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 1

The

GOETIA

THE LESSER KEY OF

SOLOMON THE KING

LEMEGETON
CLAVICULA SALOMONIS REGIS
Reworked, Written and inspired from the original manuscript by Michael W. Ford
Illustrated by Elda Isela Ford
The Luciferian Edition, Houston, TX 2003
 2

The Goetia
Written and presented anew by Michael W. Ford ~ Akhtya Seker Arimanius
To Restore the Sorcerous Path and the Art of Luciferian Ascension

Illustrations also by Original Manuscript Sigils, Aleister Crowley reworked

Sigils from the 1904-1976 Equinox Edition with new drawings.

Inspired from the original manuscript edition, also the irreplaceable Goetia
translated by
SAMUEL LIDDELL MACGRAGOR MATHERS EDITED,
ANNOTATED AND INTRODUCED BY ALEISTER CROWLEY
Re-Print Issued by Equinox Publishing, London, 1976.
Illustration Listing at end of Book.
Also inspired by the meticulous and scholarly Illustrated Second Edition
with annotations by ALEISTER CROWLEY and edited by HYMENAEUS
BETA (Weiser 1995)

The edition is intended as a personal grimoire Working. My original focus

was to rework the Goetia in a modern Luciferian form, which focused on the
development of the Will and the Self through Antinomian Left Hand Path
techniques.

The Author and Publisher accept no responsibility for the misuse of this
edition.

The Author wishes to thank-

Jack Ehrhardt, Ms. Napper, Frater Scorpius Nokmet, Frater A.S.L., Dana
Dark, a special thank you to fellow initiate Marie Buckner, Ugly Shyla and
mother, Robert Mahar, Shemyaza of Immortal Coil Designs, Magus Books
and all of the Brothers and Sisters of The Order of Phosphorus. Lucifer
Triumphans!
 3

Illumination Spell of the

Seeker
The Perception of the Serpent’s Mind who in the
Dream of the Celestial and Infernal shall walk
between the Worlds..
Unto the Angelic Soul and fiery essence of the
serpent, who comes as shadow but is revealed as
Light.
I charge thee to open the gates of this book to those
who are of its blood – one who may take the knowledge
of the pages – In the in-between worlds of dreams do
come forth, that the seeker shall be transformed in new
shadow to the presence of the Emerald Light. I charge
thee with guarding this book by the dreams of those
unwilling to grow and become in the Light of the
Serpent-Angel.
By Air and Dream we enter the Circle
4
 5

The Preliminary Definition

of Magick & Black Magick

It is significant to explain the definitions within the context of this book, to not only in
some manner set the foundation but also the suggestion of a successful application of this
grimoire. This book is not meant for the individual to develop profane behavior,
antisocial actions nor abhorrent philosophy which may be defined as not-healthy for the
self. The essence of this book is exploring the Luciferian foundations of human
evolution, the next step in our spiritual and philosophical ideologies. Any negative
behavior or criminal actions (as defined by current society) is considered a deterrent from
our individual evolution, thus is not acceptable.

Magick is the Highest Art of conscious elevation; it is the specific ascension of the self
and an opening forth of Higher Articulation of Self. Magick is the Arte of the Sun, which
is fertile and beautiful, the very foundation built in Gold brilliance. Magick is the
evolution of the Spirit and the Self, the very path of mediation between us and our Gods.
It is ultimately however the separation from us from all Gods and the Emerald Crown of
which we adopt – we Become as Gods and Goddesses individual and beautiful in many
ways.

Black Magick as revealed in current standards is the art of Self-Deification through

Antinomianian processes, that by the self separating from the natural order do we move
in-between the world of waking and dreaming. In the Art of Primal Sorcery this is
defined as Encircling/Ensorcelling the Self in the Dragon’s being. The Circle in the
modern context of Magick and Ceremonial Workings is not designed to keep forces out,
such as being a philosophy which if employed in this manner, will lay a foundation which
causes the magician to fail from the start. The Circle is a Span of self control; it is our
influence of who we are and what we will become. Do not fear forces outside the self,
your greatest enemy is within. Any magician who is able to summon any spirits in the
Goetia should be prepared to face that which they call – or else suffer the consequences.
The modern magician understands that no Work may be successful is the intent is not
pure and clear. If you seek to summon one of the Djinn of the Goetia, understand how the
spirit relates to your mind, how it will manifest in yourself. Do not summon something
that which you are not comfortable in working with. Do not on the other hand fear the
very forces which you seek to command, be it Angelic or Demonic.

Black Witchcraft is working with averse or ‘black’ forces which are translated as shadow
aspects of the sorcerers psyche. These shadows of the self are essential to our own self-
development and becoming as individuals. It requires that the witch be well disciplined
and also well balanced, save from the gates of failure and madness. To look into the Eye
of Set and Lilith-Hecate or even Ahriman is to face off forces which would devour any
not prepared to become bearers of the Black Flame, a Luciferian Spirit themselves. Once
this Pact is made, when the Sigillium Diaboli is upon the mind, spirit and body, then
there is no turning back – only the ascension of the spirit as ‘beyond’ the mortal clay.
 6

In the modern world of magicians, Sathan is our initiator and stimulator of the psyche.
One should remember, in Pre-Islamic lore Satan/Azazel is considered the Imagination –
Sufism recognizes Satan as the imagination itself. Sathan is thus our announcer of the
path, the very fountain of our attainment. In the view of a God form and model, Lucifer
(Sathan) is an ideal form to align with in an initiatory sense. Azazel rebelled against the
natural order (God – Ain Soph) as he sought independence, fell to the realms of earth and
awoke in Hell (earth – the chthonic realm). Rather than fearing and cowering, hiding,
Lucifer understood he was an independent Mind and existed independently from the
natural order and roused all other fallen angels to stand strong. In this context, Lucifer
was creating Order from Chaos. This is a seeming model of the initiate, that we Work
towards recognizing our own sense of being, and to expand the circle of control.

The Daimons/Djinn of the Goetia are initiatory forces as well.

Consider the definitions of Angel and Demon. The significance is beneficial in the
context of this grimoire. Angelic Spirits are solar/air based spirits who posses a higher
articulation of being, that is, they resonate with the more developed aspects of the self i.e.
communion with the Initiatic Guide/Holy Guardian Angel. Demons are spirits/fallen
angels which proceed to grow in shadows and the darkness of the earth, but are as
significant and beneficial as Angelic Spirits. In unity these Djinn are of Fire and Air, thus
enflame the very essence of self in the illumination of being (Black Flame – Self-
Perception and Being).

Black Magick is the development and refinement of the Self on every level. It can be
unpleasant such as questioning yourself and testing your limits, and it can be pleasure
filled. It is necessary not to grow lazy while working with these spirits, as the Work will
then disintegrate and cause numerous problems. Stay focused and resilient to the purpose
of the Work – yet do not allow spirits to control or alter your thoughts. The challenge is
great, few will be able to pass beyond the testing grounds of this Grimoire, nor
understand the translation therein.
Please understand that this grimoire was not created because I felt I could produce
something better than Aleister Crowley, nor a sign of disrespect for the original work. On
the contrary, it is a love of the original that this edition was created. It is a partial map and
record of my personal Work as one of the Luciferian Path, and something which I felt
should have a new approach presented. The new presentation of this Work will no doubt
open some gates which should not have been opened, or rather needed to opened for
sometime. Zazas, Zazas, Nasatanada Zazas – In these words, I weave this spell..

-Michael W. Ford, Dark Moon, April 1st, 2003.

7
 8

The Goetia – Ancient and Modern

Considered for centuries a grimoire of “low” magic, the Goetia (loosely translated as
“howling” or “wailing”) has been a tome of forbidden black magic. The 72 Spirits of
Solomon were meant as a tool of cursing and empowering ones’ lusts. While this may
continue to be an aspect of Lesser or Low Black Magic, the Magic of Theurgy (high
sorcery) has not been a connection in detail explored – until now.

Theurgy is High Magick, or High Sorcery. It is the development of the self in Light and
aimed at bettering ones being on numerous levels. “Light” may refer to the perception of
being, as Lucifer who is the Lord of the Sun and the Emerald Crowned Initiator of
Magick. Theurgy would be the path of invoking the genius or Guardian Angel of the Self.
This operation has been dealt with in length in the works of Abramelin, Aleister
Crowley’s Liber Samekh and equally brilliant writings by Jake Stratton-Kent and Charles
Gonzales. The “Preliminary Invocation” as it was published in Crowley’s 1904 edition,
was developed from the London Papyrus 46, being a Greek Exorcism Rite which was
translated by Charles Wycliffe Goodwin and published in 1852. It was indeed Aleister
Crowley who asserted correctly so that the supreme ritual was the one to invoke the Holy
Guardian Angel, as this led to the path of individual perfection. This is a common ground
of which the Left Hand Path and the Right Hand Path practitioner may agree. The paths
become clearly defined when the RHP seeks to reach spiritual perfection, then letting the
consciousness be joined in union with the divine light, or the Hebrew Ain Soph, which is
Limitless Light. The LHP practitioner views consciousness and being as beautiful, sacred
and worth developing and strengthening. The consciousness from the unveiling of ones
True Will or Daemon/Angel would seek to further become like Lucifer and be
independent, isolate and separate from the Ain Soph, or Limitless Light. One should
remember, it is the Limitless Light from which Azazel – Lucifer sought to be
independent from.

The Goetia is indeed a tough, powerful and to some a dreadful real grimoire. Those who
have hissed and vibrated the sacred names and candle lit summons of the demons of this
book have empowered it to heights which revival the legends of Faust and even Horror
fiction author H.P. Lovecraft and his tales of the macabre. With Aleister Crowley, whom,
in his youth brought forth the shades of the Goetia into Boleskine and other homes, he
did so in an experiment of Will. While on the surface, he had appeared to consciously
evoke the Goetic spirits to appease his carnal desires, and other material quests;
subconsciously he was breaking ground for the development of the Will.

The Lemegethon or Goetia as it is called is indeed a forbidden yet essential tool in

magical practice. In specific areas of what is termed Sabbatic or Luciferian Sorcery and
Magick, a definitive purpose is expounded in the Nature of the Goetic spirits.
Magick as itself is defined to raise one up, to ascend. As Magick is a Celestial Work,
which defines and strengthens the Will (or the Will strengthens Magick) so that a union
be brought with the Baphometic Statements, As Above, So Below. The Goetia is a work
of Black Magick. One often views Black Magic (k) in the perception of Aleister Crowley,
being the malicious workings of sorcery. A modern or should I say realistic perception is
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 Fig. 382.
Aeronauts in the car warming their hands by a bottle containing sulphuric acid and water.

When alcohol and water are mixed a change of density occurs, and heat is
produced; and if equal measures of alcohol of a specific gravity of .825, and
water, each at 50° Fahr., are mixed, a temperature of 70° Fahr. is obtained; if
the mixture is made in a glass vessel, as shown in the annexed cut, the
combination is very apparent. To perform the experiment properly, water is
poured into the lower tube and bulb, and alcohol into the top one; when this is
done, the stopper is inserted, and the whole thoroughly shaken and mixed
together; the warmth which is thus obtained is apparent to the hand, whilst the
contraction is shown after the mixture is cold, as it no longer fills the two bulbs
of the instrument. (Fig. 383.)
 Fig. 383.
Glass bulbs and tube to show the contraction in bulk of a mixture of alcohol and water.

The latent heat of gases is easily shown by suddenly condensing air in a small
syringe or pump, of which the piston contains a minute fragment of amadou (a
species of fungus, Polyporus igniarius; this, according to Simmonds, after having
been beaten with a mallet, and dipped in a solution of saltpetre, forms the
spunk or German tinder of commerce; it is also used as a styptic, and made into
razor strops), which takes fire, and before the invention of vesta and other
matches, tobacco-smokers were in the habit of obtaining a light for their pipes
and cigars in this manner—viz., by the latent heat obtained from the contraction
or compression of air. Then, again, an instructive though opposite parallel is
afforded by suddenly expanding or rarefying air in a glass receiver provided with
a delicate thermometer. By pumping out some of the air, a considerable
diminution of the temperature occurs, and equal to several degrees of the
thermometer. Every child knows that steam direct from the kettle will scald, but
if it issues from a high-pressure boiler, say at fifteen pounds on the square inch,
the hand may be held with impunity in the escaping steam, as it merely feels
gently warm, and not scalding. This is due partly to the loss of heat rendered
latent by the expansion of the high-pressure steam directly it passes into the air,
and partly to the currents of air that are dragged into an escaping jet of steam.
This tendency of the air to rush into a jet of steam was discovered by Faraday,
and explains those curious experiments with a jet of steam by which balls,
empty flasks, and globular vessels are sustained and supported either
perpendicularly or horizontally.
If steam at a pressure of about sixty pounds per inch is allowed to escape from
a proper jet, and a large lighted circular torch composed of tow dipped in
turpentine held over it, the course of the external air is shown, by the direction
of the flames, which are forcibly pulled and blown into the jet of steam with a
roaring noise, indicating the rapidity of the blast of air moving to the steam jet.
(Fig. 384.)

Fig. 384.
a. Jet discharging high-pressure steam b b. Lighted torch held round the escaping
steam the flames from the former all rush into the latter.

Egg-shells, empty flasks, india-rubber or light copper and brass balls, are
suspended in the most singular manner inside an escaping jet of high-pressure
steam; and before the explanation of Faraday, reams of paper were used in the
discussion of the possible theory to account for this effect; and what made the
explanation still more difficult, was the fact that the jet of steam might be
inclined at any angle between the horizontal and perpendicular, and still held the
ball, egg-shell, or other spherical figure firmly in its vapory grasp. (Fig. 385.)
 Fig. 385.
a. Ball and socket jet at an angle, and discharging steam. The egg-shells are
supported by the enormous current of air moving into the jet in the direction of
the arrows.

In consequence of the great rush of air towards a jet of escaping high-pressure

steam, Mr. Goldsmith Gurney has patented the application of this principle in his
ventilating steam jet, which he has already successfully applied; in one case
especially, where a coal-mine had been on fire for several years, and the whole
working of the coal-measures in the pit was jeopardized by the spreading of the
combustion to new workings; the fire was first extinguished by carbonic acid
gas, pulled, as it were, into the coal-mine by a jet of steam blowing into the
downcast, but placed in connexion with a furnace of burning coke; and the
circulation of the carbonic acid, called choke-damp, through the pit workings
was further assisted by a jet of high-pressure steam blowing upwards, and
placed over the mouth of the upcast shaft.
The experiment succeeded perfectly at the South Sauchie Colliery, near Alloa,
about seven miles from Stirling, where a fire had raged for about thirty years
over an area of twenty-six acres in the waste seam of coal nine feet thick. (Fig.
386.)

Fig. 386.
Gurney's steam jet. a. Furnace. b. Water tank. c. Downcast stopping. d. Upcast
stopping. e e e. Steam jets. f f. Galleries from shaft to shaft.

For the general purpose of ventilating the coalmine, Mr. Gurney's plan was tried
at the Ebbw Vale Colliery, and very economically, the waste steam alone being
used. Experiments have also been satisfactorily made with it for blowing a
cupola for smelting iron, and with dry steam—i.e., steam of a very high pressure
—escaping through a warm tube, the results were perfectly successful.
With this digression from the subject of latent heat derived from the
compression of air, we return again to the subject with another case in point,
furnished by the Fountain of Hiero, as it is called, at Schemnitz, in Hungary,
described by Professor Brande; and it may be observed that all the phenomena
related would apply to the great pressure of the water from the water-towers at
the Crystal Palace, if fitted with a similar air-vessel.
"A part of the machinery for working these mines is a perpendicular column of
water 260 feet high (the Crystal Palace water-towers are each 284 feet high),
which presses upon a quantity of air enclosed in a tight reservoir; the air is
consequently condensed to an enormous degree by this height of water, which
is equal to between eight and nine atmospheres; and when a pipe
communicating with this reservoir of condensed air is suddenly opened, it
rushes out with extreme velocity, instantly expands, and in so doing it absorbs
so much heat as to precipitate the moisture it contains in a shower of snow,
which may readily be gathered on a hat held in the blast. The force of this is so
great, that the workman who holds the hat is obliged to lean his back against
the wall to retain it in its position."
The best examples of latent heat are furnished by ice, water, and steam, and we
are indebted chiefly to Dr. Black for the elegant and conclusive experiments
demonstrating the important truths connected with the latent heat of these
three conditions of matter. When various solids are heated, they frequently pass
through certain intermediate conditions of softness, terminating in perfect
liquidity; but ice and many other bodies change at once to the liquid state on
the application of a sufficient quantity of heat. The process of melting ice is very
slow, because every portion must absorb or render latent a certain quantity of
heat before it can take the liquid state—hence the difficulty of melting blocks of
ice when they are surrounded with non-conducting materials; and this fact the
author has proposed to take advantage of in keeping water cool which is to be
supplied to the ova of salmon whilst taking them to stock the rivers of Australia.
In order to prove that heat is rendered latent by the liquefaction of ice, it is only
necessary to weigh a pound of finely-powdered ice and a pound of water at
212° Fahr. (boiling water), and mix them together; when the ice is all melted,
the resulting temperature is only 52°, therefore the boiling water has lost 160°
of temperature, of which 20° can be accounted for, because the resulting
temperature of the melted ice is 52°; but in the liquefaction of the pound of ice,
140° have disappeared or become latent, or, as Dr. Black termed it, have
become combined.
 1 lb. of ice at 32° + 20° = 52°, the resulting temperature.
1 lb. of water at 212° - 52° = 160° - 20° = 140°, rendered latent.
140° represents the result obtained from innumerable experiments made by
mixing equal parts of ice and boiling water, and it is this large quantity of latent
heat required by ice and snow that prevents their sudden liquefaction, and the
disastrous circumstances that would arise from the floods that must otherwise
always be produced.
To put the fact beyond all doubt, it is advisable to mix together equal weights of
water at 32° and boiling water at 212°, and the result is found by the
thermometer to be the mean between the two, because half the extremes are
always equal to the mean; and if the two temperatures are added together and
divided by two, the result is a temperature of 122°, as shown below:—
1 lb. of ice water at 32° + 1 lb. of water at 212° = 244° ÷ 2 = 122°.
From similar experiments Dr. Black deduced the important truth, "that in all
cases of liquefaction a quantity of heat not indicated by, or sensible to, the
thermometer, is absorbed or disappears, and that this heat is withdrawn from
the surrounding bodies, leaving them comparatively cold." At p. 79 it is shown
how the sudden solution or liquefaction of certain salts produces cold, and
hence numerous freezing mixtures have been devised. In olden times, when
officials in authority did what they pleased, without being troubled with
disagreeable returns, and colonels clothed their men, and were merchant tailors
on the grand scale, gun cartridges were not confined to practice on the enemy,
but they did duty frequently in the absence of ice as refrigerators of the officers'
wine, in consequence of the gunpowder containing nitre or saltpetre; as a mere
solution of this salt finely powdered will lower the temperature of water from
50° Fah. to 35°; whilst a mixture of four ounces of carbonate of soda and four
ounces of nitrate of ammonia dissolved in four ounces of water at 60°, will in
three hours freeze ten ounces of water in a metallic vessel immersed in the
mixture during the liquefaction or solution of the salts.
Fahrenheit imagined he had attained the lowest possible temperature by mixing
ice and salt together, and it is by this means that confectioners usually freeze
their ices, or ice puddings; the materials are first incorporated, and being placed
in metallic vessels or moulds, and surrounded with ice and salt placed in
alternate layers, and then well stirred with a stick, they soon solidify into the
forms which are so agreeable, and so frequently presented at the tables of the
opulent. The temperature obtained is Fahrenheit's zero—viz., thirty-two degrees
below the freezing point of water. According to the very wise police regulation
observed in London, all householders are required to sweep or remove the snow
from the pavement in front of their houses, and this is frequently done with salt;
should an unfortunate shoeless beggar, tramp past whilst the sudden
liquefaction is in progress, the effect on the soles of his feet is evidently very
disagreeable, and the rapidity with which he retires from the zero affords a
thermometric illustration of the most lively description.

Heat the Cause of Vapour.

Every liquid, when of the same degree of chemical purity, and under equal
circumstances of atmospheric pressure, has one peculiar point of temperature at
which it invariably boils. Thus, ether boils at 96° Fahr., and if some of this highly
inflammable liquid is placed carefully in a flask, by pouring it in with a funnel,
and flame applied within one inch of the orifice, no vapour escapes that will take
fire; but if the flame of a spirit lamp is applied, the ether soon boils, and if the
lighted taper is again brought near the mouth of the flask, the vapour takes fire,
and produces a flame of about two feet in length. This fire only continues as
long as the flame of the spirit-lamp is retained at the bottom of the flask, and on
removing it the vessel rapidly cools. The length of the flame is reduced, and is
gradually extinguished for the want of that essence of its vitality, as it were—
viz., heat. (Fig. 387.) If a thermometer is introduced into the flask, however
rapid may be the ebullition or boiling of the ether, it is found to be invariably at
96°. The heat carried off by evaporation is most elegantly displayed by placing a
little water in a watch glass, and surrounded by charcoal saturated with
sulphuric acid, in the vacuum of an air-pump. The rapid evaporation and
condensation of the water by its affinity for the sulphuric quickly produces ice;
and the pumps and other apparatus of Knight and Co., Foster-lane, City, are
greatly to be recommended for this and other illustrations.
 Fig. 387.
Heat the cause of vapour.

The illustration of the determination of the fixed and invariable boiling point
belonging to every liquid is further carried out by introducing some water into a
second flask standing above a lighted spirit-lamp, with a small thermometer,
graduated, of course, properly to degrees above the boiling point of water;
when the water boils, it will be found to remain steadily at a temperature of
212°. And however rapidly the water may be boiled, provided there is ample
room for the steam to escape, the heat indicated by the thermometer is like the
law of the Medes and Persians, which altereth not, and it remains standing at
the number 212°. The only exception (if it may be so termed) to this law is
brought about by the shape and nature of the containing vessel; under a mean
pressure the boiling point of water in a metallic vessel is generally 212°; in a
glass vessel it may rise as high as 214° or 216°, but if some metallic filings are
dropped in, the escape of steam is increased, and the temperature may then
drop immediately to 212°.
When a thermometer is inserted in a flask containing water in a state of
ebullition or boiling, so that the bulb does not touch the fluid, but is wholly
surrounded with steam, it will be found that the temperature of the latter is
exactly the same as that of the former; and if the liquid boils at 96°, the vapour
will be 96°, if at 212°, the steam is 212°. Steam has therefore exactly the same
temperature as the boiling water that produces it. (Fig. 388.)

Fig. 388.
Thermometer in the steam escaping from boiling water.
Whilst performing the last experiment, it may be noticed that the steam inside
the neck of the flask is invisible, and that it only becomes apparent in that kind
of intermediate condition between the vaporous and liquid state called vesicular
vapour—a state corresponding with the "earth fog," and called by Howard the
stratus. When a flask containing boiling water is placed under the receiver of an
air pump (as soon after the ebullition has ceased as may be possible), and the
air pumped out, it will be noticed that the water again begins boiling as the
vacuum is obtained, showing that the boiling point of the same fluid varies
under different degrees of atmospheric pressure, and according to the height of
the barometer.

Height of Boiling point

barometer. of water.
26 204.91°
26.5 205.79
27 206.67
27.5 207.55
28 208.43
28.5 209.31
29 210.19
29.5 211.07
30 212.00
30.5 212.88
31 213.76

Alcohol and ether confined under an exhausted receiver boil violently at the
ordinary temperature of the atmosphere, and in general liquids boil with 124°
less of heat than are required under a mean pressure of the air; water,
therefore, in a vacuum must boil at 88° and alcohol at 49°.
On ascending considerable heights, as to the tops of mountains, the boiling
point of water gradually falls in the scale of the thermometer. Thus, on the
summit of Mont Blanc water was found by Saussure to boil at 187° Fahr. In Mr.
Albert Smith's delightful narrative of his ascent of Mont Blanc, he mentions the
violent commotion and escape of the whole of the champagne in froth directly
the bottle was opened at the summit of this king of mountains.
Dr. Wollaston's instrument for measuring the heights of mountains by the
variations of the boiling point of water has long been known and used for this
purpose.
If a Florence flask is first fitted with a nice soft cork, and this latter removed,
and the former half filled with water, which is then boiled over a gas or spirit
flame, the same fact already mentioned and illustrated in the preceding table
may be rendered apparent when the flask is corked and removed from the heat.
If it is now inverted, and cold water poured over it, an ebullition immediately
commences, because the cold water condenses the steam in the space above
the hot water in the flask, and producing a vacuum, the water boils as readily as
it would do under an exhausted receiver on an air-pump plate. (Fig. 389.)

Fig. 389.
The paradoxical experiment of water boiling by the application of cold water.

Water may be heated considerably higher than 212°, if it is enclosed in a strong

boiler, and shut off from communication with the air; by this means steam of
great pressure is obtained.
Dr. Marcet has invented a very instructive form of a miniature boiler, supplied
with a thermometer and barometric pressure gauge, which can be purchased at
any of the instrument makers, and is figured and described in nearly every work
on chemistry.
The reason water boiled in an open vessel does not rise to a higher temperature
than 212° is because all the excess of heat is carried off by the steam, and is
said to be rendered latent in the vapour. The fixation of caloric in water by its
conversion into steam may be shown by the following experiment. Let a pound
of water at 212° and eight pounds of iron filings at 300° be suddenly mixed
together. A large quantity of steam is instantly generated, but the temperature
of the water and escaping steam are still only 212°; hence the steam must
therefore contain all the degrees of heat between 212° and 300°, or eight times
88. When the water is heated in the hydro-electric machine or other boiler, to
322.7°, it very quickly drops to 212° when the steam is allowed to blow off; yet
if the latter is collected, it represents but a very small quantity of water which
constituted the steam, and it has carried off and rendered latent the excess of
heat in the boiler—viz., the difference between 212° and 322.7°, or 110.7°
If steam can carry off heat, of course it may be compelled, as it were, to
surrender it again; and this important elementary truth is shown by adapting a
tube, bent at right angles, and a cork, to a flask containing a few ounces of
water, and when it boils, the steam issuing from the end of the pipe may now be
directed into and below the surface of some water contained in a beaker glass;
in a very short time the water in the latter will be raised to the boiling point by
the condensation of the steam and the latent heat arising from it. (Fig. 390.)
The amount of latent heat is enormous, when it is remembered that water by
conversion into steam has its bulk prodigiously enlarged—viz., 1698 times, so
that a cubic inch of water converted into steam of a temperature of 212°, with
the barometer at thirty inches, occupies a space of one cubic foot, and its latent
heat amounts, according to Hall, to 950°; Southeron, 945°; Dr. Ure, 967°. When
we come to the consideration of the steam-engine, it will be noticed that the
question of the latent heat of steam is one of the greatest importance.

Fig. 390.
a. Flask for generating steam. b. Glass pipe bent at right angles to convey the
steam into the fluid containing some cold water.
 Temperature Elasticity in
of inches Latent Heat.
Steam. of Mercury.
229° 40" 942°
270 80 942
295 120 950

The same weight of steam contains, whatever may be its density, the same
quantity of caloric, its latent heat being increased in proportion as its sensible
heat is diminished; and the reverse. In consequence of the enormous amount of
latent heat contained in steam, it is advantageously employed for the purpose of
imparting warmth either for heating rooms or drying goods in certain
manufacturing processes. The wet rag-pulp pressed and shaken into form on a
wire-gauze frame or deckle, passes gradually to cylinders containing steam, and
is thoroughly dried before the guillotine knife descends at the end of the paper
machine, and cuts it into lengths. In calico stiffening and glazing, also in calico
printing, steam-heated cylinders are of great value, because they impart heat
without the chance of setting the goods on fire. The elementary principles
already described with reference to heat, will prepare the youthful reader for the
application of the expansion of water into steam, as the most valuable motive
power ever employed to assist the labour of man.
 CHAPTER XXIX.
THE STEAM-ENGINE—continued.

Fig, 391.
The first steam-boat, the Comet, built by Henry Bell, in 1811, who brought steam navigation into practice
in Europe.

"So shalt thou instant reach the realm assign'd

In wondrous ships, self-mov'd, instinct with mind.

Though clouds and darkness veil the encumbered sky.

Fearless, through darkness and through clouds they fly,
Tho' tempests rage,—tho' rolls the swelling main,
The seas may roll, the tempests swell in vain;
E'en the stern god that o'er the waves presides,
Safe as they pass, and safe repass the tides,
With fury burns; while careless they convey,
Promiscuous, ev'ry guest to ev'ry bay."
These lines, from Pope's translation of the "Odyssey," were very aptly quoted
twenty-five years ago by Mr. M. A. Alderson, in his treatise on the steam-engine,
for which he received from Dr. Birkbeck, the originator of Mechanics'
Institutions, the prize of 20l., being the gift of the London Mechanics' Institution,
and these lines seem to indicate some sort of rude anticipation by the ancients
of that free passage of the ocean by the agency of steam which has rendered
ships almost independent of wind and weather.
Homer's description, as above, of the Phœnician fleet of King Alcinous, in the
eighth book of the "Odyssey," is certainly an ancient record of an idea, but
nothing more. In a work written by Hero of Alexandria, about a hundred years
b.c., and entitled "Spiritalia seu Pneumatica," a number of contrivances are
mentioned for raising liquids and producing motion by means of air and steam,
so that the first steam-engine is usually ascribed to Hero; and the annexed cut
displays the apparatus. (Fig. 392.)

Fig. 392.
Hero's steam-engine. a. The boiler in which steam is produced, and then passes
through the hollow support b, from which there is no outlet but through the two
apertures, c c. The reaction of the air on the issuing steam produces a rotatory
motion in the jets, c c, attached to a centre but hollow axle.

It is a remarkable circumstance that Sir Isaac Newton applied the same principle
in a little ball, mounted on wheels, containing boiling water, and provided with a
small orifice; and in his description he says: "And if the ball be opened, the
vapours will rush out violently one way, and the wheels and the ball at the same
time will be carried the contrary way." From the time of Hero, there does not
appear to be any record or mention made of steam apparatus till the year 1002,
when, in a work called "Malmesbury's History," mention is made of an organ in
which the sounds were produced by the escape of air (query, steam) by means
of heated water. It is strange that, in these days of steam application, the
Calliope, or steam organ, should be an important feature at the present moment
at the Crystal Palace; and it only shows how the same ideas are reproduced as
novelties in the ever-recurring cycles of years.
On the revival of classical learning throughout Gothic Europe, the work of Hero
began to attract attention, and it was translated and printed in black letter, and
most likely first from the Arabic character, as in the year 1543 the first fruits
appeared in Spain, where Blasco de Garay, a sea captain, propelled a ship of
200 tons burden, at the rate of three miles per hour, before certain
commissioners appointed by the Emperor Charles the Fifth. Alas for inquisitorial
Spain! had she looked deeper into the matter, and performed her auto-da-fées
on the boilers of steam engines instead of the bodies of poor human beings,
what lasting glories would have been her reward. The invention made its début
in Spain, the commissioners reported, the worthy inventor was rewarded, but
the mighty giant invoked was put to sleep again for at least 150 years. The
steam giant was disturbed with dreams; one Mathias, in 1563, gave him a
nightmare; Solomon de Caus, in 1624, nearly woke him up; Giovanni Bianca, in
1629, did more; and the Marquis of Worcester, in the middle of the seventeenth
century, as the evil genius of Spain, carried off the giant bodily and made him
the slave of England; at least, he experimented, and wrote such wondrous tales
of his new motive power, that in 1653 we read of steam being fairly tethered to
its work, and set to draw water out of the Thames at Vauxhall; and Cosmo de
Medici, a foreigner who inspected the apparatus in 1653, says, "It raises water
more than forty geometrical feet by the power of one man only, and in a very
short space of time will draw up full vessels of water through a tube or channel
not more than a span in width, on which account it is considered to be of
greater service to the public than the other machine near Somerset House,
which last one was driven by two horses."
What would the Marquis of Worcester and Cosmo de Medici have thought of
Blasco de Garay on the ocean, and ruling 12,000 steam horses? Write the name
of the brave and prudent Captain Harrison, in the good ship Great Eastern, date
1859, instead of that of the gallant Spaniard, and our brief history is finished.
The first really useful steam-engine was made, not by a plain Mr., but again by a
captain—namely, Captain Savery, who appears to have been the first inventor
who thoroughly understood and applied the vacuum principle. (Fig. 393.)
 Fig. 393.
Savery's engine.

a a. The furnaces which contain the boiler. b 1 and b 2. The two fireplaces. c. The
funnel or chimney, which is common to both furnaces. In these two furnaces are
placed two vessels of copper, which I (Savery) call boilers—the one large as at l,
the other small as d. d. The small boiler contained in the furnace, which is heated
by the fire at b 2. e. The pipe and cock to admit cold water into the small boiler to
fill it. f. The screw that covers and confines the cock e to the top of the small
boiler. g. A small gauge cock at the top of a pipe, going within eight inches of the
bottom of the small boiler. h. A large pipe which goes the same depth into the
small boiler. i. A clack or valve at the top of the pipe h (opening upwards). k. A
pipe going from the box above the said clack or valve in the great boiler, and
passing about one inch into it. l l. The great boiler contained in the other furnace,
which is heated by fire at b 1. m. The screw with the regulator, which is moved by
the handle z, and opens or shuts the apertures at which the steam passes out of
the great boiler at the steam-pipes o o. n. A small gauge cock at the top of a pipe,
which goes half way down into the great boiler. o 1, o 2. Steam pipes, one end of
each screwed to the regulator; the other ends to the receivers p p, to convey the
steam from the great boiler into those receivers. p 1, p 2. Copper vessels called
receivers, which are to receive the water which is to be raised. q. Screw joints by
which the branches of the water-pipes are connected with the lower parts of the
receivers. r 1, 2, 3, and 4. Valves or clacks of brass in the water-pipes, two above
the branches q and two below them; they allow the water to pass upwards
through the pipes, but prevent its descent; there are screw-plugs to take out on
occasions to get at the valves r. s. The forcing-pump which conveys the water
upwards to its place of delivery, when it is forced out from the receivers by the
impelled steam. t. The sucking-pipe, which conveys the water up from the bottom
 of the pit to fill the receivers by suction. v. A square frame of wood, or a box, with
holes round its bottom in the water, to enclose the lower end of the sucking-pipe
to keep away dirt and obstructions. x is a cistern with a bung cock coming from
the force-pipe, so as it shall always be kept filled with cold water. y y. A cock and
pipe coming from the bottom of the said cistern, with a spout to let the cold run
down on the outside of either of the receivers, p p. z. The handle of the regulator
to move it by, either open or shut, so as to let the steam out of the great boiler
into either of the receivers.

This is Savery's own description (taken from the "Miner's Friend," printed in
1702), of his water-engine, which differs from that suggested by the Marquis of
Worcester, in the fact that he made the pressure of the air carry the water up
the first stage. Savery's patent was "for raising water and occasioning motion to
all sorts of mill-work by the impellant force of fire;" and the patent was granted
in the reign of King William the Third of glorious memory.
Thus Savery overcame, as he remarks, the "oddest and almost insuperable
difficulties," and introduced a steam apparatus or engine, a good many of which
were constructed, and employed for raising water. The mechanical skill required
to construct the boiler, the very heart (as it were) of the iron engine, had not
been acquired in the time of Captain Savery, and hence the weakness of the
boilers, and the danger of working them. As the pressure required was very
considerable to overcome the resistance of a lofty column of water, these
engines were gradually relinquished for those of another clever mechanician—
viz., for those of Thomas Newcomen, an ironmonger of Dartmouth, who, about
the year 1705, constructed and introduced the cylinder, from which the
transition was gradually made to the mode of condensing by a jet of cold water,
the use of self-acting valves, and the construction of self-acting engines by
Smeaton, Hornblower, and finally by the illustrious Watt, whose portrait heads
the first chapter on Heat in this book.
Newcomen was assisted in his work by one Cawley, a glazier; and their
persevering labours were crowned with a successful result of the most
memorable importance in the history of the steam-engine.
In the engine by Savery, the operation of the steam was twofold—namely, by
the direct pressure from its elasticity, and by the indirect consequence of its
condensation, which affords a vacuum. This last may be said to be the only
principle used by Newcomen, who employed a boiler for the generation of
steam, and conveyed it by a pipe to the bottom of a hollow cylinder, open at the
top, but provided with a solid piston, that moved up and down in it, and was
rendered tight by a stuffing of hemp, like the piston of a boy's common squirt. It
can readily be understood, that if the jet of the latter was connected with a tight
little boiler, and steam blown into it, that the piston of the squirt would rise to
the top of the barrel in which it works, being thrust up by the pressure or force
of the steam; but unless the steam was cut off, and cold water applied to the
interior of the barrel, the piston could not descend again. As soon, therefore, as
Newcomen had thrust up the piston by the action of steam, he introduced a jet
of cold water, supplied from an elevated cistern beneath the piston, when the
steam was condensed into water, and a vacuum or void space obtained. The
piston being free to move either up or down, was now forced in the latter
direction by the pressure of the air, which is a constant force equal to fifteen
pounds on the square inch; and thus the piston in Newcomen's engine was
raised by heat—viz., by steam, and thrust down by cold—i.e., by the
condensation of the steam producing a vacuum. The void obtained in this
manner was very considerable, because one cubic foot of steam at 212°
condenses into one cubic inch of water. The production of a vacuum with the aid
of steam is quickly effected by boiling some water in a clean camphine can, and
when the steam is issuing freely from the mouth of the latter it is then corked,
and cold water thrown over the exterior. Directly the temperature is lowered, the
steam inside the tin vessel is condensed suddenly into water, and a void space
being suddenly obtained, the whole pressure of a column of air of a breadth
equal to the area of the vessel, and of a height of forty miles, is brought
suddenly down like a sledge-hammer upon the sides of the tin vessel, and as
they are not sufficiently strong to offer a proper resistance, they are crushed in
like an egg-shell by the giant weight which falls upon them.
The barometer, or measurer of the weight of the air, consists of a glass tube
about thirty-three inches in length, hermetically sealed at one end, and
containing mercury that has been carefully boiled within it, and being perfectly
filled the tube is inserted in a cistern of clean mercury, when it gravitates to a
height equal to the pressure of the air, leaving a space at the top called the
torricellian vacuum. As the atmospheric air decreases in density by admixture
with invisible steam or vapour, any given volume becomes specifically lighter:
hence the column of mercury falls to a height of about twenty-eight inches;
whilst if the aqueous vapour diminishes, the weight of the air becomes greater,
and the barometer may rise to a height of about thirty-one inches.
Having thus secured a "reciprocating motion," Newcomen applied it to the
working of a force-pump by the intervention of a great beam or lever suspended
on gudgeons (an iron pin on which a wheel or shaft of a machine turns) at the
middle, and suspended like the beam of a pair of scales; and, in fact, he
invented that method of supporting the beam which is in use to the present day.
Supposing we compare Newcomen's beam to a scale beam, he attached to the
extremities (instead of scale pans) a water pump and his steam cylinder—the
latter being at one end, and the former at the other. The beam played at "see-
saw:" by the primary action of the steam on the bottom of the piston in the
cylinder it was pushed up at this end, and of course suffered an equal fall at the
other, to which the pump piston was attached; and when the motion was
reversed by the condensation of the steam, down went the piston again by the
pressure of the air, whilst that of the water pump was again raised, and being
provided with proper valves, the water was pumped slowly out of the mine,
although the steam power used was very moderate, and only just sufficient to
counterpoise the weight of the atmosphere. Newcomen made the end attached
to the water pump purposely heavier than the steam piston of the other end of
the beam, and by this means the work of the steam, by its elasticity, was very
moderate, whilst the actual lift of the water from the mine was performed by
the pressure of the air, equal (as already stated) to fifteen pounds on every
square inch of the surface of the steam piston. This engine is called the
atmospheric engine, and in the next cut we have a picture taken from a
photograph by the "Watt Club" of the actual model of the Newcomen engine in
the Hunterian Museum of the University of Glasgow; the dimensions being—
length, 27 in.; breadth, 12 in.; height, 50½ in.; from which, "in 1765, James
Watt, in seeking to repair this model, belonging to the Natural Philosophy Class
in the University of Glasgow, made the discovery of a separate condenser, which
has identified his name with that of the steam-engine." (Fig. 394.)

Fig. 394.
Model of the Newcomen engine, in which the furnace and boiler, the steam
cylinder, beam, water-pump, and elevated cistern of water, are apparent.

In Newcomen's engine, the opening and shutting of the cocks required the
vigilant care of a man or boy, and it is stated on good authority that a boy who
preferred (like nearly all other boys) play to work, contrived, by means of
strings, a brick, and one or two catches on the working beam, to make the
engine self-acting.
This poor boy's ingenious contrivance paved the way for the improved methods
of opening and shutting the valves, which were brought to a great state of
perfection by Beighton, of Newcastle, about 1718. Between that time and the
year 1763, we find honourable mention made of Smeaton in connexion with the
steam-engine, but the name of the great James Watt at this time began to be
appreciated, and by a series of wonderfully simple mechanisms, he at last
perfected the machine whose origin could be traced back not only to the time of
Blasco de Garay, in 1543, but even to the days of the ancient mechanicians,
such as Hero, who lived 130 b.c.
In 1763, James Watt was a maker of mathematical instruments in Glasgow, and
his attention was drawn to the subject of the steam-engine by his undertaking
to repair a working model of Newcomen's steam-engine, which was used by
Professor Anderson, who then filled the Chair of Natural Philosophy, and
subsequently founded the Andersonian Institution. The repairs required for this
model induced Watt to make another, and by watching its operation, he
discovered that a vast quantity of heat, and therefore fuel, was wasted in the
constant and successive heating and cooling of the steam cylinder. About two
years after, when Watt was twenty-nine years of age, he had made so many
experiments, that he was enabled to put into a mechanical shape his original
ideas, which are embodied in his patent of 1769, as follows:—
"My method of lessening the consumption of steam, and consequently fuel, in
fire-engines, consists of the following principles:
"First: That vessel in which the powers of steam are to be employed to work the
engine, which is called the cylinder in common fire-engines, and which I call the
steam-vessel, must, during the whole time the engine is at work, be kept as hot
as the steam that enters it—first, by enclosing it in a case of wood or any other
materials that transmit heat slowly; secondly, by surrounding it with steam or
other heated bodies; and thirdly, by suffering neither water nor any other
substance colder than steam to enter or touch it during that time.
"Secondly: In engines that are to be worked wholly or partially by condensation
of steam, the steam is to be condensed in vessels distinct from the steam-
vessels or cylinders, although occasionally communicating with them; these
vessels I call condensers; and whilst the engines are working, these condensers
ought at least to be kept as cold as the air in the neighbourhood of the engine,
by application of water or other cold bodies.
"Thirdly: Whatever air or other elastic vapour is not condensed by the cold of
the condenser, and may impede the working of the engine, is to be drawn out of
the steam-vessels or condensers by means of pumps wrought by the engines
themselves, or otherwise.
"Fourthly: I intend in many cases to employ the expansive force of steam to
press on the pistons, or whatever may be used instead of them, in the same
manner as the pressure of the atmosphere is now employed in common fire-
engines. In cases where cold water cannot be had in plenty, the engines may be
wrought by this force of steam only, by discharging the steam into the open air
after it has done its office.
"Lastly: Instead of using water to render the piston or other parts of the engines
air and steam-tight, I employ oils, wax, resinous bodies, fat of animals,
quicksilver, and other metals in their fluid state.
"And the said James Watt, by a memorandum added to the said specification,
declared that he did not intend that anything in the fourth article should be
understood to extend to any engine when the water to be raised enters the
steam-vessel itself, or any vessel having an open communication with it."
"About the time he obtained his patent, Watt commenced the construction of his
first real engine, the cylinder of which was eighteen inches in diameter, and
after many impediments in the details of the work he succeeded in bringing it to
considerable perfection. The bad boring of the cylinder, and the difficulty of
obtaining a substance that would keep the piston tight without enormous
friction, and at the same time resist the action of steam, gave him the most
trouble, and the employment of a piston rod moving through a stuffing-box was
a new feature in steam-engines at that time, and required great nicety of
workmanship to make it effectual. While Watt was contending with these
difficulties, Roebuck's finances became disarranged, and in 1773 he disposed of
his interest in the patent to Mr. Boulton, of Soho. As, however, a considerable
part of the term of fourteen years, for which the patent was granted, had
already passed away, and as several years more would probably elapse before
the improved engines could be brought into operation, it was judged expedient
to apply to Parliament for a prolongation of the term, and an Act was passed in
1775 granting an extension of twenty-five years from that date, in consideration
of the great merit of the invention." (Bourne's "Treatise on the Steam-engine.")
In Fig. 395, page 427, we give an illustration of a low-pressure condensing
engine and boiler of eight-horse power, constructed on the principle of Boulton
and Watt, as the latter had fortunately united his skill, learning, originality, and
experience with Mr. Boulton, of Soho, near Birmingham, whose metal
manufactory was already the most celebrated in England.
During the explanation of this eight horse-power engine, the opportunity may be
taken to discuss occasionally the special improvements effected by Watt. The
steam-pipe a conveys the steam generated in the boiler b to the slide-valve c,
which is kept close to the surface, against which it works by the pressure of the
steam.
Here we notice some of the valuable improvements of Watt in the admission of
steam above as well as below the piston, by which he increased the power of
his engine, and no longer confined it to the force of the atmospheric pressure. It
is also necessary to remark the beautifully simple mechanism of the slide-valve,
by which steam is admitted alternately above and below the piston. Want of
space prevents us tracing out the gradual improvements effected by Watt, and
therefore we take his invention as it stood in the year 1780, and refer our
readers to Bourne's "Treatise on the Steam-engine" for the full and minute
particulars of the improvements to that date.

Fig. 395.
An eight-horse power condensing steam-engine, after the principle of Boulton and
Watt, and explained in pages 426 to 432.

At that time it occurred to Watt that the condensation of the steam from the
cylinder after it had done its work, might be made more perfect if a perpetual
vacuum was maintained beneath the piston, while an alternate steam-pressure
and vacuum were produced above it. (Fig. 396.)
 Fig. 396.
"e e is the cylinder. j. The piston, a. The steam-pipe. b. The regulating or throttle
valve, e. The eduction and equilibrium single valve, performing the functions of
both. c. The upper, and f the under, portholes, by which passages only the steam
can enter and pass away. d, j, g. The eduction-pipe by which the steam passes
from above the piston during every returning stroke to the condenser, a perpetual
exhaustion being maintained beneath it."—From Bourne on the Steam-engine.

Instead of obtaining a specific advantage the contrary occurred, and Watt was
obliged in this case to return to the ponderous Newcomen counterweight to
balance the difference in the vacuum above and below the piston, consequently
this form of the cylinder and valves was abandoned. The juvenile reader will
perceive in the above drawing that the superior arrangement of Watt's cylinder
to that of Newcomen arises from the steam operating above and below the
piston, and that the piston rod works air-tight in a stuffing box at the top of the
cylinder. A most important improvement in the employment of steam as a
motive power has been discovered in the mode of using it "expansively," by
which the steam, at a pressure say of sixty pounds on the square inch, is
admitted below the piston, and then cut off and allowed to expand and drive up
the latter without the expenditure of any more fuel, and leaving, after lifting the
piston to a height say of three feet, an average or mean power of thirty pounds
on the square inch.
Returning to the eight-horse condensing engine, d is the steam cylinder
surrounded by a case to prevent the steam cooling and to maintain in the
cylinder the same, or nearly the same, temperature as that of the steam in the
boiler, according to the condition of Art. I. of Watt's Patent, quoted at p. 425 of
this book. The same outer case is apparent around the cylinder in Fig. 396; e,
the piston, which, by stuffing with hemp or other proper material, fits the
interior of the cylinder in the most accurate manner, and prevents the escape of
steam by its sides: e is the piston rod attached to the parallel motion. This
clockwork-like piece of mechanism has often been quoted as one of the
masterpieces of Watt, and in its greatest perfection is called the complete
parallel motion, and may be found in all the best land beam steam-engines. The
object of the parallel motion is to cause the piston and pump rods to move
always in straight lines, never deviating to either side. (Fig. 397.)

Fig. 397.
a b is half the beam, a being the main centre, b e. The main links connecting the
piston-rod f with the end of the beam. g d. The air-pump links, from the centre of
which the air-pump rod is suspended. c d and e d produce the parallelism,
because c d is moveable only round the fixed centre c, whilst e d is not only
moveable round the centre d, but the centre itself in the arc described by c d, and
by this action e d corrects the distorting influence of its own radius. The dotted
lines and letters above enable the observer to see the effect of the movement of
the beam on the parallel motion.

In the eight horse-power engine shown in page picture, e is also attached to the
piston e, which moves the beam f, and the other end of this beam, by the
connecting rod g, gives motion to the heavy fly wheel g, by means of the crank
h.
h is an eccentric circle on the axle of the fly wheel g, it gives motion to the slide
valve, which admits the steam alternately above and below the piston. The slide
valve and its seat are contained within an oblong box or case, large enough to
permit the easy motion of the valve within it, and usually forming an
enlargement in the course of a pipe.
The valve rod by means of which the valve is opened and shut, passes out
through a stuffing box; or, instead of such a rod, a valve of moderate size often
has a nut fixed to it, within which works a screw on the end of an axle which
passes out through a bush, and has shoulders within and without to prevent it
from moving longitudinally, and a square on the outer end on which the key fits
that is used in turning it. i is the throttle valve inside the steam pipe and lever
connected with a governor for regulating the admission of steam into the
cylinder.
Here, again, we pause in the description of our eight horse-power engine to
illustrate more particularly this admirable contrivance of Watt, which remains to
the present day without any material alteration even in the best steam-engines.
(Fig. 398.)

Fig. 398.
a. The seat of the throttle valve, z. The valve itself turning on a spindle, which
passes through its centre. a is the steam pipe. w. The throttle valve lever on
which the rod h, proceeding from the governor, acts. d d. The spindle of the
governor revolving by a belt acting on the pulley d. e e. The balls hung on the
ends of the arms, which cross each other at e like a pair of scissors. When d d is
set in motion, the balls fly out by centrifugal motion, and in doing so draw down
the collar into which the lever f works by means of the links f h. When f is
depressed, of course h rises, and the valve z is partly closed, and the supply of
steam reduced.

In the eight-horse engine already partly explained, k is the cylinder of an air-

pump to remove any air, and the water which condenses the steam, from the
condenser l. There is also the eduction pipe, which conducts the steam from the
cylinder to the condenser l. o is the pump that supplies cold water to the cistern
s, in which the condenser and air-pump stand, p is a rod connected with the
injection cock for admitting a jet of water into the condenser from the cistern,
and which is continually flowing during the working of the engine, q q, cast-iron
columns, four of which support the principal parts of the engine.
We now come to the boiler of the steam-engine, which is of course of almost
equal importance with the engine itself; and the one in our page-picture is a
good type of one of the favourite boilers used by Messrs. Boulton and Watt, and
is called the "Wagon boiler." The boiler is made of wrought-iron plates rivetted
together, and properly strengthened where necessary; and the steam-pipe a
conveys the steam to the engine. It may be remarked here that the cylindrical
boiler—consisting of two cylinders, one within the other, of which the former
contains the fire, whilst the furnace-draught circulates outside the latter, and the
space between the two cylinders being filled with water—is the form of boiler
which is most highly approved of, and is employed in the famous economical
steam-engines of the Cornish mines.
As the water evaporates in the form of steam, the boiler must be continually
supplied with fresh water, which comes (as will be noticed by inspecting the
page picture) from the hot well s, by means of the hot-water pump r, attached
to the beam f. The water is pumped to the top of a column rising above but
connected with the boiler. There is a cylindrical float, inside the column of water,
connected with the boiler, suspended ever a pulley by a chain passing to the
damper of the furnace. The damper and float balance each other, and when the
water in the boiler rises to too high a temperature, it causes the float to rise in
the column of water, which lowering the damper or shutter that stops the
draught of the chimney of the furnace t, diminishes the intensity of the heat,
and reduces the formation of steam. On the other hand, as the temperature
diminishes, the float descends and the damper rises, and permitting more air to
rush to the burning fuel in the fire, a greater quantity of steam is generated.
There is likewise a stone float inside the boiler, for regulating the supply of
water by the feed pipe, or column of water, which latter must always be
sufficiently lofty to press with greater force than the steam produced in the
boiler, or else the power of the steam might, under certain circumstances, eject
or blow out the water from the top of the column. The stone is suspended by a
brass wire which works through a stuffing box, and is connected with a lever, to
which is attached a heavy counterpoise, so adjusted that when the stone is
immersed to a certain depth in water (according to the principle of a solid body
losing weight in a fluid, explained in the article on specific gravity, page 48), it
shall exactly balance the latter, but when the water sinks in the boiler, and the
stone is no longer surrounded with water, it becomes heavier, and sinking down
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