Water
&
Its Treatment
Introduction
⚫For the existence of all living things water is essential. Without water we
cannot survive. Almost all human activities domestic, agricultural and
industrial demand use of water.
⚫Water from any source has to be treated before its use. The treatment to
which it is subjected depends upon its use.
⚫If it has to be used for drinking purposes, the treatment would include
removal of objectionable colour, taste and pathogenic micro organisms,
whereas the water for industrial use require the removal of dissolved salts if
it is used for steam generation.
⚫In this section we will discuss about the analysis of water and treatment of
water for its industrial and domestic use.
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Sources of water
⚫Surface water :-The water which comes from surface through
rain. eg :- rain water, river water & sea water.
⚫Underground water :- This water comes from rain that falls on
earths surface & then goes into the ground water & travel down
the impervious (cracks) layers of earth, thus forming ground
water. eg :- spring water & well water.
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Impurities in Water
• Silica, clay etc
• CO2, O2, H2S
• Bacteria & other Micro-organisms like algae & fungi
• Carbonates, Bicarbonates, Chlorides & Sulphates of Ca,
Mg.
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Types Of Water
HARD WATER SOFT WATER
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Hard water
HARD WATER and SoftSOFT
waterWATER
Does not form lather with soap Forms lather with soap easily
easily
Contains dissolved salts of Ca Does not contain dissolved
& Mg salts of Ca & Mg
More wastage of time & fuel as Less wastage of time & fuel
boiling temp. of water gets
increased due to impurities
More consumption of soap by Less consumption of soap by
hard water soft water
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Hardness of water
🞂 Hardness is the soap consuming capacity of water
🞂 Hardness of water is due to the presence of Ca and Mg salts in
it. Other ions responsible for hardness are Al3+, Fe3+ and Mn2+
🞂 If Ca and Mg salts are present in water then they react with
the soluble sodium soap to form insoluble salts calcium and
magnesium.
🞂 2C17H35COONa + CaSO4---🡪 (C17H35COO)2Ca + Na2SO4
Sodium stearate Insoluble salt
🞂 2C17H35COONa + MgCl2---🡪 (C17H35COO)2Mg + 2NaCl
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Formation of Hardness
Precipitation
Topsoil
Subsoil
CO2 + H2O → H2CO3
Limestone CaCO3(s) + H2CO3 → Ca(HCO3)2
MgCO3(s) + H2CO3 → Mg(HCO3)2
Types Of Hardness
TEMPORARY PERMANENT
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Temporary Hardness
⚫Caused by the presence of dissolved bicarbonates of Ca, Mg and..
This hardness is also known as alkaline hardness or Carbonate
Hardness (CH) .
⚫Easily removed by heating :
Heat
⚫Ca(HCO3)2---------🡪 CaCO3 + H2O + CO2
Heat
⚫Mg(HCO3)2---------🡪 Mg(OH)2 + CO2
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Permanent Hardness
⚫Due to the presence of sulphates and chlorides of Ca & Mg
⚫Also known as Non Carbonate Hardness (NCH).
⚫Cannot be removed simply by boiling.
⚫Special methods like lime soda process, zeolite process, ion-
exchange method are used for the removal of permanent
hardness.
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Degree of Hardness in terms of CaCO3
equivalent
⚫Hardness is expressed in terms of CaCO3 equivalents.
⚫Reasons for choosing CaCO3 as the reference standard for
calculating hardness of water is :
⮚ mol. wt. is 100 that makes mathematical calculation easier.
⮚ The most insoluble salt and can be easily precipitated in water
treatment process.
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How to calculate harness in terms of
CaCO3 equivalent
Hardness in terms of CaCO3 equivalents
mol. mass of CaCO3
= wt. of hardness producing sub. × mol. mass of hardness producing
sub.
Units of Hardness
a) parts per million ppm parts of CaCO3 equivalent hardness per 106 parts of
water.
b) Milligrams per Mg/l no. of milligrams of CaCO3 equivalent hardness per
litre litre of water.
c) Degree Clark °Cl parts of CaCO3 equivalent hardness per 70,000 parts
of water.
.
d) Degree French °Fr parts of CaCO3 equivalent hardness per 105 parts of
water.
Relation between various units of hardness
1ppm = 1mg/l = 0.1°Fr = 0.07 °Cl
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Softening Methods
The following methods are used :
⚫ Lime soda Process
⚫ Zeolite softening process
⚫ Ion exchange process
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Lime – Soda Process
⚫Treatment of water with calculated amount of lime Ca(OH)2 & Soda
(Na2CO3) which results in the formation of insoluble ppts. of Ca &
Mg that can be removed by filteration.
Cold Lime Soda
⚫ Types
Hot Lime Soda
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Stoichiometry
CO2 + Ca(OH)2 --> CaCO3 + H2O
Ca(HCO3)2 + Ca(OH)2 --> 2 CaCO3 + 2 H2O
Mg(HCO3)2 + Ca(OH)2 --> CaCO3 + MgCO3 + 2H2O
MgCO3 + Ca(OH)2 --> Mg(OH)2 + CaCO3
MgSO4 + Ca(OH)2 --> Mg(OH)2 + CaSO4
MgCl2 + Ca(OH)2 --> Mg(OH)2 + CaCl2
CaSO4 + Na2CO3 --> CaCO3 + Na2SO4
CaCl2 + Na2CO3 --> CaCO3 + 2NaCl
Cold lime soda process
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Zeolite or Permutit process
⚫Na2OAl2O3 xSiO2 yH2O
⚫Where x = 2 - 10 , y = 2 – 6
⚫Can be written as Na2Ze where Ze = OAl2O3 xSiO2 yH2O
⚫Can be natural or synthetic
⚫exchanges reversibly its sodium ions with hardness producing
ions( Ca & Mg) in water.
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Principle of Zeolite process
Softening Process :
Na2Ze + Ca(HCO3)2 CaZe + 2 NaHCO3
Na2Ze + Mg(HCO3)2 MgZe + 2 NaHCO3
Regeneration :
CaZe + 2 NaCl Na2Ze + CaCl2
MgZe + 2 NaCl Na2Ze + MgCl2
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Zeolite Process
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Ion Exchange or De-ionization or De-
mineralisation process
⚫Hard water is allowed to pass through ion exchangers when soft water, free
from all the minerals and hardness causing as well as the other ions is
obtained.
Cation Exchange Column represented with its H+ ions
⚫Types
Anion Exchange Column represented with its OH- ions
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STRUCTURE OF ION –EXCHANGE RESINS
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Process
Cation Exchange column :
2RH+ + Ca+2 R2Ca+2 + 2H+
Cation exchange resin H. W. Cation exchange resin S. W.
Anion Exchange column :
R’OH- + Cl- R’Cl- + OH-
Anion exchange resin H. W. Anion exchange resin S. W.
2R’OH- + SO4-2 R2’SO4-2 + 2OH-
Anion exchange resin H. W. Anion exchange resin S. W.
Regneration:
CationExchange column :
R2Ca+2 + 2H+ 2RH+ + Ca+2
Saturated Cation exchange resin dil. acidic sol. Regenerated Cation exchange resin washings
Anion Exchange column :
R2’SO4-2 + 2OH- 2R’OH- + SO4-2
Saturated anion exchange resin dil. Basic sol. Regenerated Cation exchange resin washings 24
Ion Exchange Process
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Boiler Problems
⚫ For steam generations, boilers are used
⚫If impure water is fed to the boiler, various problems are faced
by boiler :
⮚ Scale and Sludge formation
⮚ Priming and Foaming
⮚ Boiler corrosion
⮚ Caustic embrittlement
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Sludge & Scale
⚫Continous evaporation of water takes place & conc. of dissolved salts gets
increased & at saturation point forms ppts. on the inner walls of the boiler.
⚫Sludges : If loose & slimy ppts formed.
⚫Scales : If sticky, hard & adherentt coat formed.
⚫
⚫ Sludge Scale
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Sludge
❖ FORMATION:
⚫Where flow of water is slow
⚫ At colder region
⚫By substances which have greater solubility in the hot water.
⚫MgCO3, MgCl2, CaCl2, MgSO4 etc.
❖ DISADVANTAGES:
⚫Poor conductor of heat hence more consumption of time and fuel.
⚫Disturbs functioning of boiler & settles in the regions of poor water
circulation.
❖ PREVENTION :
⚫By using soft water
⚫By using wire brush
⚫By using blow down operation .
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Scale
❖ FORMATION :
⮚ Decomposition of Ca(HCO3)2 :
• Ca(HCO3)2 CaCO3 + H2O + CO2
Soft Scale
• CaCO3 + H2O Ca(OH)2 + CO 2 ( in high pressure boilers )
⮚ Deposition of CaSO4 :
• Soluble in cold water
• As temp. solubility of CaSO4
hard scale
⮚ Hydrolysis of Mg salts
• MgCl2 + 2H2O Mg (OH)2 + 2HCl
⮚ Presence of SiO2
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Scale
❖ DISADVANTAGES
⚫ Fuel Wastage
⚫ Lowering of boiler safety
⚫ Decreased efficiency
⚫ Danger of explosion
❖ Removal
⚫Using wire brush if soft
⚫By using chemicals :
• CaCO3 scales by 5-10% HCl
• CaSO4 scales by EDTA
⚫By giving thermal shocks for brittle scales
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Scale
❖ Prevention
⮚ External Treatment
• By using soft water
⮚ INTERNAL TREATMENT
• Colloidal conditioning :
🞂 Addition of organic substances such as tannin, Agar- Agar
• Phosphate conditioning :
o CaCl2 + Na3PO4 Calcium phosphate + 6NaCl
• Carbonate conditioning
o CaSO4 + Na2CO3 CaCO3 + Na2SO4
• Calgon conditioning
o CaSO4 + calgon Soluble complexes of Ca ions
• Treatment with sodium aluminate :
o NaAlO2 + 2H2O Al(OH)3 + NaOH
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Differences between Sludge & Scale
Sludge Scale
Soft, loose & slimy precipitates. hard deposits.
Non-adherent deposits & can be Stick very firmly to the inner surface of
easily removed. boiler and are very difficult to remove.
Formed by substances like CaCl2, Formed by substances like CaSO4,
MgCl2, MgSO4 & MgCO3. Mg(OH)2, CaCO3 & CaSiO3.
Formed generally at colder portions Formed generally at heated portions of
of the boiler. the boiler.
Decrease the efficiency of boiler but Decrease the efficiency of boiler &
are less dangerous. chances of explosions are also there.
Priming and Foaming
❖ Priming
⚫Process of making wet steam when some of liquid particles are carried
along with steam
❑ Cause
⚫Presence of dissolved salts
⚫ High water level
⚫Faulty boiler design
⚫High steam velocity
⚫Sudden boiling
⚫Sudden increase in steam production
❖ Foaming
⚫Formation of persistent bubbles in the boiler continuously
❑ Cause
⚫presence of oil that reduces the surface tension 33
Priming & Foaming
❖ Disadvantages
⚫Reduce the efficiency
⚫Difficult to maintain proper pressure
⚫Wastage of fuel
⚫Actual water level can not be accessed
❖ Prevention
⚫Removal of priming foaming substances
⚫Removal of Scale & sludges
⚫Avoid rapid changes in steaming rate
⚫Change of boiler water from time to time
⚫Using antifoaming agents e.g. castor oil
⚫Addition of a chemical NaAlO2 to remove water
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Boiler Corrosion
⚫The chemical or electro-chemical eating away of metal by its
environment in a boiler
❖ Cause
⚫Dissolved Oxygen :
⚫2Fe +2H2O + O2 2Fe(OH)2 + O2 2(Fe2O3 .2H2O)
⚫Dissolved CO2 :
⚫CO2 + H2O H2CO3
⚫Acids from dissolved salts :
⚫MgCl2 + 2H2O Mg(OH)2 + 2HCl
⚫Fe + 2HCl FeCl2 + H2
⚫FeCl2 + 2H2O Fe(OH)2 + 2HCl
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Boiler Corrosion
❖ Disadvantages
⚫ Shortening of boiler life
⚫ Leakages of joints and rivets
⚫ Increased cost of repairs and maintenance
❖ Removal of boiler corrosion :
❑ Removal of O2 :
⚫ 2Na2SO3 + O2 2Na2SO4
⚫ N2H4 + O2 N2 + 2H2O
❑ Removal of CO2 :
⚫ 2NH4OH + CO2 (NH4)2CO3 + H2O
❑ Removal of acids :
⚫ By adding alkali
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Caustic Embrittlement
⮚ Formation of brittle and incrystalline cracks in the boiler
shell due to the accumulation of caustic substances
❖ Cause
⚫Presence of alkali-metal carbonates and bicarbonates in feed water
⚫presence of sodium sulphate.
⚫Sodium carbonate is used in softening of water by lime soda process, due to
this some sodium carbonate may be left behind in the water.
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❖ Process
⚫Na2CO3 used for softening of water & some of which remain unreacted
Na2CO3 + H2O → 2NaOH + CO2
⚫As Conc. of NaOH increases, water flows into minute hair cracks by
capillary action.
⚫As water evaporates, conc. of NaOH increases further and react with iron of
boiler, (thereby dissolving Iron of boiler as Sodium ferroate), hence cause
Embrittlement.
⚫Results into formation of concentration cells in the boiler
⚫This causes embrittlement of boiler parts such as bends, joints, reverts etc,
due to which the boiler gets fail.etc.
❖ prevention :
⚫Use of Na3PO4 instead of Na2CO3
⚫By adding tanin & lignin that blocks the hair cracks
⚫By adding NaSO4 that also blocks the cracks
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Desalination: Removal of soluble salts
from sea water making it fit for use.
⚫75% of the Earth’s surface
is covered by water
⚫97.5% of that water is oceans
⚫Only 1% is available for drinking
⚫80 countries suffered from water
scarcity by the mid-1990s
⚫1.5 billion people lack ready access
to drinking water
Show video at:
http://www.gewater.com/images/multimedia/desal/index_flash.html
Can we drink salt water?
The Rime of the Ancient Mariner
Water, water, everywhere
And all the boards did shrink
Water, water, everywhere
Nor any drop to drink
-Samuel Taylor Coleridge
⚫Small quantities are not harmful, but it is counterproductive
(it just makes you more thirsty!)
⚫Eventually, it can be dangerous, ultimately producing fatal
seizures, heart arrhythmias and kidney failure
Natural Desalination: Water Cycle!
Major Stages
1. Evaporation
2. Condensation
3. Precipitation
4. Collection
Desalination Technologies
1. Thermal Desalination Processes
⚫Similar to the Earth’s natural water cycle
⚫Water is heated, evaporated and collected
⚫Produces clean water and brine
Example: Multi-Stage Flash Desalination
⚫Process uses multiple boiling chambers kept at
different atmospheric pressures
⚫Saltwater enters the system and is boiled and
evaporated in each chamber
⚫Process produces clean water and brine
Desalination Technologies
2. Membrane Desalination Processes
⚫Saltwater is forced through membrane sheets at high
pressures
⚫Membrane sheets are designed to catch salt ions
⚫Process produces clean water and brine
Example: Reverse Osmosis
⚫Saltwater is forced through a membrane at
600 to 1000 psi
⚫Multiple layers of membranes remove as
many of the salt ions as possible
ELECTRODIALYZER
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Desalination Plants
around the World
• Around 16000 desalination plants
in 177 countries
• Maximum desalination capacity in
Saudi Arabia
• Largest DS plant is Ras Al Khair
(Saudi Arab) with 1,036,000 m3 /day
capacity
• Largest DS plant of India is Minjur
plant in Tiruvallur district of TN with
1,00,000 m3 /day capacity.
