Shafique et al.

Environmental Sciences Europe (2024) 36:135 Environmental Sciences Europe

https://doi.org/10.1186/s12302-024-00931-8

REVIEW Open Access

Traversed dynamics of climate change

and One Health
Muhammad Shafique1, Mohsin Khurshid1, Saima Muzammil1, Muhammad Imran Arshad2, Imran Riaz Malik3,
Muhammad Hidayat Rasool1, Aimen Khalid1, Rabia Khalid1, Rubab Asghar1, Zulqarnain Baloch4 and
Bilal Aslam1*

Abstract
Climate change, caused by both natural and human activities, poses significant threats to global health, including ris-
ing temperatures, extreme weather events, and environmental disruptions. The One Health concept, emphasiz-
ing the interconnectedness of human, animal, and environmental health, is crucial in addressing these challenges.
Climate change is linked to the emergence and resurgence of infectious diseases, resulting in substantial economic
losses worldwide due to outbreaks, floods, and disrupted trade, among other factors. Therefore, it is crucial to adapt
to this changing climate to safeguard One Health. By implementing a One Health approach, we can effectively
address the consequences of climate change and make substantial contributions to health and food safety. This
approach also holds the potential to mitigate economic losses, particularly in low and middle-income countries.
Additionally, in the future, research interventions based on the One Health framework may offer sustainable solutions
to combat climate change.
Keywords Climate change, Infectious diseases, Health and food safety, Economic losses, Sustainable solutions, One
Health

Introduction change, despite the fact that both phrases are frequently
Climate change refers to long-term shifts in climate, used synonymously [2].
humidity, winds, and other weather patterns resulting The consensus among many scientists is that most
from natural and human factors that modify atmospheric global changes are caused by increasing levels of carbon
conditions [1]. As the biggest hazards to humankind dioxide ­(CO2), pollutants generated by human activities
in the twenty-first century, climate change and global and other greenhouse gases (GHGs) [3]. Human health
warming are threatening all facets of existence, according and lives are being impacted by the environmental effects
to the World Health Organization (WHO). Global warm- of climate change, which include rising sea levels, rising
ing is just a single aspect of the larger problem of climate temperatures, more extreme weather events, an increase
in droughts, flooding, and wildfires [4].
Global transformation processes are not limited to
*Correspondence:
Bilal Aslam local pollution but can lead to widespread disruption and
[email protected] exhaustion. To effectively mitigate and respond to these
1
Institute of Microbiology, Government College University Faisalabad, changes, it is crucial to comprehend simulation models,
Faisalabad, Pakistan
2
Institute of Microbiology, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan their complexity, and their future implications, as well as
3
Department of Biotechnology, University of Sargodha, Sargodha, to develop coordinated national policies across critical
Pakistan sectors [5].
4
Faculty of Life Science and Technology, Kunming University of Life
Science and Technology, Kunming, China The Lancet Countdown on Health and Climate Change
identifies the increasing consequences of infectious

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Shafique et al. Environmental Sciences Europe (2024) 36:135 Page 2 of 18

diseases as the foremost global health threat, accom- projected to rise, affecting the fixation of carbon, nitro-
panied by the adverse impacts of heat on work perfor- gen, and phosphorus. Loss of biodiversity might result
mance and health, as well as declining food quality and from this, especially with regard to microbes. Meth-
safety indices [6]. The effects of climate change on human ane ­(CH4), which is linked to fossil fuels, is produced by
health are multifaceted and dependent on various fac- methanogenic bacteria that are employed in agriculture
tors, such as demographic and socioeconomic changes, [13]. Natural processes control the amount of ­CH4 in the
vulnerability assessment, and the availability of adapta- atmosphere, but microbial populations in soil, water, and
tion strategies within public health systems [1]. land oxidize it. The rise in ­CH4 between 2014 and 2017 is
Considering the United Nations’ projections that the a sign of accelerating climate change and global warming
global population will reach 9.8 billion by 2050, it is [14].
essential to revisit the question of how we can achieve 15% of all emissions come from the agricultural sector,
specific climate goals and promote better health with- mostly from ­CH4 and N ­ 2O. If consumption patterns do
out reducing the actual number of individuals contrib- not change, non-agricultural greenhouse gas emissions
uting to environmental pressures. Low birth rates lead are expected to increase until 2055. However, it is antici-
to an increase aging population and the elderly popula- pated that emissions would increase even more quickly
tion is expected to have a significant impact on society, due to shifting consumer preferences for costly goods
highlighting the financial and political strains that many like milk and meat [15]. Emissions can be decreased by
nations’ health care, pension, and social security systems reducing meat consumption, mitigating the effects of
will likely experience in the next few years [7]. technology, or both. About 8–10% of emissions come
The term “one health” describes the greater significance from the cattle industry, while lifecycle study shows that
of saved human and animal lives, lower costs, and contin- this percentage might reach up to 18% [16].
ued provision of social and environmental services that A major contribution to the emissions from rice pads
result from improved collaboration across the fields of is rice consumption, which accounts for 20% of the emis-
animal and human health and other fields [8]. The con- sions [17]. Additionally, compared to plants that generate
cept of One Health emphasizes the interconnectedness of food, non-ruminant animal flesh produces around three
human, animal, and environmental well-being [9]. to ten times as much C ­ H4. Unsustainable agriculture uses
The primary focus of the One Health concept is to a lot of fertilizers, alters the biogeochemical cycles of car-
study the impact, responses, and actions related to the bon, nitrogen, and other critical components, and burns
interconnectedness of humans and animals, particularly fossil fuels, which also exacerbates human-induced cli-
in the context of emerging and pervasive zoonotic dis- mate change [18].
eases. These diseases bear a significant burden on devel- When it was discovered that man-made gases, such as
oping countries and have substantial social implications, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), may be up to ten thousand
especially in resource-limited settings [10]. times stronger than ­CO2, the greenhouse effect—which
In this article, we aim to provide valuable insights into was essentially an issue of addressing climate dynam-
the intersection of One Health and climate change, con- ics—was drastically altered. Some of the strongest super-
tributing to a better understanding of the issue and the greenhouse gases are these synthetic gases, which are
development of sustainable solutions. utilized in medicine delivery pumps and refrigerants
[19]. Molina and Rowland’s CFC11 and CFC12 would
Climate change accumulate in the atmosphere because of their extended
By the turn of the nineteenth century, it became evi- half-lives. When CFCs are photodissociated by UV light,
dent that changes in the concentration of GHGs in the ozone in the stratosphere is destroyed, creating an ozone
atmosphere could have an impact on weather patterns hole [20] (Fig. 1).
[11]. Since the onset of urbanization, particularly in the Climate change has significant implications for people’s
mid-twentieth century, human activities have signifi- access to food, with rising sea levels posing challenges
cantly increased the levels of GHGs, including C
­ O2, ­N2O, to agriculture and increasing temperatures leading to
methane, and fluorinated gases, while also reducing the land degradation and agricultural failures (US Natl. Res.
atmosphere’s reflectivity [12]. Climate encompasses long- Counc. 2016). Earth’s temperature has naturally varied
term weather patterns, including temperature, humidity, throughout history; the current changes are occurring at
and storm activity. The excessive accumulation of green- an unprecedented rate, potentially exceeding the capacity
house gas emissions on a global scale is the underlying of ecosystems to adapt, resulting in profoundly detrimen-
cause of human-induced climate change. tal trends in temperature and habitats [11].
40% of the terrestrial environment is currently occu- Apart from temperature fluctuations, rising sea levels,
pied by the agricultural sector, and this percentage is eutrophication, and changes in various climate-related
Shafique et al. Environmental Sciences Europe (2024) 36:135 Page 3 of 18

Fig. 1 Climate change contributing factor

aspects like species extinction, disruption of nutrient come. Anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions have
cycles, and the widespread use of harmful substances and already caused a 1 °C increase in the average global tem-
materials that impact ecosystems and human services perature compared to pre-industrial levels [12].
collectively contribute to overall environmental change Climate change manifests itself in various ways,
[21]. impacting multiple climatic parameters such as tempera-
By 2017, the global average temperature had already ture, precipitation (including amount, timing, and fre-
increased by 1 °C from pre-industrial levels. Limiting quency), humidity, wind (including velocity and timing),
global warming to below 2 °C is challenging, and even and gaseous concentrations. Analyzing these parameters
more so to achieve the target of 1.5 °C, which is consid- not only helps us understand the consequences of climate
ered the upper limit to prevent significant damage to change, but also serves as an indicator of its occurrence.
the economy, public health, well-being, and the Earth’s The intricate interplay of these climate factors directly
biosphere. The spread of nutritional deficiencies, ocean- affects agriculture, leading to inevitable and significant
related illnesses, and vector-borne diseases is expected to repercussions [24].
intensify [22]. In agriculture, climate change can disrupt essential
According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Cli- plant physiological processes, including photosynthesis,
mate Change (IPCC), achieving temperature increases respiration, transpiration, nutrient uptake, mineral bal-
of 1.5 °C or lower with limited or no overshoot would ance, and ionic exchange. Additionally, climate change
require rapid and profound transformations across can alter the population and behavior of pests and patho-
energy, land, urban infrastructure (including transpor- gens, further jeopardizing crop productivity [25].
tation and housing), and industrial systems (high confi- Previous studies have extensively examined the con-
dence) [23]. While these system changes may not occur nections between human well-being and the changes
overnight, their scale and urgency make them distinct induced by climate change. Research has consistently
from previous efforts. found direct consequences of climate change, particu-
The magnitude of these differences is so significant larly in relation to rising temperatures and their asso-
that some propose labeling the current geological period ciation with various health risks [26]. Furthermore, the
as anthropogenic, as the impacts are likely to be visible IPCC estimates that approximately 200 million people
in the Earth’s geological record for millions of years to will be at risk of multiple health issues due to factors
Shafique et al. Environmental Sciences Europe (2024) 36:135 Page 4 of 18

such as displacement, intrusion of ocean water into Changes in agricultural output, supply volatility, and
freshwater sources, disruptions in storm water drain- price effects will impact food security, including nutri-
age, and sewage disposal, primarily attributed to mid- tion-related concerns (Fig. 2).
range sea-level rise projections (a 40-cm rise by the The impacts of climate change are diverse and can be
2080s) [27]. observed across various ecosystems. In marine ecosys-
As temperatures rise, ozone concentrations are tems, for example, climate change can lead to increased
expected to change. These temperature changes will heat transfer rates, changes in ocean levels, reduced
have an impact on ozone, which is known to intensify nutrient availability, pH changes, and glacial loss. These
lung-related conditions like bronchitis, respiratory fail- changes can affect the timing of spring phytoplankton
ure, breathing problems, and premature death. Rise in blooms, which in turn can impact the entire food chain,
temperature is directly related to the emergence and from krill to fish to marine mammals and birds [29].
re-emergence of vector-borne diseases. For instance, On land, variations in rainfall such as acid rain and
rising temperature facilitates mosquitoes to breed concentration of rain can have significant ecological
and survive in the associated, which ultimately helps consequences. Temperate deserts, savannahs, and grass-
the mosquito to transmit the infectious agents to the lands are expected to respond in different ways to these
healthy population, e.g., malaria and dengue virus [28]. changes. Coastal habitats, such as scrublands, are par-
ticularly vulnerable, as drought and rising temperatures

Fig. 2 Impact of climate change on One Health perspective

Shafique et al. Environmental Sciences Europe (2024) 36:135 Page 5 of 18

can promote the expansion of deserts and grasslands Health strategy is. To improve cross-sector collabo-
[30]. The shift in latitudinal distribution of low-growing ration and advance One Health concepts into poli-
plants in tundra ecosystems can have cascading effects cies and actions, four global partners—the Food and
on the overall ecosystem, as they provide habitat for Agriculture Organization (FAO), the World Organi-
other animal species. Mountain-dwelling species are also zation for Animal Health (OIE), the United Nations
at high risk due to limited opportunities for uphill migra- Environment Programme (UNEP), and the World
tion, making them particularly susceptible to habitat Health Organization (WHO)—established the inter-
changes caused by climate change [31]. disciplinary One Health High-Level Expert Panel
Natural disasters have significant health consequences, (OHHLEP) in May 2021 (https://​w ww.​who.​int/​groups/​
encompassing a range of immediate physical harm, mor- one-​health-​high-​level-​expert-​panel).
bidity, and mortality, as well as potential long-term men- The goal of one health is to optimize and sustainably
tal health impacts. For instance, flooding can result in the balance the health of humans, animals, and ecosystems
release of toxic chemicals from storage, or the remobili- through an integrated strategy. It acknowledges the
zation of substances already present in the environment, interdependence and tight relationship between human
including pesticides. Droughts, on the other hand, can health, that of domestic and wild animals, plants, and
lead to various health implications, particularly in rela- the larger environment, including ecosystems (Fig. 3)
tion to nutrition, communicable diseases, and the occur- [35].
rence of forest fires, which contribute to air pollution, The One Health strategy recognizes the interconnec-
especially in low-income regions [32]. tions between the ecosystem, veterinary medicine, and
Climate change can directly or indirectly affect the public health. Various health concerns, such as changes
welfare of livestock, and these impacts are often attrib- in microbe and vector demographics affecting epide-
uted to changes in environmental factors such as tem- miology, food accessibility and safety, degradation of
perature, moisture, dew point, as well as the frequency water quality standards, and alterations in the health of
and intensity of extreme weather events like heatwaves, different species of mammals and plants, are all inter-
heavy rainfall, severe droughts, and coastal flooding [3]. connected and pose risks to both humans and animals.
The potential impact of climate change on the spread The current risk environment is characterized by
and outbreaks of zoonotic diseases is a major concern. uncertainty, interconnectedness, and integration,
Many zoonosis are sensitive to weather conditions, and influenced by factors such as global epidemiology,
the effects of global warming, particularly on winter con- pathogen adaptation, changing demographics, evolv-
ditions, are significant in northern high latitude regions. ing animal production systems, food insecurity, and
Zoonotic diseases prevalent in these areas, such as rabies, climate change [36]. Antibiotic resistance (AMR) is
tularemia, Lyme borreliosis, and orthohantavirus infec- another critical aspect of One Health, as resistance can
tions, are believed to be influenced by weather patterns emerge in humans, animals, or the environment, neces-
[33]. The complex relationship between climate change, sitating a holistic approach to address this global chal-
weather patterns, and zoonotic diseases underscores the lenge [10]. It is documented through a systemic analysis
importance of understanding and addressing these fac- of One Health Network (OHN) in the past, that envi-
tors in order to mitigate their impact on human and ani- ronment is a neglected sector among various one
mal health. health domains. Importance of guaranteeing the unbi-
ased inclusion of all domains of the triad according to
One Health the definition of One Health to affirm the reinvestment
Universal healthcare is not a recent concept and can be
traced back at least two centuries. The United States
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and
the One Health Commission define One Health as an
integrated, multidisciplinary approach that recognizes
the interconnectedness between people, animals, plants,
and the shared environment at various levels, including
local, regional, national, and global [34].
The proximity of humans, animals, and the environ-
ment is emphasized by the Severe Acute Respiratory
Syndrome Coronavirus 2. The virus’s closest relatives
occur in animals, yet the causes of spillover remain
Fig. 3 One Health approach
undiscovered. This emphasizes how important a One
Shafique et al. Environmental Sciences Europe (2024) 36:135 Page 6 of 18

by clear compliance and assessment of obvious One deteriorates due to climate change, zoonotic infections
Health goals, outcomes and effects which facilitates in like dengue and Zika viruses, which already pose a global
direction orientation, holistic collaboration of all OHNs threat, may spread more easily [40].
across the globe. One Health has successfully mitigated zoonotic
One Health refers to the value added by cooperation infections, such as rabies in Sri Lanka, Bhutan, and
between human and animal health and other disciplines, Bangladesh. Methods include surveillance, outbreak
resulting in saved lives, reduced costs, and sustained investigation, laboratory testing, mass dog vaccination,
social and environmental services (Table 1). Joint vac- human vaccinations, and dog population management.
cination services for mobile pastoralists provide access Professional training and cross-sectorial collaboration
to healthcare, save resources, and share cold chain and have also been reinforced. In Bhutan, confirmed rabies
transport costs. For example, mass vaccination of live- cases decreased from 17 to 17, Bangladesh saw a decrease
stock for brucellosis control in Mongolia could be jus- in human fatalities from 1500 to 200, and Sri Lanka saw
tified by the social benefits three times higher than the less than 50 deaths in 2012 [41].
intervention cost, demonstrating the potential of One Arab nations are now far more prepared against MERS-
Health in zoonosis control [6]. CoV thanks to the One Health concept. Policies and stra-
In the past decade, there has been an emergence and tegic plans were prepared in 2015 by a workgroup in
spread of several infectious diseases, including Hanta- Qatar that included members from the OIE, WHO, and
virus, H1N1 influenza, Ebola, Avian Influenza (H5N1), Middle Eastern and Arab nations [42]. No MERS-CoV
West Nile virus, Dengue and Chikungunya viruses, cases had been reported to the WHO or by international
severe acute respiratory syndrome, Marburg, E. coli health agencies as of June 7, 2023. A multimodal strategy
O157:H7, and Yersinia pestis (anthrax). Vector-borne dis- involving One Health, enhanced monitoring, enhanced
eases, which are a subset of zoonotic diseases, are par- fast response capabilities, and enhanced international
ticularly susceptible to changes in the environment and communication among public health authorities is
exhibit complex epidemiology, allowing them to thrive in required to avert future pandemics and zoonosis, encour-
a dynamic world [37]. aging solidarity, collaboration, and openness [43].
Emerging and re-emerging zoonotic infectious diseases
present a significant threat to global health security. It Food safety
is imperative to place a stronger emphasis on the One As the global population continues to grow, ensuring
Health concept to advance global health security Table 3, food security and proper nutrition becomes a significant
[38]. The rise in global temperatures has facilitated the challenge. The need to preserve food resources, improve
proliferation of certain vectors, particularly in less devel- agricultural practices, and address food distribution ine-
oped countries. Additionally, increasing precipitation qualities are crucial for promoting adequate nutrition for
and associated flooding in certain areas create favora- all. Inadequate access to nutritious food can lead to mal-
ble conditions for vector breeding. Flooding events also nutrition, stunting, and a range of health issues [27].
increase the risk of spreading waterborne diseases [39]. Climate change encompasses more than just the rise
Climate change-induced temperature shifts in vari- in average global temperature. It also leads to a range of
ous geographical regions have led to an increased prev- other consequences such as extreme weather events and
alence of infections in areas that were previously free natural disasters, including floods, droughts, cyclones,
from these diseases. Additionally, if overall human health earthquakes, and others. Additionally, it results in longer

Table 1 Examples of added values of one health

Domain Added value

Health services Joint human and animal vaccination services for mobile pastoralists offer healthcare access to excluded populations, saving
resources and reducing the need for costly healthcare
Zoonosis control Mass vaccination of livestock against brucellosis not only enhances public health but also yields three times more societal
profit
Surveillance and response Compared to separate human and animal monitoring, integrated West Nile Virus surveillance and response can
save over one million euros
Infrastructure The Canadian Science Centre in Winnipeg saves 26% on operations costs by hosting multiple health laboratories for highly
contagious diseases, compared to two separate human and animal facilities
Communication The 2010 Q-fever outbreak in the Netherlands, involving thousands of human cases, could have been significantly pre-
vented if veterinary and public health authorities had maintained effective communication
Shafique et al. Environmental Sciences Europe (2024) 36:135 Page 7 of 18

periods of dry spells, an increased frequency of heavy and as a sudden shock. However, the ability to cope
precipitation events, water acidity, and potentially rising with these challenges and mitigate long-term pressures
sea levels [44]. These various manifestations of climate may be limited in this region due to a lack of access to
change can significantly impact animals, fishery, and suitable coping strategies.
agricultural productivity. Conversely, in other areas like the Indo-Gangetic
On a global scale, food production is intricately con- Plain of India, factors such as employment issues and
nected to these sectors and can be directly or indirectly the availability and quality of groundwater for irriga-
affected by climate change. Increased temperatures will tion may have a greater influence on food security than
have significant detrimental effects on crop growth, mak- the direct impacts of climate change [46]. It is impor-
ing global temperature-shifting patterns very prone to tant to recognize the varying drivers and contexts that
impact global food productivity (Fig. 4) [45]. shape food security outcomes in different regions, con-
The FAO highlights that climate change can influence sidering both the immediate effects of climate change
environmental pathogen survival and growth, as well as and other contributing factors.
sources and modes of transmission, ultimately affecting Food security and climate change are complex
the food web and human health. While the impact of cli- issues that need for coordinated approaches to health
mate change on primary food production and food secu- [47]. Droughts that impact cattle as well as people can
rity is widely recognized, its implications for food safety have disastrous effects on milk-based food systems in
have received less attention. Ethiopian Somali Regional State, Chad, and North
Anthropogenic global warming not only has an Mali [48]. Small-scale livestock disruptions have an
immediate impact on crop output, but also affects food impact on the accessibility and availability of foods
prices, distribution network dynamics, and markets. For derived from animals, which reduces the chance of
instance, variations in rainfall patterns or shifts in tem- malnutrition and increases the chance of a varied and
peratures can alter the duration of the growing season, nutrient-rich diet. For the purpose of identifying hun-
thereby influencing food production [46]. ger crises early on, observations of livestock and food
The significance of climate change for food security prices are essential. Performance, growth, and yield are
varies across different regions. In southern Africa, for all decreased by heat stress, yet vegetative seasons are
example, the climate is a commonly cited factor con- extended in temperate zones due to climate change [6].
tributing to food insecurity, both as a long-term issue

Fig. 4 The linkage between climate change and food security

Shafique et al. Environmental Sciences Europe (2024) 36:135 Page 8 of 18

Climate change is widely recognized as having nega- Projections indicate that global food production must
tive impacts on various aspects of our environment, increase by 70% by 2050 to meet the demands placed on
including people, plants, animals, and ecosystems. One existing limited resources [53]. Extreme weather events
concerning consequence is the potential increase in and other global ecological changes have increased con-
the incidence and severity of foodborne illnesses. The cerns about guaranteeing food security, especially for
Fourth Report of the United Nations IPCC highlights underprivileged populations. These include fluctuations
that rising temperatures, elevated ­CO2 levels, altered in the amount of water available, the amount of forest
rainfall patterns, and extreme weather events pose sig- cover, and the availability and cycling of nutrients such
nificant risks to food safety [49]. as ammonia. Human activity has a significant impact on
The Fifth Assessment Report of the IPCC indicates these ecological changes [46], which emphasizes how
that, even under more optimistic projections, some urgent and difficult it is to solve issues related to food
regions in Africa could experience a decline in food security.
crop yields by 10% to 20%. This decline would have sig-
nificant implications for populations and regions that Economic impacts of climate change
are already vulnerable [50]. Furthermore, between 2010 Climate change is a serious hazard to the globe, gener-
and 2050, the combined effects of climate change, pop- ating temperature anomalies owing to both natural and
ulation growth, and economic expansion are projected human reasons. The increase in natural catastrophes
to lead to substantial price increases for staple foods. exacerbates the issue, affecting the environment, agricul-
Maize prices could rise by 42% to 131%, rice prices by ture, economy, and society. The increase in greenhouse
11% to 78%, and wheat prices by 17% to 67% [50]. gases will result in GDP losses by the end of the twenty-
The stability of agricultural output is already under first century, putting strain on natural resources. The
threat from newly developing pest and disease out- worldwide danger has severe consequences of starvation,
breaks, localized weather shocks, and yield decreases food shortages, poor health, and lower labor productivity
and price rises. This emphasizes the urgent need for [54, 55].
swift and adaptable management responses to safe- Natural and environmental disasters are extremely
guard food production [50, 51]. diverse, resulting in an average of 60,000 deaths world-
Climate change poses a potential increase in the wide per year during the past few decades [56]. Natural
threat of zoonotic foodborne illnesses, both directly calamities account for around 0.1% of all global mortality.
and indirectly. Livestock animals are more susceptible The number of fatalities might be small, perhaps fewer
to microbial infections due to the impact of climate than 10,000 and as low as 0.01% of total deaths. However,
change on their living conditions, making them impor- shock events such as the 1983–1985 famine in Ethiopia,
tant reservoirs for diseases. Furthermore, the prolif- the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami, Cyclone
eration of animal pests can act as vectors for zoonotic Nargis in Myanmar, the 2010 Port-au-Prince earthquake
diseases. Changes in atmospheric conditions, sea tem- in Haiti, and the COVID-19 pandemic have had a dev-
peratures, weather events, ocean acidification, and astating impact, pushing global disaster deaths to over
salinity levels all have implications for the health of sea- 200,000, or more than 0.4% of deaths in these years [57].
food, affecting the survival and transmission capacity of Historical evidence suggests that earlier catastrophe
human infections present in marine environments and detection, stronger infrastructure, emergency planning,
seafood. These various pathways of foodborne illnesses and response programs have significantly decreased dis-
are influenced by climate change, thereby compromis- aster mortality globally. Improving living conditions,
ing the quality and safety of multiple food items [49]. infrastructure, and emergency services in low-income
Food security is a complex and multifaceted issue communities is crucial to lowering natural disaster mor-
that cannot be easily defined or confined to specific tality in the future decades [58].
geographical or demographic parameters such as edu- Global food insecurity and the frequency of cata-
cation, demography, geographic location, or income. strophic weather events are increasing, affecting local
Even though there is enough food to feed everyone on crop production in developing countries. The growth
the planet, approximately one billion people (16% of of businesses and populations has limited the impact
the global population) still suffer from chronic poverty of these natural disasters, potentially threatening
[52]. This emphasizes how difficult it will be to guaran- human lives. Swiss Reinsurance Company Ltd (Swiss
tee that agricultural output will be sufficient to combat Re) predicts that worldwide economic output could
the rising problem of undernourishment brought on decrease by 11–14%, or $23 trillion annually, due to cli-
by the combination of waste and a constantly growing mate change by 2050. Some developing countries may
population. lose over 20% or 40% of their economic output, while
Shafique et al. Environmental Sciences Europe (2024) 36:135 Page 9 of 18

wealthy nations like the United States may see a 7% Pandemics and epidemics
decrease. High-income, high-emitting countries have The relationship between diseases and climate change
benefited from global warming, while low-income, has long been a subject of interest for researchers. Tem-
low-emitting countries have been disproportionately perature fluctuations caused by climate change can cre-
affected [59]. Figure 5 shows Annual economic losses ate more favorable environments for the proliferation of
caused by weather- and climate-related extreme events organisms in food and water sources, as well as shorten
in the EU Member States [60]. the incubation period of pathogens, thereby promoting
China experienced over $42 billion in direct eco- the spread of vectors and diseases. Certain temperature
nomic losses in the first nine months of 2023 due to ranges that facilitate the transmission of specific infec-
natural disasters. Africa experienced $43 billion in tions can accelerate the development of potential epi-
losses from 1970–2021, with droughts accounting for demics [63].
95% of deaths. Europe reported $562 billion in losses, When studying historical epidemics, researchers
with 8% of global disaster deaths occurring in Europe. are increasingly focusing on landscape ecology, which
South America experienced $115.2 billion, while North encompasses environmental and socio-demographic fac-
America, Central America, and the Caribbean experi- tors. Climate, as a key environmental component, plays a
enced $2 trillion. The US National Climate Assessment significant role in shaping human ecosystems, while eco-
found that extreme weather events cost the country $1 nomics and population are commonly cited social-demo-
billion every three weeks and averaged $150 billion in graphic factors [64]. Climate change acts as a significant
damages between 2018–2022 [61]. external influence on the natural system, impacting envi-
The general public’s concerns about environmental ronmental science and the development of epidemics.
issues are exacerbated by a lack of environmental edu- Within the epidemiological triplet model, climate change
cation, outdated consumer behavior, lack of incentives, serves as one of the primary environmental factors that
legislation, and government commitment to climate facilitates the spread of diseases. It creates a hospitable
change, with a potential 2 to 3% mercury rise and dras- environment for disease agents such as bacteria, viruses,
tic rainfall shift by 2050 [62]. or secondary vectors, and also plays a fundamental role
in socioeconomic variations that are closely tied to public
health [65].

Fig. 5 Annual economic losses caused by climate-related events in the EU Member States
Shafique et al. Environmental Sciences Europe (2024) 36:135 Page 10 of 18

According to the World Bank, the consequences of cli- Alternate solutions to combat infectious disease threats
mate change are projected to lead to an additional 5 mil- vary in their effectiveness and applicability. Measures
lion deaths, primarily resulting from starvation, malaria, such as ensuring access to clean water, implementing reg-
and diarrheal diseases. Furthermore, between 2030 and ulations, and developing biomedical defenses can play a
2050, over 100 million more people are expected to be role in mitigating these threats. However, the occurrence
pushed into extreme poverty due to these impacts [66]. of epidemics like Ebola, Zika, dengue, Middle East respir-
The southwestern United States is known to be a region atory syndrome, severe acute respiratory syndrome, and
where the fungal disease coccidioidomycosis, or Valley influenza, as well as the growing concern of antimicro-
fever, is prevalent. The size of the affected area and the bial resistance, have raised questions about the effective-
frequency of Valley fever cases are influenced by tem- ness of the current international development system in
perature and precipitation patterns in this area. Climate providing adequate protection against evolving infectious
models predict temperature increases and altered pre- disease threats [59].
cipitation patterns for the western United States, which Factors such as urban development, globalization,
could potentially impact the disease pattern. To assess environmental degradation, civil unrest, and changing
the potential geographic range of Valley fever endemicity, patterns of bacterial transmission between human and
researchers used a climate niche model based on data on animal populations contribute to these concerns. Addi-
current climatic conditions and disease incidence [67]. tionally, rapid demographic changes in regions with
In northwest Europe, climate change is contributing insufficient healthcare infrastructure pose further chal-
to the spread of tick-borne viruses such as louping-ill lenges in effectively responding to infectious disease
virus, Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus, and tick- threats. It is important to address these factors and adapt
borne encephalitis virus, as well as vector-borne viruses strategies within the global health system to effectively
like Japanese encephalitis virus, West Nile virus, and Rift tackle the evolving array of infectious diseases [56].
Valley fever virus. These spread dynamics are influenced In addition to naturally occurring outbreaks, there is
by fluctuations in temperature, precipitation, host abun- a potential risk of infectious disease outbreaks stem-
dances, land use, and other factors [68]. ming from deliberate biological attacks or laboratory
The warm, sandy soil conditions with moisture cre- accidents. To address these emerging global challenges
ate an ideal environment for the hatching, growth, and related to infectious diseases and their associated social
reproduction of desert locust eggs. Normally, these spe- and economic issues, there is a proposal for the establish-
cies would not survive in the arid environment of the ment of an interdisciplinary Global Technical Council on
region. However, in October 2018, a tropical storm Infectious Disease Threats. This council aims to enhance
named Luban followed, providing the initial epidemic of global health systems by promoting collaboration and
desert locusts a lifeline [69]. coordination among various organizations, including the
WHO, Gavi, CEPI, and CDC, pharmaceutical manufac-
Global response to climate change turers, and others. A worldwide agreement on emissions
Addressing health issues arising from socioeconomic and reduction has been sought through several international
ecological factors necessitates coordinated international debates known as “Conferences of the Parties”, or COPs,
strategies, supported by localized policies and actions since the United Nations Framework Convention on Cli-
[70]. The world has established a complex global health mate Change (UNFCCC) was initially created in 1992
system as a defense against both expected and unex- (Table 2) [71].
pected infectious disease threats. This system comprises The Global Technical Council would focus on bridg-
formal and informal networks of organizations that col- ing knowledge gaps in areas such as infectious disease
laborate with multiple stakeholders, each with their own surveillance, funding models, supply chain logistics, and
objectives, methods, and levels of accountability. These the socioeconomic impacts of potential threats. Through
networks operate at various regional scales, including enhanced cooperation and coordination, the council
local, national, regional, and global, and encompass the would strengthen the global health system’s capacity
public, for-profit, and nonprofit sectors. to respond effectively to infectious disease threats. By
The global health system has made significant contri- addressing these areas and promoting interdisciplinary
butions in safeguarding and advancing human health. collaboration, the council can help improve the under-
However, persistent, emerging, and resurging infectious standing and management of infectious diseases, ulti-
disease risks continue to exist worldwide. These risks mately contributing to global health security.
vary in terms of their probability and intensity. Moreover, Globalization and environmental change, socio-demo-
they have diverse impacts on morbidity and mortality, as graphic change, and the capacity of the health system are
well as far-reaching social and economic consequences. three interconnected forces that play a significant role
Shafique et al. Environmental Sciences Europe (2024) 36:135 Page 11 of 18

Table 2 Important events in international climate change negotiations

Year Location Outcomes

1992 Rio de Janeiro The UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) outlines a common but differentiated responsibilities for coun-
tries to reduce emissions
1995 Berlin The U.S. has agreed to exempt developing countries from binding obligations at the first annual Conference of the Parties
to the framework, known as a COP
1997 Kyoto The Kyoto Protocol, approved at third Conference of the Parties (COP3), mandates developed countries to reduce greenhouse
gas emissions by 2008–2012
2001 Bonn COP-6 reaches agreement on compliance and financing terms, but the Bush administration rejects the Kyoto Protocol, leaving
the U.S. as an observer at the meeting
2009 Copenhagen COP-15 acknowledges the need to limit warming to under 2 °C, but fails to establish a binding post-Kyoto agreement, leading
to a $100 billion climate aid pledge from developed nations
2011 Durban COP-17 aims to adopt a universal legal agreement on climate change by 2015, with effect by 2020
2015 Paris The Paris Agreement, signed by 195 nations, outlines the global voluntary actions known as Nationally Determined Contribu-
tions (NDCs)

in the emergence of novel situations related to vector- can not only safeguard public health, but also yield sig-
borne diseases. Zoonotic infectious diseases have been nificant economic benefits in the long run.
a significant concern for humans since the domestica- To preserve public health, two major measures are
tion of animals began approximately 10,000 years ago. essential: adaptation and secondary prevention, which
Infectious diseases, including zoonosis, continue to be a involve anticipating and minimizing hazards, and miti-
major cause of mortality and morbidity worldwide, with gation, which involves significant reductions in carbon
zoonotic diseases accounting for approximately 75% of emissions (or public health preparedness). The likelihood
newly emerging infectious diseases (EIDs) [72]. of contracting a disease is influenced by factors such as
The occurrence of emerging and re-emerging infectious the availability of health services, social and environmen-
diseases is driven by a combination of environmental fac- tal conditions, and other region-specific factors.
tors, such as climate change, ecosystem modifications, However, certain diseases are more susceptible to
and changes in human and animal population dynamics, changes in climate and weather than others. It is reason-
as well as genetic and biological factors. These genetic able to anticipate that these diseases will respond to long-
and biological factors include microbial adaptations to term climate change and more frequent extreme weather
macro- and micro-environmental changes and altera- events. For example, the global dengue fatality rate is
tions in host susceptibility to infections. Understanding increasing, particularly in regions such as the Asia–
and addressing these complex interactions are crucial for Pacific, Latin America, and the Caribbean, where the dis-
effectively managing and preventing the spread of emerg- ease is prevalent [75]. Factors such as trade, urbanization,
ing infectious diseases [73]. global and local mobility, and climate fluctuations can
The increasing frequency of emerging pandemics poses contribute to dengue mortality. While it is challenging
a significant threat to global health and economic pro- to directly attribute rising dengue mortality to climate
gress. Global measures for pandemic prevention can be change alone, it is plausible that the increased spread of
categorized into two main approaches: mitigation and the disease plays a significant role in the higher risk of
adaptation aimed at reducing the underlying causes of mortality [75].
pandemics. Our economic research suggests that urgent
action is needed to develop a coordinated global adaptive Community engagement amid climate change
policy within the next 27 years, considering the geopoliti- crises
cal challenges associated with pandemic management. According to Xie et al. [76], for the establishment of
Furthermore, our research indicates that implementing low carbon societies (LCSs), restrained carbon emis-
mitigation policies, which aim to reduce the likelihood of sion is needed which may be acquired through commu-
future disease outbreaks, is more cost-effective. If these nity engagement, because communities are the starting
policies are implemented today, they could save between points of such emission. Cunha et al. [77] additionally,
$344.0 billion and $360.8 billion over the next 100 years according to the Paris treaty and SDGs, communities are
[74]. These findings underscore the importance of taking significant in the emission reduction of GHGs. In that
proactive measures to prevent and mitigate the impact agreement they emphasized to involve public and civil
of pandemics. Implementing coordinated global policies societies and multidisciplinary collaboration to achieve
Shafique et al. Environmental Sciences Europe (2024) 36:135 Page 12 of 18

zero GHG emission. Glasgow climate pact-COP26 fur- Urgent global action is required to address the inter-
thered the target of limiting the rise of global tempera- relationships between air pollution and climate change.
ture < 2 °C. To achieve this aim, the cheapest mean with It is crucial to consider the links between these issues
maximum impact includes the behavioral adaptation and and develop integrated strategies that account for their
civic engagement (CE), because both have crucial role to shared causes and mitigation approaches [79].
play in lowering GHG productions and establishing the The One Health approach is crucial for effectively
low carbon communities (LCCs). mitigating, controlling, and preventing vector-borne
The LCCs are those communities which are furnished parasitic diseases, which remain a significant concern.
with an eco-friendly environment, low GHG and carbon However, there are other arthropod-borne diseases that
emissions, climate favorable construction setup, good often receive more attention compared to certain vector-
lifestyle, and effective resource management protocols borne illnesses, such as tick-borne zoonoses. Diseases
[76, 78]. Hence, the LCCs are the model communities to like leishmaniasis, dengue fever, and malaria may be rela-
reduce GHGs according to the UN-SDG 13 guidelines. tively unknown to communities and can go undetected
This model has already been commenced in different by healthcare professionals [73].
regions of the globe, e.g., China, that has grabbed the Climate variability, encompassing changes in tempera-
global attention in this regard. ture, rainfall patterns, and precipitation, is intensifying
Though One Health approach is progressively expand- and has substantial implications for water resources,
ing across the globe, this approach is yet to be translated stagnant water-related diseases, and access to clean
into action worldwide, which may be a concern for future water. Weather variations directly influence the causes
epidemics or pandemics. In this regard, realistic and and transmission pathways of water-related infectious
holistic agendas are required for the implementation of diseases such as malaria, dengue fever, and Chikungu-
such approach, plans and statutes with the involvement nya. The risks associated with waterborne diseases like
of the communities. Rural communities are more vul- typhoid and cholera are also increasing, mirroring the
nerable to the impact of climate change in relation to trends of rising temperatures impacting various health
human–environmental–animal health. Educated com- conditions [80].
munity representatives are vital and should be informed The hospital has the potential to play a significant role
regarding the implementation of such policies and in mitigating the health risks associated with climate
practices. change and implementing adaptation strategies [81].
There are several approaches that can be taken, including
Challenges “greening” healthcare facilities, participating in national
Carbon emissions and climate variability are significant health impact assessments, and facilitating transdisci-
global challenges that have profound impacts on human plinary coordination in areas such as renewable energy,
well-being and economic prosperity. While there is infrastructure, and urban design. It is crucial for repre-
potential for coordinated policies to address both issues, sentatives from the healthcare system to be present in
countries often have diverse short-term priorities in man- official national missions and international legislative
aging air pollutants and climate change. Despite sharing events that address the latest developments and con-
many atmospheric characteristics, emission sources, and cerns related to climate change [81]. For instance, repre-
mitigation techniques, atmospheric aerosols, and green- sentatives can actively engage in annual conferences held
house gas emissions (GHGs) are often treated as separate under the United Nations Framework Convention on
problems in scientific and policy domains. Climate Change.
There is a perception that reducing ambient aerosols There is a severe lack of accurate and georeferenced
may not directly address environmental concerns and data at a fine scale regarding population health, environ-
may result in trade-offs in governmental decision-mak- mental conditions, and the multitude of variables that
ing. However, it is important to recognize the intercon- influence vulnerability [82]. For instance, there is insuf-
nectedness of air pollution and climate change. They ficient information available on the incidence or preva-
share common primary causes, such as GHGs, and miti- lence of most infectious diseases, waterborne illnesses,
gation strategies, including the implementation of green and different types of malnutrition at the subnational
infrastructures. Therefore, effective solutions for combat- level. Furthermore, the scarcity of detailed population
ing both air pollution and climate change require care- data hinders our understanding of crucial susceptibility
ful regulation, legislation, and presentation. It will also factors such as resource availability, socioeconomic posi-
necessitate cooperation and negotiation between differ- tion, infrastructure quality, individual behavior, and gov-
ent stakeholders. ernmental influences [82].
Shafique et al. Environmental Sciences Europe (2024) 36:135 Page 13 of 18

Future directions climate change. Consequently, there is an elevated risk of

One Health initiatives have demonstrated clear supe- disease outbreaks [85].
riority over traditional public and animal health strate-
gies in various areas such as climate change mitigation Conclusion
and adaptation, antibacterial sensitivity testing, and This essay has examined several mechanisms through
surveillance of non-communicable illnesses [83]. How- which climate change affects the existence. While the
ever, a significant challenge lies in the lack of multisec- impact of climate change on the prevalence of ani-
toral cooperation, particularly between the veterinary mal diseases has received limited research attention,
and healthcare communities. The existing curriculum it is important to recognize the complex connections
overload and limited time for integrated courses are between diseases and climate change, acknowledging
often cited as reasons for this, despite evidence showing that our understanding may be incomplete. Additionally,
that overspecialization carries higher costs and hampers it is crucial to consider that climate effects often inter-
interaction between sectors. To address this, immediate act with one another in various ways, despite discussing
integration of One Health into medical and veterinary them individually. Climate change stands as a paramount
curricula is necessary [83]. global issue. The continuous emission of C ­ O2, along
Recirculating aquaculture systems (RAS) are con- with rising temperatures, precipitation, and humidity,
sidered viable adaptation strategies to climate change has led to a growing spread of infectious diseases world-
due to their controlled indoor environment. These sys- wide. The increasing temperatures have contributed to
tems are minimally affected by climate change-related rising sea levels, resulting in devastating floods, as well
phenomena such as altered rainfall patterns, floods, as droughts in numerous regions, leading to the loss of
droughts, global warming, cyclones, salinity fluctuations, habitable areas. The primary challenges posed by climate
ocean acidification, and sea-level rise. However, climate change are the rapid temperature rise and the emission of
change does have a significant impact on rainfall vari- ­CO2, which drive significant environmental changes. The
ability and intensity, directly influencing the frequency application of transdisciplinary approaches and society-
of droughts and floods. If global temperatures rise by based situational problem-solving is suitable for address-
2 °C instead of 1.5 °C, it is projected that over 25% of the ing the concept of One Health to cope climate change
planet will experience severe drought by 2050. This trend (Table 3).
has already been observed in various regions, includ-
ing Africa, where a declining trend in annual rainfall has Recommendations
been observed [84].
Climate change is known to be influenced by the meth- • Climate change and consequent global threats, e.g.,
ane emissions resulting from ruminant animal produc- health, economic, energy, etc., need to be predicted
tion. However, a comprehensive examination of this for appropriate and sustainable solutions.
issue reveals that the expanding animal production in the • A holistic, multidisciplinary preventive approach
developing world has played a significant role in lifting should be acquired in a rational manner.
millions of small landowners out of poverty. Nonethe- • The One Health concept identifies the interconnect-
less, the consequences of global warming and increased edness among human, animal and associated envi-
droughts can lead to situations where cattle herders are ronment is imperative, should be considered as a sig-
forced to migrate into areas already occupied by others, nificant preventive and control strategy. This would
exacerbating societal challenges [6]. be helpful to restrain the impact of climate change
Water, sanitation, and hygiene plays a crucial role in on zoonosis, epidemics, pandemics, agriculture food
both the One Health approach and public health, as it safety and security.
addresses the maintenance of human and animal excre- • Efforts for the development of LCCs with community
tions. The coordination of managing these excretions is engagement should be a part of the policies. Global
essential, as they can contribute to environmental con- stakeholders should affirm the implementation of
tamination, such as soil and water pollution, as well as such policies worldwide, particularly in LMICs.
the spread of antibiotic resistance. The increased runoff • In future, according to the guidelines of parties, e.g.,
caused by zoonotic pathogen-containing human and ani- UNFCCC global policy prioritization and orientation
mal feces, resulting from practices like open defecation should be adopted, which would be beneficial for
or the use of manure-fertilized fields, can contaminate humans, animals and shared environmental health.
surface and drinking water sources. This issue is exacer-
bated by more frequent high precipitation events due to
Table 3 Emerging and re-emerging infectious diseases, etiological agents, and associated climatic factors in different regions of the world
Year Pathogens Diseases Cases Geographic location Climatic factors Bioavailability of Description References
countermeasures

1974 Variola virus Smallpox 1,30,000 cases India, England Low temperature Eradicate by vaccina- Epidemic occurred [86]
and 2600 deaths and low humidity tion before three years
of eradication
1994 Yersinia pestis Plaque 693 cases and 56 India, Africa and five Seasonal changes Biosafety awareness It is also called black [87]
deaths other states in climate, rodent den- death and it has three
sity and the prevalence main pandemics
of fleas in the history
1994–1995 Tick-borne virus (Nai- Crimean-Congo hem- 33 confirmed cases United Arab Emirates Change in humidity, The virus is sensitive It transmits [88]
rovirus) orrhagic fever temperature and pre- in vitro to the antiviral through contact
Shafique et al. Environmental Sciences Europe

cipitation drug ribavirin with infected ticks

or animal blood
2002–2003 Corona virus SARS 8098 cases and 774 China and other 37 Decrease in relative vaccination It’s mainly spread [89]
deaths countries humidity of 1% by travelers or aero-
soloic pathway
(2024) 36:135

2009 Influenza virus Influenza (Swine flu) 284,000 deaths worldwide Temperature vaccination The pork industry [90]
and humidity faced losses due
to swine flu spreading
through pork meat
2014–2016 Ebola virus Ebola virus disease 28,600 cases West Africa, Sierra Warm and wet condi- Experimental vaccina- It’s transmission occur [91]
(EVD) and 11,325 deaths Leone and Liberia tions in environment tion through wild animals
as well as human
to human
2015 Flavivirus Zika disease 1.5 million cases South and North Temperatures vaccination It was responsible [92]
America, Brazil and weather patterns for microcephaly
in infants and 3500
cases were reported
2016 Dengue virus Dengue 10 million cases worldwide Mosquito vector, Rising Vaccination It is caused by Aedes [93]
and 38,000 deaths temperature and vary- egypti
ing precipitation
2017 Morbilli virus Measles 65 confirmed cases Minnesota Dry climate, seasonal Eradication It is eradicated [94]
temperature change, from worldwide
decline in respiratory through MMR vaccine
system tolerance
2018 West Nile virus Meningitis 317 cases Europe Increasing tempera- No specific treatment The cases were 7.2 fold [95]
and encephalitis ture and precipitation increases as compared
to previous outbreak
2019 Vibrio cholera Cholera 45 deaths Africa Rainfall, water and sea Immunization The response relevant [96]
surface temperatures to cholera epidemics
consisted of social
mobilization cam-
paigns for prevention
Page 14 of 18
Table 3 (continued)
Year Pathogens Diseases Cases Geographic location Climatic factors Bioavailability of Description References
countermeasures

2019 Corona virus Respiratory infection 524,000 cases China, worldwide Temperature and abso- vaccination COVID-19 incidence [97]
and 13,618 lute humidity changed with tem-
perature as daily
incidence decreased
when the temperature
Shafique et al. Environmental Sciences Europe

rose
2020 Schistocerca gregaria Locust plaques 3.5 million East Africa, Yamen, Anthropogenic Precautionary meas- The warm, sandy [69]
Kenya climate change ures and wet soil
and the increased was the perfect envi-
frequency of extreme ronment for desert
weather events locusts to hatch
(2024) 36:135

from eggs, develop

and breed. The dry
conditions in this
region would normally
kill these breeds,
but another tropical
cyclone followed
in October 2018,
providing a lifeline
for the continuation
of the first outbreak
2021 Tula virus, Hanta virus Hemorrhagic fever 6537 cases Germany Heavy precipitation No specific treatment The case-fatality rate [98]
with renal syndrome and temperature depends on the causal
and cardiopulmonary virus species and can
syndrome reach up to 50%
2022 Monkeypox virus Monkey pox 197 confirmed cases London, UK Milder winters, warmer No specific treatment Antiviral drugs [99]
summers developed to protect
against smallpox may
be used to treat monk-
eypox effectively
2023 Mycobacterium tuber- Tuberculosis 1.8 Billion cases Worldwide Increase temperature Vaccination and Medi- Global pandemic [100]
culosis and humidity cation killing someone every
20 s
Page 15 of 18
Shafique et al. Environmental Sciences Europe (2024) 36:135 Page 16 of 18

Author contributions 15. Popp A, Lotze-Campen H, Bodirsky B (2010) Food consumption, diet
M. S., M. K., and B.A. conceived the study; M. K., S. M., A. K., R. K. and R. A. per- shifts and associated non-CO2 greenhouse gases from agricultural
formed the literature search and drafted the manuscript; M. I. A., M. H. R., I. R. production. Glob Environ Chang 20(3):451–462
M., and Z. B. critically revised and commented on the previous versions of the 16. O’Mara FP (2011) The significance of livestock as a contributor to
manuscript; all authors read and approved the final manuscript. global greenhouse gas emissions today and in the near future. Anim
Feed Sci Technol 166:7–15
Availability of data and materials 17. Van Groenigen KJ, Van Kessel C, Hungate BA (2013) Increased
Not applicable. greenhouse-gas intensity of rice production under future atmos-
pheric conditions. Nat Clim Chang 3(3):288–291
18. Ripple WJ, Smith P, Haberl H, Montzka SA, McAlpine C, Boucher
Declarations DH (2014) Ruminants, climate change and climate policy. Nat Clim
Chang 4(1):2–5
Ethics approval and consent to participate 19. Ramanathan V (1975) Greenhouse effect due to chlorofluorocarbons:
Not applicable. climatic implications. Science 190(4209):50–52
20. Ramanathan V, Feng Y (2009) Air pollution, greenhouse gases and
Consent for publication climate change: global and regional perspectives. Atmos Environ
All authors agreed with the content of the paper and reviewed and approved 43(1):37–50
the final version for submission. 21. Steffen W, Rockström J, Richardson K, Lenton TM, Folke C, Liver-
man D, Summerhayes CP, Barnosky AD, Cornell SE, Crucifix M (2018)
Competing interests Trajectories of the earth system in the anthropocene. Proc Natl Acad
The authors declare no competing interests. Sci 115(33):8252–8259
22. Change PC (2018) Global warming of 1.5 °C. World Meteorological
Organization, Geneva
Received: 30 August 2023 Accepted: 12 May 2024 23. Masson-Delmotte V, Zhai P, Pörtner HO, Roberts D, Skea J, Shukla
PR, Pirani A, Moufouma-Okia W, Péan C, Pidcock R, Connors S (2019)
Global warming of 1.5 °C. An IPCC Special Report on the impacts of
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