SURVEYING-II CIVIL ENGINEERING

CHAPTER 8

MODERN SYSTEM IN SURVEYING AND MAPPING

Modern surveying instruments provides faster and more precise surveying than
conventional instruments.

Following are the modern surveying instruments which are used for surveying:

o Electronic Distance Measurement (EDM) Instruments

o Total Station

o Global Positioning System (GPS)

o Automatic Level
8.1 ELECTRONIC AND LASER THEODOLITE

Electronic Theodolite: Electronic or Digital theodolites consist of a telescope that is

mounted on a base, as well as an electronic readout screen that is used to display
horizontal and vertical angles.Electroic theodolites are convenient because the digital
readouts take the place of traditional graduated circles and this creates more accurate
readings.

Electronic Laser Theodolites: Some theodolite models have the added benefit of a
visible laser point that can be used to identify the targeted point without looking through
the telescope. An electronic theodolite with a laser pointer is ideal for
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monitoring applications where many repeat measurements need to be taken. Without

looking through the telescope the target can be sighted and the measurement made. In
conditions of low lighting where viewing through the telescope is difficult, such as in
tunnels or mines, the laser point can clearly identify the required point. For setting out,
the person placing the nail or stake can use the laser beam to help him align on the
correct direction.

FIG.ELECTRONIC LASER THEODOLITE

8.2 Use of Astronomy in Surveying and Mapping

Astronomy is a natural science that deals with the study of celestial bodies such as
stars, planets, comets, galaxies etc

The purpose of field astronomy is

 To determine absolute locations and direction of any line on the surface of the
earth
 To determine absolute location of any points/ objects astronomical
observations to celestial bodies such as moon, sun, star and planets.
 Used to find angular positions of stars
 Determination of the position of points on the earth
 Determination of orientation

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8.3 Global Positioning System (introduction, components, working principle and

uses of GPS)

GPS or Global Positioning System is a satellite navigation system that furnishes

location and time information in all climate conditions to the user.

GPS is used for navigation in planes, ships, cars and trucks also. The system gives
critical abilities to military and civilian users around the globe.

Components of GPS

1) The space segment

2) The control system

3) The user segment

1. The Space Segment

The space segment is the number of satellites in the constellation. It comprises of 29 satellites
circling the earth every 12 hours at 12,000 miles in altitude. The function of the space segment
is utilized to route/navigation signals and to store and retransmit the route/navigation message
sent by the control segment. These transmissions are controlled by highly stable atomic clocks
on the satellites. The GPS Space Segment is formed by a satellite constellation with enough
satellites to ensure that the users will have, at least, 4 simultaneous satellites in view from any
point at the Earth surface at any time.

2. The User Segment

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The user segment comprises of the GPS receiver, which receives the signals from the GPS
satellites and determine how far away it is from each satellite. Mainly this segment is used for
the U.S military, missile guidance systems, civilian applications for GPS in almost every field.
Most of the civilian uses this from survey to transportation to natural resources and from there
to agriculture purpose and mapping too.

3. The Control Segment

The control segment comprises of a master control station and five monitor stations outfitted
with atomic clocks that are spread around the globe. The five monitor stations monitor the GPS
satellite signals and then send that qualified information to the master control station where
abnormalities are revised and sent back to the GPS satellites through ground antennas. Control
segment also referred as monitor station.

Working Principle

The working/operation of Global positioning system is based on the ‘trilateration’

mathematical principle. The position is determined from the distance measurements to
satellites. From the figure, the four satellites are used to determine the position of the
receiver on the earth. The target location is confirmed by the 4th satellite. And three
satellites are used to trace the location place. A fourth satellite is used to confirm the
target location of each of those space vehicles. Global positioning system consists of
satellite, control station and monitor station and receiver. The GPS receiver takes the
information from the satellite and uses the method of triangulation to determine a user’s
exact position.

Uses of GPS

1. To determine position locations; for example, you need to radio a helicopter pilot
the coordinates of your position location so the pilot can pick you up.
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2. To navigate from one location to another; for example, you need to travel from a
lookout to the fire perimeter.
3. To create digitized maps; for example, you are assigned to plot the fire perimeter
and hot spots.
4. To determine distance between two different points.
Advantages of GPS:
 GPS satellite based navigation system is an important tool for military, civil and
commercial users
 Vehicle tracking systems GPS-based navigation systems can provide us with turn
by turn directions
 Very high speed
Disadvantages of GPS:
 GPS satellite signals are too weak when compared to phone signals, so it doesn’t
work as well indoors, underwater, under trees, etc.
 The highest accuracy requires line-of-sight from the receiver to the satellite, this is
why GPS doesn’t work very well in an urban environment.

8.4 Total Station (introduction, features, characteristics, field procedures for

total station in topographical surveying)

Total station surveying - defined as the use of electronic survey equipment used to
perform horizontal and vertical measurements in reference to a grid system. It is also a
form of an electronic theodolite combined with an electronic distance measuring device
(EDM).

Field techniques with TS:

Various field operations in TS are in the form of wide variety of programs integrated
with microprocessor and implemented with the help of data collector. All these
programs need that the instrument station and at least one reference station be

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identified so that all subsequent stations can be identified in terms of (X, Y, Z). Typical
programs include the following functions:
 Point location
 Slope reduction
 Missing line measurement (MLM)
 Resection
 Azimuth calculation
 Remote distance and elevation measurement
 Offset measurements
 Layout or setting out operation
 Area computation
 Tracking
Important Features of Total Station
Distance Measurement
Electronic distance measuring (EDM) instrument is a major part of total station. Its
range varies from 2.8 km to 4.2 km. The accuracy of measurement varies from 5 mm
to 10 mm per km measurement. They are used with automatic target recognizer. A
variety of target poles or Prism Poles are used for the remote rod to which topographic
observations are made. The distance measured is always sloping distance from
instrument to the object.

Angle Measurements
The electronic theodolite part of total station is used for measuring vertical and
horizontal angle. For measurement of horizontal angles any convenient direction may
be taken as reference direction. For vertical angle measurement vertical upward (zenith)
direction is taken as reference direction. The accuracy of angle measurement varies
from 2 to 6 seconds.

Data Processing
This instrument is provided with an inbuilt microprocessor. The microprocessor
averages multiple observations. With the help of slope distance and vertical and
horizontal angles measured, when height of axis of instrument and targets are supplied,
the microprocessor computes the horizontal distance and X, Y, Z coordinates.

The processor is capable of applying temperature and pressure corrections to the

measurements, if atmospheric temperature and pressures are supplied.

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Display :Electronic display unit is capable of displaying various values when respective
keys are pressed. The system is capable of displaying horizontal distance, vertical
distance, horizontal and vertical angles, difference in elevations of two observed points
and all the three coordinates of the observed points.
Electronic Book :Each point data can be stored in an electronic note book (like
compact disc). The capacity of electronic note book varies from 2000 points to 4000
points data. Surveyor can unload the data stored in note book to computer and reuse the
note book.
Cost: The cost of Total Station Depends upon the accuracy and added features and
also varies from brand to brand.

Advantages of Using Total Stations

1. Field work is carried out very fast.

2. Accuracy of measurement is high.

3. Manual errors involved in reading and recording are eliminated.

4. Calculation of coordinates is very fast and accurate. Even corrections for temperature
and pressure are automatically made.

5. Computers can be employed for map making and plotting contour and cross-sections.
Contour intervals and scales can be changed in no time.

6. Quick setup of the instrument on the tripod by utilizing the laser plummet.

7. Programmed with on board area computation for computing the area of a field.

8. It supports local languages.

9. It shows the graphical view of land and plots.

DISADVANTAGES OF TOTAL STATION:

1. The instrument is costlier than other conventional surveying instruments.

2. It might be troublesome for the surveyor to investigate and check the work when
surveying.
3. Working with total station is not so easy, as more skilled surveyors are required to
conduct a total station survey.

Precautions to be taken

1. Use both hands to hold the total station handle

2. Set up the tripod as stable as possible

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3. Do not move or carry a tripod with total station fixed on it, except for
centering
4. Store the battery pack with the battery discharged
5. Do not over tighten any of the clamp screws
6. Never point the telescope at the sun as the sun’s rays
7. Don’t leave equipment unprotected or unattended
8.5 GIS

GIS is a set of tools for collecting, storing, retrieving, transforming and displaying
spatial data from the real world for a particular purpose. (Burrough, 1986 )
GIS is a computer based system that provides four sets of capabilities to
handle the geo-referenced data
• data input - data management
• manipulations - visualization
(Amoff, 1989)
What is GIS?
 An acronym for
• Geographic Information System (common term)
• Geographical Information System
• Geographic Information Science (academia)
 Geographic
• real world features or objects that can be referenced to a specific
location in space
 Information
• specific characteristics, descriptions or properties of real world features
 System
• Integrated and collaborative combination of hardware, software,
analysis and presentation methods as well as user communities
Components of GIS
 Hardware
• Computers, printers/plotters, scanners, network, digital tablets etc
 Software
• Commercial- ArcView, ArcGIS/ArcINFO, GRASS, MapINFO,
IDRISI, Manifold
• Open Source – ILWIS, MapWindow, QGIS, Saga GIS, etc.
 People / User Communities
• Planners
• Agriculture sector
• Environment sector
• Military and defense
• Security sector
• Emergency management sector
• Transportation
• Telecommunication

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• Energy sector

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• Forest and natural resources

• Geology
• Ecology and conservation
• Education etc

 Basically GIS can answer questions related to

• Location
• Condition
• Trends
• Patterns
• Modelling
• Spatial and non-spatial

• Locations – What is at… ........ ?

 What is at particular location?
 A residential building with 20 floors, 80 flats occupying 600 sq.m with
350 residents.
• Condition - Where is it?
 Where are the res. buildings with more than 5 floors?
 Locations of res. buildings with more than 5 floors
• Trends – What has changed since?
 How many buildings have been constructed since 2000?
 More constructions in this area
• Pattern – What spatial pattern exists?
 What is the pattern of traffic accidents?
 Occurrences high in major intersections
• Modelling – What if?
 What is the traffic flow pattern if a road segment is added?
 Heavy traffic volume in the new segment
• Spatial Question
 What is the shortest route from point A to point B?
Non-spatial Question
 What is the average income rate of the population of different
wards in a municipality?
GIS Applications
 Land Management and Administration
 Spatial Planning (regional, urban)
 Land administration and management
 Natural Resources (Forestry, agriculture, soil)
 Infrastructure planning, development, management
 Environment and ecology
 Military defense
 Health

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 Energy
 others..
Uses of GIS in Civil Engineering
1. Site Investigation
2. Data Management
3. Asset Management
4. Transportation
Planning
Design
Maintenance
Information
5. Water Supply
6. Environmental Monitoring
7. Construction of Power Transmission Project
8. Identification for locations for water ways and tunneling

8.6 Digital Terrain Model (DTM)

• In high relief areas variables such as altitude, aspect and slope strongly
influence both human and physical environments

– a 3D data model is therefore essential

– use a Digital Terrain Model (DTM)

– derive information on:

 height (altitude), aspect and slope (gradient)

 watersheds (catchments)

 solar radiation and hill shading

 cut and fill calculations

 etc.

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Some definitions…

– DEM (Digital Elevation Model)

 set of regularly or irregularly spaced height values

 no other information

– DTM (Digital Terrain Model)

 set of regularly or irregularly spaced height values

 but, with other information about terrain surface

 ridge lines, spot heights, troughs, coast/shore lines, drainage

lines, faults, peaks, pits, passes, etc.

• A statistical representation of the continuous surface of the ground by a large

number of selected points with known X, Y, and Z coordinates in an arbitrary
co-ordinate field.

• Digital Terrain Model (DTM) :bare earth model which does not include
buildings and vegetations

• Provide the means for representing the continuous surface in a digital form
using a finite amount of storage.

• Provide the means for representing the earth’s surface in the computer

 DTM is created

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• photogrammetry method (stereo aerial photo)

• remote sensing technique

• Stereo imagery

• Radar

• Airborne laser sensing (LiDAR)

• Ground survey (tachymetry, spot level, DGPS)

• Existing maps (using contours and spot levels)

DTM Application

Civil Engineering:

 Cut-and-fill problems involved with road design.

 Site planning.
 Volumetric calculations in building dams and reservoirs.

Earth Sciences:

 Drainage basin network development and delineation.

 Hydrological run-off modeling.
 Geo-morphological simulation and classification.
 Geological mapping.
 Generating slope and aspect maps.

Planning and Resource Management:

 The management of natural resources.

 Site location.
 Support of image classification in remote sensing by DTM derivatives.
 Geometric and radiometric correction of remote sensing images
 Wind flow and pollution dispersion models.

Military Applications:

 Consumers and producers (e.g., NIMA).

 End objectives are very specialised and demanding.
 Inter-visibility analysis for battlefield management.
 3-dimensional display for weapons guidance systems and flight simulation.
 Radar line-of-sight analyses.

Topographic mapping.

Surveying and Photogrammetry

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