AL-ITQĀN

JOURNAL OF ISLAMIC SCIENCES AND COMPARATIVE STUDIES

Volume: 5 Issue No. 2 August 2021

EDITOR IN-CHIEF
Dr. Wan Mohd Azam Mohd Amin

MANAGING EDITOR
Dr. Masitoh Ahmad

EDITORIAL BOARD
Dr. Syed Arabi Aidid, IIUM.
Dr. Hassan Basri Mat Dahan, Universiti Sains Islam Malaysia,
Nilai, Negeri Sembilan
Dr. Kamaruzaman Yusuff, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak,
Kota Semarahan, Kucing.
Dr. Kamar Oniah, IIUM.
Dr. Mumtaz Ali, IIUM.
Dr. Noor Amali Mohd Daud, IIUM.
Dr. Adibah Abdul Rahim, IIUM.
Dr. Haslina Ibrahim, IIUM.
Dr. Siti Akmar, Universiti Institut Teknologi MARA, Shah Alam
Dr. Thameem Ushama, IIUM.
 INTERNATIONAL ADVISORY BOARD

Dr. Muhammad Afifi al-Akiti, Oxford University, UK

Dr. Abdullah M. al-Syarqawi, Cairo University, Egypt.
Dr. Abdul Kabir Hussain Solihu, Kwara State University, Nigeria.
Dr. Anis Ahmad, Riphah International University, Islamabad.
Dr. ASM Shihabuddin, Uttara University, Dhakka, Bangladesh.
Dr. Fatimah Abdullah, Sabahattin Zaim University,Turkey.
Dr. Ibrahim M. Zein, Qatar Foundation, Qatar.
Dr. Khalid Yahya, Temple University, USA.

© 2017 IIUM Press, International Islamic University Malaysia. All rights reserved.
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 Table of Contents
A Muslim Brief View on the Trinity: The Doctrine of Oneness of God in
Christianity 5-19
Ungaran Rashid
Examining the Concept of Pan-Islamism
21-51
Spahic Omer
Atheism and Atheists: Western and Islamic Perspective
53-70
Nur Afifah Abdul Razak
Wan Mohd Azam Mohd Amin
Islamic and Western Higher Education Systems: A Comparative Analysis
71-97
Nur Irdina Hakimah Nor Razali
Nur Suriya Mohd Nor
Abū Zayd al-Balkhi‘s Sustenance of the Soul and the Development of
Self-Control
99-115
Afifah Shamsuddin
Amilah Awang Abd Rahman @ Jusoh
The Notion of Afterlife in Islam and Sikhism and Its Implication on Muslims
and Sikhs Lives
117-135
Muhammad Hanif Ismail
Mohd Noh Abdul Jalil
Social Cohession in the Views of Islam and Buddhism: A Textual Analysis

Mohamed Ashath 137-158

Nur Suriya Mohd Nor
The Muslim Minority in Myanmar: The Struggle for Identity amidst A
Continous Political Crisis
159-198
Tin Aung Myint @ Asad
Noor Amali Mohd Daud
Raḥmatullah al-Kairanawi and His Work Entitled “Izhar al-Ḥaq” External
Criticism toward Gospel
199-218
Aisyatur Rabiah Abdullah
Maziah Mustapha
The Rebuttal of the Literalist Interpretation of the Bible: The Example of
Stepphen Sizer 219-248
Bachar Bakour
The Foundation of al-Qawāʿid al-Fiqhiyyah According to Four Madhhabs
249-275
Heri Firmansyah
Irham Dongoran
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AL-ITQĀN
Vol. No. 5, Issue No. 2, August, 2021, 5-19
Copyright © IIUM Press
eISSN 2600-8432

A Muslim’s Brief View on the Trinity:

The Doctrine of Oneness of God in Christianity
Ungaran Rashid*

Abstract
This article tries to observe the understanding of God in Christianity. The
researcher chooses Christianity because the idea of God in Christianity is
unique. On the one hand, Christianity claims a monotheistic religion because
Christianity follows the belief system of Abraham, who understands God as
one. On the other hand, Christianity also believes that God is in three persons,
which are the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit, which seems to be
polytheistic. The uniqueness of the concept of God in Christianity will be
examined, either biblical-based or philosophical. This article isprimarily
based on the library research, including books, journals, encyclopaediaas, and
internet resouces. Besides, the researcher uses mostly Christian literatures to
maintain the objectivity of the research.
Keywords: Trinity, Bible, Christianity

Introduction
God, who is the Creator of heaven and earth and all things in them, has
revealed Himself to His creation, especially humankind. God also tries to
communicate with humanity through His messengers and prophets.
Nevertheless, human beings understand God, as their Creator, in different
ways, depending on their religious and cultural background, or perhaps
depending on their way of thinking. Therefore, some people believe that
God is one, according to their interpretation of the Scriptures, but some
may hold that God is more than one, or perhaps, some may say that God
exists in every part of His creation.
This article tries to observe the understanding of God in
Christianity. The researcher chooses Christianity because the idea of
God in Christianity is unique. On the one hand, Christianity claims a
monotheistic religion because Christianity follows the belief system of
Abraham, who understands God as one. On the other hand, Christianity
also believes that God is in three persons, which are the Father, the Son,
and the Holy Spirit, which seems to be polytheistic. The uniqueness of
*
Asst. Prof. Dr. Department of Uṣūl al-Dīn and Comparative Religion, Kulliyyah of
Islamic Revealed Knowledge and Human Sciences (KIRKHS), International Islamic
University Malaysia. Email: ungaranrashid @iium.edu.my
6 AMuslim Brief View on the Trinity – Ungaran Rashid

the concept of God in Christianity will be examined, either biblical-

based or philosophical.

Doctrine of Oneness of God in the Bible

The Old Testament, which written in Hebrew, uses ‫( אֱֹלהים‬Elohim), which
is derived from ‫( אֱֹל‬El) in the singular to express the concept of deity or
divinity. Even though Elohim is in the plural form, it does not mean that
God is many. It sometimes used to augment its meaning as divine majesty.
Thus, Elohim is used to point to one God with many attributes.1
Besides, the Old Testament also uses ‫( י ְהוָה‬YHWH) to direct the
personal name of God. According to the Bible, Enos, the grandson of
Noah, is the first one who called the name of God as YHWH.2 It is not
clear either the name YHWH has been used at that time, or Moses, as the
author of the Torah, uses that name to explain his understanding of God.
The Bible, however, does not explain obviously the root name of
YHWH, so there are many theories to clarify the origin name of YHWH.
Nevertheless, the researcher opines that YHWH is derived from the
phrase ‫( אֶ ֶֽ ְהי ֶה ֲאשֶר אֶ ֶֽ ְהי ֶה‬ehye asher ehye) which means ―I am that I am.‖3
Meanwhile New Testament, which written in Greek, uses θεος
(theos) as the name of God. In Greek, theos can be used to refer to: God,
a god; divine beings; divine in nature; figuratively, a human magistrate;
or the devil. Furthermore, the application of the word theos to God and
humans usually distinguished by using the article.4 The application of
the word theos to God and humans usually distinguished by using the
article. For example, ό θεος (ho theos) used to point to God; ό here is a
definite article, which is the in English.
To examine the concept of the oneness of God in the Bible, one can
see directly what the Bible says on that issue. Torah states, ―Hear, O
Israel: The Lord our God, The Lord is one.‖5 Jesus also says, ―This is the
most important one: Hear O Israel, The Lord our God, The Lord is one.‖6
Besides, Paul mentions, "We know that an idol is nothing in the world and

1
G. Johannes Botterweck and Helmer Ringgren (Editors), Thological Dictionary of
the Old Testament Vol. 1, (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans: 1997), p. 273.
2
Genesis 4:26
3
Exodus 3: 14
4
William F. Arndt and F. Wilbur Gingrich, A Greek-English Lexicon of the New
Testament and Other Early Christian Literature, (Chicago: The University of Chicago
Press, 1979), pp. 356-358.
5
Deuteronomy 6: 4
6
Mark 12: 29
 Al-Itqān, Volume 5, Issue No 2, August, 2021 7

that there is no God except one.‖1 Thus, there is not doubtful that the
Bible clearly states that God is one.

Doctrine of Oneness of God in Christianity

Almost every religion has a confession of faith; the Creed may come
either explicitly or implicitly in the Scriptures interpreted by the
founders of the religion. This issue also applies to Christianity because
Christianity has the Holy Scriptures and has some Creeds such as the
Apostle's Creed, Creed of Nicaea, Nicene Creed, Chalcedonian Creed,
and Athanasian Creed.
The Apostles' Creed, which is the oldest among other creeds, adapts
several passages from the Bible and does not mention the divinity of
Jesus Christ. Meanwhile, the other ancient Creeds, which developed in
the early of Christianity, declare the divinity of Jesus. Athanasius' creed,
which is the latest creed among the ancient confessions, begins to allude
to the Trinity doctrine, which is the most crucial doctrine in discussing
the unity of God in Christianity faith.2
Christian Scholars such as Wayne Grudem say that the three in the
oneness of God based on the Bible, although the word Trinity or three in
oneness never found in the Scriptures. Furthermore, the doctrine of the
Trinity used to summarize the teaching of the Scripture or the Bible that
God is three persons yet one God.3 However, Christianity claims that
Trinity is a monotheistic belief since Abraham is the ancestor of the faith
of Christianity. Thus, the doctrine of God in Christianity seems to be
different from the concept of God in the Bible.

Trinity
Terminology
The dictionary reference.com states the term Trinity as follows:
―Trinity, fundamental doctrine in Christianity, by which God is
considered, has existing in three persons. While the doctrine is not
explicitly taught in the New Testament, early Christian communities
testified to a perception that Jesus was God in the flesh; the idea of
the Trinity has been inferred from the Gospel of St. John. The
developed doctrine of the Trinity purports that God exists in three
coequal and coeternal elements - God the Father, God the Son, and
1
1 Corinthians 8: 4
2
Wayne Grudem, Systematic Theology: An Introduction to Biblical Doctrine, (Grand
Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1994), p. 226.
3
Ibid.
8 AMuslim Brief View on the Trinity – Ungaran Rashid

God the Holy Spirit. It sees these "persons" as constituted by their

mutual relations, yet does not mean that God in his essence is Father,
or a male deity. Jesus spoke of a relation of mutual giving and love
with the Father, which believers could also enjoy through the Spirit.‖1

Meanwhile Encyclopedia of Religion mentions the term Trinity as follows:

―The doctrine of the Trinity is the summary of Christian faith in
God, who out of love creates humanity for union with God, who
through Jesus Christ redeems the world, and in the power of
Holy Spirit, transforms and divinizes. The heart of trinitarian
theology is the conviction that the God revealed in Jesus Christ
in involved faithfully and unalterably in covenanted relationship
with the world.‖2

Thus, the doctrine of the Trinity is the summary of the concept of God in
the Christian faith, which believes that God exists as one being in three
persons who are the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit. Moreover,
every person in Trinity has different function and characteristic.

The Foundation of the doctrine of the Trinity

Nicene Creed
It is not too sure when the doctrine of the Trinity taught for the first time.
Nevertheless, some early Christian theologians such as Tertullian and
Origen,3 had mentioned the divinity of Jesus before the concept of
Trinity has been decided as the orthodoxy teaching of Christianity in the
first council of Nicaea (325 CE). Moreover, the council of Nicaea
decreed that Jesus is God as mentioned in the Nicene Creed, ―.... And in
one Lord Jesus Christ, the only- begotten Son of God, begotten of the
Father before all worlds, God of God, Light of Light, very God of very
God, begotten, not made, being of one substance with the Father….‖4
The root of the problem of the Trinity issue was the decision to
make Jesus as God in the Nicaea Council. There were two opinions to
decide the nature of Jesus; most of the participants, led by Athanasius,

1
―Trinity Definition & Meaning,‖ Dictionary.com (Dictionary.com), accessed August
27, 2021, http://www.dictionary.reference.com/browse/Trinity.
2
Lindsay Jones (ed), Encyclopedia of Religion, (Farmington Hills: Thomson gale,
2005), 9360.
3
Philip Schaff, History of the Christian Church Vol II, (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans
Publishing House, 1995), 550.
4
Nicene Creed in Wayne Grudem, Systematic Theology, 1169.
 Al-Itqān, Volume 5, Issue No 2, August, 2021 9

believed that Jesus has the same essence (homoousia) as Father, who is
God. On the Contrary, Arius believed that Jesus has similar nature
(homoiousia) with Father. However, the majority of the participant, led
by Athanasius, dominated the council and decided that Jesus is God.
Consequently, Arius‘ teaching about homoiousia restricted by the
mainstream but could not be stopped and taught by the Eastern Church.1
One of the most significant issues in the Nicene Creed is the
intervention of Constantine as the Caesar of the Rome Emperor in the
council of Nicaea. Constantine was the authority involved in the congress
of Nicaea. Therefore, one can see that a political aspect had a role to form
the concept of God in Christianity. One of the most substantial issues in
the Nicene Creed is the intervention of Constantine as the Caesar of the
Rome Emperor in the council of Nicaea. The ex-communication toward
Arius, who rejected the doctrine of the Trinity, was the evidence to prove
that there was a political aspect in the council of Nicaea.

Biblical Basic of the Trinity

Christianity claims that the doctrine of the Trinity based on the Bible
because some verses in the Bible expresses that God is not only one
being and one person but one being with three persons. Furthermore,
some Christian scholars, such as Wayne Grudem, use John 1:1, which
state, ―In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and
the Word was God,‖ as one of the prominent examples to prove that
God is not only one person. Grudem says that the Word is fully God,
but the phrase ―with God‖ shows the distinction between the Word from
God the Father. Moreover, Grudem realizes that the phrase ―the Word
was God‖ is changeable because there is a group of Christian that
translates it as ―the Word was a god‖, which means that the Word is not
fully God, but only a heavenly being. In addition, one should know
about John 1:1 in Greek that the first God is different from the last God
because in front of the first God is used definite article while the last
God not used definite article, even though both use the term theos.2
It seems that Grudem does not exegete John 1:1 carefully, but he puts his
understanding into the verse. Two aspects could criticize the opinion of
Grudem. Firstly, it is transparent that the phrase 'the Word with God' shows
two different entities in this phrase. Moreover, when John states that 'the

1
Paul Tillich, A History of Christian Thought, (New York: Simon and Schuster, Inc.,
1968), pp. 71-75.
2
Wayne Grudem, Systematic Theology, pp. 231-233.
10 AMuslim Brief View on the Trinity – Ungaran Rashid

Word was God', it does not mean that the Word and God are the same beings
because there is a definite in front of the first God but not found in front of the
second God. Besides, the preposition 'with' shows two different things or
persons. Consequently, the problem of this case is the use of capital G for the
second God that should be a small g. Thus, the correct translation of the
phrase is 'the Word was a god' or ‗the Word was divine‘ because theos is not
used only to communicate God but also other things or beings.
Secondly, Grudem does not relate John 1:1 with John 1:14 that
states, ‗The Word became flesh and made his dwelling among us,‘
which cannot be separated. The researcher thinks that John contrasts the
phrase ‗the Word was a god‘ in verse 1, which means unseen, with the
phrase ‗the Word became flash,‘ which can be seen. Thus, the phrase
‗the Word was a god‘ does not inform that the Word is God but that the
Word was unseen.

The Issue on the Son of God

The term son of God is a common term in the Bible to draw to someone
or a people group, either in the Hebrew Bible or in the New Testament,
and it appears in singular or plural form. However, some scholars, such
as Grudem, argue that although the term son of God may refer to Israel
or man, especially a king when it deals with Jesus, it denotes equality
with God. To support his argument, Grudem mentions some verses, such
as Matthew 11: 25-30, 1 Corinthians 15: 28, and Hebrew 1: 1-3.1
Consequently, the title Son of God used as one the primary foundations
in building the doctrine of the Trinity in the function of the second
person, God the Son.
The researcher seems that Grudem does not interpret those verses in
a proper way, but rather by doing eisegesis because those verses do not
show equality between Jesus and God, for example, 1 Corinthians 15: 28
states, ―When he has done this, then the Son himself will be made
subject to him who put everything under him, so that God may be all in
all.‖2 On the contrary, the researcher sees 1 Corinthians 15: 28 as
evidence that Jesus is under the authority of God. The word subject in
this verse is the translation of the Greek term ὑποτάσσω (hypotassō),
which means obey or submit to God. Furthermore, the researcher
observes that Grudem holds the tradition in Christianity that states that

1
Ibid., p. 546
2
(NIV Translation)
 Al-Itqān, Volume 5, Issue No 2, August, 2021 11

Jesus is God when he interprets the verse. As a result, one cannot use the
verse as the Biblical basis to prove that Jesus is equal to God.
In the Old Testament, the term son of God usually points to the king
of Israel and Messiah, which are human. Besides, this epithet used to
express that the king or Messiah is the representative of God.
Unfortunately, in the Hellenistic period term son of God had divine
sense because it influenced by Egyptian mythology. 1 So, the term son of
God used by Church fathers to point Jesus is God is because of the
influence of Egyptian mythology.

Prominent Figure in Developing the Doctrine of the Trinity

As mentioned, the Bible does not write the doctrine of the trinity
explicitly. This doctrine arose because of the interpretation of some
church fathers. This section discusses some of the prominent figures in
the development of the doctrine

Irenaeus
Irenaeus, born around 120-140 CE, was one of the early church fathers who
played a significant role in developing Christian theology in the second
century. He built Christian theology supported by faith and biblical traditions,
which brightened by exegetical and logical arguments. Uniquely, he did not
use only biblical foundations in developing his theology but also by collecting
and uniting the traditions of his precursors from Asia Minor, Syria and Rome
to fight against Gnosticism that tried to destroy Christianity at that time.2
The most important writing of Irenaeus was Against the Heresies
which was written in Latin. The book demonstrated sharply that the God
of Christianity who is the same God as YHWH the God of the Jews had
revealed himself through Jesus. Moreover, Against the Heresies was
employed to denounce Gnostic teaching.3
Irenaeus considered one of the mature theologians of Trinitarian
theology. He mentioned essentially that the baptism of Jesus was the
anointing of the Messiah. When Jesus baptized by John the Baptist, there
was the voice of God and Holy Spirit descent like a dove. Irenaeus
identified this situation as vestigium trinitatis, as a mark of the three
because he saw that three divinity aspects appeared at the same time.

1
Adela Yarbro Collins and John J. Collins, King and Messiah as Son of God, (Grand
Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing co., 2008), p. 47.
2
Robert M. Grant, Irenaeus of Lyons, (Taylor and Francis E-Library, 2009), p. 1.
3
Vivian H.H. Green, A New History of Christianity, (New York: Sutton Publishing,
1996), p. 15.
12 AMuslim Brief View on the Trinity – Ungaran Rashid

Furthermore, Irenaeus classified the voice of God as one who has

anointed, Jesus who baptized as one who has been anointed, and the
Holy Spirit as the ointment.1 Nevertheless, he never mentioned or used
the term Trinity explicitly.

Tertullian
Septimius Tertullianus lived in Carthage about 160-240 CE. He was a
productive Christian author who wrote almost all of his writing in Latin.
Hence, he is called the father of Latin Christianity. Some scholars
believe that Tertullian finally left the church and joined the Montanism,
a heretical movement, in Asia Minor, although there is no valid evidence
on this issue.2 Furthermore, he was formerly a pagan who converted to
Christianity in his thirties. Tertullian denounced Marcion, who said that
the God in the Old Testament is different from the God in the New
Testament by defending the unity of the Old and the New Testament. In
addition, he rejected Christian theologies or apologetics, which based on
a non-scriptural source.3
Regarding the Trinity, Tertullian was the first theologian who used the
term Trinity to the doctrine. He also was the first one who suggested the
formula of three-ness in the unity of God. Tertullian says that God is one
substance who has three persons, which are Father, Son and Holy Spirit.
Besides, the Father and the Son are one identical substance (homoousia),
which is not divided but extended. In other words, the Father is the perfect
substance while the Son derived from and a portion of the whole.4
It seems that Tertullian is not consistent in doing theology. On the one
hand, he rejected Christian theologies that developed on the non-scriptural
source; on the other hand, he developed Trinity theology without a Biblical
basis because the Bible does not mention this doctrine explicitly.

Athanasius
Athanasius was born and raised in Alexandria around 295-299 CE to a pagan
family. Later, he was baptised with his mother and to be a disciple of Bishop
Alexander. During Athanasius‘ time, Alexandria was a melting pot of
Egyptians, Greeks, Jews, as well as other communities. Alexandria was also

1
David S. Cunningham, These Three Are One, (Oxford: Blackwell Publisher, 1998), p. 177.
2
David W. Bercot, A Dictionary of Early Christian Beliefs, (Peabody: Hendrickson
Publishers, 1998), p. 639.
3
Alister E. McGrath, Christian Theology: An Introduction, (Oxford: Blackwell
Publisher, 1997), pp. 11-12.
4
J.N.D. Kelly, Early Christian Doctrines, (London: A&A Black, 1993), pp. 113-114.
 Al-Itqān, Volume 5, Issue No 2, August, 2021 13

known as the clerical centre in Egypt. Besides, the Patriarch of Alexandria

had direct authority over the whole church in Egypt and were responsible for
appointing bishops all over Egypt, Libya, and the Pentapolis.1
Athanasius‘ theological writings can be classified into two major
sections: the earlier works, such as Against the Greeks-on the Incarnation,
which do not directly mention Arius‘ name, and the later writings, which
he wrote openly to oppose Arius teachings. The later writings emphasise
the ontological issue, namely the relationship between the Father, Son and
Holy Spirit, which are consistent with the Nicene doctrine, namely the
Trinitarian doctrine. His theological arguments for the Trinity always
aligned with the nature and character of Christian salvation.2 He
continually defends the understanding of identical substance (homoousia)
of Father and Son and attacks Arius‘ teaching. He, verily, devoted his
entire life to write and teach against the Arian.3

Augustine
Augustine of Hippo, known as St. Augustine, was born in 354 CE to an
impoverished family in Thagaste, Algeria. Even though he came from a
miserable family, he was a member of the Roman town of North Africa.
To become a member of the Roman town, one did not have to be rich
but had to be free and civilized. Fortunately, Augustine's father, who
lived a miserable life as a farmer, was able to send his son to get a good
education. As a result, Augustine got the position of professor of rhetoric
in Milan in 385 CE.4
Augustine contributed some significant aspects of thought in
developing Christian theology, which is the doctrine of the church and
sacraments, the doctrine of grace, and the doctrine of the Trinity. 5 In the
doctrine of the church, he compared the church with a mother because
the believers were born from the church, believers fed by the church; and
believers are made alive by the church. In the doctrine of grace,
Augustine mentioned that man inherited a frail disease and sin through
Adam‘s fall; consequently, man needs the grace of God.6 In the doctrine

1
Khaled Anatolios, Athanasius, (London: Routledge, 2004), pp. 1-2.
2
Ibid., pp. 31-32
3
Wayne Grudem, Systematic Theology, p. 251.
4
Peter Brown, Augustine of Hippo, (Los Angeles, University of California Press,
2000), pp. 8-9.
5
Alister E. McGrath, Christian Theology, p. 13.
6
Vivian H.H. Green, A New History of Christianity, pp. 39-40.
14 AMuslim Brief View on the Trinity – Ungaran Rashid

of Trinity, he depicted the Trinity in a metaphor of human ―memory,

will, and understanding‖ or human ―mind, knowledge, and love.1

Models of Trinity
The doctrine of the Trinity is a doctrine that is not easy to understand
because this doctrine is not explicitly explained in the Bible. Therefore,
a Christian's understanding of this doctrine is not necessarily the same as
another Christian's understanding. Some Christian theologians
developed the Trinity model according to their thought of the ontology
of God. This section briefly describes some of the Trinity models
suggested by several theologians.

Cappadocians
Cappadocian theologians were Basil of Caesarea, Gregory of Nyssa, and
Gregory of Nazianzus. Basil fought against the idea that Christ is half
God and half man. Meanwhile, Gregory of Nazianzus created the
definitive formula of the doctrine of the Trinity. Moreover, they became
a close friend when they were students in Athens.2
Cappadocian‘s model of the Trinity understood as a defence of the
divine unity that one Godhead exists in three different kinds of being, which
are the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit. The formula was built by ―one
substance in three hypostases.‖ Moreover, the Father is seen as the source
of the Trinity because the Father imparted his being to both the Son and the
Holy Spirit. Nevertheless, it does not mean that the Son or Spirit is
subordinate to the Father.3 In other words, the starting point of the argument
is not in the account of the essence of the Trinity but the divine persons.

Augustine
Augustine developed his model of the Trinity by taking Genesis 1:26,
―Then God said, ‗Let us make mankind in our image, in our likeness, so
that they may rule over the fish in the sea and the birds in the sky, over the
livestock and all the wild animals, and over all the creatures that move
along the ground,‘‖ as the Biblical basis. The terms ‗let us‘ and ‗our‘ in
this verse refer to God as the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit.
Augustine‘s model of the Trinity explains that person and divine
attributes of God are identical, as are persons and the sum of attributes,
1
G. R. Evans, ―Augustine of Hippo‖, in G. R. Evans (Ed), The First Christian
Theologians, (Oxford: Blackwell, 2004), p. 241.
2
Paul Tillich, A History of Christian Thought, (1968), p. 76-77
3
Alister E. McGrath, Christian Theology, p. 303.
 Al-Itqān, Volume 5, Issue No 2, August, 2021 15

the divine essence. The divine essence is ―the thing itself that God is.‖
Besides, God of the Trinity is the only instance of Godness or divinity or
the essence of God. God the Trinity is indeed identical with Godness
itself, the only divine thing. In other word, God has exactly one instance
God the Trinity itself. Even though there is greatness in each of Father,
Son, and Holy Spirit but there is only one greatness.1 So, the starting
point of the Augustinian Trinity seems in opposition with the
Cappadocians one, where Augustinian lies on the essence of the Trinity,
not the persons.

Karl Barth
Karl Barth is one of the significant theologians of the twentieth century. He
trained in German Protestant Liberalism, but he rejected his training in the
predominant liberal theology, typical 19 century Protestantism. Further, he
developed his theology that emphasized the sovereignty of God.
Barth‘s starting point in Trinity is different from both the
Cappadocians and Augustian models. He developed the concept of the
Trinity based on the actuality of God speaking and of God being heard. He
argued that sinful humanity is fundamentally incapable of listening to the
Word of God. Then, God revealed himself to sinful humanity, so the sinful
humanity will have the ability to hear the Word of God. Concerning the
Trinity, the Father revealed in the Son, and the capability to understand the
Word of God is the Holy Spirit. Thus, the process of revelation is from God
who is the Father, to God who is the Son, and by God who is the Holy
Spirit. In other words, there is only one God with three different modes.2

Karl Rahner
Karl Rahner was the most influential Roman Catholic theologian of the 20th
century. He was born in Freiburg on the 5th of March 1904 and died in
Innsbruck on the 30th of March 1984. His theology influenced the Second
Vatican Council and seen as a modern understanding of Catholicism.3
According to Rahner, the theory of Trinity must be analysed through
the relation between the economic and the immanent Trinity. Economic
Trinity deals with the perspective of the function of each person of the

1
Cornelius Platinga, Jr., ―Social Trinity and Tritheism‖ in Thomas V. Morris, Gen.
Ed., Trinity, Incarnation, and Atonement, (Notre Dame: University of Notre dame
Press, 1989), pp. 32-33
2
Alister E. McGrath, Christian Theology, pp. 306-308.
3
Declan Marmion and Maru E. Hines (Editors), The Cambridge Companion to Karl
Rahner, (Cambridge: Cabridge University Press, 2005), p. 1.
16 AMuslim Brief View on the Trinity – Ungaran Rashid

Trinity in carrying the mission of salvation. Meanwhile, immanent Trinity

discusses the essential, ontological and eternal aspects of the Trinity. The
economic Trinity can be seen through the diversity and unity of God
revealed in history, and the immanent Trinity is understood through the
diversity and unity of God in God's own existence. Further, the economic
Trinity cannot be separated from the immanent Trinity, which means they
are tied to each other. In other words, the way God is revealed and sensed in
history is in accordance to the way of God‘s essense. Besides, the economic
Trinity relates to the economy of salvation which the entire work of
salvation is the work of one divine person.1

Robert Jenson
Robert William Jenson is an American Lutheran theologian of
international ecumenical stature who has dedicated about fifty years as a
professional theologian to describe a consistently evangelical doctrine of
God. His theological program brings one of the most modern, broader
and creative contemporary theological feedback too many questions
Barth raises for the trinitarian dogmatics.2
According to Jensen, it is a must that God has a proper name. He
argues that ―Father, Son, and Holy Spirit‖ is the proper name of God known
to Christians in and through Jesus. Jenson conveys that Ancient Israel lived
in the midst of a politheistic environment. The term god they believed in in
their hearts, who also raised Jesus from the dead, must be distinguished
from the gods worshiped by people around them. Therefore, a proper name
is necessary for the god of the Christians because the use of god's name,
both in the Old Testament and the New Testament, is not very clear.3
Furthermore, Jensen affirms that the proper name of God is a name
assigned to the Christians, not a name chosen by the Christians. It is the
difference between the name of God in Christianity and the concept of God
of other nations. The God of the Christians revealed himself with a name
that is consistent with that described in the Bible. One of the products of
theology unveiled in the Bible is the language and thought of the Trinity.4

1
Alister E. McGrath, Christian Theology, p. 309.
2
Scott R. Swain, The God of the Gospel: Robert Jenson‟s Trinitarian Theology,
(Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, 2013), p. 15.
3
Ibid. pp. 310-311
4
Ibid.
 Al-Itqān, Volume 5, Issue No 2, August, 2021 17

A Muslim’s View on the concept of the Trinity

The doctrine of the oneness of God in the Bible is uncomplicated and
states that there is only one God. Nevertheless, some terms should be
carefully interpreted because God reveals Himself to humankind by using
the language and understanding of humanity in particular times and
situations. The meaning of a word in a specific time and context is not
necessarily understood in the same connotation by people in different
times and situations. Language is a changeable aspect of human life;
hence the interpretation of one term in ancient literature like the Bible
should follow the idea of the first reader of that literature.
The difficulties of translating ancient literature also seem to be
experienced by Christians. Christians from generation to generation still
have to continue to understand what is written in the Bible correctly. The
difficulties of translating ancient literature also seem to be experienced
by Christians. Christians from generation to generation still have to
continue to understand what is written in the Bible correctly. For
example, how to interpret the term Theos, which has a broad range of
meanings; do they have to understand it as the God or a god? Besides,
how to translate the first person or third person plural pronouns when
refers to God; do they have to understand God in a polytheistic sense or
still in a monotheistic impression? There seems to be some confusion in
this matter; therefore, the trinity theology arose to accommodate the
oneness of God in three different persons.
Many early church fathers, which developed early Christian theology,
had a pagan background. So, they might interpret the Bible through the
pagan understanding. For example, they depicted the term son of God as
God the Son, the second person of the Trinity, while the Ancient Israeli
framework understood this term as a saviour king and messiah. The
researcher opines that interpreting the Bible should use the understanding of
the first readers of the scriptures; otherwise, it may lead to many differences
in theological understanding. It is not surprising that the interpretation of the
oneness of God varies based on the interpreter‘s explanation.
The concept of the oneness of God in majority Christian communities
seems to be different from the Jewish community, even though they shared
the Scriptures, namely the Hebrew Bible, which the Christians call the Old
Testament. In the Hebrew Bible, the concept of the oneness of God is
unambiguous, as mentioned above. Besides the Hebrew Bible, the Christian
community also uses the New Testament as the basis of their faith. The
New Testament that was also written by the Jews, of course, has the same
concept of the oneness of God as the Hebrew Bible, interpreted differently
18 AMuslim Brief View on the Trinity – Ungaran Rashid

by those who were not from among the Jews, especially the early church
fathers, who had a pagan background. Thus, there is a modification of the
concept of the oneness of God in non-Jewish Christian circles. This
modification of the idea of the oneness of God eventually became the
mainstream theology in Christianity.

Conclusion
The concept of the oneness of God in Christianity developed based on
the Bible, both the Hebrew Bible and the New Testament. The Hebrew
Bible and the New Testament, which mainly were written by Jewish
people, obviously explain that God is one. In the beginning, Christianity
developed among the Jewish community, but then it spread out over the
gentile. The gentile theologians who interpreted the Bible seemed to
misunderstand the concept of the oneness of God in the Bible because
the majority of them had a pagan background. Consequently, there is a
modification of the idea of the oneness of God in Christianity. Rather
than saying that God is purely one, Christianity believes that there are
three persons in one God, known as the Trinity. Thus, the concept of the
oneness of God in Christianity is slightly different from Judaism, even
though they came from the same root. In other words, the philosophical
approach seems to be stronger than the biblical approach in terms of
interpreting the oneness of God among Christians.

Reference
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Arndt, William F. and F. Wilbur Gingrich. A Greek-English Lexicon of the New
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Bercot, David W. A Dictionary of Early Christian Beliefs. Peabody: Hendrickson
Publishers. 1998.
Botterweck, G. Johannes and Ringgren, Helmer (Editors). Thological Dictionary of the
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Brown, Peter. Augustine of Hippo. Los Angeles, University of California Press. 2000.
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Jones, Lindsay (ed). Encyclopedia of Religion. Farmington Hills: Thomson Gale. 2005.
Kelly, J.N.D. Early Christian Doctrines. London: A&A Black. 1993.
Marmion, Declan and Hines, Maru E. (Eds.). The Cambridge Companion to Karl
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Morris, Thomas V., Gen. Ed. Trinity, Incarnation, and Atonement. Notre Dame:
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 AL-ITQĀN
JOURNAL OF ISLAMIC SCIENCES AND COMPARATIVE STUDIES

Volume: 5 Issue No. 2 August 2021

EDITOR IN-CHIEF
Dr. Wan Mohd Azam Mohd Amin

MANAGING EDITOR
Dr. Masitoh Ahmad

EDITORIAL BOARD
Dr. Muhammad Afifi al-Akiti, Oxford
Dr. Muhammad Kamal Hassan, IIUM
Dr. Syed Arabi Aidid, IIUM.
Dr. Hassan Basri Mat Dahan, Universiti Sains Islam Malaysia,
Nilai, Negeri Sembilan.
Dr. Kamaruzaman Yusuff, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak,
Kota Semarahan, Kucing.
Dr. Kamar Oniah, IIUM.
Dr. Mumtaz Ali, IIUM.
Dr. Siti Akmar, Universiti Institut Teknologi MARA, Shah Alam
Dr. Thameem Ushama, IIUM.