Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology

Department of Mechanical Engineering

ME 266 (IPE)
Thermal Engineering and Heat
Transfer Sessional
Contact Hour: 3.0, Credit Hour: 1.5

Name of Experiments:

1.(a) Determination of Thermal Conductivity of Metals (Copper and Aluminum)

1.(b) Study of Thermal Contact Resistance.
2. Study of Forced Convection Heat Transfer Over a Flat Plate
3. Study of Radiation Heat Transfer

1
 Instructions for Students

Necessary points of report writing:

• Objectives
• Apparatus (write specification like type, dimensions, range, material, etc.)
• Schematic Diagram of the Experimental Setup (label properly)
• Data and Calculation sheets
• Plotting graphs if any
• Sample Calculation for a particular observation
• Results and Discussions (Result and graph analysis, sources of error, means of
improvement, question and answers if any)
• Conclusion

Important Instructions:

✓ Submit the reports in plastic spiral bound files of color specified for the group.

✓ You must come to the class before the starting time (for example 2.30 pm). No
late attendance.

✓ You must submit all the reports of a group together before the end of a lab
session.

✓ You must come to the class with prior preparation (study the lab sheet supplied,
bring necessary graph papers, pages, calculator, reference books, etc.). You must
bring this lab instruction sheet during the sessional class.

✓ Viva on the individual experiments will depend on the concerned teacher.

✓ Copying another student’s report will be severely dealt with.

2
 Experiment No. 1
a) Determination of Thermal Conductivity of Metals (Copper and
Aluminum) and b) Study of Thermal Contact Resistance.
Introduction
When a temperature gradient exists in a body, heat transfer occurs from the high temperature
region of the body to its low temperature region. According to Fourier’s law of heat
conduction, heat transfer through a homogeneous solid body is directly proportional to the
area of the section at right angles to the direction of heat flow, and the temperature gradient in
that direction. Mathematically, this can be written as,
dT
Q A , (1)
dx
where,
Q = Heat flow rate by conduction through the material (W)
A = Surface area of the section at right angle to the direction of heat flow (m2)
dx = Differential length of the specimen in the direction of heat flow (m)
dT = Temperature difference in the differential length of the specimen dx (C or K)
dT/dx = Temperature gradient in the x-direction (K/m or C/m)

The above equation can be written in the following form,

dT
Q = −kA , (2)
dx
where, the proportionality constant k is a transport property known as thermal conductivity
(W/mK). It is a measure of the ability of a substance to conduct heat and provides the
characteristics of the wall material through an indication of the rate at which energy is
transferred by diffusion process. The value of thermal conductivity of a specimen depends on
the physical structure of matter, atomic and molecular, its composition and temperature. The
temperature gradient dT/dx in Eq. (2) is always negative along the direction of heat flow;
because heat transfer occurs from the region of high temperature to that of low temperature of
the body. Hence, a minus sign is inserted at the right hand side of Eq. (2) in order to make the
heat flow rate Q to be positive.

Thermal conductivity is a thermo-physical property of the material, which is, in general, a

function of both temperature (T) and location (s); i.e., k = f (T, s). For isotropic materials, the
value of k is the same in all directions, i.e., k = f(T). However, for anisotropic materials such
as wood, laminated materials, etc., the value of k will have a strong directional dependence.

3
For some materials over certain temperature range, the variation of thermal conductivity with
temperature is almost negligible. The development of experimental approximations of
boundary value problems is needed to measure the thermal conductivity. Direct measurement
of thermal conductivity is based on the widely used ‘steady-state method’. It can provide high
accuracy and simple data reduction, however, requires a relatively long time to reach steady
state.
In thermal engineering, thermal contact resistance represents the resistance to the heat
conduction between two solid bodies. When components are bolted or otherwise pressed
together, a knowledge of the thermal performance of such joints are also needed. In these
composite systems, the temperature drop across the interface between materials may be
appreciable

Objectives
1. To plot the measured temperature versus distance curve, and hence, to determine the
temperature gradient.
2. To determine thermal conductivity of the metal specimen.
3. To compare the calculated thermal conductivity of the metal specimen with its
standard value.
4. To study the significance of thermal contact resistance.

Experimental Setup

4
 Specimen
Al

X=0
X1 = 6mm

X2 = 52mm

Specimen Cu X3 = 69mm
X=L X4 = 97mm
L = 102 ( total
length)

Fig 1. Schematic Diagram of the Experimental Setup.

A schematic diagram of the experimental setup is shown in Fig. 1. The apparatus consists of a
vertical stack of specimens clamped between an electrically heated source at the top and a
water cooled base, all contained within a Dewar vessel and furnished with a radiation shield
and anticonvection baffle. The specimens are fitted with very small thermocouples at known
distances apart and connected via a selector switch to a digital temperature readout. The
heating current is supplied from a variable voltage power pack and displayed on a digital
ammeter. The water cooled base is designed as a calorimeter to measure the heat flow and
fitted with very accurate thermometers in the water circuit. Cooling water is supplied from the
constant head water tank mounted above the Dewar vessel. A selection of cylindrical
specimens of different materials is provided. A Copper specimen is given of 25mm diameter
and 38mm long and a Aluminum specimen is given of 25mm diameter and 64 mm long both
having cross sectional area of 4.9 x 10‫־‬4 m2.

Experimental Procedures
1. The apparatus has been assembled with one short specimen (Cu) in the lower position
and one long specimen (Al) in the upper position.

5
2. The clamping lever being held positioned on the front of the apparatus in the downward
position the specimen is placed between the heater and calorimeter block, and clamped
in the position by releasing the lever.
3. The thermocouple has been inserted in the sequence that they are wired to the support
posts, into the holes provided in the sample. The potentiometer-measuring instrument
has been connected to the terminals provided on front of the panel.
4. The Dewar vessel has been placed on position over the specimens.
5. The thermometers has been fitted into the special leak proof connections provided on
the top of the calorimeter base (left hand water out, right hand water in), and the water
pipes from the water supply to the header tank, the header tank to the inlet on the
apparatus, the apparatus outlet connection to drain, via the spring valve provided and the
header tank overflow to drain.
6. Turn on the water supply and adjust the flow at source to give a small regular overflow
from the constant head tank to drain. Adjust the height of the header tank and the clip on
the outlet hose to obtain a water flow through the apparatus of 0.5 to 1 cc/sec., whilst
maintaining the overflow. During the experiment, if necessary, readjust the clip on the
outlet hose to prevent the difference in temperature between the two mercury-in-glass
thermometers from exceeding 10°C, whilst maintaining the small overflow to drain.
7. The supply voltage has been checked as indicated on the serial number label positioned
on the back of the apparatus is correct. The apparatus has already been connected to a
single phase AC supply point using the socket provided in the right hand side of the
apparatus. The unit is then switched on.
8. The heat delivered to the sample is controlled by regulating the current supplied to the
heater block using the control knob positioned on the front panel under the ammeter.
Turn the knob fully clockwise so that the maximum current is supplied to the heater
until temperature T4, as indicated by the thermocouple selection knob on the front panel
approaches to 80°C and maintained at this temperature until the thermocouples indicate
a stable output.

Governing Equations
The generalized three-dimensional heat conduction equation for a solid body with constant
thermal conductivity in Cartesian coordinate can be expressed as:
 2T  2T  2T q 1 T
+ + + = , (3)
x 2 y 2 z 2 k  t
where,

6
T = Temperature distribution at any location in the body (C or K)
x, y, z = Cartesian coordinates (m)
q''' = Internal heat generation rate per unit volume (W/m3)
k = Thermal conductivity of the body (W/mK)
α = Thermal diffusivity [= k/ρCp] of the body (m2/s)
t = Time (s)
ρ = Density of the body (kg/m3)
Cp = Specific heat at constant pressure (J/kgK)

Assumptions
Following assumptions are made in order to simplify the generalized equation (3) applicable
for performing the experiment:
1. The heat flow is one-dimensional, i.e., temperature varies along x-direction only. This is
achieved by putting insulation around the circumferential surface area of the specimen.
2. Material is homogeneous and isotropic, and there is no internal heat generation.
3. Bounding surfaces of the experimental setup are isothermal in character.
4. The temperature gradient in the direction of heat flow is constant, i.e., the temperature
profile is linear.
5. Heat conduction in steady state condition is achieved before final data is recorded.

Derivations of Temperature Distribution

Under the above assumptions, Eq. (3) can be reduced to the following form,
d 2T
= 0. (4)
dx 2
Integrating Eq. (4) twice with respect to x results,
T = c1 x + c2 , (5)
where, c1 and c2 are integration constants and can be determined from the appropriate
boundary conditions. At steady state condition, the following boundary conditions are
satisfied: at x = 0, T = To and at x = L, T = TL.
Applying these boundary conditions on Eq. (5), the following expression is obtained,
T − To x
= , (6)
TL − To L
where,
T = Temperature of the section at any distance x (C)
To = Temperature of section at x = 0 (C)

7
TL = Temperature of section at x = L (C)
x = Any distance along the specimen (m)
L = Distance along the specimen between the sections at x = 0 and x = L (m)

Equation (6) can be rearranged as follows for determination of the theoretical temperature
distribution (Tt) along the specimen,
x
Tt = (TL − To ) + To . (7)
L

Determination of Heat Transfer Rate

Under steady state condition, the conduction heat transfer along the specimen is equal to the
rate of heat carried away by the flowing water. Hence, the heat balance relation becomes,
Qc = Qw = mwC p Tw , (8)
where,
Qc = Conduction heat transfer along the specimen (W)
Qw = Heat carried away by water (W)
mw = Mass flow rate [= Ww/t] of water (kg/s)
Ww = Weight of collected water (kg)
t = time required for water collection (s)
Cp = Specific heat of water at constant pressure evaluated at Tw (J/kgK)
Tw = Mean/bulk temperature [= (Two + Twi)/2] of water (°C)
∆Tw = Rise in temperature [= Two − Twi] of flowing water (°C)
Twi = Water temperature at inlet (°C)
Two = Water temperature at outlet (°C)

Determination of Thermal Conductivity

Using Eqs. (2) and (8), one can obtained the thermal conductivity of a metal as follows:
dT
k = − mwC p Tw A , (9)
dx
where,
A = Cross-sectional area (= D2/4) of the cylindrical copper specimen (m2)
D = Diameter of the cylindrical copper specimen (m)
dT/dx = Temperature gradient obtained from experimentally measured temperature (Te)
versus distance (x) curve (W/m)

8
As per the manufacturing catalogue, the value of thermal conductivity for Aluminum (Al) is
172 W/mk, and for Copper (Cu) is 400 W/mk.

Discussion
1. Briefly explain the nature of experimental temperature distribution plot.
2. Is there any deviation in the values of thermal conductivity obtained in the two
observations during the experiment? If yes, why?
3. Is there any discrepancy between the actual and the experimental values? If yes, why?
4. Discuss about thermal contact resistance from the measured temperature vs distance
graph.
5. What happens to the thermal contact resistance if the spring pressure is increased? Also
what will be the scenario if an absolute pressure is given

Conclusion
Write down the summary of key findings and observations as outlined in the objectives of this
experiment.

Review Questions:
1. What do you mean by steady state condition and why is it necessary?
2. How can you maintain one-dimensional steady state heat conduction?
3. How does the value of thermal conductivity of copper vary with the change of its
temperature?
4. How does the temperature gradient of a solid metal change with its thermal conductivity
for a constant heat flux condition?
5. Does the conductivity of materials change with the change of water flow rate?

9
 Data Sheet
Determination of Thermal Conductivity of Metals (Cu and Al)

Material of the cylinder is copper and aluminum

Diameter of the Cu cylinder, DCu = ………25.................mm
Diameter of the Al cylinder, DAl = ………25.................mm

Thermocouple used:
Type:_______, Material: _________________________, Range: ______________________

Weight of the empty container, Wc = ………... ...................................................kg

Distance between consecutive thermocouple position, ∆x = ………......................mm
Length of the specimen considered for temperature measurement, L = ..102..............mm

Table 1: Collection of experimental data for different steady state conditions.

Experimentally
measured Water temperature Weight of Time of
Distance, temperature container collection
No. of
x (thermocouple Inlet Outlet with water, of water,
Obs.
(m) reading), Twi Two Wwc t
Te (°C) (°C) (kg) (s)
(°C)
1
2
1
3
4
1
2
2
3
4

Obs 1 and 2 are for different flow rates of water.

10
 Calculation Sheet
Table 2: Calculation of various parameters and thermal conductivity.

Observation
Calculated Parameters No.
1 2
dT/dx (C/m or K/m) [slope of Te versus x curve]

Cross-sectional area of the specimen, A (m2) [= D2 / 4]

Weight of water collected, Ww (kg) [= Wwc − Wc]

Mass flow rate of water, mw (kg/s) [= Ww / t]

Average water temperature, Tw (C) [= (Two + Twi) / 2]

Specific heat of water at Tw, Cp (J/kgK) [use Appendix C]

Temperature rise of water, ∆Tw (C) [= Two − Twi]

Heat carried away by water, Qw (W) [use Eq.(8)]

Thermal conductivity of copper, kCu (W/mK) [use Eq.(9)]

Thermal conductivity of aluminum, kAl (W/mK) [use Eq.(9)]

Error (%) [= (ks − k) / ks   100]

Please bring 2 numbers of normal mm graph papers for this experiment.

11
 Experiment No. 2
Study of Forced Convection Heat Transfer Over a Flat Plate
Introduction
When fluid flows over a solid body or inside a channel, while temperatures of the fluid and
the solid surface are different, heat transfer between the fluid and the solid surface takes place
as a consequence of the motion of the fluid relative to the surface; this mechanism of heat
transfer is called convection. If the fluid motion is artificially induced, say with a pump or a
fan that forces the fluid flow over the surface, the heat transfer is said to be by forced
convection. If the fluid motion is set up by buoyancy effects resulting from density difference
caused by temperature difference in the fluid, the heat transfer is said to be by free (or natural)
convection.

There are numerous important engineering applications in which, heat transfer for flow over
bodies such as a flat plate, a sphere, a circular tube or a tube bundle are needed.

Depending on the fluid flows over/through the geometry, forced convection can be divided
into internal forced convection (flow is confined within a channel, example: flow inside a
heated tube) or external forced convection (flow occurs over a surface, example: flow over a
flat plate). Fluid flow can also be laminar, transition or turbulent in nature.

When a fluid flows along a surface, irrespective of whether the flow is laminar or turbulent,
the particles near the surface are slowed down by virtue of viscous forces. The fluid particles
adjacent to the surface stick to it and have zero velocity relative to the boundary (no-slip
condition). Other fluid particles attempting to slide over them are retarded because of an
interaction between faster and slower moving fluid, a phenomenon that gives rise to shearing
forces. The effects of the viscous forces originating at the boundary extend into the body of
the fluid, but a short distance from the surface until the velocity of the fluid particles
approaches that of the undisturbed free stream. The layer, which separates the fluid contained
within the region of the substantial velocity change, is called the hydrodynamic boundary
layer. The thickness of this boundary layer has been defined as the distance from the surface
at which the local velocity reaches 99% of the external velocity (i.e., free steam velocity). The
thermal boundary layer also develops along with the hydrodynamic boundary layer due to
temperature difference between the surface and the flowing fluid, and the thickness of this
boundary layer is defined as the distance from the surface at which the temperature difference

12
of the fluid from the surface reaches 99% of the temperature difference between the surface
and the free steam value. The relative positions of the hydrodynamic and the thermal
boundary layer depend on the value of the Prandtl number. These two boundary layers will
coincide with each other, if the value of the Prandtl number is equal to unity. On the other
hand, the thermal boundary layer becomes thicker than the hydrodynamic boundary layer
when the Prandtl number reaches below unity. Many research have been conducted on forced
convection over flat plates and many empirical correlations were proposed depending on the
flow and the thermal conditions.

Objectives
1. To determine Reynolds number and the critical length of the plate, and to identify the
type of flow over the plate.
2. To calculate the average convection heat transfer coefficient from thermal balance
relation (experimental results) and compare those with the theoretical results
(empirical correlations).
3. To plot surface temperature distribution along the plate for different heat inputs.
4. To plot the variation of average convection heat transfer coefficient (both theoretical
and experimental) with the heat input.

Experimental Setup

U-tube manometer

Fig 1. Schematic Diagram of the Experimental Setup.

13
A schematic diagram of the experimental setup is shown in Fig. 1. The main frame of the
experimental setup consists of a wind tunnel fitted with an Induced Draft (ID) fan (type-
aerofoil, rpm - 2800) to create forced flow through the tunnel, and a horizontal flat plate. The
length and the width of the plate are 50.80 and 15.94 cm, respectively and it is placed at the
middle of the cross-section of the wind tunnel using a support stand. The flat plate is
constructed in such a way that there is a sandwich like heating coil placed inside the plate. As
a result, the top and the bottom surfaces of the plate are heated uniformly by the heating coil.
Insulation is applied on the surrounding sides of the plate in order to make the heat flow one-
dimensional.

At the entry of the wind tunnel, a pitot-static tube is placed along the air-flow direction, which
is connected to a U-tube manometer filled with water. Heat input is regulated by a variac and
is measured by a wattmeter. Thermocouple wires are attached to the heated surface of the
plate at five different locations along the plate. Temperature reading from the thermocouples
can be controlled using a multipoint selector (rotary type) switch and can be recorded from a
digital temperature indicator. Other apparatus of the setup is wall-mounted thermometer to
measure surrounding air temperature of the room.

Experimental Procedures
1. Turn on the wind tunnel by switching on the ID fan, and ensure power supply to the
heating coil of the flat plate.
2. Adjust the variac in order to set the desired power input to the electric heater.
3. Observe the temperature readings of the thermocouples and wait for steady state
condition. When the steady state is reached, the temperature readings will not change
significantly.
4. Once the steady state condition is attained, record the temperature reading of the
thermocouples from the digital temperature indicator for all five locations of the plate
surface.
5. Record manometer deflection from U-tube manometer, room temperature from wall-
mounted thermometer and the supplied power input from wattmeter.
6. Repeat steps 2-4 for different power inputs.

Assumptions
Following assumptions are considered during the experiment:
1. Steady state is attained before recording the final data.

14
 2. Loss of heat by conduction through thermocouple wires and the support stand for the
flat plate is neglected.
3. Heat loss through the side ends of the plate has been ignored.
4. Flow is considered as incompressible and uniform over the flat plate.
5. Both hydrodynamic and thermal boundary layers are considered to be developed over
the top and the bottom surfaces of the plate thoroughly without being distorted by the
support stand.

Governing Equations
Air Velocity in the Wind Tunnel
We know, P = ρgh
Hence, for a certain constant pressure, ρairhair = ρwaterhwater
 water hwater
hair = , (1)
 air
where,
hair = Equivalent deflection of air in manometer (m)
hwater = Deflection of water in manometer (m)
ρair = Density of air at room temperature (kg/m3)
ρwater = Density of water at room temperature (kg/m3)

Now, the velocity of air (V) in m/s flowing through the wind tunnel is,
V = 2 ghair . (2)

Governing Parameters for External Forced Convection Heat Transfer

Table 1: List of governing parameters for external forced convection heat transfer.
Parameters Definition Expression Limiting Value
Reynolds Inertia Force VL Recr = 5  105 for flow over a flat
Re L =
Number Viscous Force  plate
Prandtl Momentum Diffusivity  Pr  0.7 for air and
Pr =
Number Thermal Diffusivity  Pr  4.1 ~ 6.5 for water (20° ~ 40°C)
Nusselt Convection hL Nu = 1 for pure conduction
Nu L =
Number Conduction k Nu > 1 for convection
Here, ν, α, k are kinematic viscosity (m2/s), thermal diffusivity (m2/s) and thermal
conductivity (W/mK) of fluid, respectively, L is the length of the plate (m) and h is the
convection heat transfer coefficient (W/m2K), Recr is the critical Reynolds number.

15
Thermo-physical properties of the fluid should be taken at film temperature,
(Ts + T ) , 1
Tf =
2
Ts =  Tsi
n i =1,2 n
(3)

where, Ts is the average surface temperature (C or K) and T is the ambient temperature of
flowing fluid (C or K).

Critical Length of the Plate

It is the length up to which the flow is laminar. The ratio of the critical length (xcr) to the
length of the plate (L) can be calculated from the following relation:
xcr Recr 5 105
= = . (4)
L ReL ReL
Using the ratio of xcr/L and the value of ReL, one can identify the type of flow over a flat plate
as listed in Table 2.

Empirical Correlations of Average Nusselt Number

Table 2: List of empirical correlations for forced convection over a flat plate.
Type of Thermal Boundary Conditions
Restrictions
flow Isothermal (Tw = constant) Isoflux (qw = constant)
ReL < 5  105
Laminar 0.6 < Pr < 50 Nu L = 0.664Re1L/ 2 Pr1/ 3 Nu L = 0.680Re1L/ 2 Pr1/ 3
xcr/L > 0.7

5  105  ReL  107

Turbulent 0.6  Pr  60 Nu L = 0.037Re4L/ 5 Pr1/ 3 Nu L = 0.037Re4L/ 5 Pr1/ 3
xcr/L < 0.3
Partly
5  105  ReL  107 0.037Re 4L/ 5 Pr1/ 3
Laminar,
Partly 0.6  Pr  60 Nu L = ( 0.037Re 4/ 5
L − 871) Pr 1/ 3
Nu L =
1 + 12.33 106 Re −L6 / 5
0.3 ≤ xcr/L ≤ 0.7
Turbulent
Here, Tw is the wall temperature of the flat plate and qw is the wall heat flux applied on the flat
plate.

Once the average Nusselt number is calculated from the appropriate correlation listed in
Table 2, the theoretical average convection heat transfer coefficient is obtained as follows:
NuL k
h= . (5)
L

16
Thermal Balance Relation
The fluid must take away the heat supplied to the plate under steady state condition. Hence,
heat balance relation is as follows:
Qs = QC + QR + QK , (6)
where, Qs – Heat Supplied to the plate (W)
QC – Convection Heat Transfer by the flowing fluid (W)
QR – Radiation Heat Transfer by the flowing fluid (W)
QK – Conduction Heat Transfer through thermocouple wires and support stand for the
plate (neglected) (W)
Now, from Newton’s law of cooling,
QC = hA (Ts − T ) (7)
where,
h = Average convection heat transfer coefficient (W/m2K)
A = Total area (= 2  L  W) of the top and the bottom surfaces of the plate (m2)
W = Width of the plate (m)
Ts = Average surface temperature of the plate (C or K)
T = Ambient temperature of the flowing fluid (C or K)
Similarly, from Stefan-Boltzmann’s law,
QR =  A (Ts4 − T4 ) , (8)
where,
Ts = Average surface temperature of the plate (K)
T = Ambient temperature of the flowing fluid (K)
 = Stefan-Boltzmann constant (= 5.669  10-8 W/m2K4)
 = Emissivity of the heated plate
Then, using (7) and (8) in Eq.(6), one can get the expression of average convection heat
transfer coefficient (experimental result) as follows:
Qs −  A (Ts4 − T4 )
h=
A (Ts − T )
(9)
Qs − 2 LW  (Ts4 − T4 )
h= .
2 LW (Ts − T )

17
Discussions
1. Discuss the benefits of calculating average convective heat transfer coefficient over local
convective heat transfer coefficient.
2. Discuss the nature temperature profile of the flat plate along its length.
3. Discuss the effect of variation of power input on average convection heat transfer
coefficient.
4. Discuss the reasons for difference between the experimental and the theoretical values of
the convective heat transfer coefficient.
5. Show the development of typical hydrodynamic and thermal boundary layers over the flat
plate that you expect from your experimental results.

Conclusions
Write down the summary of key findings and observations as outlined in the objectives of this
experiment.

Sample Quiz Questions:

1. What is the function of pitot-static tube?
2. What are the advantages of using induced draft (ID) fan over forced draft (FD) fan?
3. What will happen when water is flowing over the heated flat plate instead of air? Explain
with the concept of hydrodynamic and thermal boundary layers.
4. What are the physical significances of Reynolds number, Prandtl number and Nusselt
number?
5. For forced convection heat transfer, Nu = f(Re, Pr). With this correlation, explain the
possible ways to enhance the convection heat transfer coefficient.

18
 Data Sheet
Study of Forced Convection Heat Transfer Over a Flat Plate

Material of the plate is copper

Length of copper plate, L = ……….........................m
Width of the copper plate, W = ……............................m

Thermocouple used:
Type:_______, Material: _________________________, Range: ______________________

Ambient (room) temperature of flowing fluid, T∞ = ………............°C

Density of air at T∞, ρair = ………........... kg/m3 [use Appendix B]
Density of water at T∞, ρwater = ………............kg/m3 [use Appendix C]
Emissivity of copper plate, ε = 0.78

Table 1: Collection of experimental data for different observations.

Thermocouple reading (°C) Inlet Manometer
Power
No. x1 (m) x2 (m) x3 (m) x4 (m) x5 (m) Air deflection
Input,
of ………. ………. ………. ………. ………. Temp, of water,
Qin
Obs. No.1 No.2 No.3 No.4 No.5 T∞ hwater
(W)
Ts1 Ts2 Ts3 Ts4 Ts5 (°C) (m)
1

19
 Calculation Sheet

Table 2: Thermo-physical properties of air at different film temperatures.

Observation No. 1 Observation No. 2 Observation No. 3
Properties
Film temperature, Film temperature, Film temperature,
of air
Tf = ……..........K Tf = ……..........K Tf = ……..........K
k (W/mK)
α (m2/s)
ν (m2/s)

Calculated Result

Table 3: Calculated governing parameters and convection heat transfer coefficient.

Average Convection Heat Transfer
Power Air Governing Coefficient,
Observation

Input Velocity Parameters h

No.

Qs V (W/m2K)
(W) (m/s) xcr Empirical Correlation Thermal Balance
ReL Pr
L Isothermal Isoflux Experimental
1

Please bring two normal mm graph papers for this experiment.

20
 Appendix A

Figure: A. Calibration Curve for Incidental Heat Transfer with Temperature Difference.

21
 Appendix B

Thermodynamic Properties of Dry Air at Atmospheric Pressure

Coefficient Specific Thermal Thermal Absolute Kinematic
Temperature Density of thermal heat conductivity diffusivity viscosity viscosity
 expansion cp k   106   106   106
T kg/m 3
  10 3
J/kg K W/m K m2/s Ns/m2 m2/s
°F K °C
1/K
32 273 0 1.252 3.66 1011 0.0237 19.2 17.456 13.9
68 293 20 1.164 3.41 1012 0.0251 22.0 18.240 15.7
104 313 40 1.092 3.19 1014 0.0265 24.8 10.123 17.6
140 333 60 1.025 3.00 1017 0.0279 27.6 10.907 19.4
176 353 80 0.968 2.83 1019 0.0293 30.6 20.790 21.5
212 373 100 0.916 2.68 1022 0.0307 33.6 21.673 23.6
392 473 200 0.723 2.11 1035 0.0370 49.7 25.693 35.5

Appendix C

Thermodynamic Properties of Water at Saturation Pressure

Specific Thermal Thermal Absolute Kinematic
Temperature Density heat conductivity diffusivity viscosity viscosity
 cp k   106   106   106
T kg/m 3
W/m K 2
m /s m2/s
J/kg K Ns/m2
°F K °C
32 273 0 999.9 4226 0.558 0.131 1794 1.789
41 278 5 1000 4206 0.568 0.135 1535 1.535
50 283 10 999.7 4195 0.577 0.137 1296 1.300
59 288 15 999.1 4187 0.585 0.141 1136 1.146
68 293 20 998.2 4182 0.597 0.143 993 1.006
77 298 25 997.1 4178 0.606 0.146 880.6 0.884
86 303 30 995.7 4176 0.615 0.149 792.4 0.805
95 308 35 994.1 4175 0.624 0.150 719.8 0.725
104 313 40 992.2 4175 0.633 0.151 658.0 0.658
113 318 45 990.2 4176 0.640 0.155 605.1 0.611
122 323 50 988.1 4178 0.646 0.157 555.1 0.556
Example : Here, if  106 = 1.781, then  = 1.78110−6 N s / m 2
Again if  10 = 1.785 , then  = 1.78510−1 m2/s

22
 Experiment No. 3
Study of Radiation Heat Transfer
Introduction
Heat transfer from a hot solid body to the surroundings takes place mainly by two processes:
convection and radiation. Radiation is the heat transfer by the emission of electromagnetic
waves, which carries energy away from the emitting object. For ordinary temperatures (less
than red-hot), the radiation is in the infrared region of the electromagnetic spectrum. Heat loss
by radiation does not depend on the nature of the surrounding fluid. Radiation may take place
through perfect vacuum. However, heat transfer by convection depends on the conditions of
the surrounding fluid.

If a hot object (electrically heated element) radiates energy at a temperature TE to its cooler
surroundings (inside a vessel) at a temperature of TV, the net heat transfer by radiation can be
calculated with the help of the Stefan-Boltzmann Law as given below:
QR =  A (TE4 − TV4 ) , (1)
where,
QR = Radiation heat transfer from the hot body (W)
TE = Absolute temperature of the body (K)
TV = Absolute temperature of the surrounding (K)
A = Exposed area of the body (m2)
 = Emissivity of the surface of the body
 = Stefan-Boltzmann constant (= 5.669  10-8 W/m2K4)

Objectives
1. To determine temperature difference (TE – TV) at zero pressure by plotting (TE – TV)
versus H1/4 graph.
2. To determine the emissivity of the electrically heated element.
3. To calculate the radiation heat transfer.
4. To analyze the variation of radiation heat transfer with (TE – TV), and hence, to
calculate radiation heat transfer coefficient.
5. To calculate the heat loss by convection.

23
Experimental Setup
A schematic of the experimental setup is shown in Fig. 1. The setup consists of a cylindrical
pressure vessel (of diameter 450 mm and height 465 mm) containing a solid cylindrical
element (6.35 mm in diameter and 160 mm in length) as a test specimen. The vessel may be
charged with air or other gas at wide range of pressures. The element is suspended
horizontally from the top cover-plate of the vessel and is finished with a matt black surface.
The top cover plate, from which the element is suspended, is fixed with bolts. The solid
element is heated internally by means of glass-insulated electric heater and its surface
temperature is measured by a thermocouple at a certain point.

Ammeter
Voltmeter

Electric wire Thermocouple

wire
pump

Cylindrical
solid element
Thermocouple wire
U-tube
manometer

Fig 1. Schematic Diagram of the Experimental Setup.

The solid element is located at sufficiently remote from the walls of the vessel to get
substantial free convection. The heat input to the element may range up to about 10W and the
maximum working temperature is 200°C. With this small heat input, heating of the pressure
vessel walls is considered to be negligible, and the temperature of the surrounding air/gas
inside the vessel may be taken as equal to that of the inner wall of the vessel, which is
measured by a thermocouple fitted to the vessel wall. The pressure vessel is connected by a

24
copper tube and an isolating valve to an electrically driven vacuum pump (single stage, rotary
type, capacity: 84 liters/min). The pressure in the vessel is determined by the mercury U-tube
manometer. Other apparatus of the setup are barometer, voltmeter, ammeter, digital
temperature indicator, rheostat, isolating control valve, selector switch, etc.

Experimental Procedures
1. The experiment will start with switching on the vacuum pump to evacuate the vessel
until the pressure in the vessel is reduced to the minimum attainable absolute pressure.
2. Then the heater will be turned on adjusting the rheostat for a power input of about 5W.
3. Next, the isolating valve will be closed, and the vacuum pump will be shut off.
4. Now allow sufficient time in order to achieve the steady state condition, which will be
indicated from the temperature readings of the thermocouples. When the temperature
readings become almost constant with respect to time, the steady state is attained.
5. Note down the temperatures of the element and the vessel. Also, record the manometer
deflection reading, voltmeter and ammeter readings.
6. Repeat the experiment at progressively higher pressures by letting the surrounding air
to enter the vessel with the help of slowing opening the isolating control valve. The
final reading will be taken at fully open condition of the control valve, when the
pressure inside the vessel is equal to the atmospheric pressure.
7. In order to maintain constant heat input during each observation, check the voltmeter
and the ammeter readings to ensure that they have remained approximately constant.
This can be achieved by adjusting the rheostat if necessary.

Assumptions
Following assumptions are considered during the experiment:
1. Steady state condition is maintained before recording the final data.
2. Readings recorded by voltmeter and ammeter are kept constant throughout the
experiment.
3. Power loss due to electrical resistance of the leads remains constant at 4 percent.

Governing Equations
Heat Supplied to the Element
Since a power loss of 4% of the product VI is considered as a consequence of the electrical
resistance of the leads that supply power and support it, the expression of heat input to the
solid element becomes,

25
 Qs = 0.96VI , (2)
where,
Qs = Supplied heat input to the element (W)
V = Voltmeter reading (V)
I = Ammeter reading (A)

Heat Loss by Conduction

A small part of the heat supplied to the element is lost through conduction along the leads and
along the thermocouple wires. This loss is equivalent to the following approximation:
QK = 0.0017 (TE − TV ) , (3)
where,
QK = Conduction heat transfer along thermocouple wires and along the leads (W)
TE = Temperature of the solid cylindrical element (°C or K)
TV = Temperature of the vessel wall (°C or K)

Equivalent Surface Area

Due to the connection of the current carrying leads and the thermocouple leads to the solid
cylindrical element, the surface area of the element including the end surfaces may be
calculated using the following relation,
  D2 
A = 1.02  +  DL  , (4)
 2 
where,
A = Total exposed surface area of the element (m2)
D = Diameter of the cylindrical solid element (m)
L = Length of the cylindrical solid element (m)

Heat Loss by Convection

The surrounding fluid must take away the heat supplied to the element. Hence, heat balance
relation is as follows:
QS = QC + QR + QK , (5)
where, QC is convection heat loss by the surrounding fluid (W). Now, using (1), (2) and (3) in
Eq.(5), one can get the expression of convection heat loss as follows:
QC = QS − QR − QK = 0.96VI −  A (TE4 − TV4 ) − 0.0017 (TE − TV ) . (6)

26
Emissivity of the Element
If the pressure vessel can be maintained in perfect vacuum condition, there will be no heat
loss by convection, and then Eq.(6) is reduced to as follows:
0 = 0.96VI −  A (TE4 − TV4 ) − 0.0017 (TE − TV )
0.96VI − 0.0017 (TE − TV ) (7)
 = .
A (TE4 − TV4 )
In order to determine the emissivity of the element () from Eq.(7), it is necessary to measure
temperatures of the element and the vessel at zero pressure (perfect vacuum condition).
However, due to limitation of experimental setup, it is not possible to attain perfect vacuum
condition. Hence, an alternate procedure is followed for calculating the emissivity as
mentioned in the following steps:
1. Plot temperature difference (TE – TV) versus H1/4 graph (where, H is the absolute
pressure in mmHg) and determine (TE – TV) at zero pressure from extrapolation.
2. Assume TV at the lowest pressure reading as the value of TV at zero pressure. Hence,
calculate TE at zero pressure from the extrapolation data of (TE – TV) at zero pressure
as obtained in the previous step.
3. Finally, insert the values of TE, TV, V, I, , and A from Eq.(4) in Eq.(7) to calculate the
emissivity of the element.

Radiation Heat Transfer Coefficient

Since QR versus (TE − TV) graph is almost linear, one can consider the following relationship
analogous to Newton’s law of cooling for convection heat transfer:
QR = hR A (TE − TV ) , (8)
where, hR is the radiation heat transfer coefficient (W/m2K) and can be obtained from the
slope of the QR versus (TE − TV) curve as follows:
slope
hR = . (9)
A

Discussions
1. Briefly explain the nature of (TE − TV) versus H1/4 graph.
2. Discuss the effects of temperature difference on radiation heat transfer from QR versus
(TE − TV) graph obtained from the experiment.
3. Discuss on the value of radiation heat transfer coefficient (hR) obtained from the
experiment.

27
4. Discuss the reasons for difference between the expected value and the calculated value of
emissivity obtained from the experiment.

Conclusions
Write down the summary of key findings and observations as outlined in the objectives of this
experiment.

Sample Quiz Questions:

1. What is emissivity and how does its value vary from black body to white body?
2. What are the limitations of calculating emissivity of the element observed during the
experiment?
3. Mention the factors on which the rate of emission of radiation depends.

28
 Data Sheet
Study of Radiation Heat Transfer

Diameter of the solid element, D = ……….................m

Length of the solid element, L = …..…....................m

Thermocouple used:
Type:_______, Material: _________________________, Range: ______________________

Barometric Pressure, Patm = ………..................mm Hg

Table 1: Collection of experimental data for different observations.

Supply Supply U-tube Manometer Element Vessel
No. of Voltage, Current, reading, temperature, temperature,
Observation V I h TE TV
(V) (A) (mmHg) (°C) (°C)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

29
 Calculation Sheet

Table 2: Calculated various parameters and emissivity of the element.

Number of Observations
Calculated Parameters
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
TE (K)
TV (K)
TE − TV (K)
H = Patm – h (mm Hg)
H1/4 (mm Hg)1/4
A (m2) [use Eq.(4)]
 [use Eq.(7)]
QS (W) [use Eq.(2)]
QK (W) [use Eq.(3)]
QR (W) [use Eq.(1)]
QC (W) [use Eq.(6)]
hR (W/m2K) [use Eq.(9)]

Please bring two mm graph papers for this experiment.

30