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Mechanical Engineering Contents of the Chapter

Department
 Introduction
 Acceleration Field
Fluid Engineering  Differential equation Conservation of mass
 Stream function
 Differential equation of Linear momentum
 Inviscid flow
 Vorticity and Irrotationality
Differential Relations For A Fluid Flow  Velocity Potential
 Basic Plane Potential Flows
 Superposition of Basic Plane Potential Flows
 Solved Problems

1 2

Introduction Introduction
 In analyzing fluid motion,  The control volume technique is useful when we are
we might take one of two interested in the overall features of a flow, such as mass
paths: flow rate into and out of the control volume or net forces
1. Seeking an estimate of applied to bodies.
gross effects (mass flow,  Differential analysis, on the other hand, involves
induced force, energy application of differential equations of fluid motion to any
change) over a finite and every point in the flow field over a region called the
region or control volume flow domain.
or  When solved, these differential equations yield details
2. Seeking the point-by- about the velocity, density, pressure, etc., at every point
point details of a flow throughout the entire flow domain.
pattern by analyzing an
infinitesimal region of
the flow.
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The Acceleration Field of a Fluid The Acceleration Field of a Fluid

 Velocity is a vector function of position and time and thus Since each scalar component (u, v , w) is a function of
has three components u, v, and w, each a scalar field in the four variables (x, y, z, t), we use the chain rule to
itself. obtain each scalar time derivative. For example,

 This is the most important variable in fluid mechanics:

Knowledge of the velocity vector field is nearly equivalent  But, by definition, dx/dt is the local velocity
to solving a fluid flow problem.
component u, and dy/dt =v , and dz/dt = w.
 The acceleration vector field a of the flow is derived from
 The total time derivative of u may thus be written as
Newton’s second law by computing the total time
derivative of the velocity vector: follows, with exactly similar expressions for the time
derivatives of v and w:

5 6

The Acceleration Field of a Fluid The Acceleration Field of a Fluid

 The term δV/δt is called the local acceleration, which
vanishes if the flow is steady-that is, independent of time.
 The three terms in parentheses are called the convective
acceleration, which arises when the particle moves through
regions of spatially varying velocity, as in a nozzle or
diffuser.
 Summing these into a vector, we obtain the total  The gradient operator is given by:
acceleration:

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The Acceleration Field of a Fluid Example 1. Acceleration field

The total time derivative—sometimes called the Given the eulerian velocity vector field
substantial or material derivative— concept may be
applied to any variable, such as the pressure:
find the total acceleration of a particle.

Wherever convective effects occur in the basic laws

involving mass, momentum, or energy, the basic
differential equations become nonlinear and are
usually more complicated than flows that do not
involve convective changes.
Solution step 2: In a similar manner, the convective acceleration
terms, are

9 10

Solution step 2: In a similar manner, the convective acceleration Example 2. Acceleration field
terms, are  An idealized velocity field is given by the formula

 Is this flow field steady or unsteady? Is it two- or three

dimensional? At the point (x, y, z) = (1, 1, 0), compute the
acceleration vector.
Solution
 The flow is unsteady because time t appears explicitly in the
components.
 The flow is three-dimensional because all three velocity
components are nonzero.
 Evaluate, by differentiation, the acceleration vector at (x, y, z)
= (−1, +1, 0).

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Example 2. Acceleration field Exercise 1

 The velocity in a certain two-dimensional flow field is given
by the equation

where the velocity is in m/s when x, y, and t are in meter and

seconds, respectively.
1. Determine expressions for the local and convective
components of acceleration in the x and y directions.
2. What is the magnitude and direction of the velocity and the
acceleration at the point x = y = 2 m at the time t = 0?

13 14

The Differential Equation of Mass Conservation The Differential Equation of Mass Conservation

 Conservation of mass, often called the continuity relation,

states that the fluid mass cannot change.
 We apply this concept to a very small region. All the basic
differential equations can be derived by considering either
an elemental control volume or an elemental system.
 We choose an infinitesimal fixed control volume (dx, dy,
dz), as in shown in fig below, and use basic control volume
relations.
 The flow through each side of the element is approximately
one-dimensional, and so the appropriate mass conservation
 The element is so small that the volume integral simply
relation to use here is
reduces to a differential term:

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The Differential Equation of Mass Conservation The Differential Equation of Mass Conservation

 The mass flow terms occur on all six faces, three inlets and
three outlets.
 Using the field or continuum concept where all fluid
properties are considered to be uniformly varying functions
of time and position, such as ρ= ρ (x, y, z, t).
 Thus, if T is the temperature on the left face of the element,
the right face will have a slightly different temperature
 Introducing these terms into the main relation

 For mass conservation, if ρu is known on the left face, the

value of this product on the right face is
 Simplifying gives

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The Differential Equation of Mass Conservation The Differential Equation of Mass Conservation
Continuity Equation in Cylindrical Coordinates
 The vector gradient operator
 Many problems in fluid mechanics are more conveniently
solved in cylindrical coordinates (r, θ, z) (often called
cylindrical polar coordinates), rather than in Cartesian
 enables us to rewrite the equation of continuity in a coordinates.
compact form

 so that the compact form of the continuity relation is

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The Differential Equation of Mass Conservation The Differential Equation of Mass Conservation

Incompressible Flow
Continuity equation in cylindrical coordinates is given
 A special case that affords great simplification is
by
incompressible flow, where the density changes are
negligible. Then regardless of whether the
flow is steady or unsteady,
Steady Compressible Flow  The result
 If the flow is steady , and all properties are
functions of position only and the continuity equation  is valid for steady or unsteady incompressible flow. The
reduces to two coordinate forms are

21 22

Example 3
The Differential Equation of Mass Conservation
 Consider the steady, two-dimensional velocity field given by
 The criterion for incompressible flow is
 where Ma = V/a is the dimensionless Mach number of  Verify that this flow field is incompressible.
the flow. Solution
For air at standard conditions, a flow can thus be  Analysis. The flow is two-dimensional, implying no z component of
considered incompressible if the velocity is less than velocity and no variation of u or v with z.
about 100 m/s.  The components of velocity in the x and y directions respectively are

 To check if the flow is incompressible, we see if the

incompressible continuity equation is satisfied:

 So we see that the incompressible continuity equation is indeed

23 24 satisfied. Hence the flow field is incompressible.

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Example 4 Example 5
 Consider the following steady, three-dimensional velocity  An idealized incompressible flow has the proposed three-
field in Cartesian coordinates: dimensional velocity distribution

where a, b, c, and d are constants. Under what conditions is  Find the appropriate form of the function f(y) which satisfies
this flow field incompressible? the continuity relation.
Solution  Solution: Simply substitute the given velocity components
Condition for incompressibility: into the incompressible continuity equation:

 Thus to guarantee incompressibility, constants a and c must

satisfy the following relationship:
a = −3c
25 26

Example 6 Example 7
 For a certain incompressible flow field it is suggested that the
 For a certain incompressible, two-dimensional flow field
velocity components are given by the equations
the velocity component in the y direction is given by the
equation
Is this a physically possible flow field? Explain.

 Determine the velocity in the x direction so that the

continuity equation is satisfied.

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Example 7 - solution Example 8

 The radial velocity component in an incompressible, two
dimensional flow field is

 Determine the corresponding tangential velocity component,

required to satisfy conservation of mass.
Solution.
 The continuity equation for incompressible steady flow in
cylindrical coordinates is given by

29 30

Example 8 The Stream Function

 Consider the simple case of incompressible, two-dimensional
flow in the xy-plane.
 The continuity equation in Cartesian coordinates reduces to

(1)
 A clever variable transformation enables us to rewrite this
equation (Eq. 1) in terms of one dependent variable (ψ) instead
of two dependent variables (u and v).
 We define the stream function ψ as

(2)

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The Stream Function The Stream Function

 Substitution of Eq. 2 into Eq. 1 yields  This is easily proven by
considering a streamline in
the xy-plane

 which is identically satisfied for any smooth function ψ(x, y).

What have we gained by this transformation?
 First, as already mentioned, a single variable (ψ) replaces two
variables (u and v)—once ψ is known, we can generate both u
and v via Eq. 2 and we are guaranteed that the solution
satisfies continuity, Eq. 1.
 Second, it turns out that the stream function has useful
Curves of constant stream function
physical significance . Namely, Curves of constant ψ are represent streamlines of the flow
streamlines of the flow.

33 34

The Stream Function The Stream Function

 The change in the value of ψ as  Along a streamline:
we move from one point (x, y) to
a nearby point (x + dx, y + dy) is
given by the relationship:
 where we have applied Eq. 2, the definition of ψ. Thus along a
streamline:
 Along a line of constant ψ we
have dψ = 0 so that
 But for any smooth function ψ of two variables x and y, we
 and, therefore, along a line of know by the chain rule of mathematics that the total change of
constant ψ ψ from point (x, y) to another point (x + dx, y + dy) some
infinitesimal distance away is

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The Stream Function The Stream Function

 Total change of ψ:  In cylindrical coordinates the continuity equation for

incompressible, plane, two dimensional flow reduces to

 By comparing the above two equations we see that dψ = 0

along a streamline;  andthevelocity components, and can be related to
the stream function, through the equations

37 38

The Differential Equation of Linear Momentum The Differential Equation of Linear Momentum
 Using the same elemental control volume as in mass
conservation, for which the appropriate form of the linear  Again the element is so small that the volume integral
momentum relation is simply reduces to a derivative term:

 The momentum fluxes occur on all six faces, three inlets

and three outlets.

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The Differential Equation of Linear Momentum The Differential Equation of Linear Momentum

 Introducing these terms  The long term in parentheses on the right-hand side is the
total acceleration of a particle that instantaneously occupies
the control volume:

 A simplification occurs if we split up the term in brackets

as follows:
 Thus now we have

 This equation points out that the net force on the control
volume must be of differential size and proportional to the
 The term in brackets on the right-hand side is seen to be the element volume.
equation of continuity, which vanishes identically

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The Differential Equation of Linear Momentum The Differential Equation of Linear Momentum

 These forces are of two types, body forces and surface

forces.
 Body forces are due to external fields (gravity, magnetism,
electric potential) that act on the entire mass within the
element.
 The only body force we shall consider is gravity.
 The gravity force on the differential mass ρ dx dy dz within
the control volume is

 The surface forces are due to the stresses on the sides of the
control surface. These stresses are the sum of hydrostatic
pressure plus viscous stresses τij that arise from motion with
velocity gradients
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The Differential Equation of Linear Momentum The Differential Equation of Linear Momentum
 The net surface force in the x direction is given by

 Splitting into pressure plus viscous stresses

 where dv = dx dy dz.
 Similarly we can derive the y and z forces per unit volume
on the control surface

Fig. Elemental Cartesian fixed

control volume showing the surface
forces in the x direction only.
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The Differential Equation of Linear Momentum The Differential Equation of Linear Momentum
 The net vector surface force can be written as  In divergence form

 is the viscous stress tensor acting on the element

 The surface force is thus the sum of the pressure gradient
vector and the divergence of the viscous stress tensor

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The Differential Equation of Linear Momentum The Differential Equation of Linear Momentum
 The basic differential momentum equation for an  the component equations are
infinitesimal element is thus

 In words

 This is the differential momentum equation in its full glory,

and it is valid for any fluid in any general motion, particular
fluids being characterized by particular viscous stress
terms.
49 50

Inviscid Flow: Eulers’ Equation Newtonian Fluid: Navier-Stokes Equations

For Frictionless flow τij =0, for which  For a newtonian fluid, the viscous stresses are proportional
to the element strain rates and the coefficient of viscosity.

This is Eulers’ equation for inviscid flow

 where μ is the viscosity coefficient

 Substitution gives the differential momentum equation for a
newtonian fluid with constant density and viscosity:

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Newtonian Fluid: Navier-Stokes Equations Inviscid Flow

These are the incompressible flow Navier-Stokes  Shearing stresses develop in a moving fluid because of the
equations named after C. L. M. H. Navier (1785–1836) and viscosity of the fluid.
Sir George G. Stokes (1819–1903), who are credited with  We know that for some common fluids, such as air and
their derivation. water, the viscosity is small, therefore it seems reasonable
to assume that under some circumstances we may be able
to simply neglect the effect of viscosity (and thus shearing
stresses).
 Flow fields in which the shearing stresses are assumed to
be negligible are said to be inviscid, nonviscous, or
frictionless.
 For fluids in which there are no shearing stresses the
normal stress at a point is independent of direction—that is
σxx = σyy = σzz.
53 54

Inviscid Flow Vorticity and Irrotationality

Euler’s Equations of Motion  The assumption of zero fluid angular velocity, or

 For an inviscid flow in which all the shearing stresses are irrotationality, is a very useful simplification.
zero and the Euler’s equation of motion is written as  Here we show that angular velocity is associated with the
curl of the local velocity vector.
 The differential relations for deformation of a fluid element
can be derived by examining the Fig. below.
 Two fluid lines AB and BC, initially perpendicular at time t,
move and deform so that at t + dt they have slightly different
lengths A’B’ and B’C’ and are slightly off the perpendicular
by angles dα and dβ.
 In vector notation Euler’s equations can be expressed as

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Vorticity and Irrotationality Vorticity and Irrotationality

 We define the angular velocity ωz about the z axis as the
average rate of counterclockwise turning of the two lines:

 But from the fig. dα and dβ are each directly related to

velocity derivatives in the limit of small dt:

 Substitution results

57 58

Vorticity and Irrotationality Vorticity and Irrotationality

 Many flows have negligible or zero vorticity and are called
irrotational.

 Example. For a certain two-dimensional flow field the

 The vector is thus one-half the curl of velocity is given by the equation
the velocity vector

 Is this flow irrotational?

Solution.
 For the prescribed velocity field
 A vector twice as large is called the vorticity

59 60

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Vorticity and Irrotationality Velocity Potential

 The velocity components of irrotational flow can be
expressed in terms of a scalar function ϕ(x, y, z, t) as

 where ϕis called the velocity potential.

 In vector form, it can be written as

 so that for an irrotational flow the velocity is expressible as

the gradient of a scalar function ϕ.
 The velocity potential is a consequence of the irrotationality
of the flow field, whereas the stream function is a
consequence of conservation of mass
61 62

Velocity Potential Velocity Potential

 It is to be noted, however, that the velocity potential can be  This differential equation arises in
defined for a general three-dimensional flow, whereas the many different areas of engineering
stream function is restricted to two-dimensional flows. and physics and is called Laplace’s
equation. Thus, inviscid,
 For an incompressible fluid we know from conservation of
incompressible, irrotational flow
mass that fields are governed by Laplace’s
equation.
 and therefore for incompressible, irrotational flow (with  This type of flow is commonly called
) it follows that a potential flow.
 Potential flows are irrotational flows.
That is, the vorticity is zero
throughout. If vorticity is present
(e.g., boundary layer, wake), then the
flow cannot be described by Laplace’s
63 64 equation.

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Velocity Potential
Velocity Potential
 For some problems it will be convenient to use cylindrical
coordinates, r,θ, and z. In this coordinate system the
gradient operator is

65 66

Example 1 Example 1

 The two-dimensional flow of a nonviscous, incompressible fluid

in the vicinity of the corner of Fig. is described by the stream
function

 where ψ has units of m2/s when r is in meters. Assume the fluid

density is 103 kg/m3 and the x–y plane is horizontal that is, there
is no difference in elevation between points (1) and (2).
FIND
a) Determine, if possible, the corresponding velocity potential.
b) If the pressure at point (1) on the wall is 30 kPa, what is the
pressure at point (2)? Solution
The radial and tangential velocity components can be
obtained from the stream function as
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Solution

69 70

71 72

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Basic Plane Potential Flows Uniform Flow

 The simplest plane flow is one for which the streamlines
 For simplicity, only plane (two-dimensional) flows will be
are all straight and parallel, and the magnitude of the
considered. In this case, by using Cartesian coordinates
velocity is constant. This type of flow is called a uniform
flow.
 For example, consider a uniform flow in the positive x
direction as is illustrated in Fig a.

 Since we can define a stream function for plane flow, we

can also let

73 74

Uniform Flow Uniform Flow

 In this instance, u = U and v = 0, and in terms of the  The corresponding stream function can be obtained in a
velocity potential similar manner, since

 These two equations can be integrated to yield  and, therefore,

 where C is an arbitrary constant, which can be set equal to

 These results can be generalized to provide the velocity
zero. potential and stream function for a uniform flow at an angle
 Thus, for a uniform flow in the positive x direction α with the x axis, as in Fig. b. For this case

 and

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Source and Sink Source and Sink

 Consider a fluid flowing radially outward from a line A source or sink represents a purely radial flow.
through the origin perpendicular to the x–y plane as is  Since the flow is a purely radial flow, , the
shown in Fig. Let m be the volume rate of flow emanating corresponding velocity potential can be obtained by
from the line (per unit length), and therefore to satisfy integrating the equations
conservation of mass

 It follows that
 or

 If m is positive, the flow is radially outward, and the flow is

considered to be a source flow. If m is negative, the flow is
toward the origin, and the flow is considered to be a sink
flow. The flowrate, m, is the strength of the source or sink.
77 78

Example 2
Source and Sink
 A nonviscous, incompressible fluid flows between wedge-
 The stream function for the source can be obtained by shaped walls into a small opening as shown in Fig. The
integrating the relationships velocity potential (in ft/s2), which approximately describes
this flow is

 To yield  Determine the volume rate of flow (per unit length) into the
opening.

The streamlines (lines of ψ = constant ) are radial lines, and

the equipotential lines (lines of ϕ= constant) are concentric
circles centered at the origin.

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Vortex
 We next consider a flow field in which the streamlines are
concentric circles—that is, we interchange the velocity
potential and stream function for the source. Thus, let

and

where K is a constant. In this

case the streamlines are
concentric circles with
and

The negative sign indicates that the flow is toward the opening,
that is, in the negative radial direction This result indicates that the tangential velocity varies inversely
81 82 with the distance from the origin

Circulation Circulation

 A mathematical concept commonly associated with vortex For an irrotational flow

motion is that of circulation. The circulation, Γ, is defined
as the line integral of the tangential component of the
velocity taken around a closed curve in the flow field. In
equation form, Γ, can be expressed as
 This result indicates that for an irrotational flow the circulation
will generally be zero.
where the integral sign  However, for the free vortex with , , the circulation
means that the integration around the circular path of radius r is
is taken around a closed
curve, C, in the
counterclockwise
 which shows that the circulation is nonzero.
direction, and ds is a
differential length along  However, for irrotational flows the circulation around any path
83 the curve 84
that does not include a singular point will be zero.

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Circulation Doublet
 Doublet is formed by combining a source and sink in a
 The velocity potential and stream function for the free
vortex are commonly expressed in terms of the circulation special way. Consider the equal strength, source–sink pair
as shown. The combined stream function for the pair is

and

85 86

Doublet Doublet
 which can be rewritten as  So that

 For small values of the distance a

 From the Fig. above it follows that

 And since the tangent of an angle

approaches the value of the angle for
small angles
 These results substitution gives

A doublet is formed by letting a source

and sink approach one another.
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Doublet Doublet
 Plots of lines of constant ψ reveal that the streamlines for a
 The so-called doublet is formed by letting the source and
sink approach one another while increasing the doublet are circles through the origin tangent to the x axis
strength so that the product remains as shown in fig below.
constant. In this case, since

 where K, a constant equal to is called the strength of

the doublet.
 The corresponding velocity potential for the doublet is

89 90

Rankine Ovals
 To study the flow around a closed body, a source and a sink
of equal strength can be combined with a uniform flow as
shown in Fig. below.

91 92

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Rankine Ovals
Rankine Ovals
 The stream function for this combination is
 Using the stream function for the source–sink pair, the
stream function for Rankine Ovals can be written as

 Or

 The corresponding streamlines for this flow field are

obtained by setting ψ = constant. If several of these
streamlines are plotted, it will be discovered that the
streamline ψ =0 forms a closed body as shown in fig.
above.
93 94

Rankine Ovals Rankine Ovals

 Stagnation points occur at the upstream and downstream  The body half-width, h, can be obtained by determining the
ends of the body. These points can be located by value of y where the y axis intersects the ψ = 0 streamline.
determining where along the x axis the velocity is zero.
 The stagnation points correspond to the points where the
uniform velocity, the source velocity, and the sink velocity
all combine to give a zero velocity.
 The locations of the stagnation points depend on the value  Or
of a, m, and U.
 The body half-length,
 When y= 0), can be expressed as  both are functions of the dimensionless
parameter, . A large variety of body shapes with
different length to width ratios can be obtained by using
or
different values of Ua/m,
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Rankine Ovals Flow around a Circular Cylinder

 When the distance between the source–sink pair
 As this parameter becomes large, approaches zero, the shape of the Rankine oval becomes
flow around a long slender body is more blunt and in fact approaches a circular shape.
described, whereas for small values  Since the Doublet was developed by letting a source–sink
of the parameter, flow around a more pair approach one another, it might be expected that a
blunt shape is obtained uniform flow in the positive x direction combined with a
doublet could be used to represent flow around a circular
cylinder.
 This combination gives for the stream function

 and for the velocity potential

97 98

Flow around a Circular Cylinder Flow around a Circular Cylinder

 In order for the stream function to represent flow around a  and the corresponding velocity potential is
circular cylinder it is necessary that
where a is the radius of the cylinder.
 The velocity components are

 which indicates that the doublet strength, K, must be equal

to Thus, the stream function for flow around a circular
 On the surface of the cylinder it follows
cylinder can be expressed as

99 100

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Flow around a Circular Cylinder Solved Problems

1. The velocity potential for a certain flow field is ϕ= 4xy.
Determine the corresponding stream function.

Fig. The flow around a circular cylinder.

101 102

2. The stream function for an incompressible, two

dimensional flow field is
  ay2  bx
Where a and b are constants. Is this an irrotational flow?
Explain.

103 104

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3. The stream function for a given two dimensional flow filed

is
  5x y  (5 / 3) y
2 3

Determine the corresponding velocity potential.

105 106

4. Determine the stream function corresponding to the

velocity potential ϕ= x3 – 3xy2. Sketch the streamline ψ
= 0, which passes through the origin.

107 108

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5. The velocity potential for a certain inviscid,

incompressible flow field is given by the equation
2
  2x 2 y  ( ) y 3
3
Where ϕhas the units of m2/s when x and y are in meters.
Determine the pressure at the point x = 2 m, y = 2m if the
pressure at x = 1 m, y = 1 m is 200 kPa. Elevation
changes can be neglected and the fluid is water.

109 11 0

6. Water is flowing between wedge-shaped walls into a small

opening as shown in the Fig. below.
The velocity potential with units m2/s for this flow is
ϕ= -2ln r with r in meters.
Determine the pressure differential between points A and B.

111 112

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7. An ideal fluid flows between the inclined walls of a two

dimensional channel into a sink located at origin. The
velocity potential for this flow field is

113 114

115 116

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