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n
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Higher Secondary Second year
Physics Learning Material
am
(2019-2020)
Prepared by
T

S.Jayachandran
e

P.G.Asst(Physics)
hi

GHSS,Manali,Thiruvallur Dt
ec

Chennai-600 068.
(9840430109)
T

Best of Luck for Success

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1. Electrostatics 1.2.8.Differentiate Polar and Non polar Molecule
1.2.1. What is meant by quantisation of charges?
The charge q is equal to an integral multiple
of fundamental charge e. q = ne
1.2.2. What are the differences between Coulomb
force and gravitational force?

1.2.9. What is the general definition of electric dipole

moment?
Dipole moment is equal to product of
magnitude of charge anddistance. p=q.2a.Unit :Cm
1.2.3. What are the properties of ‘Electric field lines’?
1.2.10. Define ‘electrostatic potential”.
1) Electric field lines start from positive charge
Work done by an external force to bring a

n
and end at negative charge.
unit positive charge with constant velocity from
2) Electric field lines never intersect.
infinity to the point ,is electrostatic potential at that
3) Tangent of the electric field line gives the

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point.
direction of electric field.
1.2.11. What is an equipotential surface?
4) If electric field is large , electric field lines are
All the points of a surface are at same
closer. If electric field is less , electric field lines
potential, the surface is called equipotential surface.
are apart.
1.2.12. What are the properties of an equipotential
5) Number of electric field lines is proportional to
charge. am
1.2.4. The electric field lines never intersect. Justify.
Two electric fields pointing in two different
surface?
1) Work done to move a charge on
equipotential surface is Zero.
2) Electric field is normal to equipotential
directions at a single point cannot be possible. So,
surface.
electric field lines never intersect
1.2.13. Give the relation between electric field and
1.2.5. What is corona discharge
T
electric potential.
Reduction of total charge of the conductor Electric field is negative gradient of electric
near the sharp edge is called action at points or Potential.
corona discharge. 1.2.14. Define ‘electrostatic potential energy’.
e

1.2.6.During lightning it is safer to sit inside a bus Work done to assemble the system of
than in open ground or under a tree.why? charges in a configuration is Electrostatic potential
1) Electric field inside a bus is zero. energy.
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2) Bus provides electrostatic shielding. 1.2.15. Define ‘electric flux’

3) During lightning, the charges flow through Total Number of electric field lines crossing
the body of the conductor to the ground a area Normally, is known as electric flux.
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with no effect on the person inside that bus. 1.2.16. What is meant by electrostatic energy density?
Electric Energy stored per unit volume is
1.2.7.State Gauss Law
called electrostatic energy density.
The total electric flux 𝛟E
1.2.17. Write a short note on ‘electrostatic shielding’.
through a closed surface is
Protecting a particular space from external
equal to 1/𝜀0 times net charge.
T

field is called electrostatic shielding.

1.2.8. Write down the Applications of capacitors 1.2.18.Define ‘capacitance’. Give its unit.
1. Used in flash camera for releasing energy. Ratio of the magnitude of charge on any one
2. Used in heart defibrillator of the conductor plates to the potential difference
3. Used in the ignition system of automobile between the conductors, is the capacitance C of a
engines to eliminate sparking capacitor. unit: Farad
4. Used to reduce power fluctuations in power
1.2.19. What is meant by superposition principle.
supplies Total force on a charge is equal to vector
1.2.7. Define ‘Electric dipole’ sum of all forces acting on the charge.
Two equal and opposite charges separated
by a small distance constitute an electric dipole.
Examples: CO, water, ammonia, HCl

1.Electrostatics S.Jayachandran, PG.Asst,GHSS,Manali,Thiruvallur Dt 9840430109 Page 1

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1.2.20. Define ‘Electric field’. 1.3.3 Obtain an expression for potential energy due to
Force experienced by a unit charge unit :NC-1 a collection of Two charge and three point charges
1.2.21. What is Polarisation? which are separated by finite distances.
Total dipole moment per unit volume of
dielectric is known as polarization. Electric Potential at a point,
distance r from charge q1 :
1.3.1 Derive an expression for electrostatic potential
due to a point charge.
Work done to move a positive charge from Work done to bring a charge q2
infinity to a point with constant velocity is the from infinity to a point, distance r
electric potential at that point. from charge q1
P is a point at a distance r from the charge q.

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Electric potential at P :
This work done is stored as the electrostatic potential

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energy U of a system of charges q1 and q2 separated
by a distance r

am Potential Energy of a
system
of Three charges
:

1.3.4 Obtain the expression for capacitance for a

parallel plate capacitor.
T
Consider a capacitor with two parallel plates
1.3.2 Derive an expression for Torque experienced by each of cross-sectional area A and separated by a
an electric dipole in the uniform electric field distance
An electric dipole of dipole moment p is
e

placed in a uniform electric field.

The total force acting on
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the dipole is zero.

These two forces acting
at different points will
constitute a couple and the
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dipole experience a torque.

This torque rotates the
dipole and aligns it with the electric field
The total torque on the dipole
T

1.Electrostatics S.Jayachandran, PG.Asst,GHSS,Manali,Thiruvallur Dt 9840430109 Page 2

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1.3.5 Explain in detail Coulomb’s law and its aspects. 1.3.8 Derive an expression for electrostatic potential
1.Electrostatic force is directly proportional to the energy of the dipole in a uniform electric field.
product of two charges and is inversely An electric dipole of dipole moment p is
proportional to the square of the distance placed in the uniform electric field E. The dipole
between the two charges. experiences a torque which rotates the dipole to
2.Electrostatic force is along the line joining the align along the electric field.
two charges. The work done by the external torque to rotate the
3.Coulomb’s law is similar as Newton’s law of dipole from angle Ɵ’ to Ɵ at constant angular velocity
gravitation. is
4.Electrostatic force is always greater than
gravitational force
5.Electrostatic force depends on nature of the
medium.
6.Coulomb force is true only for point charges.
1.3.6 Derive the expression for resultant capacitance,

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when capacitors are connected in series .
Three capacitors of capacitance C1, C2 and C3

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connected in series with a battery of voltage V.
Each capacitor stores the same charge Q. Voltage
across each capacitor V1, V2 and V3 are different.

If initial position Ɵ’ = 900

am Potential energy stored in
dipole kept in the uniform
electric field

1.3.9 Obtain the expression for energy density of a

T
Parallel plate capacitor
Capacitor stores charge and energy. To
store the charge, work is done by the battery.
This work done is stored as electrostatic potential
e

energy in the capacitor.

Work done in storing
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Small charge dQ by a
1.3.7 Derive the expression for resultant capacitance, potential V
when capacitors are connected in parallel.
Voltage across each capacitor is Same.
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Each capacitor stores different charges Q1, Q2, Q3

Total Work done in
storing charge Q
T

Work done is stored as electrostatic potential energy

(UE) in the capacitor

1.Electrostatics S.Jayachandran, PG.Asst,GHSS,Manali,Thiruvallur Dt 9840430109 Page 3

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1.5.1Calculate the electric field due to a dipole
on its axial line
An electric dipole is placed along the X-axis. C is a
point at a distance r from O.

n
ila
Direction of Electric field is opposite to dipole
moment.
1.5.3 Derive an expression for electrostatic potential
due to an electric dipole.
am An electric dipole is placed along the X-axis.
P is a point at a distance r from O.
T
e

Direction of Electric field is along dipole moment.

1.5.2 Calculate the electric field due to a dipole
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on its equatorial plane

An electric dipole is placed along the Potential due to +q
X-axis. C is a point at a distance r from O on the
equatorial plane.
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Vertical compoents E+sinθ and E-sinθ are Potential due to -q

equal and opoosite.So,they cancel each other.
Horizontal Components E+Cosθ and E-Cosθ add
together to give resultant Electric field. Potential due to
T

.
Dipole

1.Electrostatics S.Jayachandran, PG.Asst,GHSS,Manali,Thiruvallur Dt 9840430109 Page 4

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8. The leakage of charges can be reduced by enclosing
the machine in a gas filled steel chamber at very
high pressure.
Uses
The high voltage produced is used to
accelerate positive ions (protons and deuterons)
for nuclear disintegrations.
1.5.4 Obtain the expression for electric field due to
1.5.4 Explain in detail the construction and working an infinitely long charged wire.
of a Van de Graaff generator. Consider an infinite long straight wire having
Device produces potential difference of 107 linear charge density λ. Let P be a point at a
V. distance r from the wire. The resultant electric field
Principle: Electrostatic induction and action at will be same at all points equidistant from the wire
points. and directed radially outwards.

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Construction: A cylindrical Gaussian surface of radius r
1. A hollow spherical conductor is fixed on the and length L is taken.
insulating stand.

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Total electric flux in this
2. A pulley B is placed at the center of the hollow Closed cylindrical surface
sphere and another pulley C is fixed at the
bottom.
3. A belt made up of silk or rubber runs over both
pulleys.
4. The pulley C is run by the electric motor.
5. Two metallic combs E and D are fixed near the
pulleys.
am E and dA are perpendicular at top and bottom
surface.
surface.
So, Flux is zero from top and bottom
6. The comb D is given potential of 104 V. In the curved surface E and dA are in same
7. The upper comb E is connected to the inner direction.
sphere.
T
e
hi

Working
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1. High electric field near comb D, ionizes the air.

2. Due to action of points, belt gets positive
charges and negative charges are attracted
towards the comb D.
3. When the positive charges reach the comb E, Due
T

to electrostatic induction , Comb E gets

negative charge and sphere gets positive
charge.
4. The positive charges are distributed uniformly on
the outer surface of the hollow sphere.
5. Due to corona discharge , positive charges in the
belt are cancelled and down going belt does not
carry charge.
6. At the bottom, it again gains a large positive
charge. If wire is negative charged,E acts inwards and if
7. This process continues till sphere produces the wire is positive charged,E acts outwards.
potential difference of 107 V.

1.Electrostatics S.Jayachandran, PG.Asst,GHSS,Manali,Thiruvallur Dt 9840430109 Page 5

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2.CURRENT ELECTRICITY 2.2.10. State ohm’s Law
2.2.1Why current is a scalar? Current is directly proportional to voltage.
Current has both magnitude and direction .But 2.2.11. Why touching a electrical connection with the
the direction of current does not obey vector laws wet skin is always dangerous.
of addition .So, Current is a scalar quantity. Resistance of dry skin is high around 500 k Ω.
2.2.2 Distinguish between drift velocity and mobility. But when the skin is wet, the resistance decreases to
Drift velocity Mobility around 1000 Ω. While touching electric components
Average velocity Magnitude of the drift with wet hand, due to low resistance, large current
acquired by the electrons velocity per unit flows in our body which is dangerous
in an Electric field. Electric field. 2.2.12.Is battery a source of electrons?
Vectot Quantity Scalar Quantity No, Battery is a source of electrical energy, due to
-1
Unit: ms m2V-1s-1 which these electrons in the conducting wire flow

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5. What are ohmic and non ohmic devices? in a particular direction.
Ohmic Devices Non Ohmic Devices 2.2.13.What is meant by internal resistance of a cell?

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Materials or devices that Materials or devices that Resistance given by electrodes and electrolyte
obey Ohm’s law do not obey Ohm’s law of a battery against the flow of charges within the
A Graph of I against V is A Graph of I against V battery, is called internal resistance r of a cell.
linear(Straight Line) is non-linear 2.2.14. State Joule’s law of heating.
Heat developed in an electrical circuit is directly
2.2.3. Define electrical resistivity.
am
Resistance of a conductor of unit length and
unit area of cross section is known as electrical
proportional to
1. square of the current
resistivity ρ of a material. 2. resistance of the circuit and
Unit: ohm-metre (Ω m). 3. time of flow of current.
2.2.4. Define temperature coefficient of resistance. 2.2.15. What is Seebeck effect?
T
Ratio of increase in resistivity per degree In a closed circuit made of two dissimilar
rise in temperature to its resistivity at To. metals, when the junctions are maintained at
Unit : per 0C. different temperatures an emf is developed.
e

2.2.16. What is Thomson effect?

2.2.5.State Kirchhoff’s current rule.
If two points in a conductor are at different
Algebraic sum of the currents at any
hi

temperatures, the density of electrons at these points

junction of a circuit is zero.
will different. Due to difference in electron density,
2.2.6.State Kirchhoff’s voltage rule.
the potential difference is created between these
In a closed circuit the algebraic sum of the
points.
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products of the current and resistance is equal to

2.2.17. What is Peltier effect?
the algebraic sum of emf in the circuit.
When current is passed through a
2.2.7. What is superconductivity?
thermocouple, heat is evolved at one junction and
Ability of certain materials to conduct at Zero
absorbed at the other junction.
T

resistance with persistent current is called

2.2.18. State the applications of Seebeck effect.
superconductivity.
1.Seebeck effect is used in thermoelectric
2.2.8. What is electric power and electric energy?
generators, to convert waste heat into electricity.
Electrical power P is the rate at which the
2.Used in automobiles for increasing fuel efficiency.
electrical potential energy is used. Unit: watt
3.Used in thermocouples to measure the
Electric energy is the product of electric Power and
temperature difference.
Time. Unit: Watt hour
2.2.19.What is the use of Fuse Wire
2.2.9. Define current density.
Current per unit area of cross section of the Fuse wire is connected in series in a circuit to
conductor is the current density (J). Unit: A m2 protect the electric devices from the heat
developed,when a very large current passes

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through it. It has low melting point material. It The jockey is adjusted on the wire so that
melts and breaks the circuit if current exceeds the galvanometer shows zero deflection. Let the
a certain value. point be J. The lengths AJ and JB of the bridge wire
2.3.1. Obtain the condition for bridge balance in now replace the resistance R and S of the
Wheatstone’s bridge. Wheatstone’s bridge.
I1 – I G – I3 = 0
I2 + I G – I4 = 0

I 1 P + I G G – I2 R = 0
I1 P + I 3 Q – I4 S – I2 R = 0

IG = 0

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2.3.4. How the emf of two cells are compared using

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potentiometer?
To compare the emf of two cells, connections
2.3.2 Explain the determination of the internal are given as in the circuit. The first cell whose emf is
resistance of a cell using voltmeter. ξ1 is included in the circuit and Balancing length l1 is
The emf of cell ξ is measured by connecting a found. Next, the Second cell whose emf is ξ2 is

The voltmeter reading gives the emf of the cell.

am
high resistance voltmeter across it in a open circuit.

External resistance R is included in the circuit

included in the circuit and Balancing length l2 is
found.

and current I flows in the circuit. The potential

difference across R is equal to the potential difference
T
acro ss the cell (V).
e
hi

2.3.5 Obtain the macroscopic form of Ohm’s law from

Dividing 2 by 1
its microscopic form and discuss its limitation.
l is the length and A is cross sectional area of a
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wire. V is the potential difference applied across the

wire. E is the net electric field in the wire.
By microscopic form of ohm’s law
T

2.3.3.Explain the determination of unknown resistance

using meter bridge.
Meter bridge consists of one meter manganin
wire AB connected between copper strips. Unknown
resistance P is connected in gap G1 and a Known
resistance Q is connected in gap G2. A jockey is
connected to the central terminal E through a
galvanometer (G) and a high resistance (HR).A Where
Lechlanche cell and a key (K) are connected across
the ends of the bridge wire. This is the macroscopic form of ohm’s law. This law
cannot be applied for Non-Ohmic Materials.
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2.5.1 Describe the microscopic model of current and ii)Three Resistors of resistance R1, R2 and R3
obtain general form of Ohm’s law connected in Parallel with a battery of voltage V.
A is the area of cross section of a conductor, E is Voltage across each Resistor is Same.
the applied electric field. n is the number of free Different Current flowing through each resistors are
electrons per unit volume. vd is the drift velocity of I1, I2 and I3.
the free electrons. I = I1 + I2 + I3
distance dx moved
by electron in time dt
Number of electrons in a small
volume of length dx

Total charge in a small

volume of length dx

n
Current flowing in the
Conductor

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2.5.3 Explain the determination of the internal
resistance of a cell using potentiometer.
Connections are given as in the circuit to

Current
Density
am determine the internal resistance of a cell,.
T
This equation is called microscopic form of ohm’s
law.
e

2.5.2. Explain the equivalent resistance of a series

and parallel resistor network. With K2 open, no current flows in resistor R, so it
hi

i)Three Resistors of resistance R1, R2 and R3 becomes open circuit. Let CJ = l1 is the balancing
connected in series with a battery of voltage V. length for the emf,
Same Current passes through each Resistor.
When key K2 is closed, current flows in resistor R, so
Voltage across each resistor V1, V2 and V3 are
ec

different. it becomes closed circuit.

Total Resistance = R + r
T

V = V1 + V2 + V3 V = I.RS
V = IR1 + IR2 + IR3 l2 be the balancing length for this potential difference.
V = I (R1 + R2 + R3)
RS = R1 + R2 + R3
Equivalent resistance is the sum of the individual
resistances

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3.Magnetism and Magnetic effects of 3.2.13.Define intensity of magnetization.
Net magnetic moment per unit volume of
electric current
the material is known as intensity of magnetization.
3.2.1. State Coulomb’s inverse law in magnetism.
Force of attraction or repulsion between 3.2.14. Define Declination
two magnetic poles is directly proportional to the The angle between magnetic meridian and
product of their pole strengths and inversely geographical meridian is called the magnetic
proportional to the square of the distance between declination (D).
them. 3.2.15.Define Dip
3.2.2. State Ampere’s circuital law. The angle between Earth’s total magnetic
Line integral of magnetic field over a closed field and the horizontal direction in the magnetic
loop is equal to μ0 times net current enclosed by meridian is called dip or magnetic inclination (I)
the loop. 3.2.16.Define Curie Temperature
3.2.3. Define magnetic dipole moment. The temperature at which ferromagnetic

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Product of pole strength and magnetic length material becomes paramagnetic is known as Curie
of a magnet. Unit: Am2 temperature.
3.2.4. What is magnetic susceptibility? 3.2.17.Why Steel and Alnico are used to make

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Ratio of the Intensity of magnetisation Permanent magnets?
induced to the magnetising field. Steel and Alnico have high retentivity, high
3.2.5. What is meant by hysteresis? coercivity and high permeability. So they are
Phenomenon of lagging of magnetic suitable for making permanent magnets.
induction behind the magnetising field is called
hysteresis.
3.2.6. What is magnetic permeability?
Ability of the material to allow the passage
am 3.2.18.Why Soft iron and Mumetal are used to make
Electro magnets?
Soft iron and Mumetal have high initial
permeability, low retentivity, low coercivity and
of magnetic field lines to pass through it. thin hysteresis loop with smaller area. So, they are
3.2.7.State Right hand thumb rule used to make electromagnets.
Current carrying conductor is taken in right
T
3.2.19.Why Soft iron is used to make Core of the
hand such that the thumb points in the direction of transformer
current , then the fingers encircling the wire shows Soft iron has high initial permeability, large
the direction of the magnetic field lines produced. magnetic induction and thin hysteresis loop with
e

3.2.8. Define magnetic flux. smaller area.

Number of magnetic field lines crossing per 3.2.20.How a galvanometer is converted into an ammeter.
unit area is called magnetic flux. By connecting a low resistance in parallel
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3.2.9. State Biot-Savart’s law. Unit:weber with the galvanometer

Magnitude of magnetic field due to current element at 3.2.21. How a galvanometer is converted into a voltmeter.
a point varies By connecting high resistance Rh in series
(i) directly as the current I
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with galvanometer.
(ii) directly as the length of current element
(iii) directly as the sine of the angle between the 3.2.22.Define Current sensitivity of a galvanometer
current element and the straight line joining the point Deflection produced per unit current flowing
and current element . through a Galvanometer.
T

(iv) inversely as the square of the distance between 3.2.23.How to increase Current sensitivity of a
the point and length element . Galvanometer
3.2.10.Define retentivity. 1) by increasing the number of turns N
Ability of the materials to retain magnetism 2) by increasing the magnetic induction B
in them even magnetising field vanishes 3) by increasing the area of the coil A
3.2.11. Define coercivity. 4) by decreasing the couple per unit twist of the
Magnitude of the reverse magnetising field suspension wire .
for which the residual magnetism vanishes is called 3.2.24.Why Phosphor - bronze wire is used as the
coercivity. suspension wire in a galvanometer
3.2.12.State Tangent law Phosphor - bronze wire has very small couple per
When a magnetic needle is suspended in two unit twist.
perpendicular magnetic fields, it will come to rest
in the direction of the resultant of the two fields.

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3.3.1. Write the Properties of Magnetic field lines
1) Magnetic field lines are continuous closed curves.
2) The tangent to the magnetic field lines gives the
direction of magnetic field at any point. 3.5.2 Obtain the magnetic induction at a point on the
3) Magnetic field lines never intersect each other. equatorial line of a bar magnet.
4) When the magnetic field is strong, magnetic field qm is the pole strength and 2l is the magnetic
lines are crowded and when the magnetic field is length of a magnet NS. C is a point at a distance r
from centre of magnet on the equatorial line.
weak, magnetic field lines are apart.
3.3.2.Write the Properties of magnet
1) A Suspended bar magnet will always point
along the north-south direction.
2) The attractive force of a magnet is
maximum near the end of the bar magnet.

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3) When a magnet is broken into pieces, each
piece is a magnet.

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4) Poles of a magnet have equal pole strength.
5) The ratio of magnetic length and
geometrical length is 5/6.
3.3.3.Compare the properties Of Dia,Para and ferro
Magnetic materials
am
T

3.5.1 Calculate the magnetic induction at a

e

point on the axial line of a bar magnet.

qm is the pole strength and 2l is the magnetic 3.5.3Find the magnetic induction due to a long straight
conductor using Ampere’s circuital law.
hi

length of a magnet NS. C is a point at a distance r

from centre of magnet on the axial line. I is the current flowing in the wire .an
Amperian loop in the form of a circular shape at a
distance r from the centre of the conductor.
ec

By Ampère’s law
Angle between magnetic field vector and line element
is zero.
T

Due to the symmetry, the magnitude of the magnetic

field is uniform

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3.5.4Derive an expression for Force on a current 3.5.6Deduce the relation for the magnetic induction at a point
carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field due to an infinitely long straight conductor carrying current
dl is the length of small segment of wire, of length I is the current flowing in the wire NM. Let P be
the point at a distance a from point O. l be the
l, with cross- sectional area A.
distance of current element of length dl.

Relation between current I and drift velocity vd .

average force experienced

n
by electron in the wire is

ila
Total Number of Electrons
in current element

Total force Experienced For a an infinitely long straight wire

by current Element
am 3.5.7 Discuss the working of cyclotron in detail.
Principle: When a charged particle moves in a
magnetic field, it experiences Lorentz force.
In magnitude, Construction
If the conductor is placed along the direction of the Two semi-circular metal containers called
T
magnetic field F=0 Dees are kept in an evacuated chamber. By using
If the conductor is placed perpendicular to the an electromagnet, a magnetic field acts normal to
magnetic field,F=BIl the plane of the Dees. Source S which ejects the
3.5.5Deduce the relation for Magnetic field produced charge to be accelerated, is placed at the center of the
e

along the axis of the current carrying circular coil gap between the Dees. Dees are connected to high
I is the current flowing in a circular loop of frequency alternating potential difference.
hi

radius R with centre O.P is a point at a distance z on

the axis from O. Two diametrically opposite current Working
elements each of length dl are at C and D of the coil. Positively charged Ion ejected from source S is
accelerated towards a negative potential Dee-1 at
ec

that time. Inside the Dees Due to magnetic field, ion

moves in circular path.
After one semi-circular path of ion, the polarities
Magnetic filed dB at P is split of the Dees are reversed.ion is now accelerated
into Horizontal (dB cos θ ) towards Dee-2 with a greater velocity.
T

and Vertical components Lorentz centripetal

(dB sin θ ). force =force of the Ion
Horizontal components
cancels each other but the
vertical components alone adds up to givetotal
magnetic field at the point P.

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4 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION AND 4.2.11 What are the disadvantages of AC over DC
ALTERNATING CURRENT 1) Alternating voltages cannot be used for
4.2.1 State Lenz’s law. charging of batteries, electroplating, electric
Direction of the induced current will traction etc.
oppose the cause that produces it. 2) At high voltages, AC is more dangerous to
4.2.2 State Fleming’s right hand rule. work than DC.
The thumb, index finger and middle finger of right 4.2.12 What are phasors?
hand are in mutually perpendicular directions. A rotating vector which rotates about the
If the index finger points the direction of the origin in anti-clockwise direction at a constant
magnetic field and the thumb points the direction angular velocity ω to represent a sinusoidal
of motion of the conductor, then the middle finger alternating voltage is called Phasor.
will point the direction of the induced current. 4.2.13What is meant by electromagnetic induction?
4.2.3 Mention the ways of producing induced emf. Whenever the magnetic flux linked with a
1) By changing the magnetic field B closed circuit changes, an emf is induced in the

n
2) By changing the area A of the coil and circuit.
3) By changing the orientation θ of the coil with 4.2.14 State Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic

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magnetic field induction.
4.2.4List out the advantages of stationary armature- First law : Whenever magnetic flux linked with a
rotating field system of AC generator. closed circuit changes, an emf is induced in the
1) Current flows directly from the stator circuit.
without the use of contact brushes. Second law: The magnitude of induced emf is
2) Easy to Insulate armature winding.
3) Number of slip rings is reduced.
4) Armature windings can be built strongly to
am equal to the rate of change of magnetic flux.
4.2.15.How is Eddy current produced?
How do they flow in a conductor?
prevent damage. When magnetic flux linked with a metal
4.2.5How will you define RMS value of an sheet or plate changes, current is induced, known
alternating current? as Eddy currents. Eddy or Foucault currents flow in
T
Value of the steady current which produces concentric circular paths.
the same amount of heat as produced by the 4.2.16What for an inductor is used? Give some
alternating current when flowing in a same circuit examples.
for the same time is known as RMS value of an Inductor is a device used to store energy in a
e

alternating current. magnetic field when an electric current flows

4.2.6How will you define Q-factor? through it. Example: Coils, Solenoids and Toroids.
hi

Ratio of voltage across L or C to the applied 4.2.17What do you mean by self-induction?

voltage is called Quality or Q-factor When current flowing in a coil is changed
,an emf is induced in that same coil.
4.2.7 What is meant by wattles current? 4.2.18What is meant by mutual induction?
ec

If the power consumed by current in an AC When current flowing in a coil is changed

circuit is zero then that current is called wattles ,an emf is induced in other near coil.
current 4.2.19 What are step-up and step-down transformers?
4.2.8 What do you mean by resonant frequency? Step-up transformer converts low alternating
The frequency at which resonance takes voltage into high alternating voltage.
T

place so that impedance is minimum and current Step-down transformer converts high
is maximum is called resonant frequency. alternating voltage into low alternating voltage.
4.2.9 What are the Advantages of AC over DC 4.2.20 Define average value of an alternating current.
1) AC can be produced cheaper than DC. Average of the positive current values or
2) AC transmission loss is small compared to DC negative current values is called average value of an
transmission. alternating current.
4.2.21Define electric resonance.
3) AC can easily be converted into DC with the
When the frequency of the applied
help of rectifier alternating source is equal to the natural
4.2.10 Give the Application of eddy currents frequency of the RLC circuit, the current is
1.Induction stove 2.Eddy current brake maximum.That circuit is in electrical resonance.
3.Eddy current testing 4.Electromagnetic damping

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4.2.22 Give any one definition of power factor. 4.3.2. How much energy is stored in an inductor of
Power factor = cos ϕ = cosine of the angle of lead inductance L while establishing the current in it?
or lag Whenever current is changing in the inductor
4.2.23What are LC oscillations? circuit, the inductance opposes the change in current.
Oscillations of energy in a pure LC circuit, work is done by some external agency to change the
between the magnetic energy of the inductor and current. This work done is stored as magnetic
the electrical energy of the capacitor of definite potential energy.
frequency are called are called LC oscillations. Induced emf:
4.2.24Define Self Inductance work done in moving
Self-inductance of a coil is defined as the flux a charge dq in a time dt
linkage with coil when one Ampere current flows
in the coil.
But,
4.2.25Define Mutual Inductance

n
Mutual inductance M21 is defined as the flux
linkage with coil 2 when one Ampere current

ila
flows in coil 1.
4.2.26How will you define the unit of
inductance?
Henry is the inductance of a coil when one
Ampere current flowing in coil produces unit flux
linkage in the same coil.
4.2.27 What do you understand by self-inductance of
a coil? Give its physical significance.
am
Self-Inductance of a coil opposes the
change in current flowing in it and tries to 4.3.3.Derive an equation for Mutual inductance
maintain the original current. Inductance in a between two long co-axial solenoids
T
circuit plays the role of inertia and moment of inertia l is the length, A1,A2 is the cross-sectional
in mechanical motion. area and n1,n2 is the number of turns per unit length
4.3.1 Mention the various energy losses in a of the two long solenoids 1 and 2. i1 is the current
transformer. passing through the solenoid 1.
e

Flux leakage: Energy is lost when the magnetic

lines of primary coil are not completely linked
hi

with secondary coil. This flux leakage is minimized

by winding coils one over the other.
Copper loss :Energy is lost due to Joule heating,
ec

when an electric current flows through Transformer

windings, This copper loss is minimized by using
thick wires.
Core loss or Iron loss:
1)Energy is lost in the form of heat, when
T

transformer core is magnetized and demagnetized

repeatedly by the alternating voltage. Hysteresis loss
is minimized by making transformer core using
silicon steel.
2)Energy is lost in the form of heat,when eddy
currents are induced due to Alternating magnetic
flux in the core. Eddy current loss is minimized by
using laminated transformer core.

M2 is the Mutual inductance of solenoid 2 with

respect to solenoid 1.

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4.3.4.Obtain an expression for motional emf from As the rod moves from AB to DC in a time dt, the
Lorentz force. area and the magnetic flux through the loop
A conductor rod AB of length l moves right decreases. So, an emf is induced in the loop.
with a velocity v in a magnetic field B. Free electrons Change in Magnetic : d𝜙B= B x Area ABCD
inside the rod experiences downward Lorentz force Flux in time dt
and gets collected at end A of the rod.
Collection of free electrons at end A produces
Electric field E, which produces upward coulomb
force and stops further collection of free electrons at
end A.

4.5.1* Show mathematically that the rotation of a coil

in a magnetic field over one rotation induces an

n
Lorentz force = coulomb force alternating emf of one cycle.
-evB = -Ee A Rectangular coil of N turns is rotated with a
angular velocity ω in magnetic field B about an axis

ila
perpendicular to B.
Since Lorentz force is balanced by coulomb force, When plane of coil is perpendicular to B, magnetic
Potential difference (emf) 𝜀 is set up across the rod. flux is maximum.𝜙m=BA.
When plane of coil is inclined to B, magnetic flux

This Emf produced due to motion of rod is called

motional emf.
am linkage is

4.3.5.Using Faraday’s law of electromagnetic

induction, derive an equation for motional emf
A rectangular conducting loop of width l
T
moves right with velocity v in a normal magnetic
field B. A part of the loop of length x is in the
magnetic field while the remaining part is outside the
field.
e

Area of loop inside the field : A = l x

hi

Magnetic flux linked

With the loop :
ec

Induced Induced emf :

Emf by :
Faraday
T

This Emf produced due to motion of loop is called

motional emf.
4.3.6.*How will you induce an emf by changing the
area enclosed by the coil?
Metal rod of length l moves left with a
velocity v on a rectangular metal frame. Metal frame Induced emf varies as sine function of the time angle
is placed in a normal magnetic field. ωt so it is called sinusoidal emf or alternating emf.

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4.5.2* Explain the working of a single-phase AC Working: When alternating voltage is fed to
generator with necessary diagram. primary coil, an alternating magnetic flux is set up
In a single phase AC generator, a single in the laminated core. So, emf is induced in both
armature generates a single-phase alternating emf. primary and secondary coils For both primary
Principle :Electromagnetic Induction and secondary coils, rate of change of magnetic
Stator: Rectangular conducting loop PQRS. flux per each turn is same..
Rotor: 2 salient electromagnetic poles. εp ,vp, Np are the induced emf, applied ac Voltage
and number of turns of the primary coil.
εs ,vs, Ns are the induced emf, drawn ac Voltage and
number of turns of the Secondary coil.

n
ila
Working
The loop PQRS is stationary. Field magnet is
rotated in clockwise direction.
Initially magnetic field is perpendicular to the
plane of the loop PQRS. The induced emf between
am For Step up transformer K>1, Ns>Np, Vs>Vp, Is<Ip
voltage is increased but current is decreased.
For Step down transformer K<1, Ns<Np, Vs<Vp, Is>Ip
voltage is decreased but current is increased.
P and S is zero.(point O) Ratio of the useful output power to the input
When field magnet rotates through 90°,the magnetic power is Efficiency of a transformer.
T
field is parallel to the plane of the loop PQRS. The 4.3.7.Derive an equation for Self inductance(L) of a
induced emf between P and S is maximum. By solenoid
using Fleming’s right hand rule, induced current l is the length, A is the cross-sectional area and n is
flows along PQRS.(point A) the number of turns per unit length of the solenoid. i
e

When field magnet rotates through 180°,the is the current passing through the solenoid
magnetic field is again perpendicular to PQRS
and the induced emf between P and S is zero.
hi

(point B)
When field magnet rotates through 270°,the
magnetic field is again parallel to the plane of the
ec

loop PQRS. The induced emf between P and S is

maximum but reversed. Induced current flows
along SRQP. (point C)
When field magnet completes 360°,the induced emf
becomes zero. (point D)
T

Frequency of the induced emf depends on the

speed at which the field magnet rotates.
4.5.4. *Explain the construction and working of
transformer.
Principle : Mutual induction between two coils. But
Construction:Two coils are wound over the same
core but insulated. The core is laminated and is But
made of silicon steel.
Input alternating voltage is applied to the
primary coil P and output alternating voltage is Inductance depends on the geometry of the
drawn out from secondary coil S. The core and coils solenoid and the medium present inside it.
are kept in a container for better insulation and
cooling purpose.
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4.5.5 Derive an expression for phase angle between
the applied voltage and current in a series RLC
circuit.
A resistor of resistance R, a inductor of inductance L
and a capacitor of capacitance C are connected in
series across an alternating voltage. i is the resulting
circuit current. Average Power =Apparent power x power factor
voltage across R (VR) is in phase with i,
voltage across L (VL) leads i by π/2 and
voltage across C (VC) lags i by π/2.

n
4.5.7 Show that the total energy is conserved during

ila
OI = Im, LC oscillations.
OA = ImR, In LC oscillations , energy oscillates between
OB = ImXL; OC = ImXC electric energy of a capacitor and magnetic energy of
a inductor.
am
Case(i) When stored charge is maximum in capacitor
T
q=Qm and current i is zero in inductor. Total energy
is fully electrical energy
e

phase angle between Case(ii)When stored charge is zero in capacitor q=0

applied voltage υ : and current is maximum i=Im in inductor.
hi

and current i is
If XL > XC, (XL−XC) is positive and phase angle ϕ is
positive. , Case(iii)When stored charge is q in capacitor and
ec

If XL < XC, (XL−XC) is negative and phase angle ϕ is current is i in inductor.

negative. ,

4.5.6 Obtain an expression for average power of AC

T

over a cycle. Discuss its special cases.

Power is given by the product of the voltage
and current. In an AC circuit, the voltage and current
vary continuously with time. power at an instant is
calculated and then it is averaged over a complete
cycle.

By conservation of energy, total energy of the system

remains constant.

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5.5.1What is emission spectra?Give their types.
5 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES Emission spectra
5.2.1.What is displacement current? Spectrum obtained from self luminous source directly
Current which comes into play in the region in which is called emission spectrum. Each source has its own
the electric field and the electric flux are changing characteristic emission spectrum.Emission spectrais
with time. classified into 3 types
1.Continuous emission spectra
5.2.2.What is meant by Fraunhofer lines? Contains wavelengths of all visiblecolours from
Dark lines in the solar spectrum are known as violet to red.
Fraunhofer lines. Fraunhofer lines helps in
Spectrum obtained from carbon arc, incandescent
identifying elements present in the Sun’s atmosphere
solids, liquids are continuous spectra.
5.3.3 What are the uses of (a) microwave(b) X-ray (c)
radio waves (d) visiblespectrum 2.Line emission spectrum
Contains sharp lines of definite wavelengths. Such
spectra arise when atoms of elements are excited.

n
Reveals the characters of the element.Different for
different elements
Spectrum of atomic hydrogen, helium.

ila
3.Band emission spectrum
Contains closely spaced overlapping spectral lines
forming bands and separated by dark spaces.Such
spectra arise when the molecules are excited
am spectrum has a sharp edge at one end and fades out at
the other end.
Band spectrum is the characteristic of the molecule
hence, the structure of the molecules can be studied
using their band spectra.
Spectra of hydrogen gas, ammonia gas in the
T
discharge tube etc.

5.5.2. What is absorption spectra?. Give their types.

Absorption spectra
e

5.3.1Write down the properties of electromagnetic Spectrum obtained from light, after passing through a
waves. medium or an absorbing substance is called
1) Electromagnetic waves are produced by absorption spectrum.Each substance has its own
hi

accelerated charge. characteristic emission spectrum.Absorption spectra

2) Electromagnetic waves do not need any medium is classified into 3 types
for propagation. Continuous absorption spectrum
ec

3) Electromagnetic waves are transverse in nature. Whenwhite light passes through a blue glass plate,
Electromagnetic waves travel with the speed of it absorbs all coloursexcept blue. This is an
light in vacuum or free space example of continuous absorption spectrum.
4) Electromagnetic waves are not deflected by Line absorption spectrum
electric field or magnetic field. When white light from carbon arc, passes through
T

5) Electromagnetic waves can show interference, sodium vapour, sodium absorbs only two yellow
diffraction andpolarisation. wavelength.Continuous spectrum with two dark lines
6) Electromagnetic waves carries energy,momentum in the yellow region of sodium vapour is obtained.
and angular momentum.
7) Energy density of Band absorption spectrum
electromagnetic If Dark bands on continuous bright background is
wave obtained it is called Band absorption spectrum. This
8) Momentum of type of band is also obtained when the white light is
electromagnetic wave passed through the iodine vapour, or through diluted
solution of blood or through chlorophyll or through
solutions of organic and inorganic compounds

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5.5.3Write down Maxwell equations in integral form. 1.5.5 Obtain the expression for electric field due to an
I.First equation is Gauss’s law. It relates the net charged infinite plane sheet
electric flux to net electric charge enclosed in a Consider an infinite plane sheet with surface charge
surface. density σ. Let P be a point at a distance of r from the
sheet.The resultant electric field should be same at all
II.Surface integral of magnetic field over aclosed points equidistant from the wire and directed radially
surface is zero. outwards.
A cylindrical Gaussian surface of length 2r
III.Faraday’s law ofelectromagnetic induction states and area A of the flat surfaces is taken.
Line integralof the electric field is equal to the rate
of change ofmagnetic flux around any closed path. Total electric flux in this
Closed cylindrical surface

III.Ampere – Maxwell’s law relates the magnetic

field around any closed path to the conduction

n
current and displacement current through that
path.

ila
2.2.20. Define current
Current is equal to Rate of flow of net charge.
2.2.21. Define one ampere of current
1 ampere of current is equivalent to 1
am E and dA are perpendicular at curved surface. So,
Flux is zero from curved surface.
Coulomb of charge crossing a perpendicular cross In the End surface P and P’, E and dA are in same
section in 1second direction
T
2.2.22 Is the direction of current along the direction
of flow of electrons?
No, Electrons flow from negative potential
to positive potential. But the direction of
e

By Gauss Law
conventional current is taken from Positive
potential to negative potential.
hi

2.2.23.Derive the expression for power P=VI in

electrical circuit.
ec

2.2.24. Write down the expressions for electrical

power.
T

2.2.21.State micro &macrospic form of Ohm’s law.

1. J is the current density, E is the Electric
Field, σ is the conductivity.
2. V is the Potential Difference,
I is the current R is the resistance.
2.2.25. State the principle of potentiometer.
The emf of the cell is directly proportional
to the balancing length. Electric field depends on the surface charge
density and is independent of the distance r.

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6.Optics 6.2.11What is myopia? What is its remedy?
6.2.1 What are the two conditions for total internal A person suffering from nearsightedness
reflection ? or myopia cannot see distant objects clearly.
1. light must travel from denser to rarer Wearing concave lens is its remedy
medium, 6.2.12What is hypermetropia? What is its remedy?
2. angle of incidence in the denser medium A person suffering from farsightedness
must be greater than critical angle (i>ic). or hypermetropia cannot clearly see near objects
6.2.2Explain the reason for glittering of diamond. close to the eye.Wearing convex lens is its remedy
The critical angle of diamond is 24.4°.So the 6.2.13.What is a stigmatism? What is its remedy?
angle of many cut faces can be from 24.4°to 90°.So Astigmatic person cannot see all the directions
light entering the diamond is total internally reflected equally well. Wearing cylindrical lenses is its
from the many cut faces before getting out. So diamond remedy
glitters. 6.2.14What is principle of reversibility?
6.2.3Why does sky appear blue? Light will travel the same path if its
By Rayleigh’s scattering ,violet colour which direction of travel is reversed.

n
has the shortest wavelength gets much scattered 6.2.15 What is mirage?
during day time. As our eyes are more sensitive to Optical illusioned image of the object

ila
next scattered blue colour than violet colour the formed down on hot area, by the upward bending
sky appears blue during day time of light rays due to different refractive index of
6.2.4What is the reason for reddish appearance of sky air layers on hot region is called Mirage.
during sunset and sunrise? 6.2.16 What is looming?
During sunrise and sunset, the light from sun Optical illusioned image of the object

,violet colour which has the shortest wavelength

gets much scattered away and the red light of
am
travels a greater distance. By Rayleigh’s scattering formed up on hot area, by the downward bending
of light rays due to different refractive index of air
layers on cold regions is called Looming.
longer wavelength reaches our eye. This is the 6.2.17What is Snell’s window?
reason for the reddish appearance of sky during The restricted illuminated circular area
sunrise and sunset. formed by refraction of light entering water is
T
6.2.5Why do clouds appear white? called Snell’s window.
Clouds contains large amount of dust and 6.2.18What is Rayleigh’s scattering?
water droplets, which have size a greater than the Intensity of Rayleigh’s scattering is inversely
wavelength λ of light. In clouds all the colours get proportional to fourth power of wavelength.
e

equally scattered not depending on wavelength. So 6.2.19Give the differences between interference and diffraction
clouds appear white.
hi

6.2.6 How are rainbows formed?

Rainbow is formed due to dispersion of
sunlight through droplets of water during rainy
days.
ec

6.2.7 Why do stars twinkle? 6.2.20Give the differences between Fresnel and fraunhofer diffraction
Stars appear twinkling because of the refraction
of light by movement of the atmospheric layers
with varying refractive indices, which is clearly
T

seen in the night sky.

6.2.8State Brewster’s law.
Tangent of the polarising angle of a
transparent medium is equal to its refractive index
6.2.9State Malus’ law. 6.2.21 Define Optic Axis
Transmitted Light intensity I from the Inside the crystal there is a particular
analyser is directly proportional to square of the direction in which both the rays travel with same
cosine of the angle θ between the transmission axis velocity. This direction is called optic axis.
of polariser and analyser. 6.2.22 Derive the relation between f and R for a
6.2.10What is dispersion? Dispersion is splitting of spherical mirror.
white light into its constituent colours. Twice the focal length f is equal to the radius
of curvature R. 2f=R

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6.2.23What are techniques for producing polsarisation Unpolarised light is incident on the face AC of the
Polarisation can be produced by Nicol prism. Double refraction takes place and the
1)Selective Absorption 2)Reflection ray is split into ordinary and extraordinary rays.
3)Double Refraction 4)Polarisation by scattering. The ordinary ray is total internally reflected at
6.2.24State the laws of reflection. the canada balsam layer and is stopped coming
1. Incident ray, Reflected ray and Normal are coplanar. from the opposite face. The extraordinary ray
2. The angle of incidence i is equal to the angle of reflection r. which is plane polarized,is transmitted through
6.2.25What is optical path? the crystal
Optical path is the distance d' travelled by
light in vacuum for the same time as it travels a 6.3.5 State and Prove Malus’ law
distance d in the medium. d’=nd Transmitted light intensity I from the analyser is
6.3.1 Give the characteristics of image formed by a directly proportional to the square of the cosine of
plane mirror. the angle θ between the transmission axis of
1.The image formed by a plane mirror is virtual, polariser and analyser.
erect, and laterally inverted. Let I0 be the intensity and a be the amplitude of the
light transmitted by the polariser. acosθ and asinθ are

n
2.The size of the image and object are same.
3.The distance of object and image from the the parallel and perpendicular components of
amplitude a. Only (acosθ) component will be

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mirror are same.
6.3.2. What are the Cartesian sign conventions for a transmitted by the analyser.
spherical mirror? The intensity of light transmitted from the analyser is
1.Object must be placed on left side of mirror. proportional to the square of the component of the
2.All the distances are measured from the pole of amplitude transmitted by the analyser.
the mirror.
3. Right side distances to the pole are taken as positive.
4.Left side distances to the pole are taken as negative.
5. Upward perpendicular Heights are taken as positive.
am
6. Downward perpendicular Heights are taken as negative.
6.3.3State and prove Brewster’s law
Tangent of the polarising angle is equal to its
T
refractive index of a medium.
6.3.5What are Uses of polaroids
1.Polaroids are used to avoid glare.
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2.Polaroids are used in holography.

3.Polaroids are used in liquid crystal display (LCD).
4.Polaroids are used to improve colour contrast in old oil paintings.
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5.Polaroids are used as window glasses to control the

intensity of incoming light.
6.Polarised laser beam acts as needle to read/write in
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compact discs (CDs).

6.3.3. Obtain the equation for critical angle.
The angle of incidence in the denser
6.3.4Explain the construction and working Nicol prism medium for which the refracted ray graces the
Nicol prism produces polarized light by boundary is called critical angle ic.
T

Double refraction. Double refracting calcite

crystal ABCD with its length three times its
breadth is used. It is cut into two halves along the
diagonal so that their face angles are 72o and 108o.
The two halves are joined by a transparent
cement canada balsam.
For air (rarer) n2 =1 and Denser Medium n1=n

The critical angle ic depends on the refractive index

of the medium.

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6.3.2 Derive the equation for effective focal length
for lenses in contact.
Let us consider two lenses of focal length f1 and f2 are
placed coaxially in contact with each other.
When Object O is placed beyond Focus of first lens ,
an image is formed by it at I'.
This image I' acts as an object for the second lens.
and the final image is formed at I by Second Lens.
For First Lens For Second Lens
Above Formulas given distance of nth bright and
nth dark fringe from centre O.

Adding
Equations
If F is the effective focal length of combination Lens 6.5.2* Describe the Fizeau’s method to determine

n
then speed of light.
From 1 & 2 Light from source S falls on a partially silvered glass

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plate G kept at an angle of 45o to the incident light.
In General Light then passes through one cut of a rotating
toothed-wheel with N teeth and N cuts of equal
widths.
When wheel is not rotating, light travels a long

magnification.
Light ray OP from object OO' of height h1,
am
6.3.1 Derive the equation for thin lens and obtain its distance d, about 8 km, gets reflected from a mirror
and passes through the same cut and reach the eyes of
the observer.
passes through the pole of the lens and goes Working: The wheel is rotated with high angular
undeviated. Light ray parallel to principal axis after speed ω,until light passing through one cut would
refraction converges to Focus F. Two light rays completely be blocked by the adjacent tooth. So the
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intersect to form inverted real image II′ of height h2. observer cannot see the image of source.
Expression for speed of light: Ɵ is Angle of One teeth
or One cut at the centre of wheel.
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NƟ + NƟ = 2π
2NƟ = 2π
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6.5.1.*Obtain the equation for bandwidth in

Young’s double slit experiment.
d is the distance between the double slits S1 and S2.
λ is the wavelength of coherent sources. D is the
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distance of screen and double slits.

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6.5.3* Derive the mirror equation and the equation 6.5.4* Obtain lens maker’s formula and mention its
for lateral magnification. significance.
A thin lens of refractive index n2 is placed
between two medium of same refractive index n1. Let
R1 and R2 be the radii of curvature of two spherical
surfaces 1 and 2 respectively.
Using the ray from object O, after refraction,
Surface 1 forms image at I'. But the image at I' acts as
object for surface 2. So surface 2 bends the ray and
forms final Image at I.
First paraxial light BD from the object AB gets
reflected on the concave mirror at D and passes
through the focus F.
Second light ray BP incident at the pole P is reflected
along PB´.

n
The third light ray BC passing through centre of refraction at a spherical surface 1 when light moves
curvature C, gets reflected back along the same path. from medium of refractive index n1 to n2 is

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The three reflected rays intersect at the point where a
real, inverted image A’B’ is formed.

Refraction at a spherical surface 2 when light moves

from medium of refractive index n2 to n1 is
am
From 1 & 2
T
Object Distance from Pole = PA = -u
Image Distance from Pole = PA’= -v
Focus Distane from Pole = PF= -f
e
hi

When object distance u is Infinity, image distance v is

equal to focal length f
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Dividing by v
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u = ∞, v = 𝑓

If n2 = n and for air n1=1

This is Mirror Equation

Lateral Magnification (m) This equation is called the lens maker’s formula,
because it tells the lens manufactures what
curvature is needed to make a lens of desired focal
length f with a material of particular refractive
index n.

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6.5.5Derive the equation for angle of deviation white light enters the prism, the deviation is different
produced by a prism and thus obtain the equation for for different colours. Thus, the refractive index is also
refractive index of material of the prism. different for different colours
PQ is the incident ray QR is the refracted ray and RS
is the emergent ray
i1 and r1 are angles of incidence and refraction at the
first face AB. i2 and r2 are angles of incidence and Angular separation between the two extreme colours
refraction at the first face AC. (violet and red) is called angular dispersion
The angle between the incident ray PQ and the
emergent ray RS is called the angle of deviation d.
Dispersive power (ω) is defined as the ratio of the
angular dispersion for the extreme colours to the
deviation for any mean colour.

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Dispersive power (ω) depends on material of prism

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and not on angle of prism
6.5.7 Derive the equation for effective focal length
for lenses in out of contact.
Two lenses of focal length f1 and f2 are
arranged coaxially but separated by a distance
am
Angle of deviation decreases with increase in angle of
incidence and reaches a minimum value and then
d.When parallel ray falls on the arrangement, the two
lenses produce deviations δ1 and δ2 respectively. f is
the focal length of this combination.
continues to increase.

Incident ray and emergent ray are symmetrical

T
Refracted ray inside the prism is parallel to its base of
the prism.
e

Total deviation δ is
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6.5.6 What is dispersion? Obtain the equation for

dispersive power of a medium.
Dispersion is splitting of white light into its
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constituent colours. Let δV, δR are the angles of

deviation for violet and red light. Let nV and nR are
the refractive indices for the violet and red light ∆P1BI’ and ∆P2CD are similar
respectively.
T

For small angled prism of angle100, D = δ

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6.5.8 Derive the equation for acceptance angle and
numerical aperture, of optical fiber.
For light to be transmitted till the end of
optical core, while entering it should be incident at a
certain angle. This angle is called acceptance angle.
Then only inside the optical fibre, light will fall on
the core-cladding boundary, at an angle greater than
critical angle always to undergo Total internal
Reflection. ia is the acceptance angle at the outer
medium and core boundary at A.

n
The radius R of the circular area Snell’s Window

ila
depends on the depth d from where it is seen and
also the refractive indices of the media.

1.What is critical angle and total internal reflection?

The angle of incidence in the denser
am medium for which the refracted ray graces the
boundary is called critical angle ic.
Complete reflection of light into the
denser medium itself,is called total internal
reflection.
2. What is angle of deviation due to reflection?
T
d = 180 – 2i or d = 2α
3. What is angle of deviation due to refraction?
Angle of deviation due to refraction
from rarer to denser medium
e

Angle of deviation due to refraction

from denser to rarer medium
hi

Acceptance angle depends on the refractive indices of 4.State the laws of reflection.
the core n1, cladding n2 and the outer medium n3. Incident ray, Reflected ray and Normal are
coplanar.
6.5.6 Obtain the equation for radius of The angle of incidence i is equal to the angle of
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illumination (or) Snell’s window. reflection r.

Underwater viewer sees everything above the 4.State the laws of refraction.
1. Incident ray, Refracted ray and Normal are
surface through a cone, whose angle is restricted to Coplanar.
twice the critical angle ic. The restricted illuminated 2.The ratio of angle of incidence i in the first
circular area formed by refraction of light
T

medium to the angle of refraction r in the

entering water is called Snell’s window. The second medium is equal to the ratio of refractive
critical angle ic for water is 48.60. Thus the angle index of the second medium n2 to that of the
of view is 97.20. refractive index of the first medium n1
5.Define Polarising angle
The angle of incidence at which a unpolarised light
incident on a transparent surface is reflected as a
plane polarised light is called polarising angle or
Brewster’s angle.

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7. DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER 7.2.12 What are the applications of X-rays
7.2.1 Define work function of a metal. Give its unit. 1. X-rays are used to detect fractures
Minimum energy needed for an electron to 2. X-rays are used to cure skin diseases, tumours
escape from the metal surface is called work 3. X-rays are used to check for flaws in welded joints.
4. X-ray diffraction is used to study the structure of atoms
function of that metal. Unit:electron volt (eV).
and molecules in crystals.
7.2.2. What is photoelectric effect? 7.2.13Differentiate Continuous and Characteristic Xray Spectra
Ejection of electrons from a metal plate
when electromagnetic radiation of suitable
frequency fall on metal is called photoelectric
effect
7.2.3. Give the definition of intensity of light and its unit.
Intensity of light is equal to number of same 7.3.1 List out the laws of photoelectric effect.
energy photons incident per unit area per unit 1.Minimum frequency above which photoelectrons
time. unit : Wm–2. are emitted is called the threshold frequency.

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7.2.4. How will you define threshold frequency? 2. Instantaneous Process .There is no time gap between
Minimum frequency above which incidence of light and ejection of photoelectrons.

ila
photoelectrons are emitted is called the threshold 3.Number of photoelectrons and Saturation
frequency. current emitted is directly proportional to the
7.2.5What is a photo cell? Mention the different types of photocells. intensity of the incident light.
Device which converts light energy into electrical 4.Maximum kinetic energy of the photo electrons
energy is called Photo electric cell. Its Types are is directly proportional to the frequency of
1. Photo emissive cell
2. Photo voltaic cell
3. Photo conductive cell.
am incident light but does not depend on Intensity
of Incident Light
7.3.2What are the uses of Photoelectric Cells
7.2.6. State de Broglie hypothesis. 1. Photo cells are used as switches and sensors.
Waves are associated with all moving 2. Street lights are Automatically turned on when
elementary particles like electrons, protons, it gets dark using photocells.
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neutrons. 3. Sounds are reproduced in motion pictures using
Photocells.
7.2.7. Why we do not see the wave properties of a
4. Athlete’s speed is measured using photocells.
baseball?
5. Light intensity can be measured using
Wave nature of matter is applicable for
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microscopic atomic level but really negligible for the

Photocells.
macroscopic baseball. 7.3.3 Derive an expression for de Broglie wavelength
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7.2.8. A proton and an electron have same kinetic energy.

Which one has greater de Broglie wavelength. Justify.
De Broglie wavelength is inversely
proportional to squareroot of mass. Mass of
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electron is lesser than mass of proton. So Electron

has Greater De Broglie wavelength.
7.2.9 An electron and an alpha particle have same kinetic energy. How
are the de Broglie wavelengths associated with them related? 7.3.4 Derive an expression for de Broglie wavelength
for electron
T

An electron of mass m is accelerated through

De Broglie wavelength is inversely proportional to a potential difference of V volt. The kinetic energy
square root of mass. Mass of electron is lesser than acquired by the electron is given by
mass of alpha particle. So Electron has Greater De
Broglie wavelength than Alpha particle.
7.2.10What are types of Electron emission
1)Thermionic Emission 2) Field Electric Emission
3)Photo Electris Emission 4) Secondary Emission
de Broglie wavelength of the electron is
7.2.11Define Stopping potential
Minimum Negative Potential given to Anode to stop
Most Energetic Electron is called Stopping potential.

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7.3.5 Write the Characteristics of photons
1. Energy of photons of frequency ν: E=hυ 7.5.3Explain the working of Electron Microscope
2. Photons travel with the velocity of light and its Principle : Wave nature of electron
momentum is p=hν/c Working:
3. Photons are electrically neutral, Photons are 1.Electrostatic or magnetic
unaffected by electric and magnetic fields. lenses are used for focussing
4. When a photon interacts with matter,the total electron beam.
energy, total linear momentum and angular 2.Electron beam is made
momentum of photon are conserved. Number of divergent or convergent by
photons may not be conserved either electric or magnetic fields.
5. Energy of a photon is determined by the 3.Electrons emitted from the source
frequency of the radiation and not by its are accelerated by high potentials.
intensity. 4.The beam is made parallel by
7.5.1.Derive Einstein’s photoelectric equation magnetic condenser lens.
When a photon of energy hν is incident on a 5.When the beam passes through

n
metal surface, it is completely absorbed by a single the sample and the beam carries
electron and the electron is ejected. the image of the sample.

ila
6.Magnified image is obtained on
the screen by magnetic objective lens and magnetic
From the law of conservation of energy, projector lens system.
Electron microscopes are used in all branches of
science.
At threshold frequency ν0,
the photo electrons are
ejected with zero kinetic
am 7.5.4.Describe briefly Davisson – Germer experiment
which demonstrated the wave nature of electrons.

energy

This is Einstein Photoelectric

T
Equation
If the electron does not lose energy by internal collisions, then it
is emitted with maximum kinetic energy Kmax.
e
hi

A graph between maximum kinetic energy Kmax of

the photoelectron and frequency ν of the incident
light is a straight line
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7.5.2 Give the construction and working of photo emissive cell.

Two metallic electrodes a cathode
and an anode are fixed in an
evacuated glass or quartz bulb.
Semi-cylindrical cathode C is coated
T

with a photo sensitive material.

The anode A is a thin rod or wire.
A potential difference is applied
between the anode and
the cathode through a galvanometer.
Working:
When light falls on cathode , electrons emitted
are attracted by anode. Current is measured by 7.2.14Why do metals have a large number of free electrons?
the galvanometer. For a given cathode, the current At Room temperature, Electrons in outermost orbits
depends on intensity to incident radiation and the are loosely bound to the nucleus.So there are large
potential difference between anode and cathode. free electrons.

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8.Atomic and Nuclear Physics 8.2.11What is distance of closest approach?
8.2.1.Define impact parameter. Minimum distance between the centre of the
Perpendicular distance between the centre nucleus and the alpha particle just before the alpha
of the gold nucleus and the direction of alpha particle gets reflected back through 180° is the
particle velocity vector when alpha particle is at a distance of closest approach.
large distance is called impact parameter. 8.2.12 Give the results of Rutherford alpha scattering
experiment.
8.2.2.What is meant by radioactivity?
Spontaneous emission of highly penetrating ∝,β,γ 1) Nucleus is positively charged tiny sphere of
rays by an element is called radioactivity. radius 10-14m.
2) Nucleus is surrounded by circulating negatively
8.2.3Define curie.
charged electrons.
1 Curie = 3.7 x 1010 decays per second =3.7 x 1010Bq
8.2.13Write down the postulates of Bohr atom model.
8.2.4In alpha decay, why the unstable nucleus
1) Coulomb electrostatic force of attraction
emits24He nucleus? Why it does not emit four
between electron and nucleus provides
separate nucleons?

n
centripetal force for electron to revolve around
In any decay process, the conservation of energy,
the nucleus.
conservation of linear momentum and
2) Angular momentum of the electron in the

ila
conservation of angular momentum must be
stationary orbits is an integral multiple of h/ 2π.
obeyed. If Four separate nucleons are emitted then
3) An electron can jump from one orbit to another
Disintegration energy becomes negative.So the
orbit by absorbing or emitting a photon whose
total mass of products is greater than that of
energy is equal to the difference in energy (ΔE)
parent nucleus. This kind of process cannot occur in
between the two orbital levels.
nature.
8.2.5 Define atomic mass unit u.
am 8.2.14What is meant by excitation energy.
Energy required to excite electron from
lower energy state to higher energy state is called
excitation energy.
8.2.6 Show that nuclear density is almost constant for 8.2.15Define the ionization energy and ionization
nuclei with Z > 10. potential.
T
Minimum energy required to remove an electron
from the atom in ground state is called ionization
energy. Ionization energy per unit charge is called
e

ionization potential.
all the nuclei with Z > 10 have the same density
8.2.7What are isotopes, isobars and isotones. Give 8.3.1. Write the properties of cathode rays.
hi

examples. 1) Cathode rays ionize the gas.

2) They affect photographic plates
3) They produce fluorescence on certain crystals .
4) They produce heat while falling on matter.
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5) They aredeflected by electric and magnetic field.

6) They possess energy and momentum.
7) They travel in a straight line with high speed of
the order of 107m s-1.
T

8) When the cathode rays fall on a material of high

8.2.8What is mass defect? atomic weight, x-rays are produced.
Difference in expected mass and experimental mass 8.3.2 Write down the draw backs of Bohr atom
of nucleus is called mass defect model.
1) Bohr atom model is valid only for hydrogen
8.2.9What is binding energy of a nucleus? Give its
atom but not for complex atoms.
expression.
2) Fine structure of hydrogen spectrum is not
Energy equivalent to Mass defect is called binding explained by Bohr atom model.
energy of nucleus. 3) Intensity variations in the spectral lines is not
8.2.10Calculate the energy equivalent of 1 atomic explained by Bohr atom model.
mass unit. 4) Distribution of electrons in atoms is not
E=mc2=1.66x10-27x(3x 108)2 =14.94 x10-11J=931Mev completely explained by Bohr atom model.

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8.3.3 Explain in detail the nuclear force
1. Attractive force which holds the nucleus together
is called strong nuclear force.
2. Nuclear force is the strongest force in nature.
3. Strong nuclear force is attractive only
4. Magnitude of nuclear force is same for proton-
proton, proton-neutron, and neutron – neutron.
5. Nuclear force does not act on electrons.
8.3.4.Discuss the alpha , beta and gamma decay
process with example.

n
Time taken for all the radioactive nuclei to decay
will be infinite.

ila
8.5.2 Explain the J.J.Thomson experiment to
determine the specific charge of electron.
Principle: Cathode rays are deflected by electric
and magnetic fields.
Arrangement: Cathode rays are produced by electrical
am discharge in a highly evacuated discharge tube.
cathode rays pass through a pin hole in the anode
disc. After passing through two parallel metal plates,
cathode rays fall on the screen of the tube. Due to
fluorescence, cathode rays produce a spot of light on
the screen.
T
8.3.5 Discuss the spectral series of hydrogen atom. Determination of velocity of electron
Electric and magnetic fields are switched on in the
parallel plates. They act right angles to each other.
They are adjusted so that deflection produced by
e

electric field is cancelled by deflection produced by

magnetic field.
Magnetic Force = Electric Force
hi

Bev = Ee
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Determination of Specific Charge (e/m)

T

8.5.1 Obtain the law of radioactivity.

At any instant t, the number of decays per unit
Specific charge of electron is 1.7 x 10-19 Ckg-1
time, is proportional to the number of nuclei at the
same instant.

λ is the decay constant negative sign indicates N is

decreasing.

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8.5.3 Discuss the Millikan’s oil drop experiment to
determine the charge of an electron.
Two horizontal plates A & B of diameter 20cm are
separated by 1.5cm.A potential difference of 10kV is
applied to the plates.Fine drops of highly viscous oil
falls through a hole H in the plate A.Due to ionization
of air by X-rays,Oil drops acquire charge.charged oil
droplets can be made to move up or down or remain
rest.
ρ be the Density of oil, σ is the Density of air r is
the radius of oil drop,η is the Coefficient of viscosity
of air.

n
ila
Determination of radius of the droplet
When the electric field is switched off, the oil drop
accelerates downwards. Due to air drag forces, the oil
drops easily attain its terminal velocity and moves
with constant velocity. viscous force and buoyant
force balance the gravitational force
am
T
e
hi

Determination of electric charge

When the electric field is switched on, charged oil
drops accelerates upward due to electric force.
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charged oil drop is kept at rest by adjusting electric

field.
T

Millikan repeated this experiment several times

and found that the charge of any oil drop can be
written as integral multiple of a basic value, which is
nothing but the charge of an electron (1.6 x 10-19C).

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9 Semiconductor electronics 9.3.2What are the Applications of oscillators
9.2.1Distinguish between intrinsic and extrinsic Oscillators are used
semiconductors. 1. to generate periodic wave forms.
2. to generate RF carriers.
3. to generate audio tones
4. to generate clock signal in digital circuits.
5. as sweep circuits in TV sets and CRO.
9.3.3What are the Applications of photodiodes
9.2.2What do you mean by doping? Photodiodes are used in
Process of adding impurities to intrinsic 1 Alarm system
semi conductor is called doping. 2 Count items on a conveyer belt
3 Photoconductors
9.2.3.How electron-hole pairs are created in a
4 Compact disc players, smoke detectors
semiconductor material?
5 detectors for computed tomography etc. in
When an electron is excited, covalent bond is

n
medical field
broken. Each excited electron leaves a
9.3.4What are the Applications of LED
vacancy(hole) to complete bonding to satisfy Octet

ila
Light Emitting Diodes are used in
rule. So, electron-hole pairs are created.
1 Indicator lamps.
9.2.4A diode is called as a unidirectional device. Why
2 Seven-segment displays.
A diode conducts current by giving small
3 Traffic signals, exit signs,
resistance when it is forward biased. But it does
4 Industrial process control, position encoders,
not conduct current when it is reverse biased due
to very large resistance.
9.2.5.What do you mean by leakage current in a diode?
Under reverse bias, a very small current in
am 9.3.3.Give circuit symbol, logical operation, truth
table, and Boolean expression of AND, OR, NOT,
NAND, NOR, and EX-OR gates.
μA, flows across the PN junction. This current due
to the flow of the minority charge carriers is called
leakage current.
T
9.2.6.Why feedback circuit is in a transistor oscillator.
Amplitude of the electrical oscillations
oscillations decreases in a Transistor Oscillator. In
order to produce undamped oscillations, a feedback
e

is provided from the output circuit to the input circuit.

9.2.7 What are the Barkhausen conditions for
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sustained oscillations
1) The loop phase shift must be 00 or integral
multiples of 2π.
2) The loop gain must be unity.
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9.2.8 What are the advantages of ICs

Low cost,High performance with speed,
Small size, and Large capacity of chips.
9.3.1.Distinguish between avalanche and zener
T

breakdown.
AND gate

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9.5.1. State and prove De Morgan’s First and Second
theorems.
First Theorem:Complement of the Sum of inputs is
equal to the Product of its Complements.

Output of NOR gate = Output of Bubbled AND gate

9.5.3 Explain the construction and working of a full

wave rectifier.
Second Theorem:Complement of the Product of In a Full Wave rectifier both positive and negative

n
inputs is equal to the Sum of its Complements. half cycles of the AC input signal is rectified.
It consists of two p-n junction diodes D1, D2, a

ila
center tapped transformer and load Resistance RL.
Output of NAND gate = Output of Bubbled OR gate

am
9.5.2Explain the working of a half wave rectifier During the positive half of AC cycle
T
terminals M is positive potential N is negative
potential and C is zero potential. The diode D1 is
forward biased and diode D2 is reverse biased.
Diode D1 conducts current along MD1RLGC. The
e

current flows through RL and output voltage V0 is

developed across RL.
In a half wave rectifier circuit, Only one half of the
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During the negative half of AC cycle

input AC wave is rectified while the other half is terminals N is positive potential M is negative
blocked. potential and C is zero potential. The diode D2 is
It consists of pn junction diode D, a transformer forward biased and diode D1 is reverse biased.
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and load Resistance RL Diode D2 conducts current along ND2RLGC. The

During the positive half of AC cycle, terminal A current flows through RL in the same direction and
becomes positive with respect to terminal B. The output voltage V0 is developed across RL.
diode is forward biased and hence it conducts. The
current flows through RL and output voltage V0 is
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developed across RL.

During the Negative half of AC cycle, terminal A
becomes negative with respect to terminal B. The
diode is reverse biased and hence it does not
conduct current. No output voltage V0 is developed
across RL.
Steady voltage is obtained with the help of filter
Steady voltage is obtained with the help of filter
circuits and voltage regulator circuits.
circuits and voltage regulator circuits.
Efficiency (η) is the ratio of the output dc
Efficiency (η) is the ratio of the output dc
power to the input ac power.For half wave rectifier
power to the input ac power.For half wave rectifier
ƞ= 40.6 %
ƞ= 81.2 %
9.Semiconductor Electronics S.Jayachandran PG.Asst,GHSS,Manali,Thiruvallur dT, 9840430109 Page 31

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9.5.4Write notes on Photodiode During recombination process, energy is
A light sensor or photo diode is a p-n released in the form of light (in case of LED
junction diode working in reverse bias, to convert Radiative) or heat (in case of Junction Diode
an light signal into electric current. Non-Radiative).
The colour of the light is determined by the
energy band gap of the material.
Blue (Silicon Carbide-SiC), green (Aluminium
P-N junction diode made of photosensitive material Gallium Phosphide-AlGaP), red(Gallium Arsenide
is kept safely inside a plastic case. Light falls on the phosphide-GaAsP) and white light (Gallium Indium
depletion layer of P-N diode through a small window. Nitride-GaInN) are different types of LEDs.
When no light falls, a negligible reverse
9.5.6 Explain the working principle of a solar cell.
current due to the thermally generated minority
Mention its applications.
carriers flows which is called Dark current.
A solar cell is a p-n junction to convert light
When light photon of suitable energy hυ falls energy into potential difference.

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on the depletion region of the diode, Electron –Hole Principle: photovoltaic effect.
pairs are produced. The amount of electron-hole

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pairs depends on the intensity of incident light on
the p-n junction. p-type and
Electric field in the depletion layer prevents n-type
recombination of Electron –Hole pairs.Holes move are two
towards the p-side and electrons towards the n- types of
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side, due to the electric field in the depletion layer.
After crossing the junction, electrons are
accelerated by reverse voltage. This action
solar cell.

produces current in the circuit much higher than

Dark current. Working of photodiode is opposite to a 1. p-type solar cells use p-type Silicon as the base
LED. with an ultra-thin layer of n-type Silicon on its
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9.5.5What is an LED? Give the principle of operation top.
with a diagram. 2. p-type Silicon is coated with metal at the bottom
Light Emitting Diode (LED) is a p-n junction which forms the back electrical contact.
diode working in forward bias to convert electrical 3. n-type Silicon is coated with metal grid at the
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energy into light energy.It emits light. top, which forms the front electrical contact.
It consists of a p-layer, n-layer ,a substrate, 4. The top of the solar cell is coated with anti-
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two leads for anode and cathode. An external reflection coating and toughened glass.
resistance in series with the forward biasing Working
voltage is required to limit the forward current In a solar cell, electron–hole pairs are
through the LED. produced due to the absorption of light near the
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junction. Holes move towards the p-side and electrons

towards the n-side, due to the electric field in the
depletion layer. Holes are collected by back electrical
contact. Electrons are collected by front electrical
contact. A potential difference is developed and
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photocurrent flows.
Applications
1. Solar cells are used in satellites .
2. Solar panels are used to generate electricity.
3. Solar cells are used in calculators, watches,etc

When the p-n junction is forward biased, majority

charge carriers , ie.,conduction band electrons on n-
side and valence band holes on p-side cross the
junction. Electrons in the conduction band
recombine with holes in the valence band.

9.Semiconductor Electronics S.Jayachandran PG.Asst,GHSS,Manali,Thiruvallur dT, 9840430109 Page 32

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10 COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS 10.3.5 What is meant by RADAR and write its
10.2.1Give the factors that are responsible for applications
transmission impairments. Radar stands for Radio Detection and Ranging
System. It is mainly used to sense, detect, and
Attenuation,Distortion and noise.
locate distant objects like aircraft, ships,
10.2.2 Define Skip Distance.
spacecraft, etc.
Shortest distance between the transmitter 1. In military, it is used for locating and detecting
and the point of reception of the sky wave along the targets.
the surface is called as the skip distance. 2. It is used in navigation systems such as ship
10.2.3 Define Skip Zone borne surface search, air search and weapons
The Zone in which, there is no reception of guidance systems.
electromagnetic waves through ground or sky 3. Used to measure wind speed in meteorological
propagation is called as skip zone or skip area. observations.
10.3.1 What are Advantages and Limitations of 4. Used to locate and rescue people in emergency

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Amplitude Modulation AM situations.
10.5.1What are the merits and demerits of Fibre Optic
Communication

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10.3.2 What are Advantages and Limitations of
Frequency Modulation FM
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10.5.2 Give the applications of ICT in agriculture
Fisheries and mining sectors.
Agriculture
1.Information and communication technology (ICT)
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is used in increasing food productivity and

managing farms.
10.3.3 what are the applications of Satellite 2.It helps in effective use of water, seeds and
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Communication fertilizers etc.

3.Robots, aerial images, and GPS technology can
be used.
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4.Suitable place for the plants to be planted can be

decided using GPS.
Fisheries
1.Satellites helps to identify fishing zones.
2.Use of barcodes helps to identify time and date
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10.3.4 What do you know about GPS? Write a few of catch, species name, quality of fish.
applications of GPS. Mining
GPS stands for Global Positioning System. It is 1.ICT provides audio-visual warning to the
a global navigation satellite system that sends trapped underground miners.
geolocation and time information to a GPS 2.It helps to connect remote sites.
receiver anywhere on or near the Earth.
Global positioning system is highly useful
1. for tracking cars, trucks and buses,
2. for counting of wild animals and
3. for making tunnels, bridges etc.

10.Communication Systems S.Jayachandran, PG.Asst,GHSS,Manali,Thiruvallur Dt, 9840430109 Page 33

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10.5.3Elaborate on the basic elements of communication system with the necessary block diagram.
1.Transducer:A transducer is a device that converts variations in pressure, temperature, sound, or Video
into an equivalent electrical signal or vice versa. The electrical equivalent of the original information is
called the baseband signal.
2.Amplifier: The transducer output is very weak and is amplified by the amplifier.
3.Oscillator: It generates high-frequency carrier wave for long distance transmission into space.
4.Modulator: It superimposes the baseband signal onto the carrier signal and generates the modulated signal.
5.Power amplifier: It increases the power level of the electrical signal in order to cover a large distance.
6.Transmitting antenna:It transmits the radio signal into space in all directions. It travels in the form of
electromagnetic waves with the velocity of light.
7.Communication channel:
Communication channel is used to carry
theelectrical signal from transmitter to
receiver with less noise or distortion.

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8.Receiver :The signals that are transmitted
through the communication channel are

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received with the help of a receiving antenna
and are fed into the receiver.
The receiver consists of electronic circuits
like demodulator, amplifier, detector etc.
The demodulator extracts the baseband signal
from the carrier.Then the baseband signal is
detected and amplified using amplifiers.
Finally, it is fed to the output transducer.
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10.5.4Explain the three modes of propagation of electromagnetic waves through space.
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10.5.5 What is Amplitude modulation? Explain 10.2.7What is Meant by fiber optic communication
with necessary diagrams. The Method of transmitting information
Amplitude of the carrier signal is modified from one place to another in the form of light
according to the instantaneous amplitude of the pulses through an optical fiber is called fiber optic
baseband signal is called Amplitude modulation. communication.
Amplitude modulation is used in radio and TV
broadcasting. Carrier wave is modified in proportion 10.5.6 What is frequency modulation? Explain
to the amplitude of the baseband signal. with necessary diagrams.
Frequency of the carrier signal is modified
according to the instantaneous amplitude of the
baseband signal is called frequency modulation.
When the amplitude of the baseband signal is
zero in, the frequency of the modulated signal is the
same as the carrier signal known as Resting frequency

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The frequency of the modulated wave
increases when the amplitude of the baseband signal

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increases in the positive direction (A, C).
The frequency of the modulated wave
decreases when the amplitude of the baseband signal
increases in the negative direction(B, D) .

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10.2.4. Explain centre frequency or resting frequency

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in frequency modulation.
Normal frequency of a carrier wave which
does not change when frequency of baseband
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signal is zero is known as centre frequency or resting

frequency. Practically this is the allotted frequency of
the FM transmitter.
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10.2.5.What are the Advantages of PM

i) FM signal produced from PM signal is very stable.
ii) Centre or Resting frequency is very stable.

10.2.6 Define Bandwidth

The frequency range over which the
baseband signals or the information signals such
as voice, music, picture, etc. is transmitted is
known as bandwidth.

10.Communication Systems S.Jayachandran, PG.Asst,GHSS,Manali,Thiruvallur Dt, 9840430109 Page 35

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