Subject Code & Name: 23BCE1S1 - Fundamentals of Information Technology

Course, Year & Sem: B.Sc [CS], I & I

Notes

Subject Name Fundamentals of Information Technology

Subject Code 23BCE1S1

Course/ Semester B.Sc[Computer Science], I st Semester

UNIT
CONTENTS
NO
Introduction to Computers: Introduction, Definition, Characteristic of
I Computers, Evolution of Computer, Block diagram of a computer,
Generations of Computer, Classification of Computers, Application of
Computer, Capabilities and limitation of computer
Basic Computer Organization: Role of I/O Devices in a Computer
System, Input Units: Keyboard, Terminals and Its Types. Pointing
II Devices, Scanner and its Types, Voice Recognition System, Vision Input
System, Touch Screen. Output Units: Monitors and its Types. Printers:
Impact Printers and its Types, Non-Impact Printers and its Types,
Plotters, Types of Plotters, Sound Card and Speakers.
Storage Fundamentals: Primary Vs Secondary Storage, Data storage &
retrieval methods. Primary Storage: RAM ROM, PROM, EPROM,
III
EEPROM. Secondary Storage: Magnetic Tapes, Magnetic Disks. Cartridge
tape, hard disks, Floppy disks Optical Disks, Compact Disks, Zip Drive,
Flash Drives
Software: Software and its needs, Types of S/W. System Software:
Operating System, Utility Programs Programming Language: Machine
IV
Language, Assembly Language, High Level Language their advantages &
disadvantages. Application S/W and its types: Word Processing, Spread
Sheets, Presentation, Graphics, DBMS s/w
Operating System: Functions, Measuring System Performance,
Assemblers, Compilers and Interpreters. Batch Processing,
V
Multiprogramming, Multi Tasking, Multiprocessing, Time Sharing, DOS,
Windows, Unix/Linux

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 Subject Code & Name: 23BCE1S1 - Fundamentals of Information Technology
Course, Year & Sem: B.Sc [CS], I & I

UNIT-I
Introduction to Computers: Introduction, Definition, Characteristic of
Computers, Evolution of Computer, Block diagram of a computer,
Generations of Computer, Classification of Computers, Application of
Computer, Capabilities and limitation of computer
Computer
A computer is a machine used to manipulate data or information and perform
mathematical and logical operations. Modern computers perform a wide range of
tasks, store retrieve, and process information. Using a computer, we can
create/modify documents, send/receive emails, browse information on the internet,
and play video games.

Characteristics of Computer System

Speed
A computer works with much higher speed and accuracy compared to humans
while performing mathematical calculations. Computers can process millions
(1,000,000) of instructions per second. The time taken by computers for their
operations is microseconds and nanoseconds.
Accuracy
Computers perform calculations with 100% accuracy. Errors may occur due to data
inconsistency or inaccuracy.
Diligence
A computer can perform millions of tasks or calculations with the same consistency
and accuracy. It doesn‘t feel any fatigue or lack of concentration. Its memory also
makes it superior to that of human beings.
Versatility
Versatility refers to the capability of a computer to perform different kinds of works
with same accuracy and efficiency.
Reliability
A computer is reliable as it gives consistent result for similar set of data i.e., if we
give same set of input any number of times, we will get the same result.
Storage
A computer has built-in memory called primary memory where it stores data.
Secondary storage are removable devices such as CDs, pen drives, etc., which are
also used to store data.

Block Diagram of Computer

A block diagram of computer system shows you a structural representation of the

computer. This diagram gives you a short review of the working process of a

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 Subject Code & Name: 23BCE1S1 - Fundamentals of Information Technology
Course, Year & Sem: B.Sc [CS], I & I

computer, from inserting data to retrieving results. t provides a framework for

understanding how different components of a computer work together to process
data and produce results.The Major Components of the Block Diagram of Computer
System Are: -
 Input Unit
 Output Unit
 Central Processing Unit (CPU)
o Control Unit (CU)
o Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)
o Memory Unit
 Primary memory
 Secondary memory

Input Unit
The computer requires the input unit to receive data and information and then use it
to solve problems. The user provides the computer with data and information. With
the use of input devices, we give data and information input. The input unit is made
up of a variety of input devices. Some input devices are a keyboard, mouse,
microphone, scanner, etc.
Primary Function of Input Units
 With the use of input devices, collect data from the user.
 Convert the data from electrical signals to computer-readable machine
language.
 Instruct the CPU to receive data from the input devices.
 Provide the transformed data to the CPU through the memory unit for further
processing.

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 Subject Code & Name: 23BCE1S1 - Fundamentals of Information Technology
Course, Year & Sem: B.Sc [CS], I & I

Output Unit
The computer‘s output unit communicates the results of processing and information
to the outside world. In general, the output unit reverses the process of the input
unit, converting machine language into electronic signals readable by the output
devices. The output devices are Monitor, projector, headphones, speakers, etc.
Central Processing Unit
The CPU is the backbone of the computer system. Without it, a computer is nothing.
All the instructions that the computer receives from the user, or a set of instructions,
are processed by this ‗brain‘. This brain then prints out the desired result based on
the instructions received and the input that the user made.
Three Major Components of the CPU Are
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
The Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) is the portion of the Central Processing Unit (CPU)
that handles all of the Central Processing Unit (CPU‘s) calculations. The ALUs work
for all math and operations that are related to arithmetical and logical operations.
Responsible for performing the decision-making so that they can do most of the
operations. When any calculations must be performed, the Control Unit (CU) passes
the data from the memory unit to the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU). When the
computation is completed and the results are created by the ALU, the CU returns the
computation data to the memory unit. The arithmetic unit performs logical,
arithmetic, and bit-shifting operations.
Control Unit(CU)
The control unit, which coordinates and controls other functional units of the
computer, is sometimes known as the ―central nervous system‖ of the machine. All
CPU functions, including ALU operations and data flow inside the CPU, are under
the direction of CU.
Memory Unit (MU)
The memory unit is responsible for storing data and information for the computer‘s
other functional components. The computer‘s memory unit stores the data and
information received from the input unit before it is processed by the central
processing unit (CPU).
The Memory Unit is divided into two categories: -
Primary Memory
The primary memory is the most quickly accessible memory unit. These memories
require relatively little time to receive and deliver data for processing. The Control
Unit and Arithmetic Logic Unit are also close to the primary memory.
The primary memory is temporary and volatile. It means that if the computer is
turned off, the data is permanently erased.
Secondary Memory
Secondary memory capacity ranges from gigabytes to terabytes, and it serves as an
archive for the computer system. Secondary memory can be used to store application

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 Subject Code & Name: 23BCE1S1 - Fundamentals of Information Technology
Course, Year & Sem: B.Sc [CS], I & I

programs, documents, films, audio, databases, and so on. Data and information
transmission and reception are slower than in primary memory.

Computer Generations

Computers have evolved significantly over the years, and the history of computers is
often divided into generations based on the technology used. Here are the five
generations of computers:
 First Generation
 Second Generation
 Third Generation
 Fourth Generation
 Fifth Generation
First Generation
 The period 1940 to 1956, roughly considered as the First Generation of
Computer.
 The first generation computers were developed by using vacuum tube or
thermionic valve machine.
 The input of this system was based on punched cards and paper tape;
however, the output was displayed on printouts.
 The first generation computers worked on binary-coded concept (i.e.,
language of 0-1). Examples: ENIAC, EDVAC, etc.
Second Generation
 The period 1956 to 1963 is roughly considered as the period of Second
Generation of Computers.
 The second generation computers were developed by using transistor
technology.
 In comparison to the first generation, the size of second generation was
smaller.
 In comparison to computers of the first generation, the computing time taken
by the computers of the second generation was lesser.
Third Generation
 The period 1963 to 1971 is roughly considered as the period of Third
Generation of computers.
 The third generation computers were developed by using the Integrated
Circuit (IC) technology.
 In comparison to the computers of the second generation, the size of the
computers of the third generation was smaller.
 In comparison to the computers of the second generation, the computing time
taken by the computers of the third generation was lesser.

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 Subject Code & Name: 23BCE1S1 - Fundamentals of Information Technology
Course, Year & Sem: B.Sc [CS], I & I

 The third generation computer consumed less power and also generated less
heat.
 The maintenance cost of the computers in the third generation was also low.
 The computer system of the computers of the third generation was easier for
commercial use.
Fourth Generation
 The period 1972 to 2010 is roughly considered as the fourth generation of
computers.
 The fourth generation computers were developed by using microprocessor
technology.
 By coming to fourth generation, computer became very small in size, it
became portable.
 The machine of fourth generation started generating very low amount of heat.
 It is much faster and accuracy became more reliable.
 The production cost reduced to very low in comparison to the previous
generation.
 It became available for the common people as well.
Fifth Generation
 The period 2010 to till date and beyond, roughly considered as the period of
fifth generation of computers.
 By the time, the computer generation was being categorized on the basis of
hardware only, but the fifth generation technology also included software.
 The computers of the fifth generation had high capability and large memory
capacity.
 Working with computers of this generation was fast and multiple tasks could
be performed simultaneously.
 Some of the popular advanced technologies of the fifth generation include
Artificial intelligence, Quantum computation, Nanotechnology, Parallel
processing, etc.

Classification of Computer

The computer systems can be classified on the following basis: size, functionality
and Data Processing
 Super computers
 Mainframe Computer
 Mini Computer
 Micro Computer
Super Computer
supercomputers are the biggest, fastest, strongest, and priciest. The first
supercomputer was created in the 1960s. Supercomputers use several processors to
increase their speed, and many people can use them simultaneously. Supercomputers

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 Subject Code & Name: 23BCE1S1 - Fundamentals of Information Technology
Course, Year & Sem: B.Sc [CS], I & I

are generally utilized for scientific purposes and large-scale, complex calculations.
They are widely used in the aerospace, automotive, chemical, electronics, and
petroleum industries, as well as for weather forecasting and seismic analysis.
Example: Jaguar, Roadrunner
Mainframe Computer
Mainframe computers, also known as mainframes, are the most commonly used type
of digital computer in large industries for controlling processes as well as in offices
for maintaining networks and providing access to shared resources.mainframe
computer systems are powerful enough to support a hundred users at remote
terminals at the same time. Multi-programming refers to the ability to run multiple
programs at the same time for multiple users.
Example : IBM-3000 series, IBM 4300, IBM 3090.
Mini Computer
Most minicomputers, like mainframes, are multiuser and general-purpose
computers. The primary distinction between mainframes and minicomputers is that
minicomputers are slower even when performing the same tasks as mainframes.
Example : PDP series
Micro Computer
The most common type of computer, widely used in homes, schools, banks, and
offices, among other places. It is a low-cost digital computer with a single
microprocessor, storage unit, and input/output device. Microcomputers are typically
designed for individual use only.
Desktop Computer
A desktop computer, also known as a PC (Personal computer), is the most common
type of microcomputer. It has CPU (Central Processing Unit), a keyboard and a
mouse for input, and a monitor or display unit for output.
Portable Computer
Portable computers, such as laptops and PDAs, have surpassed desktop computers in
popularity. The best feature of this portable computer is that it is lightweight and
portable. Laptops have all of the same components as desktop computers, but they
are more compact and smaller in size.
A palm-sized portable digital assistant (PDA) is another type of portable
computer. PDAs are used to keep track of appointments, take important notes, set
reminders, perform mathematical calculations, play games, and even surf the internet
and send emails.

Application of Computer
Computers are used in every field of life, such as homes, businesses, educational
institutions, research organizations, the medical field, government offices,
entertainment, etc. Today we cannot imagine growing our technology without
computers. The various field where the computer is very essential are:

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 Subject Code & Name: 23BCE1S1 - Fundamentals of Information Technology
Course, Year & Sem: B.Sc [CS], I & I

Science
Today computer is the primary work tool in the field of science. It is the best-suited
machine for collecting, analyzing, classifying, and storing data. It becomes the most
essential medium to spread knowledge internally and internationally. It allows
scientists from different locations to work together and share ideas on the same
project.
Defence System
A computer performs a vital to control defense system. Computers are used to track
airplanes, missiles, tanks, and different kinds of weapons. Once the radar system
tracks a missile and artificial intelligence is programmed to target a missile and
destroy it before it comes on the surface. It also used for GPS tracking, controlling
defense vehicles, records of all members of the military.
Medical
The computer plays a very important role in medical science such as record patients‘
information monitoring heart rate, oxygen level, and blood pressure. To conduct
various surgeries junior doctors get the help of another professional doctor by web
conferencing. Research is also spread with the help of computers in the health
sector.
Education
Today learning becomes easy because of computers. Anyone employed or student
can learn any stage of life with the help of a computer. Computers are very crucial
for online classes, download study material on the internet. Computers are also used
to track student attendance and learning strategies. Coaching and institutes
increased their areas by audio-visual aids using computers.
Banking
A computer performs a crucial role in banking sectors, by storing several account
holder details on a bank server. All transactions such as deposits and withdrawals
perform by a computer. A banking company can easily monitor all ATMs and
passbook printing machines.
Government Sectors
Government can easily monitor government sectors such as road services, railway,
development, and other rising funds. The information of every citizen is stored on
the server through the computer.
Entertainment
Today most people are so busy and they do not easily get time to fresh their mind.
We can play various interesting video games using a computer. We can watch
movies, TV shows, and reality shows on the computer. A computer is also used to
create sarcastic memes and make us happy.

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 Subject Code & Name: 23BCE1S1 - Fundamentals of Information Technology
Course, Year & Sem: B.Sc [CS], I & I

UNIT-II
Basic Computer Organization: Role of I/O Devices in a Computer
System, Input Units: Keyboard, Terminals and Its Types. Pointing
Devices, Scanner and its Types, Voice Recognition System, Vision
Input System, Touch Screen. Output Units: Monitors and its Types.
Printers: Impact Printers and its Types, Non-Impact Printers and its
Types, Plotters, Types of Plotters, Sound Card and Speakers.

Role of Input and Output Devices

I/O (Input/Output) devices are essential components of a computer system,
facilitating communication between the computer and the external world, allowing
users to interact with the system, and enabling the system to communicate with
other devices or networks. Here‘s a breakdown of their roles:
Input Devices
These devices allow users to provide data and instructions to the computer.
Examples include:Keyboard, Mouse, Scanner, Microphone, Camera/Webcam.
Role:
 They convert user inputs or environmental data into a form that the computer
can process.
 Input devices bridge the gap between humans and machines, allowing users
to control and interact with the system effectively.
Output Devices
These devices allow the computer to deliver data or feedback to the user. Examples
include: Monitor/Display, Printer, Speakers, Projector
Role:
 Output devices convert digital data from the computer into a form that users
can perceive, like text, sound, or visuals.
 They allow users to receive feedback on the results of their interactions with
the computer, from viewing processed data to listening to audio output.
Storage Devices
Some I/O devices also serve as both input and output, particularly in the realm of
data storage. These devices allow data to be written to or read from a storage
medium. Examples include:Hard Drives (HDD/SSD), USB Flash Drives, Optical
Drives (CD/DVD)
Role:
 They act as an intermediary for data storage and retrieval, allowing both
input (data writing) and output (data reading).

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 Subject Code & Name: 23BCE1S1 - Fundamentals of Information Technology
Course, Year & Sem: B.Sc [CS], I & I

Communication Devices
Devices such as network cards, modems, and wireless adapters fall under this
category. They allow the computer to exchange data with other computers and
devices over a network.
Role:
 Facilitate data transmission and communication over networks, enabling
remote computing, internet access, and device-to-device communication.
Hybrid I/O Devices
Some devices perform both input and output functions, such as:Touchscreen: Acts
as both an input device (registering touch) and an output device (displaying
information).
 External Hard Drives: Can both receive (write) and send (read) data to the
computer.
Importance of I/O Devices
 User Interaction: I/O devices allow users to communicate with the computer
system, making them crucial for user-friendly interaction.
 System Control: Through input devices, users control the computer, execute
programs, and provide data.
 Feedback Mechanism: Output devices provide users with feedback and
results of their operations, enhancing the user experience.
 Data Management: Devices that enable data storage and retrieval ensure that
information can be permanently stored, transferred, or processed as needed.
Finally, the I/O devices are fundamental to the operation of a computer system,
enabling data input, processing feedback through output, and ensuring interaction
between the system and its users.

Keyboard

A keyboard is a primary input device for entering text into a computer or electronic
device. It consists of buttons for numbers, symbols, letters, and special keys like
Windows and Alt. The design is based on typewriters, allowing users to type
quickly with the layout of numbers and letters.

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 Subject Code & Name: 23BCE1S1 - Fundamentals of Information Technology
Course, Year & Sem: B.Sc [CS], I & I

The above keyboard design is called QWERTY design because of its first six letters
across in the upper-left-hand corner of the keyboard. Although the keyboard design
is derived from the typewrites, nowadays, it also includes many other keys as well
as Alt/Option, Control, and Windows key can be used as shortcuts to perform the
particular operation by combination with other keys.
Key Components of Computer Keyboard
 Alphanumeric Keys: The fundamental keys used to enter text, representing
letters and numbers.
 Function Keys (F1–F12): Keys in the top row that perform a variety of tasks,
frequently acting as shortcuts for commands or particular tasks.
 Modifier keys (Shift, Ctrl, Alt): These keys increase command choices by
changing how other keys behave when tapped in combination.
 Numeric Keypad: An additional set of keys for entering numbers that
resembles a calculator and is usually located on the right.
 Special keys: Keys have particular purposes for navigation, text editing, and
system control (Enter, Backspace, Tab).
 Arrow keys (Up, Down, Left, Right): Make navigating documents,
menus, and interfaces easier.
 Escape key (Esc): It is used to reverse a command and go back in time.
Types of Computer Keyboards
Flexible keyboard
Soft silicone keyboard is highly portable, water/dust-resistant, doesn't need constant
cleaning. Functions like a standard keyboard, connects to computer via USB or serial
port.
Ergonomic Keyboard
Its design promotes straight hand positioning with a larger space bar for faster
typing.
Wireless Keyboard
A wireless keyboard connects to devices like computers, laptops, or tablets through
radio frequency (RF), infrared (IR), or Bluetooth. It offers portability and flexibility
with no cables, utilizing stainless steel for durability. Setup is easy with a USB
receiver. Options include infrared for light waves or RF for signals ranging from 27
MHz to 2. 4 GHz.
Mechanical Keyboard
This keyboard features high-quality materials for home and office use, designed for
durability and responsiveness. It offers a crisp click sound, medium resistance, and
improved feedback for gaming and typing. It has advanced features compared to
rubber dome keyboards.
Virtual Keyboard
Virtual keyboards are software-based, allowing users to type without physical
keys. They serve as an alternative to physical or digital QWERTY keyboards,

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 Subject Code & Name: 23BCE1S1 - Fundamentals of Information Technology
Course, Year & Sem: B.Sc [CS], I & I

offering various characters, emojis, stickers, and animated GIFs. Commonly found
on tablets, smartphones, and portable devices.
Projection Keyboard
Projection keyboards use Bluetooth to connect to devices like mini PCs, tablet
computers, and smartphones. The virtual keyboard image is displayed on a surface
and keystrokes are recorded when keys are touched.
Gaming Keyboard
A gaming keyboard has specific keys for gamers like W, S, D, A, and arrows,
offering faster action.

Terminals and Its Types

What is Terminal?
The terminal is a basic communication unit. It is used to send and receive the data it
generally consists of keyboard & monitor. The keyboard is used to input data and
monitor work as an output unit. Many terminals are connected with the central
computer through terminal much people can work on a single computer on a time.
Types of Terminal
 Video Display Terminal
 Tele Printer Terminal
 Intelligent Terminal
 Dumb Terminal
 Local Terminal
 Remote Terminal
Video Display Terminal
The video display terminal is like a TV screen. This screen is called a monitor is used
to display information received from the computer. The combination of monitor &
video display unit is called the video display terminal.
Tele Printer Terminal
The telepointer consists of the printer. The printer is used to get information on a
piece of paper from the central computer.
Intelligent Terminal
If the microcomputer is connected to the central computer & microcomputer act as a
terminal of the central computer. It termed an intelligent terminal. The intelligent
terminal can process, store, & receive information to & from other terminals &
central computer.
Dumb Terminal
A dumb terminal has only input and output units to send and receive information to
and from other terminals. They are depended on the central computer for their
work.
Local Terminal

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 Subject Code & Name: 23BCE1S1 - Fundamentals of Information Technology
Course, Year & Sem: B.Sc [CS], I & I

The local terminal is directly connected to the central computer through cables. This
type of networking is known as a local area network (LAN). Local terminal is used
in signal building or office
Remote Terminal
The terminal that is a long distance away from the central computer is known as
remote terminals. They are connected to the central computer through
telecommunication lines. The remote terminal is mostly intelligent terminals.

Pointing Devices
A pointing device is used to point or click a specific portion or parts on the screen.
When we scroll using the mouse, it points the cursor at a specific portion.A device
that points and controls the cursor on the screen. It is an input device. A pointer
device drags, clicks, and selects a specific portion of the screen.
Functions of Pointing Device
 Click: In click, we can press our pointing device and easily click any portion
of the screen. Click is performed either left click or right click. The left click is
the left side of the mouse that performs selecting objects, double-clicking,
closing windows, etc. Right-click is the right side of the mouse that shows
commands of selected items.
 Drag: Drag means to move specific files or items into another location where
we want them to be placed. We simply hold the items that we want to place
and then move the mouse button to place them in a different location.
 Select: In select, we hold the mouse and then move the cursor to the items
that we want to select. When we select the item or contents, the selected
portion should be highlighted.
 Scroll: Scroll means to move the content in either a horizontal or vertical
manner. Horizontal scrolling allows the user to slide the content left or right
on a computer screen. Vertical scrolling allows the user to slide the content up
or down on a computer screen.
Types of Pointing Device
Here is the list of some types of pointing devices:
 Mouse: A mouse is a pointing device used in laptops and computers that is
connected to the keyboard. In the mouse, there are left- or right-click buttons,
and a wheel button is also present that is responsible for up and down. The
mouse can easily control the screen and perform many tasks.
 Joystick: The joystick is responsible for handling the object on the screen.
Using a joystick is used to control many applications, such as games, virtual
reality, etc. It is an input device that transforms mechanical movement into
electrical output and then controls machines or games. We easily move the
joystick from one direction to another.

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 Subject Code & Name: 23BCE1S1 - Fundamentals of Information Technology
Course, Year & Sem: B.Sc [CS], I & I

 Trackball: Trackball is controlled by the cursor, that‘s why we say cursor

control device. In trackball, we roll the ball with our thumbs and fingers
without moving our arms. In trackball, buttons are present that are
responsible for selecting an item or object, dropping, and dragging.
 Touchpad: Touchpad is a portable device that is present in laptops and
portable devices. The shape of the touchpad is a rectangular surface. Its touch
looks sensitive while touching the surface. It is easy to use, first click on the
touchpad surface to select, then drop and drag the specific part on the screen.
 OCR: OCR stands for optical character recognition, which is the conversion of
an image of text into a text format that is read by a machine or computer. The
real-life application of OCR in the banking industry. In the bank, when the
customer deposits the cheque from the bank, the OCR technology checks the
information of customer details present in the cheque and matches the
customer signature of the bank database.
 Digital Pen: Digital pen is the conversion of analog data to digital data. If we
write the content in a digital pen, it captures it and converts it into digital
format. We write content on paper with a digital pen and it is visible on our
computer screen.
 Stylus: The stylus is a pen-type instrument. It is used with tablets,
smartphones, and graphic tablets. It is used for writing and drawing on the
screen.

Scanner and Its Type

A scanner is an electronic device used to convert documents and images into digital
copies for display, editing, and archiving. Most scanners connect to computers with
cords, but modern models also offer Bluetooth and wireless features. Scanners work
with software applications, allowing images to be imported directly.
How does work scanner
A document is placed on the scanner and illuminated from below by a light source
once the lid is closed. A
scan head, including a
mirror, lens, filter, and
CCD array, moves across
the document via a belt
and stepper motor,
stabilized by a
stabilizer. The scan head
completes a pass when it
finishes scanning the
entire document. The image is reflected onto a lens by an angled mirror, then
focused on the CCD array through a filter. Scanner variations may affect the

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 Subject Code & Name: 23BCE1S1 - Fundamentals of Information Technology
Course, Year & Sem: B.Sc [CS], I & I

arrangement of the lens and CCD array. Most scanners use a three-pass method,
employing different color filters (red, green, or blue) between the lens and CCD
array to generate the final full-color image after assembling all three filtered images.
Types of Scanner
Drum Scanner
The drum scanner utilizes a rotating drum to scan pages quickly, using
photomultiplier tubes instead of CCDs found in flatbed scanners. These tubes are
highly light-sensitive, providing high resolution scanning capabilities.
Flatbed Scanner
The flatbed scanner is the most common optical scanner, easily found in the
market. Documents are placed on a flat surface, covered, and scanned. It is user-
friendly, able to scan various documents, and may have additional features like
Bluetooth or automatic feeders.
Sheetfed Scanner
Sheetfed scanners are designed for loose sheets of paper, ideal for scanning large
volumes quickly. They are compact, with lower resolution than flatbed scanners, and
commonly used in offices with limited space.
Handheld Scanner
Handheld scanners are compact, easy to use devices that scan documents by
dragging the scanner over them, preferred for their flexibility and commonly used in
retail and warehousing for scanning barcodes.

Voice Recognition System

Microphone
A microphone is an input device that was developed by Emile Berliner in 1877. It is
used to convert sound waves into electric waves or input the audio into computers.
It captures audio by converting sound waves into an electrical signal, which may be
a digital or analog signal. This process can be implemented by a computer or other
digital audio devices.
Use of Microphone
 It is used for voice recording.
 It offers users the option of voice recognition.
 It allows users to record sound of musical instruments.
 It enables users to online chatting.
 It allows us for VoIP (Voice over internet protocol).
 It is also used for Computer gaming.
 It is also used for record voice for singing, podcasts, and dictation.
Voice Recognition

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Voice Recognition is also called

Speaker Recognition. At the time
of enrollment, the user needs to
speak a word or phrase into a
microphone. This is necessary to
acquirespeech sample of a
candidate.The electrical signal
from the microphone is
converted into digital signal by
an Analog to Digital (ADC)
converter. It is recorded into the
computer memory as a digitized sample. The computer then compares and attempts
to match the input voice of candidate with the stored digitized voice sample and
identifies the candidate.
Types of Voice Recognition System
 Speaker Dependent
 Speaker Independent.
Speaker Dependent
Speaker–dependent software works by learning the unique characteristics of a single
person's voice, in a way similar to voice recognition. New users must first "train" the
software by speaking to it, so the computer can analyze how the person talks. This
often means users have to read a few pages of text to the computer before they can
use the speech recognition software.
Speaker Independent
Speaker–independent software is designed to recognize anyone's voice, so no
training is involved. This means it is the only real option for applications such as
interactive voice response systems — where businesses can't ask callers to read
pages of text before using the system. The downside is that speaker–independent
software is generally less accurate than speaker–dependent software.

Vision Input System

A vision input system is a technology that allows a computer to take input from an
image of an object. The input data is usually the object's shape and features.

Digital Camera
A digital camera input device is a type of hardware that allows users to capture and
transfer digital images from a camera to a computer or other device. This input
device typically connects to a computer via a USB cable or memory card reader, and
allows users to transfer images from the camera's memory card to the computer's
hard drive or other storage device. Some digital camera input devices may also
include software that allows users to edit and manipulate their images, as well as

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Course, Year & Sem: B.Sc [CS], I & I

share them online or print them out. Overall, digital camera input devices are
essential tools for photographers and other users who need to transfer and manage
digital images on their computers or other devices.
Types of Camera
 DSLR cameras
 Mirrorless cameras
 Bridge cameras
 Compact digital camera
 Film cameras
 Action cameras
 360 cameras
 Smartphone cameras
 Instant cameras
 Medium format cameras

Touch Screen

A touch screen is an electronic display screen and an input device. it is an electronic

visual display that can detect the presence and location of a touch (usually by a
finger or hand) within the display area. A user uses hand motions and fingertip
movements to tap photos, control items, or input words on a computer, tablet,
smartphone, or touch-controlled appliance screen. The screens are pressure-sensitive
and can be operated or handled with fingers or a pen.
Components of Touch Screen
Touch Sensor
The structure of touch sensors depend on the type of touch screen we‘re using. Its
work is to sense any valid touch, valid touch meaning by a finger or hand.
Controller
Controller is a small pc card. It gives the location of the touch to the software of the
device.
Software Drivers
Software drivers allow the software to work in cooperation with the touch screen.
These drivers are developed using the C programming language.
Working of Touch Screen
Touch screen technology operates through various principles to detect and respond
to touch inputs. Capacitive touchscreens measure changes in capacitance when a
conductive object touches the screen. Resistive touchscreens detect touch by pressing
two layers together to complete a circuit. Surface Acoustic Wave (SAW)
touchscreens emit ultrasonic waves to identify touch points. Infrared touchscreens
use light beams to detect touch interruptions, facilitating intuitive interaction with
electronic devices.
Types of Touch Screens

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Course, Year & Sem: B.Sc [CS], I & I

Resistive Touch Screens

Resistive touch screens are the simplest and most commonly used type. Comprising
two layers that can conduct electricity, the outer layer is resistive and the inner layer
is conductive. When pressed, these layers come into contact, changing the electrical
current. While reliable and durable, they can be difficult to read and only support
single touch inputs, making it challenging to zoom in for clearer viewing.
Capacitive Touch Screen
Capacitive touch screen is made of indium tin oxide or copper, these screens store
electrical charges in thin wires. When in contact with a charged object like our skin,
the screen's electric current changes. There are two types: Projective (uses sensor
chips) and Surface (uses sensors in corners and a film over the screen).
Infrared
Infrared display emits light in grids, reacts when touched, microchip analyzes
interruption location for response.
Surface Acoustic Wave Technology
Surface Acoustic Wave Technology utilizes sound to detect touch. The screen emits
ultrasonic waves at its edges, which are reflected back and forth when disrupted by
touch, helping determine the point of contact.
Advantages of Touch Screen
 Reduces error while accessing something.
 Provides easy and fast access to any file.
 Reduces the need of extra input devices like keyboard, mouse, etc. hence
saves energy.
 Provides good security.

Monitor and Its Types

A monitor is an electronic output device that is also known as a video display

terminal (VDT) or a video display unit (VDU). It is used to display images, text,
video, and graphics information generated by a connected computer via a
computer's video card. Although it is almost like a TV, its resolution is much higher
than a TV.
Types of Monitors
 Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) Monitors
 Flat Panel Monitors
 Touch Screen Monitors
 LED Monitors
 OLED Monitors
 DLP Monitors
 TFT Monitors
 Plasma Screen Monitors

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Course, Year & Sem: B.Sc [CS], I & I

Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) Monitors

Electron beam technology is used in CRT monitors to create images by firing beams
of electrons that hit the screen's surface, generating RGB colors. Flat Panel Monitors
have replaced CRT monitors.
Flat Panel Monitors
Flat-panel monitors are lightweight, space-saving, and energy-efficient compared to
CRT monitors. They do not emit harmful radiation but are pricier. Commonly used
in PDA, laptops, and cell phones, they come in various sizes like 15", 17", 18", and
19". The display is created using two glass plates with an activating substance.Flat-
panel monitor screens utilize two types of technologies:Liquid Crystal Display
(LCD) and Gas Plasma Display.
Touch Screen Monitors
Its is allow users to interact with a computer using a finger or stylus instead of a
mouse or keyboard. Touching the screen with a finger triggers an event sent to the
controller for processing.
LED Monitors
A lightweight computer monitor with a flat screen that uses light-emitting diode
display technology. LED panels provide light in various electronic devices, including
laptops, phones, TVs, and tablets.
OLED Monitors
OLED is a new flat light-emitting display technology with improved efficiency,
brightness, thinness, refresh rates, and contrast compared to LCD displays. It
consists of organic thin films between two conductors and does not require a
backlight. Used in high-end smartphones, tablets, laptops, TVs, cameras, and VR
headsets.
DLP Monitors
DLP, short for Digital Light Processing, was created by Texas Instruments for
projecting monitor images onto large screens. Before DLP, LCD technology caused
faded images. DLP's digital micromirror device produces high-quality, bright
images visible in lit rooms.
TFT Monitors
LCD flat panels use thin-film transistors (TFT) to control all pixels, offering high
resolution. TFT-based monitors are expensive but higher quality than older passive-
matrix displays, known as active-matrix displays.
Plasma Screen Monitors
A plasma screen is a thin, flat-panel display that can be wall-mounted like LCD and
LED TVs. It offers brighter images than LCDs and is thinner than CRT displays. It
can show digital computer input or analog video signals, with wide viewing angles
and high refresh rates for reduced video blur.

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Course, Year & Sem: B.Sc [CS], I & I

Impact Printer and its Types

Impact printers utilize an electromechanical component that impacts on the paper to

print the letters on the paper sheet. It is comparable to a mechanical typewriter. The
mechanism employed in these printers is referred to as an electro-mechanical
mechanism. It operates at a slower speed than non-impact printers because of the
use of a mechanical component.
Types of Impact Printers
 Dot matrix printer
 Drum Printer
 Daily wheel printer
 Line Printer
 Chain Printer
Dot Matrix Printer
Dot matrix printers generate images by hammering a grid of pins against a ribbon.
Different pin combinations are utilized to print several characters.
Drum Printer
The paper in a drum printer is attached to the drum for exact alignment to the
nozzles. When the required character for the specified location is rotated around to
the hammer line, the hammer hits the paper from behind and pushes it into the type
slug when it is rotated around to the right position.
Daily Wheel Printer
In this type of printer a pre-molded wheel is used which is known as daisy wheel
thats why its named as daisy wheel printer. This wheel rotates at fast speed inside
printer and prints text on the paper. The daisy wheel contains characters and
symbols at the end of each petal or spoke.
Line Printer
It is a high-speed printer that may print a full line at once. A high-speed line printer
can produce up to 3,000 lines per minute. Line printers have the disadvantage of
being unable to produce graphics, having poor print quality, and being quite noisy.
Chain Printer
It's the printer for characters. A chain printer's print element is a metallic band or
chain with embossed characters that spins horizontally in front of the paper. A
complete chain is made up of five pieces, each of which has 48 characters. As the
print chain rotates, appropriately timed print hammers impact the paper and the
inked ribbon against the appropriate character on the chain. Chain printers are
among the quickest impact printers, producing 400 to 2500 letters per second.
Advantages
 It is capable of producing continuous print on paper.
 It prints line by line or character by character.
 It is a cheaper and more reliable printer.

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Course, Year & Sem: B.Sc [CS], I & I

 It is widely utilized and employed when large amounts of production are

required.
 It utilizes cartridges and ink ribbons.

Non-Impact Printer and its Types

Non-impact printers print graphics and characters onto paper using a laser, a spray
of special ink, or heat and pressure. The print quality of a non-impact printer is
better than that of an impact printer. Toner (dry ink) or liquid ink cartridges are used
in these printers to print on paper. These printers utilize the latest printing
technologies, and they are more costly than other printers.
Types of Non-Impact Printers
 Laser Printer
 Plotter
 Inkjet Printer
 Thermal Printer
Laser Printer
In laser printers, an image is produced, is a kind of non-impact printer that operates
laser LEDs. The mechanism by which laser printers work involves producing an
electrostatic picture on a drum a cylindrical roller. Laser LEDs are used to selectively
charge the necessary regions of the drum‘s surface to generate this picture.
Inkjet Printer
Using tiny nozzles, inkjet printers spray droplets onto paper directly. If you want to
construct high-resolution graphics, pictures, or images for your papers, this
approach works well for producing vibrantly colored visuals.
Thermal Printer
Using heat-sensitive paper or ribbon that is heated and transferred to create a print,
thermal printers create pictures. The three fundamental parts that make up a thermal
printer are a print head, a platen, and a spring.
Dye-sublimation Printers
Dye-sublimation printer is a digital printing procedure that is used in Non-Impact
printers. It applies an image to the target substrate using heat transfer. The
technique, sometimes known as digital sublimation, is frequently employed to
decorate clothing, banners, signs, and other objects with surfaces that may be
sublimated.
Features of Non-Impact Printer
High Quality Prints
In non-impact printers, High quality prints with crisp details and brilliant colors are
produced. With a resolution of up to 1200 dpi both inkjet and laser printers are
adequate of producing prints with incredibly fine detail and clarity.
Faster Printing Speeds

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Course, Year & Sem: B.Sc [CS], I & I

Non-impact printers often print them significantly faster than impact printers when
printing a lot of papers, they generally have document feeders and automated two-
sided printing installed, which can further speed up output.
Silent Process
It is considerably quieter to use non-impact printers than other kinds of printers.
This is so that they may obtain the required printing result without having to
actually pound a hole in the paper or any other substance.
Lower Maintenance
Non-impact printers require a lot less maintenance than impact printers. They have
fewer mechanical faults and last longer since they don‘t have any moving
components that come into contact with the paper.

Plotters and its Types

A plotter is a computer output device used to create high-quality large-format

images and drawings on flat surfaces. Unlike traditional printers, plotters use pens
or pencils to produce detailed lines based on vector graphic commands from a
computer.
Applications of Plotters
 Draw charts
 Computer-aided designs
 Architectural Blueprints
 Textile Printing
 Banners and Billboards
 Electric circuit layouts
 Geographical layouts
 Building plans
 Line Art
Types of Plotters
 Electrostatic Plotters
 Pen Plotters
 Inkjet Plotters
 Cutting Plotters
 Drum Plotters
 Flatbed Plotters
Electrostatic Plotters
Electrostatic plotters create images on paper using raster graphics and toner ink for
dot matrix pixels. High voltage charges help draw computer-aided designs, though
they may have lower quality compared to pen-plotters.
Pen Plotters
Pen plotters use mechanical pens or pencils to draw precise monochromatic
technical drawings and illustrations quickly.

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Course, Year & Sem: B.Sc [CS], I & I

Inkjet Plotters
These plotters use inkjet technology and colored ink pens to create high-quality
color images and are ideal for detailed output in graphic design, architecture, and
fine art. They are commonly used for large-scale printing like billboards and
banners.
Cutting Plotters
A cutting plotter is a machine that uses knives to cut designs from materials like
plastic or vinyl. Controlled by a computer, it is precise and often used for crafts.
Drum Plotters
Drum plotters use a rotating drum to move paper while pens write vertically.
Multiple pens are utilized by them to produce large images, which are frequently
used for maps and technical drawings, in various colors.
Flatbed Plotters
A flatbed plotter utilizes paper placed on a stationary flat surface. The writing pen
moves in x and y axes, with various pen types in different sizes and colors
available. Larger plotters can print up to 60 inches on paper, and can also print on
materials like plastic, cardboard, or metal.

Sound Card and Speakers

Sound Card
A sound card is a computer component used to send and receive audio data on a
computer-based system. Sound cards translate digital data and binary code the
computer uses into analog sound, which the user can hear through headphones or
speakers. A sound card operates the same function in reverse, as well.
Uses of a Sound Card
 Games.
 Voice recognition.
 Watch movies.
 Creating and playing MIDI.
 Educational software.
 Audio and video conferencing.
 Business presentations.
 Record dictations.
Types of Sound Card
External Sound Adapters
External sound adapters have the same features as regular sound cards but connect
via USB or FireWire instead of internal slots.
Motherboard Sound Chips
Initially, sound cards were costly add-ons, priced at high. Advances in
miniaturization led to integrated sound chips.

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Course, Year & Sem: B.Sc [CS], I & I

Standard Sound Cards

A conventional sound card plugs into one of the slots within the computer. One
advantage of using a sound card over a motherboard sound chip is that the latter has
its own CPU chips.
Speaker
Speakers are standard output devices used with computer systems that enable the
listener to listen to a sound as an outcome.Speakers convert electromagnetic waves
to sound waves, receiving audio input from a computer in analogue or digital form.
Analogue speakers amplify electromagnetic signals, while digital ones convert
digital input to analogue before producing sound.
Types of Speakers
 Subwoofers
 Bluetooth speakers
 USB Speaker
 Dynamic speaker
 Electrostatic speaker
 Computer speaker
Subwoofers
Subwoofers create very low-frequency sound with a frequency range of 20 to 200
Hz. The subwoofer is a speaker that can be pointed in any direction.
Bluetooth speakers
A Bluetooth speaker is a type of wireless technology. These are incredibly portable,
allowing you to play them anywhere and at any time. They supply us with high-
quality audio.

USB Speaker
These kinds of speakers are now available as wireless speakers. You must connect a
USB to your computer to utilise them. They only function within a specific range and
maybe kept anyplace within that range.
Dynamic speaker
Dynamic speakers, which are primarily passive, are pretty prevalent. They are
generally found with one or more woofer drivers. Professional speakers have rear
drivers to help with sound amplification in certain circumstances.
Electrostatic speaker
Electrostatic speakers provide clear, detailed sound and need an external power
source. They are suitable for high frequencies, not low frequencies. Outdoor
speakers usually have around 80 watts output. PC speakers range from 10 to 25
watts.
Computer speaker
Speakers had limited sound quality, with only 8- or 16-bit functionality. Electrostatic
speakers offer clear, detailed sound and are easily replaceable if damaged.

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Course, Year & Sem: B.Sc [CS], I & I

UNIT-III
Storage Fundamentals: Primary Vs Secondary Storage, Data storage &
retrieval methods. Primary Storage: RAM ROM, PROM, EPROM,
EEPROM. Secondary Storage: Magnetic Tapes, Magnetic Disks.
Cartridge tape, hard disks, Floppy disks Optical Disks, Compact
Disks, Zip Drive, Flash Drives

Primary Vs Secondary Storage

Primary memory Secondary memory

The primary memory of a computer is the Secondary memory defines to

main memory that is utilized to store data additional storage devices that are
temporarily. utilized to store data permanently.

Primary memory is temporary. Secondary memory is permanent.

Primary memory is faster than secondary Secondary memory is non-volatile,

memory because it is directly accessible to which means it retains data even when
the CPU. the power is off.

Primary memory is directly accessible by Secondary memory is not directly

Processor/CPU. accessible by the CPU.

Nature of Parts of Primary memory varies

RAM- volatile in nature. ROM- Non- It‘s always Non-volatile in nature.
volatile.

Primary memory is volatile, which means

Since it is non-volatile, data can be
it is wiped out when the computer is
retained in case of a power failure.
turned off.

Secondary memory devices are less

Primary memory devices are more
expensive when compared to primary
expensive than secondary storage devices.
memory devices.

The memory devices used for primary The secondary memory devices are
memory are semiconductor memories. magnetic and optical memories.

It can hold data/information that are

It can hold data/information currently
not currently being used by the
being used by the processing unit.
processing unit.

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Course, Year & Sem: B.Sc [CS], I & I

Primary memory Secondary memory

The capacity of primary memory is usually The capacity of secondary memory

within the range of 16 to 32 GB. ranges from 200 GB to some terabytes.

Secondary memory is also known as

Primary memory is also known as Main
External memory or Auxiliary
memory or Internal memory.
memory.

It can be accessed by a data bus. It can be accessed using I/O channels.

Examples: RAM, ROM, Cache memory, Examples: Hard Disk, Floppy

PROM, EPROM, Registers, etc. Disk, Magnetic Tapes, etc

Primary Storage

Primary Storage
Primary storage or memory is also known as the main memory, which is the part of
the computer that stores current data, programs, and instructions. Primary storage is
stored in the motherboard which results in the data from and to primary storage can
be read and written at a very good pace.
Need of Primary Memory
 All programs, files, and data are stored in secondary storage that is larger and
hence has greater access time.
 Secondary memory cannot be accessed directly by a CPU or processor.
 In order, to execute any process operating system loads the process in
primary memory which is smaller and can be accessed directly by the CPU.
 Since only those processes are loaded in primary memory which is ready to
be executed, the CPU can access those processes efficiently and this optimizes
the performance of the system.
Classification of Primary Memory
Primary memory can be broadly classified into two parts:
 Read-Only Memory (ROM)
 Random Access Memory (RAM)

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Course, Year & Sem: B.Sc [CS], I & I

RAM & ROM

Memory is the most essential element of a computing system because without it

computer can‘t perform simple tasks. Both types of memory (RAM and ROM) are
important for the computer, but they serve different purposes. RAM is used to store
data that the computer is currently using, while ROM is used to store data that the
computer needs to boot and operate. RAM is faster than ROM, as the data stored in
it can be accessed and modified in any order, while data stored in ROM can only be
read.
Random Access Memory (RAM)
Random Access Memory (RAM) is a type of computer memory that is used to
temporarily store data that the computer is currently using or processing. RAM is
volatile memory, which means that the data stored in it is lost when the power is
turned off. RAM is typically used to store the operating system, application
programs, and data that the computer is currently using.
 It is also called read-write memory or the main memory or the primary
memory.
 The programs and data that the CPU requires during the execution of a
program are stored in this memory.
 It is a volatile memory as the data is lost when the power is turned off.
Types of Random Access Memory (RAM)
 Static RAM (SRAM)
 Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
Static RAM
SRAM stands for Static Random Access Memory. It is a type of semiconductor which
is widely used in computing devices and microprocessors.
Dynamic RAM
DRAM stands for Dynamic Random Access Memory. It is made of Capacitors and
has smaller data life span than Static RAM.
Read-Only Memory (ROM)
Read Only Memory (ROM) is a type of computer memory that is used to
permanently store data that does not need to be modified. ROM is non-volatile
memory, which means that the data stored in it is retained even when the power is
turned off. ROM is typically used to store the computer‘s BIOS (basic input/output
system), which contains the instructions for booting the computer, as well as
firmware for other hardware devices.
 Stores crucial information essential to operate the system,
 It is non-volatile.
 Used in embedded systems or where the programming needs no change.
 Used in calculators and peripheral devices.
Types of Read-Only Memory (ROM)
 PROM (Programmable Read-Only Memory)

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 Subject Code & Name: 23BCE1S1 - Fundamentals of Information Technology
Course, Year & Sem: B.Sc [CS], I & I

 EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory)

 EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory)
 MROM (Mask Read Only Memory)
PROM
It can be programmed by the user. Once programmed, the data and instructions in it
cannot be changed.
EPROM
It can be reprogrammed. To erase data from it, expose it to ultraviolet light. To
reprogram it, erase all the previous data.
EEPROM
The data can be erased by applying an electric field, with no need for ultraviolet
light. We can erase only portions of the chip.
MROM
Mask ROM is a kind of read-only memory that is masked off at the time of
production. Like other types of ROM, mask ROM cannot enable the user to change
the data stored in it. If it can, the process would be difficult or slow.

PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory)

PROM stands for Programmable Read-Only Memory, a chip where data can be
written once. Unlike RAM, PROM retains its content when the computer is off and is
typically used for low-level device drivers.
A programmable read-only memory (PROM) is an advanced memory frame where
each bit setting is locked by a fuse or anti-fuse. It is a type of ROM with
unchangeable data, used in various electronic devices for simple programming.

Applications of PROM
 Mobile Phones for giving Client Particular Selections.
 Implantable Restorative devices.
 Radio-Frequency Identification (RFID) tags.
 High definition Multimedia Interfaces(HDMI)
Characteristics of PROM
 It has programmable random access memory
 In prom And gates are fixed and or gates are programmable
 Prom Works as a memory
 It is not reusable.

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Course, Year & Sem: B.Sc [CS], I & I

 The storage endurance of PROM is high

Advantages of PROM
 Programming can utilize various software instead of complex wiring to the chip.
 Once fuses are blown, data authenticity is preserved, preventing removal or
alteration.
 PROM retains data without power, ensuring information is secure.

EEPROM

EEPROM [Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory] is a type of non-

volatile ROM that enables individual bytes of data to be erased and reprogrammed.
That is why EEPROM chips are known as byte erasable chips. EEPROM is usually
used to store small amounts of data in computing and other electronic devices. The
memory cell has two transistors that are field effective:
 Storage transistor
 Access transistor
Storage transistor
A storage transistor is also called a floating gate. Electrons are stored in this gate, the
number of electrons that are present or absent in this gate determines the data that
has been stored.
Access transistor
Access transistor takes care of operational aspects of the memory cell.
Types of EEPROM memory
Two types of EEPROM memory chips are available.
Serial EEPROM
Serial EEPROM chips can be contained within a small eight-pin package, making
them denser than parallel EEPROM chips. Serial chips are also less expensive. The
drawback is that data is transferred serially and, therefore, slowly. Additionally,
their operations are more complex.
Many standard interface types are available for serial EEPROM:
 Serial peripheral interface
 Inter-Integrated Circuit
 Microwire
 UNI/O
 1-Wire
Each of these interfaces requires one to four control signals for operation.
The EEPROM serial protocol consists of three phases:
 Operation code phase
 Address phase
 Data phase
Parallel EEPROM

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Course, Year & Sem: B.Sc [CS], I & I

The parallel EEPROM chip is compatible with both EPROM and flash memory
devices. Its data transfer mechanism is faster and more reliable than the mechanism
in serial EEPROM. However, it has a larger pin count, which increases its size,
density and cost. For these reasons, parallel EEPROM is not as widely used as serial
EEPROM or flash memory.
Advantages and disadvantages of EEPROM
One of the biggest advantages of EEPROM is that it can be reprogrammed multiple
times. The stored data is non-volatile and can be erased on a byte-by-byte basis.
And, since the erasure happens electrically, it is almost instantaneous. Unlike
EPROM, EEPROM chips do not have to be removed from the computer to be
modified.
Despite these advantages, EEPROM also has some disadvantages. It is more
expensive than PROM and EPROM, and it has limited data retention time. Further,
cost may be a drawback for systems using serial EEPROM chips

Magnetic Tapes

In magnetic tape only one side of the ribbon is used for storing data. It is sequential
memory which contains thin plastic ribbon to store data and coated by magnetic
oxide. Data read/write speed is slower because of sequential access. It is highly
reliable which requires magnetic tape drive
writing and reading data. The width of the
ribbon varies from 4mm to 1 Inch and it has
storage capacity 100 MB to 200 GB.
Application Areas of Magnetic Tapes
 Serial or sequential processing.
 Backing up data on tape is very cheap.
 It is applicable for the transfer of data
between multiple machines.
 It is suitable for the storage of a large
volume of data.
Let‘s see various advantages and disadvantages of Magnetic Tape memory.
Advantages
 These are inexpensive, i.e., low cost memories.
 It provides backup or archival storage.
 It can be used for large files.
 It can be used for copying from disk files.
 It is a reusable memory.
 It is compact and easy to store on racks.
Disadvantages
 Sequential access is the disadvantage, means it does not allow access
randomly or directly.

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 It requires caring to store, i.e., vulnerable humidity, dust free, and suitable
environment.
 It stored data cannot be easily updated or modified, i.e., difficult to make
updates on data.

Magnetic Disk

A magnetic Disk is a type of secondary memory that is a flat disc covered with a
magnetic coating to hold information. It is used to store various programs and files.
The polarized information in one direction is represented by 1, and vice versa. The
direction is indicated by 0. Magnetic disks are less expensive than RAM and can
store large amounts of data, but the data access rate is slower than main memory
because of secondary memory. Data can be modified or can be deleted easily in the
magnetic disk memory. It also allows random access to data.

There are various advantages and disadvantages of magnetic disk memory.

Advantages
 These are economical memory
 Easy and direct access to data is possible.
 It can store large amounts of data.
 It has a better data transfer rate than magnetic tapes.
 It has less prone to corruption of data as compared to tapes.
Disadvantages
 These are less expensive than RAM but more expensive than magnetic tape
memories.
 It needs a clean and dust-free environment to store.
 These are not suitable for sequential access.

Cartridge Tapes
Tape Cartridges are an essential type of storage device that are used to store
different kinds of data. They consist of a spool of magnetic tape that is packaged in

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Course, Year & Sem: B.Sc [CS], I & I

cassettes and cartridges. These cartridges are designed to fit into compatible
audio/video recorders or computer systems. When used in computing, a tape
cartridge is the magnetic tape storage cartridge used in tape library units to store
digital data on magnetic tape.
 Tape cartridges store data on magnetic tape.
 Inserted into tape drives for sequential reading and writing.
 Locating specific files can be time-consuming due to sequential access.
 Capable of storing large amounts of data, suitable for corporate and
multimedia files.
 Commonly used for backups and archival purposes.
 Reliable and cost-effective for long-term data storage.
 Require compatible audio/video recorder systems or computer systems for
proper use.
 Backup systems with tape libraries are essential for long-term data
management.
 Tape cartridges are efficient for ensuring data is backed up and easily
retrievable.

Hard Disk

The hard disc drive is the main hardware in a computer that stores data. Most files,
including the operating system and programme
titles, are kept on the hard disc drive.
Components of Hard Disk Drives
Actuator
 Supports and moves read/write heads to
the correct track on the platter.
 Modern HDDs use voice coil actuators for
precise positioning.
Read-write Heads
 Each platter has a corresponding
read/write head that hovers above its
surface.
 Retrieves and stores data on the platters.
 Actuator arm moves the heads across the platter for access.
Central Spindle
 Rotates the platters at consistent speeds (typically 5,400 to 15,000 RPM).
Magnetic Platter
 Stores data in binary form.
 Made of aluminium or glass with a magnetic coating.
 Holds data through magnetic patterns.

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 Subject Code & Name: 23BCE1S1 - Fundamentals of Information Technology
Course, Year & Sem: B.Sc [CS], I & I

Power Connectors
 Connect HDDs to the computer‘s power source.
 Modern drives use SATA power connectors.
Circuit Board (PCB)
 The HDD's control system.
 Contains software for data access and error correction.
 Connects to the computer interface (SATA/IDE).
Data Connector
 Connects the HDD to the power supply and interface.
 SATA connectors are common in modern HDDs.
Small Spindle
 Moves the read-write arm across the platter surface.
 Larger drives have multiple platters, each with two read-write heads.
Features of Hard Disk Drives
Data Storage
 HDDs use magnetic platters to store data as magnetic patterns.
 Data is accessed by read/write heads moving over the spinning platters.
Capacity
 Available in a range from a few GB to several TB.
 Capacity depends on the number of platters and their data density.
Speed
 Slower than SSDs due to mechanical movement of read/write heads, causing
latency.
Durability
 Prone to mechanical failure from physical shock, drops, or vibrations due to
moving parts.
 Less durable than SSDs.
Price
 More cost-effective per gigabyte than SSDs, making them ideal for large
storage needs.
Noise and Heat
 Generates noise from spinning platters and moving heads.
 Produces heat, requiring proper ventilation.
Power Consumption
 Consumes more power than SSDs because of its mechanical components.
Applications
 Used for storing large files, running operating systems, and in NAS devices
for backups and data sharing.
 Regular backups are important to prevent data loss from potential mechanical
failure.

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Course, Year & Sem: B.Sc [CS], I & I

Floppy Disks

Floppy disks also known as floppy diskettes, floppy disks or floppy disks, are a type
of storage medium that can read data storage information and are used to store
electronic data.
Usage of Floppy Disk
 Floppy disks were the sole means to install new software and create data
backups on early computers as they lacked USB and CD-ROM (compact disk
read-only memory) drives.
 Installing the program from a single 3.5″ floppy disk was possible if it was
small—less than 1.44 MB. Nonetheless, diskettes were often needed because
the majority of programs were bigger than 1.44 MB.
 Users also frequently stored and backed up their files on floppy disks.
 A word processing file, for instance, may be saved as a backup or transferred
to a floppy disk and used on a different machine.
How Does a Floppy Disk Work?
 Data is magnetically stored on the circular platter surface of a floppy disk.
 A read/write head within the drive reads data that has been encoded onto the
platter by moving over it.
 After that, the drive converts these bits into text, images, or music that the
computer‘s CPU can understand.
 The magnetic polarity used by the read/write head is either 0 or 1.
 The computer can interpret this as binary data and determine what is on the
platter.
 The read/write head aligns the magnetic polarities so that the computer may
write data to the platter—0s and 1s that can be decoded by another device
later on.
Types of Floppy Disk
 8-inch Drive: The First ever floppy design to be adopted as a read-only format
before being able to read and write which was introduced in the early 1970s
was 8-inch Drive. The physical characteristic that permitted the floppy drive
series its name was floppy.
 Zip Drive: The Zip drive was introduced by Iomega Corporation. Since zip
drives were peripheral, they were primarily able to enhance an already-
existing system. Due to its high cost, this drive was not widely utilized and
never really took off as a storage device.
 3.5″ Drive: 3.5″ Drive is another kind of floppy disk. Conversely, a 3.5′′ drive is
typically found in desktop computers and servers and has a bigger diameter
of 3.5 inches.
 5.25″ Drive: A 5.25″ is a floppy disk drive that was a common computer
accessory. During the early nineties, computers with capacities ranging from
360 kilobytes to 1.2 gigabytes were also armed with floppy disk drives.

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Course, Year & Sem: B.Sc [CS], I & I

Advantages of Floppy Disk

 Flexibility and comparably: Floppy drives have several benefits, one of which
is their flexibility and comparably small size. 3.5″ Drive floppy disks are
smaller in size than Compact Disks.
 Cost: Less costly than other storage devices portable and non-volatile which
means that data stored on them won‘t be lost when the system is powered
down and compatible with the majority of computers.
 Compose Protection: Floppy disks also include a little score that provides a
feature called Write Protection, even with the plastic wrapping.
 Boot Disk: Floppy disk drives are often situated above the primary hard
drives in the boot order sequence.

Optical Disks

Optical Disk is a storage medium that relies on laser technology to read and write
data, in shape, it is a flat circular disk which is made up of polycarbonate or a similar
material with a very shiny reflective layer on the surface. They are mainly used for
sharing, storing and backup Data as they have a great life span and capacity
compared to older technologies like floppy disks.
Applications of Optical Disk
Data Security: Securely store backups and archives for businesses and individuals,
offering long-term preservation and resistance to magnetic fields.
Software Distribution: A reliable and cost-effective way to distribute large
programs, especially in areas with limited internet access.
Data Transfer: Share big files offline, ideal for transferring between devices without
relying on online platforms.
Medical Imaging: Optical disks find its use in High-resolution scans like X-rays and
CT scans as they look at it as a secure storage option.
Educational Resources: in the world of Interactive learning materials optical disks
find its use and make the offline access for education possible.
Offline Navigation: GPS data and maps for car navigation systems often use optical
disks as result they offer reliable guidance even when cellular networks are not
available.
Type of Optical Disk
Compact Disc (CD)
Compact disk are Optical Disk which are used mainly for storing music , software
and compact data on average they offer storage capacity of 400 to 800 MB.
Digital Versatile Disc (DVD)
Digital Versatile Disc are Optical Disk which are used mainly for storing movies,
games, and larger data files , they hold storage capacity of 4.7 GB - 18 Giga-byte
(GB).

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 Subject Code & Name: 23BCE1S1 - Fundamentals of Information Technology
Course, Year & Sem: B.Sc [CS], I & I

Blu-ray Disc (BD)

Blu-ray Disc are Optical Disk offering the highest capacity and resolution to user so
are used mainly for storing large movies, large games and also for the archiving
purposes they hold the vast storage capacity of 25 GB - 128 GB Giga-byte (GB).
Advantages of Optical Disk
 High Storage Capacity: Significantly larger than older technologies like floppy
disks.
 Durability: Can last for decades if in proper care.
 Scratch Resistance: Most of optical discs are fairly resistant to minor scratches
and are reliable.
 Healthcare: optical disks are used in field healthcare for storing and sharing
medical imaging data such as X-rays, MRI scans, and ultrasound images.
 government: optical disks find their use in many government agencies for
storing sensitive confidential information that requires long-term
preservation.

Zip Drive

The zip drive looks similar to floppy disk drives. The external zip drivers are about 2
inches thick and 4.5 inches wide. There‘s also 5-6 inches long. Internal zip drives, on
the other hand, are larger and thicker. Most zip disks hold about 100 MB of storage.
How Does Zip Drive Work?
A zip drive system contains a zip disk and slot for the zip disk. Apart from a large
storage capacity, a zip drive offers a high data transfer rate. Data moves fast between
the computer‘s internal storage and the disk. Hence, seek time refers to the time it
takes to find a location on the disk to write or read data. It would help if you
connected to the computer to read or write data on the zip drive. Then, you install
the internal drive directly inside the computer case like you would with an optical
drive.
You cannot easily remove it by connecting it to the computer motherboard. On the
other hand, the external zip drive comes in a separate casing and connects to the
computer using a connector cable. While some use a parallel port connection, others
utilize a USB connection. The zip drives that use a parallel port connection require a
separate power supply to be used.
The Zip drive disk system came with a drive which had a slot, or port, for Zip disks
to be inserted into in order for the computer system to read them. The Zip disk
included with the system allowed the user to download and store 100 MB of data
that could then be removed from the Zip drive and transported, inserted, and read
on any other computer that also had a Zip drive. As the technology became more
advanced, Zip disks with 250 MB and 750 MB storage were eventually sold. The Zip
drive used multiple interfaces, including the following:
 IDE

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 ATAPI
 USB 1.1 and 2.0
 IEEE 1284 and 1394
 Plus
 SCSI
These different interfaces, or software and hardware mechanisms, allowed
communication between the computers, drive or disk reader, and Zip disk.
Additionally, the systems had driver support for DOS, Microsoft Windows,
Macintosh, Linux, and other operating systems.

Flash Drives

A flash drive, or USB drive, is a portable storage device using NAND flash memory
technology. It offers compact and durable data storage with plug-and-play
functionality, diverse storage capacities, and USB 3. 0/3. 1 standard.
Key Features and Functionality
Flash Drive is praised for its simplicity, portability, and durability, becoming
integral in storing and transporting data efficiently, making it special in everyone's
life.
Compact Design and Portability
The flash drive The Little Wonder is compact and portable, with a small circuit
board and protective shell. Its USB connector allows for easy storage in pockets, on
keychains, or in bags.
Plug-and-Play Functionality
Flash Drives are known for their plug-and-play functionality, which eliminates the
need for installation or drivers. This feature makes them universally compatible with
various devices.
Don't contain any Moving Parts
Flash drives, unlike traditional hard drives, work on NAND flash memory chips
without moving parts. This enhances durability and improves access speed to data.
NAND Flash Memory Technology
Flash Drives utilize NAND flash memory, a nonvolatile technology ensuring data
retention without power. Renowned for speed and reliability, making them popular
for personal and professional use.
Robust and Durable
Flash drives are durable due to lack of delicate parts and protective casing, ensuring
data retention even through daily use.
Applications of Flash Drive
Portable Storage for Students and Professionals: flash drive work as a portable
storage due to its compact size it allows Students and Professionals to carry essential
documents, presentations, and project files in their pockets .

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Course, Year & Sem: B.Sc [CS], I & I

Data Backup and Transfer: flash drives are regularly used for backing up important
data or transferring files between computers.
Bootable Drives for Operating System Installation and Repair: due to the factors
like portability and reusability, flash drives have become a preferred choice for
technicians and users dealing with computer system management and hence are
used in Installation and Repair of Operating System.
Running Antivirus Scans and System Recovery: by load antivirus software onto a
flash drive user can create a portable toolkit for scanning and cleaning infected
systems and additionally, flash drives are utilized for system recovery purposes.
Secure Storage of Sensitive Data: For users concerned about data security, flash
drives arrive with many built-in encryption features which provide a secure means
of storing sensitive information.
Working of Flash Drive
A flash drive also known as a USB drive or thumb drive, is based on NAND flash
memory technology working of flash drive involves various components and
process which work together to store, retrieve, retain and manage data. The data is
written, read, and managed on the flash drive lets discuss Read, Write, and Erase
Operations:-
Write Operation: when data is written in a flash drives programming of memory
cells is managed by adjusting the electron charge levels within them and this process
happen at page level, and new data over write the existing content.
Read Operation: data is read from the flash drive by measuring the electrical charge
within memory cells using which we can determine the stored information, the
control circuitry retrieves the data and send the data to the connected device from
where user get access to their files.
Erase Operation: the process of erasing of data require to clear entire block of
memory cell , this process is mandatory when new data is needed to be written but
the existing blocks are already filled , different from reading and writing erasing is
the most time-consuming operation.
Controller and Interface: each flash drive contains a controller which is responsible
for managing the flow data between USB interface and NAND flash memory. the
USB(Universal Serial Bus) interface allow flash drives to connect the drive to other
devices which are computers, laptops or any other compatible USB-enabled devices.

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 Subject Code & Name: 23BCE1S1 - Fundamentals of Information Technology
Course, Year & Sem: B.Sc [CS], I & I

UNIT-IV
Software: Software and its needs, Types of S/W. System Software:
Operating System, Utility Programs Programming Language:
Machine Language, Assembly Language, High Level Language their
advantages & disadvantages. Application S/W and its types: Word
Processing, Spread Sheets, Presentation, Graphics, DBMS s/w

Software and its Needs

Software is a collection of instructions or programs that tell a computer how to
perform specific tasks. It acts as the interface between hardware and the user,
allowing the system to process input and deliver meaningful output. Software is
essential across industries and personal settings because it enables complex
functions that would be impossible with hardware alone.
Types of Software and Their Need
System Software
This includes the operating system (OS) and utilities that manage hardware and
enable basic functionalities. Examples include Windows, macOS, and Linux.
Need: It acts as a foundation, managing the computer's resources, coordinating
between hardware and other software, and providing a stable environment for
application software to run.
Application Software
Programs designed for end-users to perform specific tasks. Examples include word
processors, web browsers, and photo editors.
Need: Application software is essential for productivity, communication, and
creativity, allowing users to perform specialized tasks like document editing, online
communication, and multimedia management.
Development Software
Tools used for creating, debugging, and maintaining software applications, such as
Integrated Development Environments (IDEs), compilers, and code editors.
Need: It simplifies the software creation process, providing developers with tools to
code, test, and deploy applications efficiently, ensuring software quality and
performance.
Embedded Software
Specialized software designed to operate within hardware devices, like those in IoT,
medical equipment, or cars.
Need: Embedded software is necessary for the specific functionality of devices,
allowing them to perform tasks autonomously or interact with other systems.

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 Subject Code & Name: 23BCE1S1 - Fundamentals of Information Technology
Course, Year & Sem: B.Sc [CS], I & I

Utility Software
Definition: Programs that help manage, maintain, and control computer resources,
including antivirus, backup software, and disk management tools.
Need: Utility software is essential for optimizing performance, securing data, and
ensuring system health by managing resources effectively.
Network Software
Software that facilitates network connectivity and data exchange, such as routers'
firmware and virtual private network (VPN) software.
Need: It enables communication across networks, supports data sharing, and
provides secure connections, which is critical for both personal and organizational
communication.

System Software

System software is a type of computer program that is designed to run a computer's

hardware and application programs. If we think of the computer system as a layered
model, the system software is the interface between the hardware and user
applications. The operating system is the best-known example of system software.
The OS manages all the other programs in a computer.
System software is used to manage the computer itself. It runs in the background,
maintaining the computer's basic functions so users can run higher-level application
software to perform certain tasks. Essentially, system software provides a platform
for application software to be run on top of.
Important features of system software
Computer manufacturers usually develop the system software as an integral part of
the computer. The primary responsibility of this software is to create an interface
between the computer hardware they manufacture and the end user.
High Speed
System software must be as efficient as possible to provide an effective platform for
higher-level software in the computer system.
Hard to Manipulate
It often requires the use of a programming language, which is more difficult to use
than a more intuitive user interface (UI).
Written in a low-level Computer Language
System software must be written in a computer language the central processing unit
(CPU) and other computer hardware can read.
Close to the System
It connects directly to the hardware that enables the computer to run.
Versatile
System software must communicate with both the specialized hardware it runs on
and the higher-level application software that is usually hardware-agnostic and

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 Subject Code & Name: 23BCE1S1 - Fundamentals of Information Technology
Course, Year & Sem: B.Sc [CS], I & I

often has no direct connection to the hardware it runs on. System software also must
support other programs that depend on it as they evolve and change.
Examples of System Software
System software is a type of computer program that is designed to run a computer‘s
hardware and application programs and examples of system software include
operating systems (OS) (like macOS, Linux, Android, and Microsoft Windows),
game engines, search engines(like google,Bing,Yahoo!), industrial automation,
computational science software, and (SaS)software as a service applications.

Operating Systems (OS): Windows, Linux, macOS, etc.

Device Drivers: software that enables the communication between hardware and OS.
Firmware: pre-installed low-level software that controls a device‘s basic functions.
Utility Software: tools for system maintenance and optimization.
Boot Loaders: software that initializes the OS during startup.

Operating System

Operating System a type of system software. It basically manages all the resources of
the computer. An operating system acts as an interface between the software and
different parts of the computer or the computer hardware. The operating system is
designed in such a way that it can manage the overall resources and operations of
the computer. Examples of Operating Systems are Windows, Linux, Mac OS, etc.

The Operating System provides a user with an interface that makes any application
attractive and user-friendly. The operating System comes with a large number of
device drivers that make OS services reachable to the hardware environment. Each
and every application present in the system requires the Operating System. The
operating system works as a communication channel between system hardware and

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 Subject Code & Name: 23BCE1S1 - Fundamentals of Information Technology
Course, Year & Sem: B.Sc [CS], I & I

system software. The operating system helps an application with the hardware part
without knowing about the actual hardware configuration. It is one of the most
important parts of the system and hence it is present in every device, whether large
or small device.

Functions of the Operating System

Resource Management:
The operating system manages and allocates memory, CPU time, and other
hardware resources among the various programs and processes running on the
computer.
Process Management:
The operating system is responsible for starting, stopping, and managing processes
and programs. It also controls the scheduling of processes and allocates resources to
them.
Memory Management:
The operating system manages the computer‘s primary memory and provides
mechanisms for optimizing memory usage.
Security:
The operating system provides a secure environment for the user, applications, and
data by implementing security policies and mechanisms such as access controls and
encryption.
File Management:
The operating system is responsible for organizing and managing the file system,
including the creation, deletion, and manipulation of files and directories.
Device Management:
The operating system manages input/output devices such as printers, keyboards,
mice, and displays. It provides the necessary drivers and interfaces to enable
communication between the devices and the computer.
Networking:
The operating system provides networking capabilities such as establishing and
managing network connections, handling network protocols, and sharing resources
such as printers and files over a network.
Backup and Recovery:

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 Subject Code & Name: 23BCE1S1 - Fundamentals of Information Technology
Course, Year & Sem: B.Sc [CS], I & I

The operating system provides mechanisms for backing up data and recovering it in
case of system failures, errors, or disasters.
Time-Sharing:
The operating system enables multiple users to share a computer system and its
resources simultaneously by providing time-sharing mechanisms that allocate
resources fairly and efficiently.
Error-detecting Aids:
These contain methods that include the error messages, and other debugging and
error-detecting methods.
Examples of Operating Systems
 Windows (GUI-based, PC)
 GNU/Linux (Personal, Workstations, ISP, File, and print server, Three-tier
client/Server)
 macOS (Macintosh), used for Apple‘s personal computers and workstations
(MacBook, iMac).
 Android (Google‘s Operating System for smartphones/tablets/smartwatches)
 iOS (Apple‘s OS for iPhone, iPad, and iPod Touch)

Utility Programming Language

The utility program is system software or application that executes a specific task,
generally pertaining to optimal maintenance or operation of the system resources.
Operating systems such as Windows, macOS, and Linux come with their own set of
programs to maintain and execute different utility functions such as formatting,
compressing, scanning, exploring, and more. In other words, Utility-program
definition in simple terms is that it assists with the management of computer
functions, resources, and files. You can ensure complete password protection and
keep your systems virus-free using different utility programs.
Functions of Utility Program
Various functions are executed by a utility program to make the system‘s operations
smoother and more efficient. Overall, they can be broadly categorized into four
parts:
System Utilities
Some of the system utility programs are memory manager, antivirus and firewall,
registry checker and cleaner, package installer, and explorer. Also, with the help of
such system in computers, users can execute functions that are crucial for the smooth
running of an operating system.
File Management Utilities
File management utilities include tools such as data archivers, software backup tools,
file compression tools, and managers. With the help of these, users can manage their
data in the form of files and folders. These utilities help users sort out, store, and
categorize files according to their requirements.
Storage Device Management Utilities

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 Subject Code & Name: 23BCE1S1 - Fundamentals of Information Technology
Course, Year & Sem: B.Sc [CS], I & I

Storage device management utility programs provide solutions for enhancing disk
capacity, such as disk clean-up, partition management, formatting, disk space
allocation, defragmentation, etc. With the help of them, users can compartmentalize
systems and external drives for efficient management of programs and files that are
stored within.
Miscellaneous Utilities
Apart from these three utility program categories, various other programs help in
managing business operations. Some of these programs include data generators,
HTML checkers, and hex editors, to name a few.
Need Utility Program
There are different functions served by the Utility program. Some of them are
system maintenance, efficiency, security, data recovery, and user experience
System Maintenance
It encompasses a diverse set of tools and applications that help users manage and
uphold their computer systems, enabling them to enhance system performance. This
helps eliminate unnecessary files and programs and ensures the smooth operation of
their system.
Security Integrates tools like antivirus and encryption software to enable users to
shield their computer systems from security risks or threats like viruses, malware,
and unauthorized access.
Efficiency
Utility software helps optimize system performance, streamlining routine tasks such
as disk cleanup, file compression, and data backup. This in turn reduces the time
and effort required to perform routine tasks.
Data Recovery
Backup and recovery tools of utility programs assist users in retrieving lost or
deleted data in the event of system failure or data loss.
User Experience
Utility software enables users to customize their system settings and preferences,
enhancing their overall user experience.

Machine Language

Machine language is a low-level programming language that is understood by

computers. Machine language is made up of binary bits 0 and 1. Machine language
is also known as machine codes or object code. Machine language is a low-level
programming language that consists of binary bits i.e. only 0 and 1. The data
present in binary form is the reason for its fast execution. In Machine language,
instructions are directly executed by the CPU. Machine language is also known as
object code or machine code. Machine language is binary language.
Needs of Machine Language

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As a human, we write code in high level language. The programming language

which we use to write codes such as C, C++ and java are high level languages. High
level language is not understood by computer directly so it is converted into low
level machine language to understand the meaning of code and perform execution.
Computers compile the code written by us and translate into machine code and then
execute it. Computers are only able to understand machine language.
Features of Machine Language
 Machine language is a low level language.
 Machine language consists of only 0 and 1 bits.
 Machine languages are platform dependent.
 It is nearly impossible to learn machine language for humans because it
requires a lot of memorization.
 Machine language is used to create and construct drivers as well.
Machine Language Instruction Components
Operand(s)
The operand(s) represents the data that the operation must be performed on. This
data can take various forms, depending on the processor‘s architecture. This can
be a register containing a value, a memory address pointing to a location in
memory where the data is stored, or a constant value embedded within the
instruction itself.
Opcode
The opcode (Operation code) represents the operation that the processor must
perform. This indicates that the instruction is an arithmetic operation such as
addition, subtraction, multiplication, or division.
Advantages of Machine Language
 Some advantages of machine language are listed below:
 Machine languages are faster in execution because they are in binary form.
 Machine language does not need to be translated , because it is already
present in simple binary form.
 The CPU directly executes the machine language.
 The evolution of the computer system and operating system over the time
period is due to machine language.
 Machine languages are used in developing a high-grade computer system.

Assembly Language

Assembly language is a low-level language that helps to communicate directly with

computer hardware. It uses mnemonics to represent the operations that a processor
has to do. Which is an intermediate language between high-level languages like C++
and the binary language. It uses hexadecimal and binary values, and it is readable by
humans.
Components of Assembly Language

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Registers: Registers are the fast memory locations situated inside the processor.
Which helps ALU to perform arithmetic operations and temporary storing of data.
Example: Ax (Accumulator), Bx, Cx.
Command: An instruction in assembly code known as a command informs the
assembler what to do. Assembly language instructions typically employ self-
descriptive abbreviations to make the vocabulary simple, as ―ADD‖ for addition and
―MOV‖ for data movement.
Instructions: Instructions are the mnemonic codes that we give to the processor to
perform specific tasks like LOAD, ADDITION, MOVE. Example: ADD
Labels: It is a symbolic name/identifier given to indicate a particular location or
address in the assembly code. Example: FIRST to indicate starting of execution part
of code.
Mnemonic: A mnemonic is an acronym for an assembly language instruction or a
name given to a machine function. Each mnemonic in assembly corresponds to a
specific machine instruction. Add is an illustration of one of these machine
commands. CMP, Mul, and Lea are among further instances.
Macro: Macros are the program codes that can be used anywhere in the program
through calling it once we define it. And it is often embedded with assemblers and
compilers. We should define it using a directive %macro.
Operands: These are the data or values that we are given through instruction to
perform some operation on it. Example: In ADD R1,R2 ; R1 and R2 are operands.
Opcode: These are the mnemonic codes that specify to the processor which operation
has to be done. Example: ADD means Addition.
Advantages of Assembly Language
 It provides precise control over hardware and hence increased code
optimization.
 It allows direct access to hardware components like registers, so it enables
tailored solutions for hardware issues.
 Efficient resource utilization because of low level control, optimized code,
resource awareness, customization etc.
 It is ideal for programming microcontrollers, sensors and other hardware
components.
 It is used in security researches for finding security vulnerabilities, reverse
engineering software for system security.
 It is very essential for the making the operating systems, kernel and device
controllers that requires hardware interaction for its functionality.

High Level Language

High-level languages are programming languages that are used for writing
programs or software that can be understood by humans and computers. High-level

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languages are easier to understand for humans because they use a lot of symbols
letters phrases to represent logic and instructions in a program. It contains a high
level of abstraction compared to low-level languages.

Characteristics of High-Level Language

Abstraction
High-level language is the language that hides the complex details of how
computers work. This allows users to focus on what the program should do instead
of how it will run on the machine or compiler.
Human-Readable Syntax
A program written in high-level language contains words and symbols that are
easier to understand by humans. This allows users to read and write code in a very
simple way.
Portability
Programs written in a high-level language can be run on different types of
computers without any changes. This means we can use the same code on various
devices.
Easy to Use
High-level languages are user-friendly, with clear commands and helpful tools that
make writing and testing code easier.
Productivity
High-level languages are easy to use, and help programmers write code faster and
build features more quickly.
Automatic Memory Management
These languages take care of memory, so we don‘t have to worry about allocating
and freeing up memory manually.
Enhanced Debugging and Error Handling
High-level languages come with tools that make finding and fixing mistakes in our
code easier.
Standard Libraries
They include many pre-written pieces of code that help us handle common tasks, so
you don‘t have to start from scratch every time.
Examples of Some High-Level Languages
Python: Used by programmers for various tasks, such as web development, data
analysis, artificial intelligence, and scientific computing because it has a very simple
syntax and is easy to learn and understand.
Java: Java is known for its use on multiple platforms, it‘s not as easy as Python but
it‘s used in mobile app development and web applications.
C++: C++ is very popular and widely used because it has features of both low and
high-level languages which makes it suitable for making complex software such as
game engines, desktop applications, performance performance-critical applications.

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Ruby: Ruby is used for web development, and web applications it is known for its
elegant syntax and awesome frameworks such as Rails.
JavaScript: JavaScript is used with HTML or other languages for making the web
design interactive and dynamic. Its library helps create multipurpose web
applications.
Advantages of High-Level Languages
 The biggest advantage of using high-level languages is that they are easy to
understand, remember, learn, write codes, to debug.
 There are different libraries available that can be used for development, many
defined operators, data types, and frameworks also reduce the amount we
need to write.
 They are portable to use, which means we can use their code for different
platforms without much modification.
 It provides a higher level of abstraction, which means it hides the
complexities of hardware from the programmer. You don‘t need to know
about hardware before writing a program.
Disadvantages of High-level Languages
 High-level languages are slower as compared to low-level languages because
there is more level of abstraction with hardware so they require more
processing and more memory for execution
 High-level languages have less control over hardware, because of the
complexities of hardware for the programmer in high-level languages.
 For the maximum utilization of hardware or CPU in terms of
performance low-level languages are best.

Application Software
Application software (App) is a kind of software that performs specific functions for
the end user by interacting directly with it. The sole purpose of application software
is to aid the user in doing specified tasks.
Functions of Application Software
 Application software programs are generally designed and developed to help
with a wide range of tasks. Here are a few examples:
 Software for healthcare applications for seamless connectivity and quick
response
 Managing information and data in an organization
 Managing and checking documents across
 Software for educational purposes such as Learning Management Systems
and e-learning systems
 Development of visuals and video for presentation purposes
 Emails, text messaging, audio and video conferencing involved in
presentation

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 Management of accounting, finance, and payroll helping the HR department

and other businesses
 Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP)
 Customer Relationship Management (CRM)
 Management of any small or large scale project
 Management of smooth and efficient business processes

Types of Application Software

 Word Processing Software
 Spreadsheet Software
 Presentation Software
 Multimedia Software
 Web Browsers
 Educational Software
 Graphics Software
 Freeware
 Shareware
 Simulation Software
 Open Source

Word Processing
The word ―word processor‖ means it processes words with pages and paragraphs.
Word processors are of 3 types which are electronic, mechanical, and software. The
word processing software is used to apply the basic editing and design and also
helps in manipulating the text to your pages whereas the word processor is a device
that provides editing, input, formatting, and output of the given text with some
additional features. It is a type of computer software application or an electronic
device.

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Course, Year & Sem: B.Sc [CS], I & I

Examples or Applications of Word Processing Software

 Wordpad
 Microsoft Word
 Lotus word pro
 Notepad
 WordPerfect (Windows only),
 AppleWorks (Mac only),
 Work pages
 OpenOffice Writer
Features
 A word wrap which automatically starts a new line if there is insufficient
room at the hand margin
 Availability of different fonts, character sizes and styles
 Text paragraph and page formatting eg text alignment, indenting, page
number etc
 Search and replace command which allow replacement of every incidence of a
certain combination of characters with a set of characters
 Undo which allows action that have been performed to be reversed
 Printing of documents single or multiple choices
 Mail merging that is very essential while similar letters have to be sent
 Ability to create and import tables, text and graphics from other programs
Functions
 It helps in Correcting grammar and spelling of sentences
 It helps in storing and creating typed documents in a new way.
 It provides the function of creating the documents with basic editing, saving,
and printing of it or same.
 It helps in Copy the text along with moving deleting and pasting the text
within a given document.
 It helps in Formatting text like bold, underlining, font type, etc.
 It provides the function of creating and editing the formats of tables.
 It helps in inserting the various elements from some other types of software.
Advantages
 It benefits the environment by helping in reducing the amount of paperwork.
 The cost of paper and postage waste is being reduced.
 It is used to manipulate the document text like a report
 It provides various tools like copying, deleting and formatting, etc.
 It helps in recognizing the user interface feature
 It applies the basic design to your pages
 It makes it easier for you to perform repetitive tasks
 It is a fully functioned desktop publishing program

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 It is time-saving.
 It is dynamic in nature for exchanging the data.
 It produces error-free documents.
 Provide security to our documents.

Spreadsheet

A spreadsheet is basically a software application which allows us to store data in the

form of a table for better efficiency; it is referred to as a Worksheet in MS Excel. It is
a grid of rows and columns that enables making, storing, analysing, manipulating
and retrieving data an uncomplicated and efficient process.
Working with Spreadsheets to manage our data has various applications since
Spreadsheet software like MS Excel or Google Sheets offer various salient and
interesting features which make working with and managing even large amounts of
data a lot easier.
A spreadsheet, also called a Worksheet, is an attribute of MS Excel. It is a simple and
undemanding method of storing, analysing, manipulating and retrieving data,
which is stored in a tabular format.
Rows and columns
Rows and columns are two distinct features in a spreadsheet that come together to
make a cell, a range, or a table. In general, columns are the vertical portion of an
excel worksheet, and there can be 256 of them in a worksheet, whereas rows are the
horizontal portion, and there can be 1048576 of them.
Cell Formatting
Cell formatting in Microsoft Excel refers to the process of changing the appearance
of cells. Formatting can include changes to the font, color, borders, alignment, and
number formats of the cells.
Formulas
In spreadsheets, formulas process data automatically. It takes data from the specified
area of the spreadsheet as input then processes that data, and then displays the
output into the new area of the spreadsheet according to where the formula is
written. Some of the commonly used formulas are: SUM(Arg1: Arg2), COUNT(Arg1:
Arg2), MAX(Arg1: Arg2), MIN(Arg1: Arg2), TODAY().
Uses of Spreadsheets
The use of Spreadsheets is endless. It is generally used with anything that contains
numbers. Some of the common use of spreadsheets is:
 Finance: Spreadsheets are used for financial data like it is used for checking
account information, taxes, transaction, billing, budgets, etc.
 Forms: A spreadsheet is used to create form templates to manage
performance review, timesheets, surveys, etc.
 School and colleges: Spreadsheets are most commonly used in schools and
colleges to manage student‘s data like their attendance, grades, etc.

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 Lists: Spreadsheets are also used to create lists like grocery lists, to-do lists,
contact detail, etc.
 Hotels: Spreadsheets are also used in hotels to manage the data of their
customers like their personal information, room numbers, check-in date,
check-out date, etc.
Components of Spreadsheets
 Title Bar: The title bar displays the name of the spreadsheet and application.
 Toolbar: It displays all the options or commands available in Excel for use.
 Name Box: It displays the address of the current or active cell.
 Formula Bar: It is used to display the data entered by us in the active cell.
Also, this bar is used to apply formulas to the data of the spreadsheet.
 Column Headings: Every Excel spreadsheet contains 256 columns and each
column present in the spreadsheet is named by letters or a combination of
letters.
 Row Headings: Every Excel spreadsheet contains 65,536 rows and each row
present in the spreadsheet is named by a number.
 Cell: In a spreadsheet, everything like a numeric value, functions, expressions,
etc., is recorded in the cell. Or we can say that an intersection of rows and
columns is known as a cell. Every cell has its own name or address according
to its column and rows and when the cursor is present on the first cell then
that cell is known as an active cell.
 Navigation buttons: A spreadsheet contains first, previous, next, and last
navigation buttons. These buttons are used to move from one worksheet to
another workbook.
How to Create a New Spreadsheet or Workbook
To create a new spreadsheet follows the following steps:
Step 1: Click on the top-left, Microsoft Office button and a drop-down menu
appear.
Step 2: Now select New from the menu.
Step 3: After selecting the New option a New Workbook dialogue box will
appear and then in Create tab, click on the blank Document.
How to Save the Workbook
In Excel we can save a workbook using the following steps:
Step 1: Click on the top-left, Microsoft office button and we get a drop-down
menu:
Step 2: Now save or Save As are the options to save the workbook, so choose
one.
Save As: To name the spreadsheet and then save it to a specific location. Select
Save As if you wish to save the file for the first time, or if you want to save it
with a new name.

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Save: To save your work, select Save/ click ctrl + S if the file has already been
named.

Presentation

PowerPoint is the leading multimedia presentation software. PowerPoint is a high-

powered software tool used for presenting information in a dynamic slide show
format. Text, charts, graphs, sound effects and video are just some of the elements
PowerPoint can incorporate into your presentations with ease.
There are many ways to use Microsoft PowerPoint:
 To create a "slide show" on the computer
 To create overhead transparencies
 To quickly create a presentation to publish on the World Wide Web
 The slides can be arranged and printed as handouts for reference.
Features of Power
 Customizing Color Schemes
 Adding Animations
 Creating and Adding tables
 Adding images
 Adding and Managing Hyperlinks
 Creating Custom Shows
 Creating and Importing Charts
 Easy exporting to MS Word
PowerPoint vocabulary
 Slide: An individual screen in a slide show.
 Slide Show or Presentation: A series of slides displayed in sequence. A slide
show can be controlled manually or automatically.
 Object: Any element that appears on a PowerPoint slide, such as clip art, text,
drawings, charts, sounds, and video clips. You can refer to a clip art object, a
text object, a title object, a drawing object, etc.
 Slide Transition: A special effect used to introduce a slide during a slide
show. For example, you can fade in from black, or dissolve from one slide to
another. Click on the "Transitions" Ribbon Tab to add interesting transitions.
 Animation– Add a special visual or sound effect to text or an object. To add
interesting animations to objects in slide shows, click the picture or Text Box
you want to animate, then the "Animations" Ribbon Tab.
How to Start PowerPoint?
 To Start Power Point:Click on Start
 Click the following in sequence stated: All Programs->Microsoft Office-
>Microsoft Office PowerPoint
 The Microsoft Office PowerPoint window will appear, starting the software.
How to Open a Blank Presentation?

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By default, when we open PowerPoint for the first time, it opens to a new
presentation but for future purposes,
 if we want to open a new presentation, we can do so by following the below-
given steps.
 Click on New Presentation link on Getting Started pane on the left which
results in the appearance of a new window.
 Select on Blank Presentation, when the new presentation appears along with
it a Layout pane on the right will also appear.
 Select any desired layout from the list.
Uses of PowerPoint
 Education
Since PowerPoint offers the feature of adding images and animations,
learning by visualisation makes the learning experience more fun and
simplified, and researchers state that visual information is retained for a
longer amount of time thus it makes the whole process more beneficial.
 Business:
Business is mainly about creating a well-laid out roadmap and planning for
the project at hand and then executing it. With PowerPoint we can assure a
more organised output with a solid structure.
 Government and Citizen Services
PowerPoint is also a good option, from other software bundled within MS
Office, for storing records and since it's also printable, it provides easy access
to the records for government and citizen services to the seekers.

Graphics

Computer Graphics including digital images, animations, and interactive graphics

used in various sectors such as entertainment, education, scientific visualization,
and virtual reality. Computer Graphics can be used in UI design, rendering,
geometric objects, animation, and many more. In most areas, computer graphics is
an abbreviation of CG.
Types of computer graphics
Raster graphics
A raster graphic is essentially a 2D image composed of rows and columns of square
pixels. Each pixel contains information about color and hue. When combined, pixels
form a coherent image. The more pixels per inch the more high-resolution an image.
A high-resolution raster graphic will appear sharper and more true-to-life than one
with low resolution.
Vector graphics
A vector graphic is made up of shapes and lines. Mathematical formulas determine
how the shapes and lines relate to each other, so that you can scale vector graphics
larger or smaller in size without distorting the shape or resolution.

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CGI, or computer-generated imagery, turns 2D vector graphics into 3D

representations and converts them into raster images. CGI is used in TV, film, or
video games to depict characters, scenes, and special effects.
Interactive computer graphics
Interactive computer graphics allow a user to tell a computer how to generate an
image. Here‘s a sampling of what you can do in interactive computer graphics:
 Add automatic zooming on an interactive scrolling interface to improve scan
of a 2D information space.
 Add automatic adjustments to digital sketch programs to easily record ideas
in 2D using digital ink.
 Add a dragging feature to clothing animations to improve the experience of
adding clothes to 3D characters.
 Use motion files from a 3D animation database to generate moving characters
from stick figure drawings.
 Design indoor lighting using a painting interface to control a robotic lighting
system.
Non-interactive computer graphics
In contrast to interactive computer graphics, non-interactive computer graphics do
not allow users to determine how images are generated. Examples of non-interactive
computer graphics include images for a website or mobile application and 3D
animation and CGI in film.
Graphics Software
 ZBrush
 Blender
 Adobe Illustrator
 Adobe Photoshop
 Maya
Applications of Computer Graphics
There are many applications of computer graphics discussed below-
Computer Graphics are used for the aided design of systems engineering and
architectural systems- These are used in electrical automobiles and electro-
mechanical, and electronic devices. For example gears and bolts.
 Computer Art – MS Paint.
 Presentation Graphics – It is used to summarize financial statistical scientific
or economic data. For example- Bar charts systems and line charts.
 Entertainment- It is used in motion pictures, music videos, and television
gaming.
 Education and training- It is used to understand the operations of complex
systems. It is also used for specialized systems such as framing for captains,
pilots, and so on.

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 Visualization- To study trends and patterns. For example- Analyzing satellite

photos of earth.

DBMS Software

DBMS is database management system. Databases are the collection of data in order
to store and retrieve data. The database consists of data which can be a numeric,
alphabetic and also alphanumeric form. Analyzing data is a key feature of database
management system that is DBMS. DBMS allows the definition, creation, querying,
update, and administration of databases. Language supported and widely used for
querying and accessing the database is SQL.
The core of any database management system is the data itself. Another important
aspect regarding DBMS is the difference between data and information.
 Data: It is the unorganised facts which need to be compiled to form
meaningful information
 Information: Once the data is processed and made into a structured context,
it is called information.
Components of DBMS:
 Tuple: The rows in the database are often known as tuples.
 Table: Table is a collection of tuples and related information along with a key
to distinguish the data. Although a table can have duplication of data tuples.
 Schema: Schema is the structure of the relation or a table.
 Data redundancy: Data redundancy ensures there are no multiple occurrences
of same data hence avoids data duplication.
 Keys: Keys in a table are used to identify the unique attribute of the table.
Need for Databases
 Efficient Data Management:
Need: Organizes large amounts of data systematically, making it easier to
retrieve, update, and manage information.
Benefit: Reduces time and effort required to handle and process data.
 Data Integrity:
Need: Ensures that data is accurate, consistent, and reliable.
Benefit: Minimizes errors and maintains the quality of data over time.
 Data Security:
Need: Protects sensitive data from unauthorized access and breaches.
Benefit: Safeguards confidential information and complies with legal and
regulatory requirements.
 Concurrent Access:
Need: Allows multiple users to access and work with the database
simultaneously without conflicts.
Benefit: Facilitates teamwork and collaboration in real-time.

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 Scalability:
Need: Supports the growth of data and the increasing complexity of data
management needs.
 Benefit: Ensures that the database can handle expanding amounts of
information and user demands.
SQLCommands
SQL commands are instructions used to communicate with the database to perform
specific task that work with data. SQL commands can be used not only for searching
data from the database but also to perform various other functions, e.g. you can
create tables, add data to tables or modify data, drop the table, set permissions for
users. SQL commands are grouped into four major categories depending on their
functionality.
 Data Definition Language (DDL) These SQL commands are used for creating,
modifying and dropping the structure of database objects. The commands are
CREATE, ALTER, DROP, RENAME, TRUNCATE and COMMENT.
 Data Manipulation Language (DML) These SQL commands are used for
storing, retrieving, modifying and deleting data. These commands are
SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE and DELETE.
 Transaction Control Language (TCL) These SQL commands are used for
managing changes affecting the data. These commands are COMMIT,
ROLLBACK and SAVEPOINT.
 Data Control Language (DCL) These SQL commands are used for providing
security to database objects. These commands are GRANT and REVOKE
Type of DBMS
There are majorly four types of database:
 Network Database: When the details of multiple members can be linked to
the files of multiple owners and vice versa, it is called a network database.
 Hierarchical Database: When the data stored in the form of records and is
connected to each other through links is called hierarchical database. Each
record comprises fields and each field comprises only one value.
 Relational Database: When the data is organised as a set of tables comprising
rows and columns with a pre-defined relationship with one another, it is
called a relational database.
 Object-oriented Database – the information is represented as objects, with
different types of relationships possible between two or more objects. Such
databases use an object-oriented programming language for development.

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 UNIT-V
Operating System: Functions, Measuring System Performance,
Assemblers, Compilers and Interpreters. Batch Processing,
Multiprogramming, Multi Tasking, Multiprocessing, Time Sharing,
DOS, Windows, Unix/Linux

What is an Operating System?

An Operating System acts as a communication interface between the user and
computer hardware. Its purpose is to provide a platform on which a user can
execute programs conveniently and efficiently. An operating system is software that
manages the allocation of Computer Hardware. The main goal of the Operating
System is to make the computer environment more convenient to use and the
Secondary goal is to use the resources most efficiently.

Function of Operating System

Memory Management
It is the management of the main or primary memory. Whatever program is
executed, it has to be present in the main memory. Main memory is a quick storage
area that may be accessed directly by the CPU. When the program is completed, the
memory region is released and can be used by other programs. Therefore, there can
be more than one program present at a time. Hence, it is required to manage the
memory.
Processor Management/Scheduling
Every software that runs on a computer, whether in the background or in the
frontend, is a process. Processor management is an execution unit in which a
program operates. The operating system determines the status of the processor and
processes, selects a job and its processor, allocates the processor to the process, and
de-allocates the processor after the process is completed. When more than one
process runs on the system the OS decides how and when a process will use the
CPU. Hence, the name is also CPU Scheduling.
Device Management
An operating system regulates device connection using drivers. The processes may
require devices for their use. This management is done by the OS. The OS:
 Allocates and deallocates devices to different processes.
 Keeps records of the devices.
 Decides which process can use which device for how much time.
File Management
The operating system manages resource allocation and de-allocation. It specifies which
process receives the file and for how long. It also keeps track of information, location,
uses, status, and so on. These groupings of resources are referred to as file systems.

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Storage Management
Storage management is a procedure that allows users to maximize the utilization of
storage devices while also protecting data integrity on whatever media on which it
lives. Network virtualization, replication, mirroring, security, compression,
deduplication, traffic analysis, process automation, storage provisioning, and memory
management are some of the features that may be included. The operating system is in
charge of storing and accessing files. The creation of files, the creation of directories, the
reading and writing of data from files and directories, as well as the copying of the
contents of files and directories from one location to another are all included in storage
management.

Measuring System Performance

The performance of a computer system depends on multiple factors such as CPU,

memory, and input/output systems. In computer organization, performance refers
to the speed and efficiency at which a computer system can execute tasks and
process data. A high-performing computer system is one that can perform tasks
quickly and efficiently while minimizing the amount of time and resources required
completing these tasks
Here are several factors that can impact the performance of a computer system,
including:
 Processor speed: The speed of the processor, measured in GHz (gigahertz),
determines how quickly the computer can execute instructions and process
data.
 Memory: The amount and speed of the memory, including RAM (random
access memory) and cache memory, can impact how quickly data can be
accessed and processed by the computer.
 Storage: The speed and capacity of the storage devices, including hard drives
and solid-state drives (SSDs), can impact the speed at which data can be
stored and retrieved.
 I/O devices: The speed and efficiency of input/output devices, such as
keyboards , mice, and displays, can impact the overall performance of the
system.
 Software optimization: The efficiency of the software running on the system,
including operating systems and applications, can impact how quickly tasks
can be completed.
Computer performance is the amount of work accomplished by a computer system.
It basically depends on the response time, throughput, and execution time of a
computer system.
 Response time - is the time from the start to completion of a task. This also
includes:

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Course, Year & Sem: B.Sc [CS], I & I

 Operating system overhead.

 Waiting for I/O and other processes
 Accessing disk and memory
 Time spent executing on the CPU or execution time.
 Throughput is the total amount of work done in a given time.
 CPU execution time is the total time a CPU spends computing on a given
task. It also excludes time for I/O or running other programs. This is also
referred to as simply CPU time.

Assemblers

The Assembler is Software that converts an assembly language code to machine

code. It takes basic Computer commands and converts them into Binary Code that
Computer‘s Processor can use to perform its Basic Operations. These instructions are
assembler language or assembly language.

We can also name an assembler as the compiler of assembly language. An assembly

language is a low-level language. It gives instructions to the processors for different
tasks. It is specific for any processor. The machine language only consists of 0s and
1s therefore; it is difficult to write a program in it. On the other hand, the assembly
language is close to a machine language but has a simpler language and code.

We can create an assembly language code using a compiler or, a programmer can
write it directly. Mostly, programmers use high-level languages but, when more
specific code is required, assembly language is used. It uses opcode for the
instructions. An opcode basically gives information about the particular instruction.
The symbolic representation of the opcode (machine level instruction) is called
mnemonics. Programmers use them to remember the operations in assembly
language.
Example
ADD A,B
Types of Assembler
Assemblers generate instruction. On the basis of a number of phases used to convert
to machine code, assemblers have two types:
 One-Pass Assembler
These assemblers perform the whole conversion of assembly code to machine
code in one go.
 Multi-Pass/Two-Pass Assembler
These assemblers first process the assembly code and store values in the
opcode table and symbol table. And then in the second step, they generate the
machine code using these tables.

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 Subject Code & Name: 23BCE1S1 - Fundamentals of Information Technology
Course, Year & Sem: B.Sc [CS], I & I

Compilers and Interpreter

What is a Compiler?
A compiler is a software program that transforms high‐level source code that is
written by a developer in a high‐level programming language into a low level object
code (binary code) in machine language, which can be understood by the processor.
The process of converting high‐ level programming into machine language is known
as compilation.
What is an Interpreter?
An interpreter transforms or interprets a high‐level programming code into code
that can be understood by the machine (machine code) or into an intermediate
language that can be easily executed as well. The interpreter reads each statement of
code and then converts or executes it directly.
Difference between Compiler and Interpreter
Compiler Interpreter
Compiler works on the complete Interpreter program works
program at once. It takes the entire line‐by‐line. It takes one statement at
program as input. a time as input.
Compiler generates intermediate Interpreter does not generate
code, called the object code or intermediate object code or machine
machine code. code.
Compiler executes conditional Interpreter execute conditional
control statements (like if‐else and control
switch‐case) and logical constructs Statements at a much slower speed.
faster than interpreter.
Compiled programs take more Interpreter does not generate
memory because the entire object intermediate object code. As a result,
code has to reside in memory. interpreted programs are more
memory efficient.
Compile once and run anytime. Interpreted programs are interpreted
Compiled program does not need line‐by‐ line every time they are run.
to be compiled every time.
Errors are reported after the entire Error is reported as soon as the first
program is checked for syntactical error is encountered. Rest of the
and other errors. program will not be checked until the
existing error is removed.
A compiled language is more Debugging is easy because
difficult to debug. interpreter stops and reports errors as
it encounters them.
Compiler does not allow a program Interpreter runs the program from
to run until it is completely first line and stops execution only if

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 Subject Code & Name: 23BCE1S1 - Fundamentals of Information Technology
Course, Year & Sem: B.Sc [CS], I & I

error‐free. it encounters an error.

Compiled languages are more Interpreted languages are less
efficient but difficult to debug. efficient but easier to debug. This
makes such languages an ideal choice
for new students.
Examples of programming Examples of programming languages
languages that use compilers: C, that use interpreters: BASIC, Visual
C++, COBOL Basic, Python, Ruby, PHP, Perl,
MATLAB, Lisp

Batch Processing

In batch operating system the jobs were performed in batches. This means Jobs
having similar requirements are grouped and executed as a group to speed up
processing. Users using batch operating systems do not interact with the computer
directly. Each user prepares their job using an offline device for example a punch
card and submits it to the computer operator. Once the programmers have left their
programs with the operator, they sort the programs with similar needs into batches.

A batch processing operating system (BPOS) is designed to handle and process large
volumes of data in batches, making it ideal for organizations that require efficient
and rapid data processing.
Features of Batch Processing Operating System
Batch OS is an operating system intended specifically for batch processing. It
contains a command line interface, a library for scheduling tasks, and a user
interface for managing tasks. Batch OS is designed to simplify the process of
handling and scheduling tasks across a network of computers.
Batch OS contains a library for scheduling tasks. This library permits tasks to be
scheduled in a ranked manner, which makes it easy to manage and schedule tasks

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 Subject Code & Name: 23BCE1S1 - Fundamentals of Information Technology
Course, Year & Sem: B.Sc [CS], I & I

across a network of computers. The user interface permits users to view and manage
tasks in a graphical manner.
Advantages of Batch Operating System
The benefits of batch-processing operating systems include:
 Resource Efficiency: These systems improve the use of computation
resources by processing jobs in groups and scheduling them during stages of
resource accessibility.
 High Throughput: Batch processing systems can handle and complete a large
number of tasks quickly, confirming quick turnaround times and high
throughput.
 Error Reduction: Since these systems work without requiring user
interference, they minimize the risk of faults that can occur with manual
processing.
 Simplified Management: They restructure job management by automating
the submission, scheduling, and implementation of tasks.
 Cost Efficiency: By producing well-organized use of resources and reducing
processing time and errors, batch processing systems can be a cost-effective
option.
 Scalability: These classifications can manage a huge number of tasks, making
them scalable and appropriate for large organizations with significant data
processing needs.

Multiprogramming

A Multiprogramming Operating System runs multiple programs on a single

processor. If a program has to wait for an I/O operation, other programs utilize the
CPU in the meantime. These operating systems form an important and popular class
of operating systems. Some examples are Linux distributions, Windows, IOS, and
etc.
One of the major aims of multiprogramming is to manage the various resources of
the entire system. Multiprogramming is the principle concept used by
multiprogramming systems. These resources include but are not restricted to, the file
system, memory, processors, input and output, etc.
Multiprogramming operating systems, therefore, are designed for storing and
processing several programs simultaneously (not necessarily in real-time, though;
explained below). The routines responsible for managing resources are made
accessible to the core functions of the operating system.
Types of Multiprogramming Operating System
Following are the 2 kinds of multiprogramming operating systems:
 Multitasking Operating System
 Multiuser Operating System

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 Subject Code & Name: 23BCE1S1 - Fundamentals of Information Technology
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Multitasking Operating System

A multitasking operating system is capable of executing several programs
simultaneously. The operating system achieves this by swapping each program in
and out of memory, one at a time. When a program is brought out of memory, it is
saved for a while on secondary memory until it is needed again.

Multiuser Operating System

A multi-user operating system enables several users to share processing time on one
powerful central computer through different terminals. The operating system
achieves this by quickly switching among different terminals.
Each of these terminals receives a limited amount of processor time on the powerful
core computer. The operating system switches among these terminals so rapidly that
each user would seem to be having consistent access to the powerful core computer.

Advantages of Multiprogramming Operating System

 The processor is utilized most of the time and rarely becomes idle unless there
are no jobs to execute.
 The system is fast because all the jobs run parallel amongst themselves.
 Jobs that would require CPU for a short duration are finished earlier in
comparison to those with long CPU requirement time.
 Multiprogramming OS supports multiple users on the computer system.
 Resources utilization is efficient and even.

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 Total time required to execute a job reduced.

 Multiprogramming OS is good at dealing with applications in which multiple
jobs are to be executed

Multitasking

Multi tasking operating systems allow multiple users to perform multiple tasks at
the same time. The allocation of system resources such as input/output devices,
CPU and memory among processes can be easily managed by multi-tasking
operating system. There are various states through which a processor passes to
complete particular or multiple executions. Multitasking is the ability of an OS to
execute more than one task simultaneously on a CPU machine as shown in the
below diagram.

Features of Multi-Tasking Operating System

 Time Sharing – In this, many processes are allocated with resources of
computer in respective time slots, processors time is shared with multiple
processes.
 Context Switching – context switching is a process of saving the context of
one process and loading the context of another process. In simpler terms it is
loading another process when the prior process has finished its execution.
 Multi-Threading – Multithreading is the ability of a program or an operating
system to enable more than one user at a time without requiring multiple
copies of the program running on the computer.
 Hardware Interrupt – When a process or an event requires urgent attention,
hardware or software will signal with an interrupt. It informs the processor
that a high-priority task has arisen that necessitates interrupting the running
process.

Types of Multitasking OS
 Preemptive

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 Cooperative
Preemptive - multitasking is a task that a computer operating system is given. It
determines how much time one job spends on the operating system before assigning
another process to use it. The operating system is also referred to as ‗preemptive‘
because it controls the entire operation.
Cooperative - multitasking is referred to as ‗Non-Preemptive Multitasking.‘ The
basic goal of cooperative multitasking is to complete the current work while
allowing another process to execute. taskYIELD is used to complete this task ().
Context-switch is called whenever the taskYIELD() function is called. Cooperative
multitasking was utilised by Windows and MacOS.

Multiprocessing

Multiprocessing Operating System is the type of Operating System that uses

multiple processors to operate within a single system. Multiple CPUs are connected
to divide and execute a job more quickly. After the task is finished, the output from
all Processors is compiled to provide a final result. Jobs are required to share main
memory and they may often share other system resources. The organization of a
typical Multiprocessing Operating System is shown in the image given below.

Working of Multiprocessing Operating System

In a multiprocessing operating system, the workload is divided among the multiple
processors or cores. Each processor handles a specific task, which allows for
improved performance and faster execution. After the completion of the task, the
results from each processor are compiled to produce a single output. The operating
system manages the allocation of resources and ensures that each processor is
assigned a task it can handle efficiently. This results in better resource utilization and
optimized system performance.
Types of Multiprocessing Operating Systems
Multiprocessing Operating Systems are of the following types.
 Symmetrical Multiprocessing Operating System
 Asymmetrical Multiprocessing Operating System

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Symmetrical Multiprocessing Operating System

In a Symmetrical multiprocessing operating system, each processor executes the
same copy of the operating system, makes its own decisions, and collaborates with
other processes to ensure that the system runs smoothly. The CPU scheduling
algorithms are simple. Each new job given by a user can be allocated to the least
burdened processor. It also produces a system in which all processors are equally
occupied at all times.

Asymmetrical Multiprocessing Operating System

Asymmetrical Multiprocessing Operating System involves one processor acting as a
master and the others as slaves. The master processor assigns ready-to-execute
operations to the slave processors. The master processor maintains a ready queue
from which slave processors get the processes they need to execute. A scheduler
created by the master processor allocates processes to other processors in an
asymmetric multiprocessing operating system.

Timesharing

Time-sharing is a method of allowing multiple individuals at different terminals to

access the same computer system simultaneously. Multiprogramming is logically
followed by time-sharing. Many processes are assigned to computer resources in
time slots in this time-sharing operating system.

A time-shared operating system uses CPU scheduling and multi-programming to

provide each user with a small portion of a shared computer at once. Each user has
at least one separate program in memory. A program is loaded into memory and
executes, it performs a short period of time either before completion or to complete

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 Subject Code & Name: 23BCE1S1 - Fundamentals of Information Technology
Course, Year & Sem: B.Sc [CS], I & I

I/O. This short period of time during which the user gets the attention of the CPU is
known as time slice, time slot, or quantum.

In the above figure the user 5 is active state but user 1, user 2, user 3, and user 4 are
in a waiting state whereas user 6 is in a ready state.
 Active State – The user‘s program is under the control of the CPU. Only one
program is available in this state.
 Ready State – The user program is ready to execute but it is waiting for its
turn to get the CPU. More than one user can be in a ready state at a time.
 Waiting State – The user‘s program is waiting for some input/output
operation. More than one user can be in a waiting state at a time.
Features of Time-Sharing OS
Users can benefit from the following advantages provided by the time-sharing OS:
 For all operations, each user sets aside time.
 At the same time, multiple online users can utilise the same computer.
 End users believe they have complete control over the computer system.
 Interaction among users and computers is improved.
 User inquiries can result in quick responses.
 It is no longer necessary to wait for the previous task to complete before using
the processor.
 It can do a large number of tasks quickly.

DOS

A DOS, or disk operating system, is an operating system that runs from a disk drive.
The term can also refer to a particular family of disk operating systems, most
commonly MS-DOS, an acronym for Microsoft DOS. MS-DOS Operating System also

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 Subject Code & Name: 23BCE1S1 - Fundamentals of Information Technology
Course, Year & Sem: B.Sc [CS], I & I

called the Disk Operating system was developed by Microsoft for x86 personal
computers. It is a 16-bit operating system.

Working of MS-DOS
MS-DOS input and output occur at the command line in the form of issued
commands and system results of those commands. When booted, MS-DOS systems
display a command prompt. MS-DOS commands are then entered using a keyboard.
Commands are either one of the standard DOS commands, implemented as part of
the OS, or they are the file name of an executable program.
Although it does not natively support a GUI, MS-DOS can run graphical programs if
they are installed on a system disk or diskette. Users enter the command for a
graphical program, and the program takes control of the input and output devices.
When the program terminates, the control reverts to MS-DOS and the command
prompt reappears.
Features of MS-DOS Operating System
 It is a minimalist OS which means it can boot a computer and run programs.
 Still usable for simple tasks like word processing and playing games.
 The mouse cannot be used to give inputs instead it uses basic system
commands to perform the task.
 It is a 16-bit, free operating system.
 It is a single-user operating system.
 It is very lightweight due to fewer features available and no multitasking.
Types of MS-DOS Commands
There are mainly two types of MS-DOS commands:
Internal Commands

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 Subject Code & Name: 23BCE1S1 - Fundamentals of Information Technology
Course, Year & Sem: B.Sc [CS], I & I

Internal commands are those commands that are loaded automatically in the
memory when DOS is loaded into memory during the booting process. These
commands are easier to learn and use. They require no external files for their
storage as in the case of external commands. These are for performing a basic
operation on files and in directories. They do not need any external file support.
These commands are used for common jobs such as copying and erasing files.
External Commands
These external commands are for performing advanced tasks and they do not
need some external file support as they are not stored in COMMAND. The
external commands are used less frequently and are stored in some external files
which are stored in some secondary storage devices. Whenever an external
command is to be executed then the external file in which that particular
command is stored is transferred from the secondary storage disk to the main
memory(RAM).

Windows

Windows Operating System (OS) is a graphical user interface (GUI) based operating
system developed by Microsoft Corporation. It is designed to provide users with a
user-friendly interface to interact with their computers. The first version of the
Windows Operating System was introduced in 1985, and since then, it has
undergone many updates and upgrades. Windows Operating System is compatible
with a wide range of hardware and software applications, making it a popular
choice for both personal and business computing. It has a built-in security system to
protect the computer from malware and viruses and provides a comprehensive file
management system that makes it easy for users to organize and access their files.
Windows Operating System also allows users to run multiple applications
simultaneously, making it easy to work on multiple tasks at the same time.
Features of Windows Operating System
 Control Panel: The control Panel is a centralized location within Windows
where users can manage various system settings, including security and
privacy, display, hardware and sound, and programs. It provides users with
access to a range of tools and settings, making it easy to customize the
Windows experience.
 Internet Browser: An Internet Browser is a software application that allows
users to access and browse the Internet. Windows provides a built-in internet
browser called Microsoft Edge, which includes features such as tabbed
browsing, search suggestions, and web notes.
 File Explorer: File Explorer is a file management tool that allows users to
browse, open, and manage files and folders on their computers. It provides a
user-friendly interface for users to view and manage files and includes
features such as search, copy, move, and delete.

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Course, Year & Sem: B.Sc [CS], I & I

Taskbar: Taskbar is a horizontal bar that appears at the bottom of the

Windows desktop. It provides quick access to frequently used applications
and displays open windows and programs. The taskbar also includes system
icons such as volume, network, and battery status.
 Microsoft Paint: Microsoft Paint is a graphics editing software that allows
users to create and edit images. It provides users with basic drawing tools
such as a pencil, brush, and eraser, and allows users to add shapes, text, and
images to their designs.
 Start Menu: Start Menu is a menu that appears when users click the Start
button on the Windows taskbar. It provides access to frequently used
applications, settings, and files, and includes a search bar that allows users to
quickly find files and applications.
 Task Manager: Task Manager is a system tool that allows users to view and
manage running applications and processes. It provides users with
information about CPU and memory usage and allows users to end
unresponsive programs and processes.
 Disk Cleanup: Disk Cleanup is a system tool that allows users to free up
space on their hard drives by removing unnecessary files and data. It scans
the system for temporary files, cache, and other unnecessary data, and
provides users with the option to remove them.
 Cortana: Cortana is virtual assistant software that allows users to interact
with their computers using voice commands. It provides users with access to
information, and reminders, and can perform tasks such as sending emails
and setting reminders.
Example of Windows OS: windows 7, windows 8, windows 11

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