Sustainable Environment

An international journal of environmental health and sustainability

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Pastoralists’ perception towards climate change and

meteorological evidences: A case of Teltele District,
Oromia Region, Ethiopia

Girma Amare, Chanyalew Seyoum & Million Sileshi

To cite this article: Girma Amare, Chanyalew Seyoum & Million Sileshi (2025) Pastoralists’
perception towards climate change and meteorological evidences: A case of Teltele
District, Oromia Region, Ethiopia, Sustainable Environment, 11:1, 2489189, DOI:
10.1080/27658511.2025.2489189

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/27658511.2025.2489189

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Published online: 08 Apr 2025.

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SUSTAINABLE ENVIRONMENT
2025, VOL. 11, NO. 1, 2489189
https://doi.org/10.1080/27658511.2025.2489189

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT | RESEARCH ARTICLE

Pastoralists’ perception towards climate change and meteorological evidences:

A case of Teltele District, Oromia Region, Ethiopia
a
Girma Amare , Chanyalew Seyoumb and Million Sileshib
a
Oromia Agriculture Research Institute, Bore Agricultural Research Center, Bore, Ethiopia; bCollege of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences,
Haramaya University, Dire Dawa, Ethiopia

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

Ethiopia’s weak ability to tolerate climate change and its restricted livelihood options hinder its Received 01 July 2024
ability to adapt to it. The fluctuations and changes in the climate have a significant effect on Accepted 01 April 2025
pastoralists. Therefore, this study aims to assess pastoralists’ perceptions of climate change and KEYWORDS
compare them to meteorological evidence in the Teltele District of Oromia Region, Ethiopia. Climate change; Likert scale
A multiphase sampling method was utilized to choose representative kebeles and pastoralists. measurement; Mann–
Through rigorous random selection, 349 sample pastoralists were chosen from the district’s three Kendall
kebeles. Cross-sectional surveying was used to conduct the study. Primary data were gathered
through semi-structured interviews, focus groups, and key informant interviews; meteorological
data were provided by the National Meteorological Agency of Ethiopia. The sociodemographic,
economic, and institutional features as well as the pastoralists’ perceptions were examined using
descriptive statistics and Likert scale assessments. A Mann–Kendall statistical test was used to
analyze temperature and rainfall trends over 31 (1991–2021, G.C.) years. The results revealed that
throughout the 31 years, temperature significantly increased at (p < 0.01) while rainfall significantly
decreased at (p < 0.05). Pastoralists constantly perceived this climate change over time. Therefore,
future policy and research should focus on linking pastoralists’ perceptions to trends in meteor­
ological evidence to formulate effective adaptation options and instruments to mitigate the
impact of change and to improve the adaptive capacity of the pastoralists.

1. Introduction
causing significant migration flows; they migrate sea­
Climate change harms all countries worldwide, and it is sonally, frequently crossing porous borders in search of
the most serious environmental problem today and will water, grazing lands, better livelihoods, or simply safer
continue to be so in the future (IPCC, 2014). It is globally environments (Anand, 2014; Ginetti & Franck, 2014).
causing serious socio-economic issues for almost all Similarly, pastoralism employs 50 million people in
human species worldwide. Africa is one of the world’s SSA (Sub-Saharan Africa), but policymakers fre­
most vulnerable continents to the effects of climate quently overlook it (Hub, 2016), and the nature of
change (Dal et al., 2014). East African nations in general pastoralism is changing. Even though pastoralism pro­
and Ethiopia specifically made a large number of people vides a living for hundreds of millions of people world­
food insecure due to climate change (Desalegn, 2017). wide. Climate change, on the other hand, has had an
According to the World Food Program (WFP, 2022), impact on pastoralists by making certain parts of the
reports indicate that throughout 2022 levels of food inse­ world unfavorable places to live, making food and
curity have continued to increase in Eastern Africa, with water supplies less reliable, and, in particular, increas­
82 million people suffering from hunger and an estimated ing the frequency and severity of drought (Li et al.,
22.6 million people suffering from food insecurity across 2015). Pastoralism is the system in which a range of
Ethiopia. Also, climate change poses a significant chal­ livestock and non-livestock activities connect through
lenge to livestock production due to its effects on forage a web of social and economic relationships (Lind et al.,
production, water availability, disease risks, and thermal 2016). Likewise, food insecurity and the effects of live­
stresses (Rojas-Downing et al., 2017). stock diseases are worsening as a result of demographic
Pastoralism is a defining feature of the people of the trends, prolonged conflicts, reduced access to grazing
Horn of Africa (Anand, 2014). It is estimated that land and water, erratic drought, and climate change
approximately 20 million pastoralists live in the region, (Ndamani & Watanabe, 2015).

CONTACT Girma Amare [email protected] Oromia Agriculture Research Institute, Bore Agricultural Research Center, Bore, Ethiopia
© 2025 The Author(s). Published by Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group.
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use,
distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. The terms on which this article has been published allow the posting of the Accepted
Manuscript in a repository by the author(s) or with their consent.
2 G. AMARE ET AL.

Even though a sizable portion of the SSA’s popula­ of the specific regions of the country, but not connect
tion still depends on raising cattle for food, particularly with the metrological evidence. Furthermore, percep­
in arid and semi-arid regions where milk and meat tion was added to the list of explanatory variables in
staple foods, livestock farming, and livestock produc­ the current study that were not present in earlier
tion, in general, continue to be important sources of research and connected with the meteorological evi­
income for these people (USAID, 2020). Pastoralists are dence. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to evaluate
particularly vulnerable to climate change because of how pastoralists perceive climate change and compare
their distant, impoverished, and severely affected posi­ their perceptions with meteorological data.
tion (Inman et al., 2020). The increasing effects of cli­
mate change are greatly exacerbating existing
vulnerabilities, making individuals who are already vul­ 2. Research methodology
nerable more vulnerable (Cramer et al., 2018). 2.1. Description of the study location
Furthermore, a 2020 USAID assessment demonstrates
that livestock in East Africa is vital to the region’s Since the district is among the driest in the Borana zone,
culture, food security, and livelihoods and contributes pastoral populations there are particularly vulnerable to
significantly to annual GDP making up almost 20% of drought due to a combination of meteorological and
Ethiopia’s GDP despite the region’s vulnerability to human causes (TDAO, 2022).
climate change. Ethiopia is home to the greatest number The district is between 496–1500 meters above sea
of livestock in Africa, estimated at 80 million (Shambel, level, and its approximate latitude and longitude are
2017). The yearly average temperature has increased by 04° 56′ 23′′ N and 37° 41′ 51′′ E, respectively (Figure
1°C since 1960, at a rate of 0.25°C every decade, accord­ 1). Rainfall in the area varied from 400 to 650 mm
ing to the World Bank (2020). Rainfall in Ethiopia is per year. It’s bi-modal. In other words, 60% of the
very variable in terms of amount and distribution rainfall falls between March and May, while 27% falls
throughout regions and seasons, making long-term between September and November. The annual mean
rainfall patterns difficult to predict. temperature varied between 28 and 32°C. The district
People’s perceptions of climate change don’t always has 10,627.82 square kilometers of total land area, of
match reality, and there are several reasons why climatic which 25% is arable, 2.5% is under cultivation, 48%
trends or occurrences can be misremembered or mis­ is pasture, 5% is woodland, 20% is shrub and brush,
construed (Howe & Leiserowitz, 2013). According to and the remaining 2% is deemed to be marshy,
Liao et al. (2014), these differences might affect how degraded, or otherwise useless (Fenetahun et al.,
people perceive risk and behave in adaptive ways. 2020; TDAO, 2022).
Pastoralists’ perceptions of climate change are also
influenced by their agroecological context (Ayana 2.2. Data type, sources, and methods of data
et al., 2012). Therefore, policymakers must comprehend collection
pastoralists’ perspectives and meteorological evidence.
This will enable them to develop effective adaptation Both quantitative and qualitative data were collected for
options and tools that will lessen the effects of change this investigation. Semi-structured questionnaires were
and increase the pastoralists’ capacity. Pastoralists need used to gather quantitative data from the sample houses.
to understand climate change before they can respond The survey was conducted from 15 September 2022, to
to it. Therefore, the validity of people’s perceptions is 27 November 2022. Key informant interviews (KIIs)
established by comparing perception data with observed and focus group discussions (FGDs) were used to gather
patterns in hydroclimatic data (Manandhar et al., 2012). qualitative data (Appendix 1 and 2). Primary and sec­
Frequent droughts, rising temperatures, and decreased ondary sources of data were both used in the study. The
rainfall are the main threats caused by climate change Ethiopian National Meteorological Agency recorded the
that influence pastoral and agro-pastoral livelihoods minimum and maximum temperatures as well as the
through food, animal feed or pasture, livestock loss, precipitation during 31 (1991–2021) years.
and a drop in species dynamics (Daniel et al., 2023).
Likewise, there is a shortage of empirical research
2.3. Sampling procedures and sample size
connecting pastoralists’ views of climate change to
determination
changes in meteorological data, despite certain studies
(Habte et al., 2022; Lameso et al., 2022; Muluken & The purposeful selection of the Teltele district was based on
Desta Mulu, 2021) examining pastoralists’ perceptions the district’s dependence on precarious livelihoods and the
 SUSTAINABLE ENVIRONMENT 3

Figure 1. Map of study Area. NB: A, B, and C indicate that Ethiopia, Oromia Region, and Borana Zone respectively. Source: Own Sketch
from GIS (2022).

intensity of the drought. A multistage sampling technique agents from the sampled kebeles, and district agricultural
was used to choose the respondents and kebeles that made and pastoral development office experts, took part.
up the representative sample. Initially, the district’s 25 With the help of development agents employed in the
kebeles were divided into two uniform groups called pas­ designated kebeles, which included women, elders, and
toral (13 kebele) and agro-pastoral (12 kebele) according to kebele leaders, the focus group discussion participants
their modes of subsistence. In the second phase, 3 kebeles were carefully chosen, knowledgeable people of the com­
munity. In light of this, three FGDs (one for each kebele)
were chosen at random from the group of 13 pastoralists.
with 8 to 10 members were held. The data gathered using
Finally, by using proportionate probability sampling,
FGD were examined and contrasted with data gathered
which takes into account the size of each kebeles, 349
using alternative methods to perform triangulation.
sampled households (pastoralists) were randomly chosen
from the selected kebeles.
The procedure created by (Yamane, 1967) was used 2.4. Methods of data analysis
to calculate the sample size at a 5% level of precision and
a 95% confidence range. 2.4.1. Descriptive statistical analysis
Survey results can be summarized, presented, and inter­
preted using descriptive statistics like mean, standard
deviation, minimum, maximum, percentage, and fre­
Where: N= total number of the target population, quency distribution. STATA software version 17 was
n= sample size, e = margin of error utilized for the analyses.

2.4.2. Analysis of the pastoralists’ perception of

climate change
Consequently, the sample size of the study is 349. To examine how pastoralists interpret climate
change, additional comparisons were conducted
Where key informants were deliberately chosen. Ten using climate data that National Meteorological
(10) KIIs in all, including the district agriculture and Agencies had collected over 31 years (1991–2021, G.
pastoral development office head, disaster risk manage­ C.) by fitting a linear trend of annual means of
ment (DRM) specialists, community elders, development rainfall and temperature. Using the yearly average
4 G. AMARE ET AL.

temperature and rainfall as a baseline, the perception For n larger than 10, the standardized test static for
of pastoralists was examined to determine if it fol­ the Mann—Kendall test (Z) was calculated as follows:
lowed or deviated from the linear trend derived from
meteorological data. This has been accomplished by
surveying heads of households regarding their views
on the trajectory of climate change and by measur­
ing some aspects of it using a five-point Likert scale.
The Z value is used to determine if a trend is statistically
In this case, 1 implies strong disagreement, 2 dis­
significant. The alternative hypothesis (H1) for this test
agreement, 3 neutrality, 4 agreement, and 5 strong
was that there has been a significant trend in both
agreements. The percentage of responders at each
parameters, while the null hypothesis (Ho) was that
stage was examined using averages and percentages.
there was no significant (decreasing or increasing)
Pastoralists who perceived the change were those trend in temperature and rainfall over time.
who agreed strongly and those who agreed simply. The significance of the temperature and rainfall trends
The results of the key findings were presented in the was examined. Thus, to determine whether or not the trend
form of narratives and tables to support the quanti­ in both temperature and rainfall during the years
tative data. 1991–2021 was statistically significant, a Z-value of 1.96
(5%) significant level was employed. Consequently, the null
2.4.3. Temperature and rainfall trend analysis hypothesis that there is no significant trend over time will
In 31 (1991–2021) years, the Mann—Kendall statistical be rejected if the absolute value of Z is greater than 1.96. In
test was performed to determine whether there was a similar vein, a positive Z-value indicates a rising trend
a significant trend in either the temperature or the whereas a negative number indicates a falling trend.
amount of rainfall. Due to its lack of reliance on regu­
larly distributed data, this test is a popular nonpara­ Sen’s slope estimator. Sen’s technique was used to eval­
metric test for hydro-climatic studies. Furthermore, uate the slope’s significance level. The time series data’s
according to (Abghari et al. 2013), this test is unaffected trends’ magnitudes were estimated using Sen’s (1968)
by outliers and missing data, which are frequent in nonparametric technique as follows:
climate data.
The Mann—Kendall test (S) for a time series consist­
ing of x1, x2, x3,. . . and xn is evaluated using Mann
(1945) as a basis. where xj and xk represent data values at time j and k,
respectively. β is Sen’s slope estimate. β > 0 indicates an
upward trend in a time series. Otherwise, the data series
presents a downward trend during the period.
where n = number of data points, xk and xj = data values
Coefficient of variation. The approach does not measure
in time series k and j (j > k) and sgn (xj = xk) is
the amount of the trend or change, but rather estimates the
defined as:
slope using a straightforward non-parametric algorithm
created by Sen (1968). To assess the variability of yearly
rainfall, the coefficient of variation (CV) was used to com­
pute the rainfall variability. computed as:
The variance of S, for the situation where there may
be ties (that is equal values) in the x values, is
given by:
Where CV= Coefficient of Variations, δ = Standard
Deviation, and ẋ = Mean
CV < 20% indicates low variability, CV between 20%
and 30% indicates moderate rainfall variability, CV >
Where m is the number of tied groups in the data set 30% indicates high, CV > 40% very high, and CV > 70%
and ti is the number of data points in the ith tied indicates extremely high annual variability of rainfall as
group. used by (Girma et al., 2016; Wako et al., 2021).
 SUSTAINABLE ENVIRONMENT 5

3. Results and discussion 98.85% did not (Table 1). For pastoralists, joining a social
organization offers advantages like knowledge sharing,
3.1. The Sampled Households’ Socio-demographic
coordinated product marketing, credit, labor availability,
and institutional characteristics
and access to high-quality inputs. Table 1 indicates that
The features of the sampled respondents were summed 89% of the households that responded are affiliated with
up by frequency and percentage for dummy and cate­ a rural community-based institution, whereas 11% are not.
gorical variables, and by mean and standard deviation It has been established that the pastoralists of Borana are
for continuous variables. highly significant in both culture and society. They also
The respondents’ sample consisted of both male and have deep familial ties and a sophisticated political and
female heads of households. According to the descrip­ cultural system of customs known as the Gada system.
tive data, males constituted the majority of the sampled This can even be used to modify climatic data, through
respondents. As seen by Table 1, 82% of the sampled information.
families had a male head, but only 18% of respondents The studied household heads’ ages ranged from 35 to
reported a female head of household. Out of all the 85 years old, with a mean of 51.34 years (Table 1). The
sampled homes polled, 59% of them reported receiving sampled households had between 3 and 16 members.
credit, while 41% reported not using credit at all during Table 1 displays the average household size of all
the survey period, as shown in Table 1. All FGDs indi­ sampled households, which was 8 people per household.
cate that the significant drought that struck the study This exceeds the 4.6-person average household size seen
region in 2022 and the attention that followed from the in rural Ethiopia (ESS, 2021). But this is comparatively
government and other relevant entities are the reasons equivalent to a previous study (Nega et al., 2019) that
why the majority of sampled households used credit discovered an average household size of 7.6.
services for a longer period than in previous years. The sampled respondent’s average number of years
Of all the households in the study, 80.23% had access in formal education was 1.5. (Table 1). This demon­
to climate data, while the remaining 19.77% had none at strated that even though schooling raises the degree of
all (Table 1). Getting climate information is essential comprehension regarding climate change adaptation,
since it broadens people’s understanding of the detri­ a greater proportion of the selected pastoralists are
mental effects of climate change. The source is outdated nonetheless illiterate.
even if this large majority of pastoralists receive infor­ The results indicate that the sample households’ average
mation about the climate. Through Qaalluu, the native frequency of extension contacts was 0.61 days per month,
climate forecasters, they obtain climate information. or 7.32 days annually (Table 1). The dispersed population,
Choosing proper climate change adaptation techniques strong preference for mobility, and unequal extension
and raising awareness of the issue requires climate-related pastoral ratio of the pastoralists could be the cause of this.
training. However, just 1.5% of the pastoralists had access The term ‘market distance’ refers not only to the
to training on issues related to climate change, whereas physical distance between a consumer’s home and the

Table 1. Descriptive summary of dummy and continuous variables (n = 349)

Variables Dummy Frequency Percent (%)
Sex of HH Female 62 17.77
Male 287 82.23
Credit use Yes 206 59.03
No 143 40.97
Receive climate information Yes 280 80.23
No 69 19.77
Training on climate-related issues Yes 4 1.15
No 345 98.85
Membership in social groups Yes 310 88.83
No 39 11.17
Causes of climate change The act of God 271 77.65
Natural process 68 19.48
A human and natural process 10 2.87
Summary of continuous variables
Variables Mean Std. Dev
Age of household 51.34 10.34
Household size 8.06 2.41
Education 1.5 3.87
Frequency of extension contacts (days) 0.61 0.40
Nearest market distance (Km) 13.94 7.73
Own survey data, 2022.
6 G. AMARE ET AL.

market but also to the infrastructure and input they can As we can see, the temperature has significantly risen
access. The average distance was 13.94 kilometers to the recently. Only in July and a portion of August can we
closest market center (Table 1). expect some cool weather; otherwise, it’s always really
hot, especially from March to May (Disaster Risk
Management Leader, Gandhile and Dibe Gaya FGDs).
3.2. Pastoralists’ perception towards climate
change
3.3. Perception of temperature trend analysis
Respondents were asked if they have perceived any
notable variations in temperature and rainfall for the There was an upward tendency in the district’s secondary
last 31 years to examine pastoralists’ perceptions of cli­ temperature data records from 1991 to 2021, according to
mate change. The two known climatic characteristics the statistical records. The average annual temperature
temperature and precipitation have been employed to distribution in the research area is generally increasing,
achieve this. Pastoralists’ perceptions of climate change according to the linear fitted line of average annual tem­
were described using temperature and rainfall data, perature over periods in years (Figure 2). However, the
namely annual average maximum and minimum tem­ analysis of the survey data revealed that 95.13% of the
peratures and annual average rainfall. The trends of homes in the sample thought that the temperature had
climate data collected at the meteorological station increased over the previous 31 years. Of the respondents,
have been contrasted with pastoralists’ perceptions of 0.86% thought the temperature had decreased and were
the direction of temperature and precipitation changes unaware of the temperature trend, while roughly 3.15%
to analyze how they perceive climate change. To learn said there had been no change in temperature (Figure 3).
more about how pastoralists view climate change, The outcome displayed in Figures 2 (a) and (b) shows
descriptive statistics and Likert scale assessments were that over the years under consideration, both the maxi­
mum and lowest annual temperatures trended upward.
employed.
Additionally, the Mann-Kendall statistical result displayed
About 77.65% of sampled households (Table 1),
in Table 2 also indicated a significant upward trend in both
Qualitative KII analysis, and all FGD participants,
the maximum and minimum annual temperatures at
Abaarsa Waaqaa (God’s anger) are to blame for the current
(p < 1%). In contrast to the minimum temperature, which
state of climate change and its impacts. In addition, they
rose by 0.41°C each decade, the maximum temperature
reply, “We cannot pick when it will rain, regulate the wind,
grew by 0.93°C. In a similar vein, variations in the global
or decide between warm and cold temperatures. Thus, that is
surface air temperature over land have increased signifi­
Waqaa’s (God’s) power ’’(All FGDs). Additionally, partici­
cantly over 1.5 °C, according to IPCC (2019). According to
pants from a variety of groups brought this to light with the
a qualitative analysis of a Teltele District Disaster Risk
following quotes:
Management Office interview, the district has seen fre­
We had adequate rains in the past. We had a brief dry quent droughts and food shortages for the previous five
season that lasted no more than a month after the brief years running as a result of climate change (2017–2021).
rains that used to begin in September. Even if the rainy
Furthermore, qualitative analysis from the FGD revealed
seasons were excellent, there were instances when it
rained nonstop for three months. However, in recent that by increasing the frequency of droughts and reducing
years, the rainy season may only last three days before the availability of water, the rise in temperature and fall in
a protracted dry season follows. rainfall harmed the study area’s total livestock production
(Kebele Leader, El-kune FGDs) and its products.

Figure 2. (a) Mean annual minimum and (b) Maximum temperature trends (1991–2021). Source: Computed from NMA data.
 SUSTAINABLE ENVIRONMENT 7

Figure 3. Perception of pastoralists on annual average temperature during the last 31 years. Source: Own survey result, 2022.

Table 2. Trends of temperature and rainfall significance test using Mann– Kendall’s
Climate parameters Mean Z-value Sen’s slope CV (%)
Annual average maximum temperature 29.26 5.40*** 0.093
Annual average minimum temperature 17.30 2.84*** 0.041
Annual average rainfall 582.19 −2.11** −3.790 13.59
Computed from meteorological data (2022).
*** and ** indicate significance at less than 1 and 5 percent significance levels.
CV = Coefficients of variation.

Figure 3 indicates that pastoralists did, in fact, sense of precipitation data (Figure 4). The rainfall data from
climate change, with temperature being one attribute, as the NMA showed a declining trend in the average dis­
the 95.13% of respondents’ views were compatible with tribution over the years with significant temporal varia­
the fitted line for the meteorological agencies’ data. bility, as indicated by the fitted line. Similarly, Table 2’s
According to Teferi and Senbeta (2020), Muluken and Sen’s slope value for rainfall (−3.79) shows a 37.90 mm
Desta Mulu (2021), and Habte et al. (2022), pastoralists decline in rainfall per 10 years. Figure 4’s trendline
in their respective study areas perceived an increase in further demonstrated that starting in 2015, rainfall was
temperature of 83%, 95%, and 85.3%, respectively. significantly declining.
Similarly, 96.28% of the respondents perceived that
the amount of rainfall has been decreasing from year
3.4. Perception of rainfall trend analysis to year (Figure 5). The meteorological record rainfall
The study area’s annual rainfall trend decreased over the data of the study area corroborates the perception of
previous 31 years (1991–2021), according to an analysis pastoralists. This is in agreement with, Teferi and

Figure 4. Mean annual rainfall trend for the years (1991–2021). Source: Computed from NMA data.
8 G. AMARE ET AL.

Figure 5. Perception of pastoralists on annual average rainfall trends during the last 31 years. Source: Own survey result, 2022.

Senbeta (2020); Muluken and Desta Mulu (2021), and, Sen’s slope value for rainfall (−3.79) reported shows
Habte et al. (2022) in Ethiopia reported decreasing the amount of rainfall declined substantially by
patterns of annual rainfall accordingly in their particular 37.90 mm per decade. This suggests that while there is
study areas. occasionally little rainfall, there is also little change.

3.5. Temperature and rainfall trends analysis 3.6. Likert rating scale result of climate change
perception of pastoralists
Mann-Kendall statistical finding in Table 2 also sup­
ported an increasing trend, significant at (p < 1%), in Additionally, a five-point Likert scale was employed to
both the maximum and minimum annual temperatures; gauge how the sampled respondents felt about a few
the maximum increased by 0.93°C per decade, while the particular aspects of climate change. Pastoralists who
minimum increased by 0.41°C per decade. In addition, agree, even if they just agree, are thought to perceive
the IPCC (2019) reports that changes in global surface the change, whereas others do not.
air temperature over the land have significantly According to the measurement’s results, around
increased above 1.5 °C. On the other hand, the result 95.13% of the sampled respondents thought that the
presented in Figure 4 shows a decreasing trend in temperature was occasionally rising, and 96.28%
annual rainfall. In a similar vein, Table 2’s Sen’s slope thought that the amount of rainfall was occasionally
value for rainfall (−3.79) shows that there was falling (Table 3). Because of this, 93.7% of the studied
a 37.90 mm decline in rainfall each decade. Trendline households believed that the current rainfall was
further demonstrated that starting in 2015, rainfall was insufficient to sustain the production of grass for
significantly declining. cow grazing, and that springs, streams, and ponds
The district has endured frequent droughts and food were drying up as a result of climate change. This
insecurity for the past five years in response to climate finding aligns with previous research conducted by
change, according to an interview with the Teltele (Jemal et al. 2022), (Teferi and Senbeta 2020),
District Disaster Risk Management Office (2017–2021). Muluken and Desta Mulu (2021), and Wassie and
Additionally, by increasing the frequency of droughts Fekadu (2015). They discovered that most smallholder
and reducing the availability of water, the FGD and KII farmers and pastoralists thought that the temperature
data demonstrated that the rise in temperature and fall had risen and that there had been less rainfall.
in rainfall harmed the overall output of animals and Comparably, the qualitative analysis of the FGDs
their products in the study area. revealed that the sustainability of traditional pastoral­
Additionally, Table 2 displays the yearly rainfall’s ism is being challenged by the persistent shortage of
coefficient of variation. The outcome reveals that the pasture and water resources brought on by a decrease
CV of rainfall variability is 13.59%. This showed that the in rainfall and frequent, severe drought conditions.
area has minimal rainfall variability even though the One of them stated, and they agreed with him:
 SUSTAINABLE ENVIRONMENT 9

Table 3. Climate change perception index of pastoralists for the last 31 (1991–2021, G.C.) years
Level of perception in (%) (n = 349)
Signals and patterns related to climate change 1 2 3 4 5 Average
Temperature increases from time to time 0 0.86 4.01 53.83 41.3 4.36
Frequent decreases in the rainfall amount 0 0 3.72 67.34 28.94 4.24
Production of grazing/pasture is decreased 0 0 6.30 64.47 29.23 4.23
Springs, streams, and ponds dying out 0 0 6.30 68.19 25.50 4.19
There is an increment of hot periods 0 0 6.59 67.91 25.50 4.19
There is an early cessation of rainfall 0 0 9.17 69.63 21.20 4.12
The starting time of rainfall is lagging behind the usual 0 0 6.30 70.49 23.21 4.17
Livestock diseases have increased 0 2.01 8.88 72.78 16.33 4.03
The price of livestock is decreased 0.86 3.44 12.03 65.62 18.05 3.97
Grazing/pasture land degradation is worsening 0.57 2.01 9.17 70.77 17.48 4.03
Livelihood sources in the community are changing 0 0.57 16.33 69.63 13.47 3.96
There is an increase in the irregularity of rainfall 0 1.15 11.46 80.23 7.16 3.93
The community is adequately informed about the impact of climate change. 3.44 83.67 10.32 1.72 0.86 2.13
The total average level of perception index 3.97
Own survey data, 2022.
NB: 1 = Strongly Disagree, 2 = Disagree, 3 = Neutral, 4 = Agree, and 5 = Strongly Agree.

pasture shortage. Massive cattle death. In addition, cat­

We Borana are recognized as pastoralists across the world,
and our life is based on raising livestock and selling their tle owners reported low sale prices for livestock leading
products. However, recently, a severe drought and a lack of to severe economic losses.
rainfall have put us in a terrible situation. For instance, in About 88.25% of respondents also perceived that
the past, I had at least 50 cattle, which was more than grazing/pasture land degradation is worsening than in
enough for my family and neighbors, and then I was earlier decades (Table 3), which caused feed shortage,
given Ameessa (milking cow). However, right now, if
you ask me how many cattle you have, without 5 goats, water shortage, reduced productivity, and decreased
I don’t have anything. To support my family of eight, mature weight animals that reduced the price and
I must so wait for government and humanitarian assis­ increased livestock mortality. The result agrees with
tance. My fear of being exposed in public caused me to lose (Robinson et al., 2013) who reported that surface warm­
social capital in addition to my financial wealth. Therefore,
ing is expected to alter the feed intake, mortality,
the Borana community requires both immediate aid and
long-term strategy to solve the problems with pastoralism growth, reproduction, maintenance, and production of
at their core. (Dibe Gaya FGDs) animals.
About 83.1% of the sampled respondents perceived
A large number of sampled households accounting for
that some sources of livelihood of the community are
90.8% observed an early cessation of rainfall and 93.7%
changing due to changing climate conditions because
of sampled households observed that the starting time of
they lost their livestock and people are employed in the
rainfall is lagging behind the usual while, 87.39% of cities as daily laborers and are forced to wait for govern­
respondents perceived that there is an increase in the ment and humanitarian assistance (Table 3). The result
irregularity of rainfall (Table 3). They stated that the early of qualitative analysis from KIIs and FGDs shows that
end, late beginning, and declining amount of rainfall that recurring droughts and the ensuing livestock losses have
cause a shortage of pasture and water resources causes been devastating for the past three decades causing the
pastoralists to travel long distances and poses challenges decline of their livelihoods. They state also that huma­
to the sustainability of pastoralism. This is consistent with nitarian organizations and the government annually
Michael et al., 2015) report that Borana pastoralists are devote massive resources to food security initiatives.
more vulnerable to frequent droughts, which have deva­ However, food insecurity is becoming persistent.
stated the majority, if not all, of their cattle. Amare (2018) also stated that livelihood insecurity has
Likewise, 89.11% and 83.67% of respondents agreed been characterized by the area where the large majority
that climate change had led to an increase in livestock of pastoralists depend on food assistance (food aid).
disease and a fall in the price of livestock during drought Furthermore, the sustainability of pastoral livelihood
time, respectively (Table 3). Disease outbreaks and ani­ shows that it is less profitable to carry on with pastoral
mal stress due to heat shock were reported by Bagath livelihood practices as usual because the land in the
et al. (2019). Similarly, Kimaro et al. (2018) reported pastoral community is vulnerable as a result of long-
that 98.5% of pastoralists experienced negative impacts term continuous communal grazing. Additionally,
on their livestock during periods of severe water and Bekele et al. (2014) reported that in recent decades, the
10 G. AMARE ET AL.

impact of climate change on cattle survival and the Funding

livelihoods of pastoralists has led to substantial shifts
This research was funded by the African Center of Excellence
in the composition of livestock herds among Borana for Climate Smart Agriculture and Biodiversity Conservation
pastoralists in southern Ethiopia. [Climate-SABC], Haramaya University, Ethiopia. [Thesis for
Finally, only 2.58% of the respondents perceived that the MSc].
community was sufficiently aware of the climate change
impacts (Table 3). 78% and 19% of the sampled households
Notes on contributor
perceived that God’s act and natural process are the major
two causes of climate change respectively. Additionally, KIIs Conceptualization, G. A., CH.S. and M.S.; methodology, G. A.,
and FGDs participants believed that today’s climate change CH.S., and M.S.; software, G.A.; validation, G. A., CH.S., and M.
and its effects are the results of Abaarsa Waaqaa (God’s S.; formal analysis, G.A.; investigation, G. A., CH.S., and M.S.;
resources, G. A., CH.S., and M.S.; data curation, G. A., CH.S., and
wrath). The total average level of perception index recorded
M.S.; writing—original draft preparation, G.A.; writing—review
3.97 which is equivalent to 4, which means that the majority and editing, G. A., CH.S. and M.S.; visualization, G. A., CH.S.,
of the sampled households perceived there is climate change and M.S.; supervision, CH.S., M.S.; project administration, G. A.,
based on the temperature and rainfall trends (Table 3). CH.S., and M.S.; funding acquisition, G. A. All authors have read
and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

4. Conclusion and recommendations

ORCID
Pastoralists are extremely vulnerable to climate change due
to their location, which is remote, underdeveloped, and Girma Amare http://orcid.org/0000-0002-3822-331X
highly affected by climate change and variability.
Similarly, because of frequent and severe drought, Borana Data availability statement
pastoralists are the most vulnerable to the effects of climate
change in Ethiopia. Generally, pastoralists should first per­ The corresponding author will provide the data/information
ceive climate change before taking appropriate measures as collected and/or analyzed during the current study upon
reasonable request.
the way people perceive climate change influences adaption
strategies. The findings of this study offer relevant informa­
tion for policymakers, researchers, and other stakeholders Ethical approval
on the state of pastoralists’ awareness of the changing
The paper does not raise any ethical concerns. The work was
climate and where to start interventions. Furthermore, neither published nor submitted anywhere, and we did not
the results from the Mann-Kendall test revealed that plagiarize from any other sources.
throughout the 31(1991–2021) years, the temperature sig­
nificantly increased while rainfall decreased dramatically.
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 SUSTAINABLE ENVIRONMENT 13

Appendices
Appendix 1: Checklist for Key Informants (KIIs)
(1) What is your outlook about the climate change?
(2) Have you perceived any changes in the climate in recent years? If so, what are they?
(3) How have these changes affected your daily life and livelihood?
(4) What do you think are the main causes of these changes?
(5) Have you heard about climate change? If so, what do you understand by the term?
(6) Have you noticed any changes in rainfall patterns and temperature?
(7) How have these changes affected your livestock and water resources?
(8) Do you have any indigenous knowledge or observations about climate change?

Appendix 2: Checklist for Focus Group Discussions (FGDs)

(1) What basic infrastructures you have access?
(2) How do you feel about discussing climate change in this group?
(3) Are there any concerns or sensitivities that we should be aware of?
(4) What are the most noticeable changes in the climate that you have observed?
(5) How have these changes affected your community?
(6) Are there any specific events or experiences that you can share to illustrate the impacts of climate change?
(7) Have you informed any changes in rainfall and temperature pattern?
(8) How have these changes affected your community’s livelihoods, such as livestock and water resources?
(9) Do you have any indigenous knowledge or observations about climate change that you can share?
(10) How much do you know about climate change and its causes?
(11) Where do you get your information about climate change?
(12) What are your information needs related to climate change?