-Shared Key (PSK) using
a wireless password. When you type a password into the box, the router
converts it into an encryption key to use with the cipher. You can see the key in
the screenshot above expressed as hex numerals. The same wireless
password must be entered on client devices for them to connect to the WLAN.

Choose a strong passphrase and keep it secret. In order to

generate a strong key, use a long phrase (at least 12 characters).
The passphrase can be up to 63 characters long, but making it too
long will make it very hard for users to enter correctly.

Do not use the same wireless password as the admin

password. The wireless password can be shared with anyone
you want to allow to connect to the network. The admin
password must be kept secret.

Open Authentication and Captive Portals

Selecting open authentication means that the client is not required to
authenticate. This mode would be used on a public AP (or hotspot). This also
means that data sent over the wireless network is unencrypted.

Open authentication may be combined with a secondary authentication

mechanism managed via a browser. When the client associates with the open
hotspot and launches the browser, the client is redirected to a captive portal.
This will allow the client to authenticate to the hotspot provider's network (over
HTTPS so the login is secure). The portal may also be designed to enforce
terms and conditions and/or take payment to access the Wi-Fi service.

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 Configuring a Wireless Client Connecting to a Network

To connect a Windows computer to a wireless network, click the network

status icon in the notification area . Select the network name and then click
Connect. If you leave Connect automatically selected, Windows will save the
password and always try to connect to this SSID when it is in range. In the next
panel, enter the wireless password (PSK):

Connecting to a network and entering the network security key (password). Screenshot used with
permission from Microsoft.

When you connect to a new network, you are prompted to set its location. If
the link is configured as Public (selecting No in Windows 10), your computer is
hidden from other computers on the same network and file sharing is disabled.
If it is configured as Private (home or work) by selecting Yes, the computer is
discoverable and file sharing is enabled.

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Module 4 / Unit 2 Speed Limitations (Attenuation and Interference)
A device supporting the Wi-Fi standard should have a maximum indoor range
of up to about 30m (100 feet), though the weaker the signal, the lower the data
transfer rate. The distance between the wireless client (station) and access
point determines the attenuation (or loss of strength) of the signal. Each
station determines an appropriate data rate based on the quality of the signal
using a mechanism called Dynamic Rate Switching/Selection (DRS). If the
signal is strong, the station will select the highest available data rate,
determined by the 802.11 standard. If the signal is weak, the station will reduce
the data rate to try to preserve a more stable connection.

Radio signals pass through solid objects, such as ordinary brick or drywall
walls but can be weakened or blocked by particularly dense or thick material
and metal. Other radio-based devices and nearby Wi-Fi networks can also
cause interference. Other sources of interference include devices as various
as fluorescent lighting, microwave ovens, cordless phones, and (in an
industrial environment) power motors and heavy machinery. Bluetooth uses
the 2.4 GHz frequency range but a different modulation technique, so
interference is possible but not common.

Connecting to an Enterprise Network

An enterprise network uses the same sort of switch, access point, and router
technologies as a SOHO network. In a SOHO network, these technologies are
likely to be combined within a single multifunction appliance. On an enterprise
network, multiple switch, access point, and router appliances will be used.

Cabled Enterprise Network Access

An office building is likely to be flood wired with cabling so that there are
network ports at every desk. A computer can be connected to the network via
an RJ-45 patch cable (or possibly a fiber optic patch cable) plugged into one of
these network ports.

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Modular wall plate with an RJ-45 patch cord connected. Image by Nikolai Lebedev © 123rf.com.
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 The cabling from each port is routed back to a telecommunications room where Connecting to a Network
it is connected to an Ethernet switch. While the switch in a SOHO Internet
router usually provides four ports, a single enterprise switch will support 20
ports or more. Modular enterprise switches can support hundreds of ports.
Furthermore, the switches can be interconnected to create a switched fabric
supporting thousands of ports within the same LAN.

Cisco Catalyst 3650 Series workgroup switch. Image © and Courtesy of Cisco Systems, Inc.
Unauthorized use not permitted.

Wireless Enterprise Network Access

Wireless enterprise network access also works in the same basic way to
SOHO but at a bigger scale. Enterprise access points can support more
devices than consumer-level ones.

Cisco Aironet access point. Image © and Courtesy of Cisco Systems, Inc. Unauthorized use not
permitted.

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Module 4 / Unit 2 Enterprise Network Routers
While the switches and access points can provide thousands of ports and
network connections, it is inefficient to have that many connections to the
same "logical" network. The ports are divided into groups using a technology
called Virtual LAN (VLAN) and each VLAN is associated with a different
subnet. Communications between different VLANs have to go through a router.

Cisco 1000 Series Advanced Services Router. Image © and Courtesy of Cisco Systems, Inc.
Unauthorized use not permitted

The graphic below illustrates how the network components described above
might be positioned. The whole network is connected to the wider Internet via
a router. The router is also used to divide the network into two subnets (A and
B). Within each subnet, a switch is used to allow nodes to communicate with
one another and, through the router, to the other subnet and the Internet. The
link between each node and the switch is a segment.

Positioning network components.

High bandwidth backbone segments are used between the router and the
Internet and between the router and the two switches.

Note that this diagram is very much simplified. An enterprise

network might use hundreds of switches and tens of router
appliances. The routers used within the network and for Internet
access are also likely to be separate appliances.
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 Connecting to a Network

Review Questions / Module 4 / Unit 2 / Connecting to a Network

Answer these questions to test what you have learned in this unit.

1) What device is used to connect computers together in an Ethernet

network?

2) What is the difference between a modem and a router?

3) Can you list at least four Internet access methods?

4) What is the latest Wi-Fi standard and which frequency band(s) does it use?

5) What information do you need to configure a wireless connection

manually?

6) What is the risk of using a free Wi-Fi network to make an order from an
online shop?

7) What does attenuation mean?

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Module 4 / Unit 2

Lab 17 / Network Settings

In this lab, you will verify the network connection between your computer and
your Internet router. This lab assumes that you have a SOHO router configured
to connect to the Internet and assign local network settings to connected
computers.

1) If necessary, start your computer and sign in.

2) If you have a wired connection to the router, make the following checks:

○ The router is powered on and connected to the telephone point. Also

verify that its "Internet," "WAN," or "DSL" LED is green.

○ The computer is connected to the router via a cable connecting the RJ-
45 ports on the two devices.

○ The network status icon in the notification area shows a connected

symbol and pointing at the icon reveals an "Internet access" tooltip.

If there is a warning icon the connection has not been correctly

configured by the router or the router is not connected to the

Internet. If there is a red cross icon then the cable is faulty or

not connected properly.

○ If you open the web browser then you can view a website such as
www.comptia.org.

3) If you have a wireless connection to the router, make the following checks:

○ The network status icon in the notification area shows a connected

symbol and pointing at the icon reveals an "Internet access" tooltip.

○ If the icon shows that connections are available , click it, select your
wireless network name (SSID) and click Connect, then input the
passkey.

○ If you open the web browser then you can view a website such as
www.comptia.org.

4) Right-click the network status icon and select Open Network & Internet
Settings.

From here, you can configure Wi-Fi or Ethernet (as appropriate) settings,
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 Connecting to a Network

Network & Internet Settings. Screenshot used with permission from Microsoft.

5) Click the WiFi or Ethernet tab (depending on whether your computer has a
wireless or wired connection).

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WiFi tab. Screenshot used with permission from Microsoft.
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Module 4 / Unit 2

Ethernet tab. Screenshot used with permission from Microsoft.

6) Click Network and Sharing Center.

Network and Sharing Center. Screenshot used with permission from Microsoft.

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 7) Under "view your active networks," click the Ethernet link or the SSID Connecting to a Network
(depending on whether your link is wired or wireless). This displays a
Status dialog showing the protocol used by the connection and the link
speed

Ethernet Status dialog. Screenshot used with permission from Microsoft.

8) Click the Details button. This shows the configuration of the link, including
the Internet Protocol (IP) address (192.168.1.127 in the example below)
and the IP address of the default gateway—your Internet router
(192.168.1.254).

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Module 4 / Unit 2

Network Connection Details dialog. Screenshot used with permission from Microsoft.

9) Make a note of the "IPv4 Default Gateway":

____________________________________________________________

10) Click Close then Close again to close both dialogs.

11) Open the web browser then type the IP address of your default gateway
into the address bar.

This should load the configuration page for your Internet router. You could
log on here using the administrative credentials supplied with your router to
change settings or investigate problems.

12) Optionally, shut down your computer if you are not continuing to use it after
this lab.

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