WEATHERING: (by: AC Keale Dimzon)
Weathering – the process of disintegration and decomposition of rocks.
• Earth's surface is composed of water and landmasses.
• When rocks and minerals experience changes either physically or chemically, they are
transported by different agents from one place to another and will settle down in a
particular area.
1. Physical Weathering – breakdown of rocks into pieces without any change in its
composition.
• Also known as mechanical weathering.
• Breakdown of rocks into pieces without any change in its composition.
• The size and shape of rocks changes and this occurs, Because of these factors.
Types of Physical Weathering
a. Frost wedging – rocks have fractures in its surface and when water accumulates in
the crack and at that point freezes, the ice expands and breaks the rock apart.
b. Abrasion – breakdown of rocks caused by impact of friction. Primarily, it occurs
during collision of rocks and sand silt.
c. Organic activity – Roots grow causing penetration into the crack, expand, and in the
long run break the rock. Sometimes called “root action”
d. Human activity – activities such as digging, quarrying, denuding forests and
cultivating land contribute to physical weathering.
e. Burrowing animals – animals like rats, rabbits, and squirrels excavate into the
ground to create a space for habitation.
2. Chemical Weathering – when rocks weaken then break down due to chemical changes
in the composition of the rock.
Types of Chemical Weathering
a. Dissolution – occurs in specific minerals which are dissolved in water.
b. Hydrolysis – rock forming minerals react with water and form different kinds of
clay.
c. Oxidation – the response of oxygen with minerals. If the iron oxidizes, the mineral
in rocks decomposes. Rusting is an example of oxidation.
Metamorphism – an endogenic process which occurs when there is pressure and heat
applied to geologic structures which leads to the formation of Metamorphic Rocks.
EARTH’S INTERNAL HEAT SOURCES:
Heat Energy – the transfer or flow due to the difference in temperature between the
2 objects is called heat.
• the result of the movement of tiny particles called atoms, molecules or ions in solids,
liquids and gases. Heat energy can be transferred from one object to another.
The Earth’s internal heat provides the heat and energy which supplies the force for
natural phenomena such as earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.
Sources of heat on our planet.
1. Primordial Heat – remains from its early stage.
• The earth was formed from the process of accretion wherein gases and dust of cloud
was attracted by gravitational energy.
• In the process due to the collision of these masses, heat was generated.
The process formed the earliest stage of planet Earth which is molten in state and
heat is trapped in the core of the planet, the accrued heat did not vanish.
2. Radiogenic Heat – the thermal energy released as a result of spontaneous nuclear
disintegration • disintegration of natural radioactive elements inside earth.
• Radioactive decay – spontaneous breakdown of the atomic nucleus causes the release
of energy and matter from the nucleus.
The process of radioactive decay which emits heat energy as one of the products
prevents Earth from completely cooling off.
3. Gravitational Pressure – The more a person descends into Earth’s interior, the
amount of pressure increases due to the force pressing on an area caused by the
weight of an overlying rock.
• Because rocks are good insulators, the escape of heat from Earth’s surface is less
than the heat generated from internal gravitational attraction or squeezing of rock, so
heat builds up within.
4. Dense core material in the center of the planet – The materials of the innermost
part of the earth are very dense. The inner core as the innermost layer is composed
primarily of iron and nickel which contributes to the density.
• The inner core’s intense pressure prevents the iron and other minimal amounts of
some elements from melting.
The pressure and density are simply too great for the iron atoms to move into a liquid
state. Thus, this contributes to the intense heat in the interior of the planet.
• Like in the descent of the dense iron-rich material that makes up the core of the
planet to the center that produces heating in about 2,000 kelvins.
ENDOGENIC PROCESSES:
Endogenic Processes – Processes that are formed or occurring beneath the surface of
the Earth.
• geological processes that occur beneath the surface of the Earth.
• associated with energy originating in the interior of the solid earth.
The Main Endogenic Processes are Folding and Faulting (or tectonic movements).
Folding – when 2 forces push towards each other from opposite sides, the rock layers
will bend into folds.
• The process by which folds are formed due to compressional forces known as folding.
• There are large-scale folds mainly found on destructive plates and small scale folds.
Faulting – the fracturing and displacement of more brittle rock strata along the fault
plane either caused by tension or compression.
• A break in rock along which a vertical or horizontal rock movement has occurred is
called fault.
• The line of fault which appears on land surface is known as fault line.
• These lines are often lines of weakness which allow molten rock to rise up onto the
earth's surface when there is active volcanic activity nearby.
The Subsequent Endogenic Processes are Volcanism, Metamorphism, and Earthquakes.
Volcanism – or magmatism (also known as volcanic activity or igneous activity)
• When folding or faulting occur, cracks or fractures which are lines of weakness are
created.
• These lines of weakness effects downward in crust and reach magma, they will release
the pressure in the magma.
• this allows magma to rise up along the lines of weakness and intrude into the crust.
• There are two types of Volcanism: Intrusive volcanism and Extrusive volcanism.
Metamorphism – Metamorphism is an endogenic process which occurs when there is
pressure and heat applied to geologic structures which leads to the formation of
Metamorphic Rocks.
Earthquakes – a sudden shaking or vibration in the earth’s crust.
• When plates suddenly move past each other, the built-up strain is released along the
fault, and the rock fractures.
• An earthquake also can be triggered by molten rock moving up into the chamber of a
volcano before eruption.
• Endogenic processes have been responsible for shaping the earth’s geologic
structures and the formation of many of the most important mineral resources.
HOW ROCKS BEHAVE UNDER DIFFERENT TYPES OF STRESS:
Types of Stress :
• Tensional Stress – Act in opposite directions, pulling rock apart and stretching it.
• Compressional Stress – act towards each other, pushing or squeezing rock together.
Pushes rock together.
• Shear Stress – May act toward or away from each other, but they do so along diff.
lines of action, causing rock to twist or tear. Factors affecting deformation.
• Temperature – At high temperature molecules and their bonds can stretch and move,
thus materials will behave in a more ductile manner. At low temperatures, materials are
brittle.
• Confining Pressure – At high confining pressure materials are less likely to fracture
because the pressure of the surroundings tends to hinder the formation of fractures.
At low confining stress, material will be brittle and tend to fracture sooner.
• Strain Rate – At high strain rates material tends to fracture. At low strain rates
more time is available for individual atoms to move and therefore ductile behavior is
favored.
• Composition – This is due to the chemical bond types that hold them together. Thus,
the mineralogical composition of the rock will be a factor in determining the
deformational behavior of the rock.
Kinds of Folds ;
• Monoclines – the simplest types of folds, Monoclines occur when horizontal strata are
bent upward so that the two limbs of the fold are still horizontal.
• Anticlines – folds where the originally horizontal strata have been folded upward, and
the two limbs of the fold dip away from the hinge of the fold.
• Synclines – folds where the originally horizontal strata have been folded downward,
and the two limbs of the fold dip inward toward the hinge of the fold.
SEAFLOOR SPREADING:
Seafloor spreading – the movement of two oceanic plates away from each other (at a
divergent plate boundary), which results in the formation of new oceanic crust (from
magma that comes from within the Earth's mantle) along a mid- ocean ridge.
Several types of evidence from the oceans supported Hess’s theory of seafloor
spreading:
a. Evidence from molten material – at the mid-ocean ridge, molten material rises up
from the mantle and spreads out, pushing the older rocks to both sides of the ridge.
• rocks shaped like pillows( rock pillows) show that molten material has erupted again
and again from cracks along the mid-ocean ridge and cooled quickly.
b. Evidence from magnetic stripes – the mid-1960s studies of the Earth’s magnetic
field showed a history of periodic reversals. The magnetic history of the earth is thus
recorded in the spreading ocean floors as in a very slow magnetic tape recording,
forming a continuous record of the movement of the ocean floors.
• Magnetic surveys conducted near the mid ocean ridge showed elongated patterns of
normal and reversed polarity of the ocean floor in bands paralleling the rift and
symmetrically distributed as mirror images.
c. Evidence from drilling samples – Samples of the deep ocean floor show that basaltic
oceanic crust and overlying sediment become progressively younger as the mid ocean
ridge is approached, and the sediment cover is thinner near the ridge
• The rock making up the ocean floor is considerably younger than the continents, with
no samples found over 200 million years old, as contrasted with maximum ages of over
3 billion years for the continental rocks that have been reabsorbed in the ocean
trench system.
HOW LAYERS OF SEDIMENTS FORM SEDIMENTARY ROCK:
Sedimentary Rocks – Formed from the compaction and cementation of sediments
• The weakest type of rock
• ¾ of all the rocks on the Earth’s surface
• The only rocks that can contain fossils
1. Law of Superposition – In any undisturbed sequence of rocks deposited in layers,
the youngest layer is on top and the oldest on bottom.
2. Law of Original Horizontality – Layers of sediment were originally deposited
horizontally under the action of gravity.
3. Law of Lateral Continuity – The layers of rock are continuous until they encounter
other solid bodies that block their deposition or until they are acted upon by agents
that appear after deposition.
Processes
• Existing can be broken down into pieces called sediments through the process of
weathering.
• Then sediments will be transported by various agents of weathering.
• Weathering + transport = erosion.
• Sediments will then settle in one place called deposition.
• Over millions of years, the weight of the layers above compresses the ones below.
• Sediments will harden into sedimentary rocks due to the process of compaction.
Sometimes another substance is present between sediments sticking them together in.
the process called cementation/lithification.
• Determining a chronology of events in the history of the Earth
• To establish the history of geological events.
• To determine the rates of geological processes.
Sometimes another substance is present between sediments sticking them together in
the process called cementation/lithification.
Dating
• Determining a chronology of events in the history of the Earth.
• To establish the history of geological events.
• To determine the rates of geological processes.
• Stratigraphy, biostratigraphy, and crossdating ( relative )
• Radiometric dating, amino acid dating, dendrochronology, and thermoluminescence.
( absolute )
• Law of Cross-cutting
What are index fossils?
Fossils – any preserved remains, impressions, or traces of any once-living thing from a
past geological age Fossils are rare – most remains are consumed or destroyed soon
after death.
Index fossils – Fossils that are widespread but only existed for a short period.
PLATES MOVEMENTS:
The Earth's surface is made up of a series of large plates (like pieces of a giant jigsaw
puzzle).
➢ The place where two plates meet is known as plate margin/ boundary.
There are 3 types of plate margins/ movements:
• Diverging Plate Margin
• Converging Plate Margin
• Transform Plate Margin
Hazards associated with plates
• Earthquake
• Volcanic Eruption
EVOLUTION OF OCEAN FLOOR: BIRTH AND DESTRUCTION:
Ocean floor is the bottom of the ocean.
• Ocean floors have a common structure created from tectonic movement and sediment
from various sources.
• relatively short-lived features on the planet.
• No oceanic crust older than 180 Ma old is known from the present oceans.
The Wilson Cycle – a model that describes the opening and closing of ocean basins and
closing of ocean basins and the subduction and divergence of tectonic plates during the
assembly and disassembly of supercontinents.
➢ John Tuzo Wilson – Canadian geophysicist
• Ocean forms at the embryonic stage.
• Develops and widens in young and mature stages.
• Spreading continues and shrinkage starts at declining stages.
• Shrinkage continues and uplifting begins at terminal stage and finally becomes a
relict.
• Sea floor spreading and Subduction are the two major forces responsible for the
evolution of plates.
THE HISTORY OF THE EARTH:
The Earth has existed for 4.6 billion years.
The geologic time scale divides all those years into sections like how your science book
is divided into Units, then Chapters, then Sections, then Pages.
Eon
1. Phanerozoic
2. Proterozoic
3. Archean
4. Hadean
Eras
1. Cenozoic (“recent life”) - spans from 66 million years ago to the present and is
sometimes referred to as The Age of Mammals
2. Mesozoic (“middle life”) - spans from 252 to 66 million years ago and is
characterized by: Dinosaurs and other reptiles, Referred to as The Age of Reptiles.
3. Paleozoic (“ancient life”) - spans from 541 to 252.2 million years ago and is
characterized by: Rocks rich in fossils of sea creatures such as sponges, corals, clams,
squids, and trilobites (age of fish).
4. Precambrian - from Earth’s formation 4.6 billion years ago to about 543 million years
ago and is characterized by:
– Volcanic eruptions, meteorites, intense radiation from the sun
– Early atmosphere had no oxygen
– Prokaryotic organisms (no nucleus)
Periods – Quaternary Period
Epochs – Holocene
Ayoko na. - keale (pascal}
