UNIT-I

Introduction to internet of things

The Internet of Things (IoT) refers to the interconnected network of physical devices,
vehicles, appliances, and other objects embedded with sensors, software, and network
connectivity, enabling them to collect and exchange data. In simpler terms, IoT involves
connecting everyday objects to the internet, allowing them to send and receive
information.

Components of the Internet of Things include:

Things/Devices: These are the physical objects or devices equipped with sensors,
actuators, and connectivity features. Examples include smart thermostats, wearable
fitness trackers, industrial sensors, and more.

Sensors and Actuators: Sensors collect data from the surrounding environment, such
as temperature, humidity, motion, or light. Actuators, on the other hand, enable devices
to perform physical actions based on the received data, such as adjusting the
temperature or activating an alarm.

Connectivity: IoT devices use various communication technologies to connect to the

internet or to other devices. Common communication protocols include Wi-Fi,
Bluetooth, Zigbee, and cellular networks.

Data Processing: Collected data is processed and analyzed either locally on the device
or in the cloud. This processing generates meaningful insights and actions based on the
gathered information.

Cloud Computing: The cloud plays a crucial role in IoT by providing storage,
processing power, and a platform for managing and analyzing data from a large number
of devices.
Data Security: With the vast amount of data being generated and exchanged, ensuring
the security and privacy of this information is a critical aspect of IoT. Security measures
include encryption, authentication, and secure communication protocols.

Applications: IoT has applications across various industries, including smart homes,
healthcare, agriculture, manufacturing, transportation, and more. Examples include
smart cities, connected cars, remote patient monitoring, and predictive maintenance in
industrial settings.

The benefits of IoT include improved efficiency, enhanced decision-making,

automation of tasks, and the creation of new business models.
However, challenges such as security concerns, interoperability issues, and the ethical
use of data need to be addressed as the IoT ecosystem continues to evolve.

The Internet of Things is rapidly transforming the way we interact with the world,
creating opportunities for innovation and advancements across different sectors.

Characteristics of IOT:

The Internet of Things (IoT) exhibits several key characteristics that distinguish it
from traditional systems and contribute to its transformative impact on various
industries.
Here are some notable characteristics of IoT:

Connectivity: IoT devices are designed to connect to the internet and/or other devices,
enabling seamless communication. This connectivity allows devices to share data,
receive updates, and respond to commands in real-time.

Sensing and Actuation: IoT devices are equipped with sensors to gather data from the
environment. These sensors can detect various parameters such as temperature,
humidity, motion, light, and more. Actuators, in turn, enable devices to perform actions
based on the collected data.
Data Collection and Analysis: IoT generates vast amounts of data through sensor
readings and other sources. This data is then processed and analyzed to extract
meaningful insights. Machine learning algorithms and analytics play a crucial role in
deriving patterns, trends, and actionable information from the collected data.

Remote Monitoring and Control: One of the key advantages of IoT is the ability to
remotely monitor and control devices. This feature is particularly valuable in scenarios
such as smart homes, industrial automation, and healthcare, where users can monitor
and manage devices from a distance.

Interoperability: IoT devices often come from different manufacturers and may use
different communication protocols. Interoperability ensures that these devices can work
together seamlessly, promoting a unified and integrated IoT ecosystem.

Scalability: IoT systems are designed to scale easily, accommodating a growing

number of devices and users. This scalability is essential as the number of connected
devices continues to increase, especially in applications like smart cities and industrial
IoT.

Security and Privacy: Given the sensitivity of the data collected by IoT devices,
security is a paramount concern. IoT systems employ various security measures,
including encryption, authentication, and secure communication protocols, to safeguard
data and protect user privacy.

Real-time Processing: Many IoT applications require real-time or near-real-time

processing of data. This is crucial for applications such as autonomous vehicles,
healthcare monitoring, and industrial control systems where timely decisions and
actions are critical.

Energy Efficiency: Many IoT devices operate with limited power resources, especially
in applications like wearable devices or remote sensors. Energy efficiency is a key
consideration in the design of IoT devices to ensure prolonged battery life and
sustainable operation.
Adaptability and Flexibility: IoT systems need to adapt to changing conditions and
requirements. This adaptability is crucial in dynamic environments where the network
topology, device configurations, and user needs may evolve over time.

Physical design of IOT:

The physical design of an IoT (Internet of Things) system involves the hardware
components and their arrangement to enable the collection, processing, and
communication of data. The design may vary based on the specific application and
requirements, but here are the fundamental elements typically found in the physical
design of an IoT system:

1. Sensors and Actuators:

Sensors: These are devices that collect data from the physical environment. Examples
include temperature sensors, motion sensors, humidity sensors, and more. Sensors are
crucial for gathering information that IoT devices use to make decisions.
Actuators: These are components that perform physical actions based on the data
received from sensors. Examples include motors, relays, and servos. Actuators enable
IoT devices to influence or control the environment.

2.Communication Modules:

Connectivity: IoT devices need communication modules to transmit and receive data.
Common communication protocols include Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, Zigbee, cellular
networks, and LoRa (Long Range). The choice of communication technology depends
on factors such as range, power consumption, and data rate.
Processing Unit:

3.Microcontrollers or Microprocessors: These components process the data collected

by sensors and make decisions based on programmed logic or algorithms. The
processing unit can range from simple microcontrollers for basic tasks to more powerful
microprocessors for complex computations.
Power Supply:

4. Batteries or Power Sources: IoT devices often need a power source to operate.
Depending on the application, power may come from batteries, solar panels, or other
energy harvesting methods. Power efficiency is critical, especially for devices in remote
or hard-to-reach locations.
Memory Storage:

5. Storage Components: IoT devices may require memory storage for storing data
locally or for firmware updates. This can include non-volatile memory such as Flash
memory or EEPROM.
Enclosure and Packaging:

6. Physical Enclosure: IoT devices are often housed in protective enclosures to shield
them from environmental factors like dust, moisture, and physical damage. Enclosures
should be designed to allow necessary sensor exposure and provide access for
maintenance or upgrades.
User Interface (Optional):

7. Display or Interface Elements: In some cases, IoT devices may include a user
interface, such as an LED display, touch screen, or buttons. This allows users to interact
with the device directly.
Security Features:

8. Security Components: Hardware security modules, encryption modules, and secure

elements may be integrated to enhance the device's security. This is crucial to protect
sensitive data and prevent unauthorized access.
Modularity and Scalability:

9. Modular Design: IoT systems should be designed with modularity in mind, allowing
for easy integration or replacement of components. This facilitates scalability and
adaptability as the system evolves.
Environmental Considerations:

10. Temperature, Humidity, and Environmental Sensors: In applications where

environmental conditions are critical, additional sensors may be incorporated to
monitor and adapt to changes in temperature, humidity, or other factors.

Functional blocks of IOT:

The term "functional block" in the context of the Internet of Things (IoT) typically
refers to the various components or modules that work together to enable the
functionality of an IoT system. These functional blocks play specific roles in collecting,
processing, and transmitting data in IoT applications.

The Internet of Things (IoT) is a rapidly growing industry, with more and more devices
becoming connected on a regular basis. The Internet of Things devices range from small
sensors to huge machines and systems, but they all have one thing in common: they
generate data. IoT systems use functional blocks to make sense of this data and extract
value from it. These blocks are distinct components of the IoT system that carry out
specialized functions.

In this article, we will discuss more about functional blocks in IoT.

IoT Functional Blocks:

IoT systems are composed of a number of building blocks, including sensors/actuators,

connectivity, security, services, etc. The functional blocks are responsible for sensing,
verification, actuation, management, and communication.

These functional blocks are made up of devices that handle interactions between a web
server and the client, enable controls and monitoring functions, manage data transfer,
secure the IoT system through authentication and various purposes, and offer an
interface for monitoring and managing various concepts. Let’s gather more information
about the IoT Functional Blocks.
Sensor/Actuator block:

The sensor/actuator block serves as the data entry point in an IoT system. Sensors
collect data from their surroundings, whereas actuators drive physical processes.
Sensors gather data on temperature, humidity, light, motion, and other variables,
whereas actuators turn on lights, open doors, and control machines. These gadgets work
together to collect data and operate in the physical world.

Connectivity Block:

Once the sensor/actuator block has collected data, it must be sent to the remainder of
the system. This is when the connection block enters the picture. The connectivity block
is in charge of creating and managing communication channels amongst IoT system
devices. This can be accomplished with the use of several technologies such as Wi-Fi,
Bluetooth, ZigBee, and cellular networks.

Data Processing Block:

The obtained data is examined and processed in the data processing block. This block
is in charge of filtering out noise and irrelevant data, converting the data into an easily
studied format, and recognizing patterns and anomalies in the data. This block can also
execute real-time analysis, enabling speedy data-driven decisions.

Application Block:

The application block is the component of the IoT system that gives value to the end
user. This block is in charge of utilizing the processed data to provide a specified
function or service. An application block, for example, could be used to provide insights
into energy usage in a building or to adjust the temperature in a greenhouse.

Security Block:
The security block is in charge of assuring the IoT system's security and protection
against illegal access. This block is in charge of authentication and authorization, as
well as data encryption during transmission and storage. It also handles intrusion
detection and response, assisting in the prevention and mitigation of threats.

Management Block:
The management block is in charge of overseeing the overall operation of the IoT
system. This block is capable of handling device configuration, firmware updates, and
system monitoring. It can also give analytics and reporting, allowing system
administrators to understand how the system is operating and find areas for
improvement.

Advantages of IoT Functional Blocks

IoT Functional Blocks provide various advantages to enterprises and people interested
in implementing IoT solutions.
These advantages include −
Scalability
IoT Scalability is built into Functional Blocks, allowing enterprises to add new devices
and services to their IoT system as needed. The capacity to scale assures that an IoT
system can grow and react to changing business needs and future technology.

Interoperability
IoT Functional Blocks is a standardized architecture for developing IoT solutions. This
standardization means that devices and services from various suppliers may function
seamlessly together, enhancing interoperability and lowering integration costs.
Modularity:
Because IoT Functional Blocks are modular, they may be swapped, modified, or added
as needed. Because of this versatility, enterprises can select the optimal components for
their IoT system and easily swap out components as needed.

Flexibility:
IoT Functional Blocks offer a variety of deployment choices. Depending on their needs,
businesses can implement an IoT system on-premises, in the cloud, or in a hybrid
approach.
Conclusion
The IoT functional blocks collaborate to build a strong and functional IoT system. It is
easier to comprehend how the system works and how different components interact
with one another when it is broken down into discrete components. This might be useful
for troubleshooting and diagnosing system difficulties. Furthermore, the usage of
functional blocks in IoT systems provides for increased modularity and flexibility,
making it easier to add new components or upgrade current ones.

Here are some common functional blocks in an IoT system:

Sensors and Actuators:

Sensors: These devices capture data from the physical world. Examples include
temperature sensors, motion sensors, humidity sensors, etc.
Actuators: They perform actions in the physical world based on the data received.
Examples include motors, relays, and servos.
Connectivity:

Communication Protocols: IoT devices need a way to communicate with each other
and with central systems. Common protocols include MQTT, CoAP, HTTP, and others.
Network Connectivity: Devices may use various networking technologies such as Wi-
Fi, Bluetooth, Zigbee, or cellular networks to connect to each other or to the cloud.
Edge Computing:

Edge Devices: Some processing of data can occur at the edge, closer to the data source,
to reduce latency and bandwidth usage.
Edge Computing Units: These units process and filter data locally before sending
relevant information to the cloud.
IoT Gateway:
Responsible for aggregating data from multiple devices and forwarding it to the cloud.
It may also perform data preprocessing and conversion between different
communication protocols.
Cloud Computing:

IoT Platform: Cloud-based platforms that manage and analyze the data received from
IoT devices. Examples include AWS IoT, Azure IoT, and Google Cloud IoT Core.
Data Storage: Cloud-based databases and storage solutions for storing and managing
large volumes of IoT data.
Data Processing and Analytics:

Big Data Analytics: Tools and algorithms for processing and analyzing the massive
amounts of data generated by IoT devices.
Machine Learning: In some cases, machine learning models may be applied to derive
insights or make predictions based on the IoT data.
User Interface:

Dashboard and Visualization: Interfaces for end-users or administrators to monitor and

control IoT devices. This could include web-based dashboards or mobile applications.
Security:

Authentication and Authorization: Ensuring that only authorized users and devices can
access and control IoT systems.
Encryption: Protecting data in transit and at rest to maintain the confidentiality and
integrity of the information.

SENSING:
Sensors in Internet of Things(IoT)

Generally, sensors are used in the architecture of IOT devices.

Sensors are used for sensing things and devices etc.

A device that provides a usable output in response to a specified measurement.

The sensor attains a physical parameter and converts it into a signal suitable for
processing (e.g. electrical, mechanical, optical) the characteristics of any device or
material to detect the presence of a particular physical quantity.
The output of the sensor is a signal which is converted to a human-readable form like
changes in characteristics, changes in resistance, capacitance, impedance, etc.

Transducer :
A transducer converts a signal from one physical structure to another.
1.It converts one type of energy into another type.
2.It might be used as actuator in various systems.

Sensors characteristics :
1.Static
2.Dynamic

1. Static characteristics :
It is about how the output of a sensor changes in response to an input change after steady
state condition.
Accuracy: Accuracy is the capability of measuring instruments to give a result close to
the true value of the measured quantity. It measures errors. It is measured by absolute
and relative errors. Express the correctness of the output compared to a higher prior
system. Absolute error = Measured value – True value
Relative error = Measured value/True value
Range:
Gives the highest and the lowest value of the physical quantity within which the sensor
can actually sense. Beyond these values, there is no sense or no kind of response.
e.g. RTD for measurement of temperature has a range of -200`c to 800`c.
Resolution: Resolution is an important specification for selection of sensors. The higher
the resolution, better the precision. When the accretion is zero to, it is called the
threshold.
Provide the smallest changes in the input that a sensor is able to sense.
Precision: It is the capacity of a measuring instrument to give the same reading when
repetitively measuring the same quantity under the same prescribed conditions.
It implies agreement between successive readings, NOT closeness to the true value.
It is related to the variance of a set of measurements.
It is a necessary but not sufficient condition for accuracy.
Sensitivity: Sensitivity indicates the ratio of incremental change in the response of the
system with respect to incremental change in input parameters. It can be found from
the slope of the output characteristics curve of a sensor. It is the smallest amount of
difference in quantity that will change the instrument’s reading.
Linearity: The deviation of the sensor value curve from a particularly straight line.
Linearity is determined by the calibration curve. The static calibration curve plots the
output amplitude versus the input amplitude under static conditions.
A curve’s slope resemblance to a straight line describes linearity.
Drift: The difference in the measurement of the sensor from a specific reading when
kept at that value for a long period of time.
Repeatability: The deviation between measurements in a sequence under the same
conditions. The measurements have to be made under a short enough time duration so
as not to allow significant long-term drift.
Dynamic Characteristics :
Properties of the systems
Zero-order system: The output shows a response to the input signal with no delay. It
does not include energy-storing elements.
Ex. potentiometer measure, linear and rotary displacements.
First-order system: When the output approaches its final value gradually.
Consists of an energy storage and dissipation element.
Second-order system: Complex output response. The output response of the sensor
oscillates before steady state.
Sensor Classification :
Passive & Active
Analog & digital
Scalar & vector

Passive Sensor –
Can not independently sense the input. Ex- Accelerometer, soil moisture, water level
and temperature sensors.
Active Sensor –
Independently sense the input. Example- Radar, sounder and laser altimeter sensors.
Analog Sensor –
The response or output of the sensor is some continuous function of its input parameter.
Ex- Temperature sensor, LDR, analog pressure sensor and analog hall effect.
Digital sensor –
Response in binary nature. Design to overcome the disadvantages of analog sensors.
Along with the analog sensor, it also comprises extra electronics for bit conversion.
Example – Passive infrared (PIR) sensor and digital temperature sensor(DS1620).
Scalar sensor –
Detects the input parameter only based on its magnitude. The answer for the sensor is
a function of magnitude of some input parameter. Not affected by the direction of input
parameters.
Example – temperature, gas, strain, color and smoke sensor.
Vector sensor –
The response of the sensor depends on the magnitude of the direction and orientation
of input parameter. Example – Accelerometer, gyroscope, magnetic field and motion
detector sensors.
Types of sensors –
Electrical sensor :
Electrical proximity sensors may be contact or non contact.
Simple contact sensors operate by making the sensor and the component complete an
electrical circuit.
Non- contact electrical proximity sensors rely on the electrical principles of either
induction for detecting metals or capacitance for detecting non metals as well.

Light sensor:
Light sensor is also known as photo sensors and one of the important sensor.
Light dependent resistor or LDR is a simple light sensor available today.
The property of LDR is that its resistance is inversely proportional to the intensity of
the ambient light i.e when the intensity of light increases, it’s resistance decreases and
vise versa.

Touch sensor:
Detection of something like a touch of finger or a stylus is known as touch sensor.
It’s name suggests that detection of something.
They are classified into two types:
1.Resistive type
2.Capacitive type
Today almost all modern touch sensors are of capacitive types.
Because they are more accurate and have better signal to noise ratio.
Range sensing:
Range sensing concerns detecting how near or far a component is from the sensing
position, although they can also be used as proximity sensors.
Distance or range sensors use non-contact analog techniques. Short range sensing,
between a few millimetres and a few hundred millimetres is carried out using electrical
capacitance, inductance and magnetic technique.

Longer range sensing is carried out using transmitted energy waves of various types
eg radio waves, sound waves and lasers.
Mechanical sensor:
Any suitable mechanical / electrical switch may be adopted but because a certain
amount of force is required to operate a mechanical switch it is common to use micro-
switches.
Pneumatic sensor:
These proximity sensors operate by breaking or disturbing an air flow.
The pneumatic proximity sensor is an example of a contact type sensor. These cannot
be used where light components may be blown away.
Optical sensor:
In there simplest form, optical proximity sensors operate by breaking a light beam
which falls onto a light sensitive device such as a photocell. These are examples of non
contact sensors. Care must be exercised with the lighting environment of these sensors
for example optical sensors can be blinded by flashes from arc welding processes,
airborne dust and smoke clouds may impede light transmission etc.
Speed Sensor:
Sensor used for detecting the speed of any object or vehicle which is in motion is known
as speed sensor .For example – Wind Speed Sensors, Speedometer ,UDAR ,Ground
Speed Radar .
Temperature Sensor:
Devices which monitors and tracks the temperature and gives temperature’s
measurement as an electrical signal are termed as temperature sensors .These electrical
signals will be in the form of voltage and is directly proportional to the temperature
measurement .
PIR Sensor:
PIR stands for passive infrared sensor and it is an electronic sensor that is used for the
tracking and measurement of infrared (IR) light radiating from objects in its field of
view and is also known as Pyro electric sensor .It is mainly used for detecting human
motion and movement detection .
Ultrasonic Sensor:
The principle of ultrasonic sensor is similar to the working principle of SONAR or
RADAR in which the interpretation of echoes from radio or sound waves to evaluate
the attributes of a target by generating the high frequency sound waves

ACTUATION:
Actuators in IoT
An IoT device is made up of a Physical object (“thing”) + Controller (“brain”) + Sensors
+ Actuators + Networks (Internet). An actuator is a machine component or system that
moves or controls the mechanism of the system. Sensors in the device sense the
environment, then control signals are generated for the actuators according to the
actions needed to perform.

A servo motor is an example of an actuator. They are linear or rotatory actuators, can
move to a given specified angular or linear position. We can use servo motors for IoT
applications and make the motor rotate to 90 degrees, 180 degrees, etc., as per our need.

The following diagram shows what actuators do, the controller directs the actuator
based on the sensor data to do the work.

The control system acts upon an environment through the actuator. It requires a source
of energy and a control signal. When it receives a control signal, it converts the source
of energy to a mechanical operation. On this basis, on which form of energy it uses, it
has different types given below.

Types of Actuators :

1. Hydraulic Actuators –
A hydraulic actuator uses hydraulic power to perform a mechanical operation. They are
actuated by a cylinder or fluid motor. The mechanical motion is converted to rotary,
linear, or oscillatory motion, according to the need of the IoT device.
Ex- construction equipment uses hydraulic actuators because hydraulic actuators can
generate a large amount of force.

Advantages :
Hydraulic actuators can produce a large magnitude of force and high speed.
Used in welding, clamping, etc.
Used for lowering or raising the vehicles in car transport carriers.
Disadvantages :
Hydraulic fluid leaks can cause efficiency loss and issues of cleaning.
It is expensive.
It requires noise reduction equipment, heat exchangers, and high maintenance systems.

2. Pneumatic Actuators –
A pneumatic actuator uses energy formed by vacuum or compressed air at high pressure
to convert into either linear or rotary motion. Example- Used in robotics, use sensors
that work like human fingers by using compressed air.

Advantages :
They are a low-cost option and are used at extreme temperatures where using air is a
safer option than chemicals.
They need low maintenance, are durable, and have a long operational life.
It is very quick in starting and stopping the motion.

Disadvantages :
Loss of pressure can make it less efficient.
The air compressor should be running continuously.
Air can be polluted, and it needs maintenance.

3. Electrical Actuators –
An electric actuator uses electrical energy, is usually actuated by a motor that converts
electrical energy into mechanical torque. An example of an electric actuator is a
solenoid based electric bell.
Advantages :
It has many applications in various industries as it can automate industrial valves.
It produces less noise and is safe to use since there are no fluid leakages.
It can be re-programmed and it provides the highest control precision positioning.

Disadvantages :
It is expensive.
It depends a lot on environmental conditions.
Other actuators are –

Thermal/Magnetic Actuators –
These are actuated by thermal or mechanical energy. Shape Memory Alloys (SMAs) or
Magnetic Shape‐Memory Alloys (MSMAs) are used by these actuators. An example of
a thermal/magnetic actuator can be a piezo motor using SMA.
Mechanical Actuators –
A mechanical actuator executes movement by converting rotary motion into linear
motion. It involves pulleys, chains, gears, rails, and other devices to operate. Example
– A crankshaft.
Soft Actuators
Shape Memory Polymers
Light Activated Polymers
With the expanding world of IoT, sensors and actuators will find more usage in
commercial and domestic applications along with the pre-existing use in industry.

Basics of networking in IOT:

Networking in the Internet of Things (IoT) involves connecting a variety of devices and
sensors to the internet to enable communication, data exchange, and automation. Here
are some basics of networking in IoT:
Protocols: IoT devices communicate using various protocols such as MQTT (Message
Queuing Telemetry Transport), CoAP (Constrained Application Protocol), HTTP
(Hypertext Transfer Protocol), and others. These protocols govern how data is
transmitted, ensuring efficient and reliable communication.

Networking Technologies: IoT devices can connect to the internet through different
networking technologies including Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, Zigbee, Z-Wave, LoRaWAN
(Long Range Wide Area Network), cellular (3G/4G/5G), and more. The choice of
technology depends on factors such as range, power consumption, data rate, and
deployment environment.

Edge Computing: In IoT, edge computing refers to processing data near the source
(i.e., IoT devices) rather than sending it to a centralized cloud server. Edge computing
reduces latency, conserves bandwidth, and enhances privacy by processing sensitive
data locally.

Gateways: Gateways serve as intermediaries between IoT devices and the cloud or
other networks. They aggregate data from multiple devices, perform protocol
translation, and often provide security features such as encryption and firewall.

Security: Security is paramount in IoT networks to protect against data breaches,

unauthorized access, and tampering. Measures such as encryption, authentication,
access control, and firmware updates are essential to safeguard IoT systems.

Scalability: IoT networks must be scalable to accommodate a large number of devices

and adapt to changing requirements over time. Scalability involves efficient resource
management, addressing schemes, and network architecture design.

Interoperability: Interoperability ensures that IoT devices from different

manufacturers and using different technologies can communicate seamlessly.
Standardization efforts by organizations like the IEEE, IETF, and industry consortia
aim to promote interoperability among IoT devices.
Quality of Service (QoS): QoS mechanisms prioritize certain types of traffic over
others to ensure reliable and timely delivery of data. QoS parameters include latency,
reliability, and bandwidth, which are crucial for applications like real-time monitoring
and control.

Power Management: Many IoT devices are battery-powered or have limited power
sources. Efficient power management techniques, such as sleep modes, duty cycling,
and energy harvesting, are essential to prolong device lifespan and minimize
maintenance.

Data Management: IoT networks generate vast amounts of data, requiring efficient
storage, processing, and analysis. Cloud platforms, edge servers, and data analytics
tools are used to manage IoT data and derive actionable insights for decision-making.

COMMUNICATION PROTOCOLS:

Data Link Layer Communication Protocols in IoT

Several Communication Protocols are used in Internet of Things (IoT) to provide
service to the network layer.

The several network protocols (Communication protocols) are used to connect the IoT
enabled devices and to establish the communication.

Some of the popular Standard IoT communication protocols are:

Bluetooth :
Bluetooth is a PAN (Personal Area Network) or it is a short-range wireless
communication network for exchanging data between the connected devices through
that network. It is very cheaper in price and effective in a performance point of view
for short-range distance. It is a 2.4GHz network that works well for personal wireless
network communication. It provides a data transfer rate of 3 Mbps in a range of 50m to
150m. Nowadays Bluetooth is almost present in all smartphones and it is highly used
in wearable devices connected with the mobile applications.

ZigBee :
Zigbee is similar to Bluetooth technology with 2.4Ghz frequency. It is a low power
personal communication network. It is cheaper and is widely used for several
applications. It is used for specific commercial and industrial applications. Its range
varies from 10-100m. Mesh networking is one of the important advantages of Zigbee
technology. Zigbee supports star or mesh network topology.

BLE (Bluetooth Low Energy) :

Bluetooth Low Energy is also known as Bluetooth smart which is a wireless
PAN(Personal Area Network). The range is similar to that of Bluetooth but it consumes
low power than Bluetooth. In 2011 BLE was introduced as Bluetooth 4.0. BLE goes to
sleep mode when there is no transmission of data. It is a low-cost networking protocol.
The smartphones operating systems like android, ios, etc uses this BLE technology and
provide a Bluetooth network.

Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity) :

WiFi is a local area network which is a wireless network there is no wired connection.
It is Proposed by Wi-Fi Alliance. WiFi provides Internet access to devices within a
range of 60 feet to 100 feet. It uses high-frequency radio signals for sending and
receiving data. It uses the IEEE 802.11 standard. Its data rate varies from 2Mbps to
1.73Gbps. We can set up PAN (Personal Area Network) or LAN (Local Area Network)
or WAN (Wide Area Network) in IoT systems. By Routing, we can increase the
network area.

Z-Wave :
Z-wave technology is a wireless communication protocol that creates a wireless Mesh
network. It is based on low power RF(Radio Frequency) based technology. It is mainly
used for home automation applications and devices. It operates in 900 Mhz frequency
bands. It is a more secure technology. It offers data transfer rates of 9.6Kbps, 40Kbps,
or 100Kbps. Its range varies from 98 to 328 feet. It is low power and longer range IoT
technology.

RFID (Radio-Frequency Identification) :

Radio Frequency Identification technology uses radiofrequency waves to transfer data
between a reader and a movable item to identify and track. It does not require contact
between reader and tagged item. RFID tag, RFID reader, RFID antenna are the key
components of RFID technology. Tags operate depending upon their frequency bands
of 13.56 and are mostly used.

Cellular :
Increased quantities of data can be sent over longer distances or range by using Cellular
communications (GSM/3G/4G/5G etc). But it is very useful in sending a small quantity
of data over the internet. Cellular carriers manage the infrastructure so when we use it
we don’t need to worry about infrastructure costs and support costs.

Sigfox :
Sigfox is a form of wireless communications that provides low power and long-range
wireless connectivity for devices. The messages are transmitted over the Sigfox global
network. Sigfox provides one of the largest IoT networks. It is like Cellular network
type which sets up antennas on towers. It is a Low Power Wide Area Networks
(LPWAN).

Ethernet:
Ethernet is used to connect the devices in a Local Area Network (LAN) which is based
on IEEE 802.3 standard. Ethernet is a LAN technology in which the devices are wired
connection which provides data transfer rates as high as 100 Mbps. Choosing Ethernet
for IoT ecosystem is a little bit costly in terms of setup and management.

NFC (Near Field Communication) :

NFC is an IoT which helps to connect devices. It provides short-range wireless
connectivity technology but NFC transmission is slower than Bluetooth. It is based on
Radio Frequency Identity (RFID) technology. It can operate in low power. It operates
at 13.56 MHz frequency.
LPWAN (Low Power Wide Area Network) :
LPWAN (Low Power Wide Area Network) is a wireless wide area network technology
whose range varies from 2 km to 1000 km depending on the technology. Siggfox, LoRa
is the examples involve all major LPWAN technology.

LoRaWAN :
LoRaWAN(Long Range Wide Area Network) is a wide area network protocol. It is a
low power consumption protocol that targets the wide-area network (WAN)
applications with better security and mobility. It supports a large network with millions
and millions of low power devices deployed on public networks. It is along with range
bidirectional communication which has a range of more than 15 km.

SENSOR NETWORKS:

The Internet of Things (IoT) describes the network of physical objects—“things”—that

are embedded with sensors, software, and other technologies for the purpose of
connecting and exchanging data with other devices and systems over the internet.

Two types of sensor networks

There two types of sensor networks, wired and wireless. The components of a sensor
network include sensor nodes, sensors, the gateway, and a management node. The four
topologies of sensor networks are point to point, star, tree, and mesh.

There are many applications for sensor networks, from monitoring a single home, to
the surveillance of a large city, to earthquake detection for the whole world.

Sensor networks are networks of spatially distributed sensors that monitor physical or
environmental conditions, such as temperature, sound, vibration, pressure, motion, or
pollutants, and pass their data through the network to a central location. These networks
are typically used in applications such as environmental monitoring, infrastructure
management, healthcare, industrial sensing, and smart cities.

Here are some key components and aspects of sensor networks:

Sensors: These are devices that measure physical phenomena and convert them into
electrical signals. Sensors come in various types and can be deployed in different
environments based on the requirements of the application.
Communication Infrastructure: Sensor nodes are connected to each other and to a
central base station through wireless communication protocols such as Wi-Fi,
Bluetooth, Zigbee, or LoRa. This allows for data aggregation and transmission over
long distances.

Data Processing: Sensor nodes often have limited computational capabilities due to
constraints such as power and size. Data processing tasks may be distributed across the
network or centralized at a base station, depending on the application requirements.

Energy Efficiency: Many sensor networks are deployed in remote or harsh

environments where it may be difficult or costly to replace batteries. Therefore, energy
efficiency is a critical consideration in the design of sensor nodes and communication
protocols.

Scalability and Robustness: Sensor networks may need to scale to accommodate

hundreds or thousands of nodes spread over large areas. They should also be robust to
failures and environmental changes, with mechanisms for self-organization and self-
healing.

Data Fusion and Interpretation: Data from multiple sensors may need to be fused
and interpreted to extract meaningful information. This may involve techniques from
signal processing, machine learning, and data analytics.

Security and Privacy: Sensor networks may be vulnerable to various security threats
such as eavesdropping, tampering, or denial-of-service attacks. Security mechanisms
such as encryption, authentication, and intrusion detection are essential to protect data
integrity and privacy.
Applications: Sensor networks are used in a wide range of applications, including
environmental monitoring (e.g., air quality monitoring, water quality monitoring),
structural health monitoring, smart agriculture, home automation, and healthcare (e.g.,
remote patient monitoring).
Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) is an infrastructure-less wireless network that is
deployed in a large number of wireless sensors in an ad-hoc manner that is used to
monitor the system, physical or environmental conditions.
Sensor nodes are used in WSN with the onboard processor that manages and monitors
the environment in a particular area. They are connected to the Base Station which acts
as a processing unit in the WSN System.
Base Station in a WSN System is connected through the Internet to share data.

WSN can be used for processing, analysis, storage, and mining of the data.

Applications of WSN:

Internet of Things (IoT)

Surveillance and Monitoring for security, threat detection
Environmental temperature, humidity, and air pressure
Noise Level of the surrounding
Medical applications like patient monitoring
Agriculture
Landslide Detection