CHAPTER 2

STRUTS AND COLUMNS

 Definition of Strut
P
 A structural member, subjected to an axial compressive
force, is called a strut.

 A strut may be
 horizontal,
 inclined or
 even vertical.

 A vertical strut, used in buildings or frames is called a

column.

 If a strut is subjected to some compressive force, P, the

compressive stress induced in the strut is given by
p P
 2
A
 Definition of Strut
 As the load P is increased, the strut becomes unstable, P P > Pcr
noticeable as a lateral or sideways deflection of the strut.
 The lateral deflection of the strut is called buckling
 The maximum axial load the strut can support when it is
on the verge of buckling is called the critical load, Pcr
 Buckling of a strut can result in sudden failure of the
structure or mechanism of which the strut forms part
 Thus, struts are designed so that they can safely support
their loads without buckling
 There are several approaches for determining critical
load, Pcr, including theoretical (Euler method) and
empirical approaches
P P > Pcr
3
EULER CRIPPLING LOAD FORMULA

4
 Euler’s Formula
Assumptions in the Euler's Theory for Deflection of Struts
The following simplifying assumptions are made in the Euler's theory:
 Initially the strut or column is perfectly straight and the load applied is truly axial.

 The cross-section of the strut or column is uniform throughout its length.

 The strut/column material is perfectly elastic, homogeneous and isotropic and thus obeys
Hooke’s law.

 The length of strut is very large as compared to its cross-sectional dimensions.

 The shortening of the strut, due to direct compression (being very small) is neglected.

 The failure of strut occurs due to buckling alone.

5
 Euler’s Formula
Types of End Conditions of Columns
 In actual practice, there are a number of end conditions, for columns.
 But, we shall study the Euler's column theory based on the following four types of end
conditions:
1. Both ends hinged
2. Both ends fixed
3. One end is fixed and the other hinged, and

4. One end is fixed and the other free.

 Now we shall discuss the value of critical load for all the above mentioned types of end
conditions one after the other.
6
 Euler’s Formula
Case 1: Both Ends Hinged
Now consider any section X-X1, at a distance x from A. Let P
denote the critical load on the column, and y, the deflection of
the column at section X-X1

Moment due to the critical load P is given by

M   Py
Differential Equation 2
where d y  y  0
2
2
dx
  P EI
2
7
 Euler’s Formula
Solution y  A sin x  B cosx
Boundary Conditions
At x = 0; y = 0; B  0
At x = l; y = 0;  Asinl  0

Since A ≠ 0, then sin l  0 , therefore l  

   l  P EI
2 2 2

Hence, the Euler load  2

Pe  EI
l2 8
 Example 2.1
A solid bar 3 m long has a rectangular cross section of dimensions 80 mm by 50 mm. If the bar
is used as a strut with both ends hinged, determine the crippling (or collapsing) load. Take E =
200 GPa.

9
 Example 2.2
A hollow alloy tube 4 m long with external and internal diameters of 40 mm and 25 mm
respectively was found to extend 4.8 mm under a tensile load of 60 kN. Find the buckling load
for the tube with both ends pinned. Also find the safe load on the tube, taking a factor of safety
as 5.

Solution
Given: Length l = 4 m ; External diameter of column (D) = 40 mm; Internal diameter of
column (d) = 25 mm ; Extension (δl) = 4.8 mm ; Tensile load = 60 kN = 60 x 103 N and factor
of safety = 5.
 2 
Area of the tube   
A  D  d  40 2  25 2  765.8 mm 2
4
2

4

 
Moment of inertia of the tube I
64
D 4
d 4
  4 40 4 4

 25  106,500 mm 4

10
 Example 2.2 (continued)
l 4 .8
Strain in the alloy tube     0.0012
l 4000
P 60000
E   65,290 N mm 2
A 765.80.0012
The modulus of elasticity for the alloy

 2 65290106500
PE   EI
2
Euler's buckling load   4290 N
4000
2
L
e
2

Safe load for the tube

Buckling load 4290 N
Safe load    858 N
Factor of safety 5

11
 Euler’s Formula
Case 2: One End Fixed; Other Free

Now consider any section X, at a distance x from A.

Let P be the critical load on the column, and
y the deflection of the column at X-X1

Moment due to the critical load P,

M  Pa  y   P y  a 
Differential Equation
2
d y  y   a
2 2
2
dx 12
 Euler’s Formula
Solution y  A sin x  B cosx  a
Boundary Condition Boundary Condition
x  0; y  0; B  a  0  B  a x  l; y  a
dy
 A cosx  B sin x
 a  a  a cos l
dx  1  1  cos l
dy
x  0;
dx
 0;  A  0
 l   2
  0; A0 Hence, the Euler load

Pe   EI
Therefore 2
y  a cosx  a 4l 2
13
 Example 2.3
A steel rod 5 m long and of 40 mm diameter is used as a column, with one end fixed and the
other free. Determine the crippling load by Euler's formula. Take E as 200 GPa

Solution
Given : Length (l) = 5 m = 5 x 103 mm; Diameter of column (d) = 40 mm and modulus of
elasticity (E) = 200 GPa = 200 x 103 N/mm2
 
Moment of inertia of the column section I d 
4
40 4
 40,000 mm 4
64 64

Euler's crippling load  2 EI  2 200 103 40000 

PE    2480 N
4  5000 
2 2
4l

14
 Euler’s Formula
Case 3: Both Ends Fixed
Moment due to the critical load P
M   Py  M 0
Differential Equation

d2y
2
  2
y  M 0 /( EI )
dx

15
 Euler’s Formula
Solution
y  A sinx  B cosx  M 0 EI 2

Boundary Condition Boundary Condition

x  0; y  0;
x  l; y  0;  cosl  1
 B   M 0 EI   M 0 P
2

x  0;
dy
 0;  A  0 l  2
dx
  0; A0 Hence, the Euler load

Therefore y   0 1  cosx  Pe  4 EI

M 2
2
 P  l 16
 Euler’s Formula
Case 4: One End Fixed; Other Hinged

Now consider any section X-X1, at a distance x from A.

Let P denote the axial load on the column

Q
Q the lateral force required hold end B in position, and
y the deflection of the column at section X-X1

Moment due to the critical load P, M   Py  Q (l  x )

d2y
Differential Equation 2
 y 
2 Q
l  x 
dx EI

 y  A sin x  B cos x  l  x 
Solution
Q
P
17
 Euler’s Formula
Ql
Boundary Condition x  0; y  0;  B  
P
dy
Therefore x  l ; y  0;  0  tan l  l  4.493
dx
   4.493 l
P 2.047 2
EI
 
2
 P   EI 
2

EI L2

Pe  2.07 EI
2
Hence, the Euler load
2
l 18
 Euler’s Formula
Equivalent Length (Le) of a Strut/Column
 The previous analyses show that the Euler loads for the various end conditions are similar,
except for the different multiples of l appearing in the formulae.

 Thus, using the Euler formula for strut with hinged ends as the baseline, the equivalent lengths
of the other end conditions can be determined.
 The equivalent length (Le) of a strut with given end conditions is the length of an equivalent
strut of the same material and cross section with hinged ends and crippling load equal to that of
the given strut.

Thus, the general equation for Euler 's formula can be written as

 2
PE  EI 2 where Le is the equivalent or effective length of the strut
L e
19
 Equivalent Length (Le) of a Column or Strut
Euler Load as a Function of
Type of End Relation between
Equivalent Length
Conditions Actual Length (l) Le and l
(Le)
Both ends 𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼 𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼
𝐿𝑒 = 𝑙
hinged 𝑙2 𝐿2𝑒
One end fixed, 𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼 𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼
𝐿𝑒 = 2𝑙
the other free 4𝑙2 𝐿2𝑒
4𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼 𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼 𝑙
Both ends fixed 𝐿𝑒 =
𝑙2 𝐿2𝑒 2
One end fixed, 2.07𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼 𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼 𝑙
𝐿𝑒 ≈
the other hinged 𝑙2 𝐿2𝑒 2
20
 Example 2.4
A straight bar of alloy, 1 m long and 12·5 mm by 4·8 mm in section, is mounted in a strut-
testing machine and loaded axially until it buckles. Assuming the Euler formula to apply,
estimate the maximum central deflection before the material attains its yield point of 280
N/mm2. E = 72,000 N/mm2.

Solution
There will be no deflection at all until the Euler load is reached, i.e.
 
2
  
load    EI   72000
 
 12.5 4.8 3 
  82 N
 l   1000   12 
Maximum stress is the sum of direct and
Maximum bending moment bending stresses at the centre
P  82 82 82 6 
280    1.37  1.71
Maximum bending stress My 12.54.8 12.54.8  2

m     163mm
Ix 21
 Sample Problems on Euler’s Formula
1. A solid rectangular bar 60 mm by 45 mm is used as a strut. Determine the Euler crippling load
for the following end conditions. Take E = 200 GPa.
(a) Both ends of the strut are hinged
(b) One end fixed and the other end is free
(c) One end is fixed and the end is hinged
(d) Both ends of the strut are fixed

2. A simply supported beam of length 5 m is subjected to a central point load of magnitude 200
kN. Under the action of the load, the beam experiences a deflection of 20 mm at the center.
Determine the Euler crippling load when the beam is used as a column with one end fixed and the
other end hinged.

3. A steel bar of rectangular cross section 25 mm by 50 mm with hinged ends is axially

compressed. Determine the minimum length at which the Euler crippling formula applies if E =
200 GPa. Also, determine the magnitude of the critical stress if the length of the bar is 6m.

22
Further Examples on Euler’s Formula
4. The compound column fixed at one end and free at the
other consists of two prismatic bars with moments of inertia I1
and I2. Show that

𝛼2 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼1 𝑙1 = 𝛼1 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝛼2 𝑙2

where 𝛼12 = 𝑃 Τ 𝐸𝐼1 and 𝛼22 = 𝑃Τ 𝐸𝐼2

23
 Euler’s Formula
Relationship between Crippling Stress, σe and Slenderness Ratio

Crippling Load
Crippling stress =
Cross − Sectional Area

𝑃𝑒 𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼
⟹ 𝜎𝑒 = =
𝐴 𝐴𝐿2𝑒
But 𝐼 = 𝐴𝑘 2 where k is the radius of gyration of the cross section

𝜋 2 𝐸𝐴𝑘 2 𝜋2𝐸
⟹ 𝜎𝑒 = 2 = 2
𝐴𝐿𝑒 𝐿𝑒 Τ𝑘
where 𝐿𝑒 Τ𝑘 is the slenderness (slim) ratio. The interpretation is that for a given material,
the crippling stress depends on the magnitude of the slenderness ratio.
24
 Euler’s Formula
Limitations of the Euler Formula
The crippling stress on a strut of length effective Le and radius of gyration k is given by
𝜋2𝐸
𝜎𝑒 = 2
𝐿𝑒 Τ𝑘
If we let 𝜎𝑒 = 𝜎𝑐 , the critical stress on the strut, the above equation can
be rewritten as
𝜋2𝐸
𝜎𝑐 = 2
𝐿𝑒 Τ𝑘

That is, the critical stress is inversely proportional to the slenderness ratio 𝐿𝑒 Τ𝑘 2 . This
implies that if the column is long and slender, 𝐿𝑒 Τ𝑘 is large and σc is small. On the other
hand, if the strut is short and has a comparatively large cross-sectional area, 𝐿𝑒 Τ𝑘 is
small and σc is large. 25
 Euler’s Formula
Limitations of the Euler Formula
A graph of σc against 𝐿𝑒 Τ𝑘 for a particular material is shown in the figure below

𝜎𝑐
 If 𝐿𝑒 Τ𝑘 is large (struts), critical stress σc is
small and equal to the Euler crippling stress
 If 𝐿𝑒 Τ𝑘 is small (short columns), critical stress
σc is large and not necessarily equal to the
Euler stress
 At a certain critical value of σc, it is possible
𝐿𝑒 Τ𝑘 that the strut will crush by compressive stress
before reaching the Euler load.

26
 Euler’s Formula
Numerical Example on Limitation of Euler's Formula

 Consider a mild steel column having a crushing stress of 320 MPa or 320 N/mm2 and
Young's modulus of 200 GPa or 200 × 103 N/mm2.

320   E
2
  2
200  10 3
 2 
Le
 78.5  80
Le k 
2
Le k  k
 Thus, if the slenderness ratio is less than 80 the Euler's formula is not valid for a mild steel
column

27
EMPIRICAL METHODS

28
 Empirical Formulae for Columns
In this session, we shall study the other methods used to derive the critical load of a strut:

 Case 1: Rankine formula

 Case 2: Perry-Robertson formula

 Case 3: Johnson's formula

29
 Case 1: Rankine Formula
For very long struts the failure will occur
For a very short column, Pe is large
through buckling as in Euler load
 EI
1
 small
2
Pe  Pe
L2e
1 1
For a very short columns failure is by crushing   PR  Pc
(or yielding) PR Pc
Pc  A. c  area  crushing stress For a very long column Pe is small
1
 large
Rankine load for the failure of any length of Pe
strut 1 1 1
  1

1
 PR  Pe
PR Pc Pe PR Pe 30
 Case 1: Rankine Formula
1 1 1 Pe  Pc
Rewriting   
PR Pc Pe Pc Pe
Thus Pc Pe Pc A c
PR   
Pe  Pc 1  Pc Pe 1  aLe k 2
Where
 Pc Crushing load of the column material
 σc Crushing stress of the column material
 A Cross-sectional area of the column
 a Rankine’s constant
 Le Equivalent length of the column, and
 K Least radius of gyration 31
 Case 2: Rankine Formula
The following table gives the values of crushing stress (σc) and Rankine's constant (a) for
various materials:

Note : The above values arc only for a column with both ends hinged. For other end
conditions, the equivalent length should be used.
32
 Example 2.4
Find the Euler's crippling load for a hollow cylindrical steel column of 38 mm external
diameter and 2.5 mm thick. Take length of the column as 2.3 m and hinged at its both ends.
Take E = 205 GPa. Also determine crippling load by Rankine's formula using constants as 335
MPa and 1/7500

Solution
Give: External diameter (D) = 38 mm; Thickness = 2.5 mm or inner diameter (d) = 38- (2 x
2.5) = 33 mm ; Length of the column (l) = 2.3 m = 2.3 x 103 mm; Yield stress (σc) = 335 MPa =
335 N/mm2 and Rankine’s constant (a) =1/7500

For both ends hinged, effective length of the column, Le = l = 2.3 x 103 mm

Moment of inertia of the column section

I XX 

64
D 4

d4 

64
38 4 4

 33  14.05x10 333 mm 4
 Example 2.4 (continued)

  4 38  33   88.75 mm

Area of the column section
A
4
D 2
d 2 2 2 2

The least radius of gyration I 14.05x10 3 

k   12.6 mm
A 88.75
Euler’s crippling load
 2 205x103 14.05x103  
PE   EI
2
  16,880 N
2300
2
L e
2

Rankine's crippling load

PR 
A c

88.75 335  17,160 N
1  a Le k 
2 2
 1  2300 
1    34
 7500  12. 6 
 Example 2.5
Fig. 27 shows a built-up column consisting of 150 mm x 100 mm R. S. J.
with 120 mm x 12 mm plate riveted to each flange. Calculate the safe
load, the column can carry, if it is 4 m long having one end fixed and the
other hinged with a factor of safety 3.5. Take the properties of the joist as
Area= 2167 mm2 IXX = 8.391 x 106 mm4, IYY = 0.948 x 106 mm4. Assume
the yield stress as 315 MPa and Rankine's constant (a) = 1/7500

Solution
Given: Length of the column (l)= 4 m = 4 x 103 mm; Factor of safety =
3.5; Yield stress (σc) = 315.MPa = 315 N/mm2; Area of joist= 2167 mm2;
Moment of inertia, about X-X axis (IXX) = 8.391 x 106 mm4; Moment of
inertia about Y-Y axis (IYY) = 0.948 x 106 mm4 and Rankine's constant (a)
= 1/7500
35
 Example 2.5 (continued)
Area of the column section, A = 2167 + (2 x 120 x 12) = 5047 mm2

Moment of inertia of the column section


I XX  83.91x10   2
6 120123
2
 1201281   27.32x10 6 mm 4
 12 

 
 0.948x10  2
6
121203

 6 4
The least radius of gyration
I YY  4.404x10 mm
 12  k
I

4.404x10 6
 29.5 mm
A 5047
The least of two, IYY = 4.404 x 106 mm4
Rankine's crippling load
For fixed at one end and hinged at the other, PR 
A c

5047315  714 kN
1  a Le k 
2 2
l 4000  1  2830 
Le    2.83x10 3 mm 1   
2 2  7500  29. 5  36
 Example 2.6
A column is made up of two channels. ISJC 200 and two 250 mm x 10 mm
flange plates as shown in Fig.28. Determine by Rankine's formula the safe
load, the column of 6 m length, with both ends fixed, can carry with a factor
of safety 4. The properties of one channel are Area = I 777 mm2, IXX =
11.612 X 106 mm4 and IYY = 0.842 x 106 mm4. Distance of centroid from
back to web=. 19.7 mm. Take (σc) = 320 MPa and (a)= 1/7500

Solution
Given : Length of the column (l)= 6 m = 6 X 103 mm ; Factor of safety= 4 ;
Area of channel = 1777 mm2; Moment of inertia about X-X axis (IXX) =
11.612 x 106 mm4; Moment of inertia about Y-Y axis (IYY) = 0.842 x 106
mm4; Distance of centroid from the back of web= 19.7 mm; Crushing stress
(σc) = 320 MPa = 320 N/mm2 and Rankine's constant (a)= 1/7500
37
 Example 2.6 (continued)
Area of the column section, A = 2 [1777 + (250 x 10)] = 8554 mm2

Moment of inertia of the column section,

 
I XX  2 x11.612x10  2
6
 250103
2
 25010105   78.391x10 6 mm 4
 12 
 102503 2
I YY  2  
 0.846x10  1777x50  19.7    44.992x106 mm 4
6

 12 

The least of two, IYY = 44.992 x 106 mm4

l 6000
For fixed at both ends, Le    3x10 3 mm
2 2

I 44.992x10 6
The least radius of gyration k   72.5 mm 38
A 8554
 Example 2.6 (continued)

Rankine's crippling load

PR 
A c

8554320  2228.5 kN
1  a  Le k 
2 2
 1  3000 
1   
 7500  72.5 

Safe load on the column

Crippling load 2228.5
Safe load    557.1 kN
Factor of safety 4
39
Case 2: Perry-Robertson’s Formula
x
Initial deflection at a distance x from the end B y    . sin
l
dy    x
 . cos
dx l l
d 2 y  2  x
2
  2 . sin
dx l l

The deflection at x changes from y/ to y d 2  y  y 

 EI 2
  Py
dx
d 2  y  y  Py
 
dx 2 EI
d 2 y Py d 2 y  2 x
 2      . sin
dx EI dx 2 l2 l 40
 Case 2: Perry-Robertson’s Formula
Solution x The deflection will be maximum at the mid-point
y  C  sin
l PE
dy  x y    
 C  cos PE  P
dx l l
Maximum bending moment
  x
2 2
d y
   C   sin M  P 
P.PE

l
2
dx l PE  P
Inserting the values of y and dy/dx Maximum compressive stress
C 
PE  max   d   y c
PE  P   1 1   2
 d   E  k
Hence the equation to the deflected form of the column
PE x
y  . sin
PE  P l 41
 Example 2.7
A steel strut has an outside diameter of 180mm and inside diameter of 120mm and is 6m long.
It is hinged at both ends and is initially bent. Assuming the centre line of the strut as sinusoidal
with maximum deviation of 9mm, determine the maximum stress developed due to an axial
load of 150kN. Take E = 208 GPa.

Solution
Given: Outside diameter of the strut, (D) = 180 mm; Inside diameter of the strut, (d) = 120 mm;
Length of the strut, (l) = 6 m =6 x 103 mm; Maximum deviation at the centre, (δ/) = 9 mm;
Young’s modulus, (E) = 208 GPa = 208 x 103 N/mm2; Axial load, (P) = 150 kN = 150 x 103 N

Area of cross-section A
4

 2 
  
D  d 2  180 2  120 2  14 .14 x10 3 mm 2
4

Moment of inertia
I

64
D 4
d4   
64

180 4

 120 4  41 .35 x10 6 mm 4
42
 Example 2.7 (continued)
Radius of gyration 6 4
I 41 . 35 x10 mm
k2    2 . 924 x10 3
mm 2
A 14 .14 x10 3 mm 2

Euler load, for pinned at both ends, Le = l = 6x103 mm

2
   
  
2
PE    EI    208 x10 3
41 .35 x10 6
 2.36 x10 6
N
 6 x10 
3
 Le 
Euler Stress PE 2.36 x10 6
E    166 .75 N mm 2
A 14 .14 x10 3

Direct stress
P 150 x10 3
d    10 .6 N mm 2
A 14 .14 x10 3 43
 Example 2.7 (continued)
Distance of the extreme layer in compression from the neutral axis
D 180
yc    90 mm
2 2
We know that
 max    d   y c  max  10 .6  9 x90
  1 1   2   1 1   

 d   E  k  10 .6   166 .75  2.924 x10 3

Therefore  max  0.277

 10.6  1  0.936  0.296
 
  max  10.6 x1  0.296   13.74 N mm 2
44